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href="#Château_de_Cirey"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Château de Cirey </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Château_de_Cirey-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prussia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prussia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 Prussia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prussia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Geneva_and_Ferney" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Geneva_and_Ferney"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5 Geneva and Ferney </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Geneva_and_Ferney-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Death_and_burial" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Death_and_burial"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Death and burial </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Death_and_burial-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Writings" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Writings"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Writings </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Writings-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Writings subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Writings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 History </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Poetry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Poetry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Poetry </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Poetry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prose" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prose"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Prose </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prose-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Letters" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Letters"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Letters </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Letters-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religious_and_philosophical_views" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religious_and_philosophical_views"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Religious and philosophical views </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Religious_and_philosophical_views-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Religious and philosophical views subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Religious_and_philosophical_views-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Christianity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Christianity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Christianity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Christianity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Judaism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Judaism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Judaism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Judaism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Islam" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Islam"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Islam </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Islam-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Drama_Mahomet" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Drama_Mahomet"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3.1 Drama Mahomet </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Drama_Mahomet-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hinduism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hinduism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4 Hinduism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hinduism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Confucianism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Confucianism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.5 Confucianism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Confucianism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Views_on_race_and_slavery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Views_on_race_and_slavery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Views on race and slavery </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Views_on_race_and_slavery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Appreciation_and_influence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Appreciation_and_influence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Appreciation and influence </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Appreciation_and_influence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Voltaire_and_Rousseau" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Voltaire_and_Rousseau"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Voltaire and Rousseau </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Voltaire_and_Rousseau-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Legacy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Works" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Works"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Works </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Works-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Works subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Works-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Non-fiction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Non-fiction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.1 Non-fiction </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Non-fiction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-History_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.1.1 History </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Novellas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Novellas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.2 Novellas </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Novellas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Plays" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Plays"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.3 Plays </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Plays-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Poetry_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Poetry_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.4 Poetry </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Poetry_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Collected_works" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Collected_works"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.5 Collected works </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Collected_works-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Informational_notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Informational_notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.1 Informational notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Informational_notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.2 Citations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.3 Sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Voltaire</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 171 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-171" aria-hidden="true" > 171 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Voltaire" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Voltaire" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%89%AE%E1%88%8D%E1%89%B4%E1%88%AD" title="ቮልቴር – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ቮልቴር" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target">አማርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-anp mw-list-item"><a href="https://anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B0" title="वोल्टेर – Angika" lang="anp" hreflang="anp" data-title="वोल्टेर" data-language-autonym="अंगिका" data-language-local-name="Angika" class="interlanguage-link-target">अंगिका</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%88%D9%84%D8%AA%D9%8A%D8%B1" title="فولتير – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="فولتير" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Voltaire" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hyw mw-list-item"><a href="https://hyw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8E%D5%B8%D5%AC%D5%A9%D5%A5%D6%80" title="Վոլթեր – Western Armenian" lang="hyw" hreflang="hyw" data-title="Վոլթեր" data-language-autonym="Արեւմտահայերէն" data-language-local-name="Western Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Արեւմտահայերէն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A7%B0" title="ভলতেয়ৰ – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="ভলতেয়ৰ" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">অসমীয়া</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Voltaire" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-awa mw-list-item"><a href="https://awa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B0" title="भोल्टेर – Awadhi" lang="awa" hreflang="awa" data-title="भोल्टेर" data-language-autonym="अवधी" data-language-local-name="Awadhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">अवधी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Voltaire" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Avañe'ẽ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-av mw-list-item"><a href="https://av.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Волтер – Avaric" lang="av" hreflang="av" data-title="Волтер" data-language-autonym="Авар" data-language-local-name="Avaric" class="interlanguage-link-target">Авар</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volter" title="Volter – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Volter" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%D9%88%D9%84%D8%AA%D8%B1" title="وولتر – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="وولتر" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0" title="ভলতেয়ার – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ভলতেয়ার" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Voltaire" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Вольтер – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Вольтер" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82%D1%8D%D1%80" title="Вальтэр – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Вальтэр" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82%D1%8D%D1%80" title="Вальтэр – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Вальтэр" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B0" title="वोल्तेयर – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="वोल्तेयर" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target">भोजपुरी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Voltaire" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bikol Central</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Волтер – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Волтер" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Voltaire" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Voltaire" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Вольтер – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Вольтер" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target">Буряад</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Voltaire" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Вольтер – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Вольтер" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Voltaire" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cebuano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Voltaire" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cbk-zam mw-list-item"><a href="https://cbk-zam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire – Chavacano" lang="cbk" hreflang="cbk" data-title="Voltaire" data-language-autonym="Chavacano de Zamboanga" data-language-local-name="Chavacano" class="interlanguage-link-target">Chavacano de Zamboanga</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Voltaire" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Voltaire" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Voltaire" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Voltaire" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%92%CE%BF%CE%BB%CF%84%CE%B1%CE%AF%CF%81%CE%BF%CF%82" title="Βολταίρος – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Βολταίρος" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eml mw-list-item"><a href="https://eml.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire – Emiliano-Romagnolo" lang="egl" hreflang="egl" data-title="Voltaire" data-language-autonym="Emiliàn e rumagnòl" data-language-local-name="Emiliano-Romagnolo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Emiliàn e rumagnòl</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-myv mw-list-item"><a href="https://myv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Вольтер – Erzya" lang="myv" hreflang="myv" data-title="Вольтер" data-language-autonym="Эрзянь" data-language-local-name="Erzya" class="interlanguage-link-target">Эрзянь</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Voltaire" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Voltaire" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Voltaire" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="Extremaduran" class="interlanguage-link-target">Estremeñu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Voltaire" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%D9%84%D8%AA%D8%B1" title="ولتر – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="ولتر" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Voltaire" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fiji Hindi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Voltaire" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Voltaire" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Voltaire" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Voltaire" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gàidhlig</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Voltaire" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gom mw-list-item"><a href="https://gom.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%89%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B0" title="व्हॉल्टेर – Goan Konkani" lang="gom" hreflang="gom" data-title="व्हॉल्टेर" data-language-autonym="गोंयची कोंकणी / Gõychi Konknni" data-language-local-name="Goan Konkani" class="interlanguage-link-target">गोंयची कोंकणी / Gõychi Konknni</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B3%BC%ED%85%8C%EB%A5%B4" title="볼테르 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="볼테르" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Voltaire" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hausa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8E%D5%B8%D5%AC%D5%BF%D5%A5%D6%80" title="Վոլտեր – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Վոլտեր" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B0" title="वोल्टेयर – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="वोल्टेयर" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Voltaire" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Voltaire" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Voltaire" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ilokano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Voltaire" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Voltaire" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ie mw-list-item"><a href="https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire – Interlingue" lang="ie" hreflang="ie" data-title="Voltaire" data-language-autonym="Interlingue" data-language-local-name="Interlingue" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingue</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Voltaire" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Voltaire" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%95%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%98%D7%A8" title="וולטר – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="וולטר" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Voltaire" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Voltaire" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kabɩyɛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%95%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%A2%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98" title="ვოლტერი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ვოლტერი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Вольтер – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Вольтер" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Voltaire" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kernowek</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Voltaire" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Voltaire" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Voltaire" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Вольтер – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Вольтер" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mrj mw-list-item"><a href="https://mrj.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Вольтер – Western Mari" lang="mrj" hreflang="mrj" data-title="Вольтер" data-language-autonym="Кырык мары" data-language-local-name="Western Mari" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кырык мары</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lld mw-list-item"><a href="https://lld.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire – Ladin" lang="lld" hreflang="lld" data-title="Voltaire" data-language-autonym="Ladin" data-language-local-name="Ladin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ladin</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltarius" title="Voltarius – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Voltarius" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volt%C4%93rs" title="Voltērs – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Voltērs" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Voltaire" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Voltaire" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lij mw-list-item"><a href="https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire – Ligurian" lang="lij" hreflang="lij" data-title="Voltaire" data-language-autonym="Ligure" data-language-local-name="Ligurian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ligure</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Voltaire" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Voltaire" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-olo mw-list-item"><a href="https://olo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire – Livvi-Karelian" lang="olo" hreflang="olo" data-title="Voltaire" data-language-autonym="Livvinkarjala" data-language-local-name="Livvi-Karelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Livvinkarjala</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jbo mw-list-item"><a href="https://jbo.wikipedia.org/wiki/volter" title="volter – Lojban" lang="jbo" hreflang="jbo" data-title="volter" data-language-autonym="La .lojban." data-language-local-name="Lojban" class="interlanguage-link-target">La .lojban.</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Voltaire" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Voltaire" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mai mw-list-item"><a href="https://mai.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B0" title="भोल्टेर – Maithili" lang="mai" hreflang="mai" data-title="भोल्टेर" data-language-autonym="मैथिली" data-language-local-name="Maithili" class="interlanguage-link-target">मैथिली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%B0_%D0%92%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Франсоа Волтер – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Франсоа Волтер" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Voltaire" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B5%E0%B5%8B%E0%B5%BE%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%9F%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%BC" title="വോൾട്ടയർ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="വോൾട്ടയർ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt mw-list-item"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire – Maltese" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" data-title="Voltaire" data-language-autonym="Malti" data-language-local-name="Maltese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%B0" title="व्हाल्टेअर – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="व्हाल्टेअर" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%95%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%A2%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98" title="ვოლტერი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ვოლტერი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%88%D9%84%D8%AA%D9%8A%D8%B1" title="فولتير – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="فولتير" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%D9%84%D8%AA%D8%B1" title="ولتر – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="ولتر" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target">مازِرونی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Voltaire" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Voltaire" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Voltaire" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Mirandés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Вольтер – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Вольтер" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%97%E1%80%B1%E1%80%AC%E1%80%BA%E1%80%9C%E1%80%BA%E1%80%90%E1%80%B2%E1%80%9A%E1%80%AC%E1%80%B8" title="ဗော်လ်တဲယား – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ဗော်လ်တဲယား" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nah mw-list-item"><a href="https://nah.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire – Nahuatl" lang="nah" hreflang="nah" data-title="Voltaire" data-language-autonym="Nāhuatl" data-language-local-name="Nahuatl" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nāhuatl</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Voltaire" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B0" title="भोल्टेयर – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="भोल्टेयर" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%B4%E3%82%A9%E3%83%AB%E3%83%86%E3%83%BC%E3%83%AB" title="ヴォルテール – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ヴォルテール" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Вольтер – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Вольтер" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Нохчийн</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Voltaire" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nordfriisk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Voltaire" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Voltaire" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Voltaire" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Voltaire" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B5%E0%A9%8B%E0%A8%B2%E0%A8%9F%E0%A9%87%E0%A8%85%E0%A8%B0" title="ਵੋਲਟੇਅਰ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਵੋਲਟੇਅਰ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%B9%DB%8C%D8%A6%D8%B1" title="والٹیئر – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="والٹیئر" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pap mw-list-item"><a href="https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire – Papiamento" lang="pap" hreflang="pap" data-title="Voltaire" data-language-autonym="Papiamentu" data-language-local-name="Papiamento" class="interlanguage-link-target">Papiamentu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%D9%84%D9%BC%DB%90%D8%B1" title="ولټېر – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="ولټېر" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%9C%E1%9F%89%E1%9E%BB%E1%9E%9B%E1%9E%91%E1%9F%82%E1%9E%9A" title="វ៉ុលទែរ – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="វ៉ុលទែរ" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target">ភាសាខ្មែរ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pcd mw-list-item"><a href="https://pcd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire – Picard" lang="pcd" hreflang="pcd" data-title="Voltaire" data-language-autonym="Picard" data-language-local-name="Picard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Picard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Voltaire" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Piemontèis</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tpi mw-list-item"><a href="https://tpi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire – Tok Pisin" lang="tpi" hreflang="tpi" data-title="Voltaire" data-language-autonym="Tok Pisin" data-language-local-name="Tok Pisin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tok Pisin</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Voltaire" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Voltaire" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Voltaire" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-crh mw-list-item"><a href="https://crh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volter" title="Volter – Crimean Tatar" lang="crh" hreflang="crh" data-title="Volter" data-language-autonym="Qırımtatarca" data-language-local-name="Crimean Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Qırımtatarca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Voltaire" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Voltaire" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Runa Simi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Волтер – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Волтер" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русиньскый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Вольтер – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Вольтер" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Вольтер – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Вольтер" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target">Саха тыла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szy mw-list-item"><a href="https://szy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fu-e-tay%E4%BC%8F%E7%88%BE%E6%B3%B0" title="Fu-e-tay伏爾泰 – Sakizaya" lang="szy" hreflang="szy" data-title="Fu-e-tay伏爾泰" data-language-autonym="Sakizaya" data-language-local-name="Sakizaya" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sakizaya</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sat mw-list-item"><a href="https://sat.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B1%B5%E1%B1%B7%E1%B1%9A%E1%B1%9E%E1%B1%9B%E1%B1%AE%E1%B1%AD%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%A8" title="ᱵᱷᱚᱞᱛᱮᱭᱟᱨ – Santali" lang="sat" hreflang="sat" data-title="ᱵᱷᱚᱞᱛᱮᱭᱟᱨ" data-language-autonym="ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ" data-language-local-name="Santali" class="interlanguage-link-target">ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Voltaire" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sardu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Voltaire" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Voltaire" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Voltaire" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%9C%E0%B6%BD%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%A7%E0%B7%99%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%8A" title="වොල්ටෙයාර් – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="වොල්ටෙයාර්" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Voltaire" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%BD%D8%A6%D8%B1" title="والٽئر – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="والٽئر" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">سنڌي</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Voltaire" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Voltaire" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A4%DB%86%DA%B5%D8%AA%DB%8E%D8%B1" title="ڤۆڵتێر – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ڤۆڵتێر" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Волтер – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Волтер" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Voltaire" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Voltaire" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Voltaire" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Voltaire" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%B5%E0%AF%8B%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D" title="வோல்ட்டயர் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="வோல்ட்டயர்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-shi mw-list-item"><a href="https://shi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ful%E1%B9%ADir" title="Fulṭir – Tachelhit" lang="shi" hreflang="shi" data-title="Fulṭir" data-language-autonym="Taclḥit" data-language-local-name="Tachelhit" class="interlanguage-link-target">Taclḥit</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Voltaire" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target">Taqbaylit</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-roa-tara mw-list-item"><a href="https://roa-tara.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire – Tarantino" lang="nap-x-tara" hreflang="nap-x-tara" data-title="Voltaire" data-language-autonym="Tarandíne" data-language-local-name="Tarantino" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tarandíne</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Вольтер – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Вольтер" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%B5%E0%B1%8B%E0%B0%B2%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%9F%E0%B1%86%E0%B0%AF%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%8D" title="వోల్టెయిర్ – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="వోల్టెయిర్" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%A5%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C" title="วอลแตร์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="วอลแตร์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Волтер – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Волтер" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-chr mw-list-item"><a href="https://chr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8F%AC%E1%8E%B5%E1%8F%96%E1%8E%B5" title="ᏬᎵᏖᎵ – Cherokee" lang="chr" hreflang="chr" data-title="ᏬᎵᏖᎵ" data-language-autonym="ᏣᎳᎩ" data-language-local-name="Cherokee" class="interlanguage-link-target">ᏣᎳᎩ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Voltaire" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-udm mw-list-item"><a href="https://udm.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Вольтер – Udmurt" lang="udm" hreflang="udm" data-title="Вольтер" data-language-autonym="Удмурт" data-language-local-name="Udmurt" class="interlanguage-link-target">Удмурт</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Вольтер – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Вольтер" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%B9%DB%8C%D8%A6%D8%B1" title="والٹیئر – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="والٹیئر" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug mw-list-item"><a href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DB%8B%D9%88%D9%84%D8%AA%D9%89%D8%B1" title="ۋولتىر – Uyghur" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" data-title="ۋولتىر" data-language-autonym="ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche" data-language-local-name="Uyghur" class="interlanguage-link-target">ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-za mw-list-item"><a href="https://za.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire – Zhuang" lang="za" hreflang="za" data-title="Voltaire" data-language-autonym="Vahcuengh" data-language-local-name="Zhuang" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vahcuengh</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Voltaire" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vèneto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vep mw-list-item"><a href="https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vol%27ter" title="Vol'ter – Veps" lang="vep" hreflang="vep" data-title="Vol'ter" data-language-autonym="Vepsän kel’" data-language-local-name="Veps" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vepsän kel’</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Voltaire" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vo mw-list-item"><a href="https://vo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire – Volapük" lang="vo" hreflang="vo" data-title="Voltaire" data-language-autonym="Volapük" data-language-local-name="Volapük" class="interlanguage-link-target">Volapük</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Voltaire" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="Võro" class="interlanguage-link-target">Võro</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Voltaire" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BC%8F%E5%8E%84%E5%A4%AA" title="伏厄太 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="伏厄太" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%95%D7%95%D7%90%D7%9C%D7%98%D7%A2%D7%A8" title="וואלטער – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="וואלטער" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target">ייִדיש</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BC%8F%E7%88%BE%E6%B3%B0" title="伏爾泰 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="伏爾泰" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Voltaire" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Zazaki" class="interlanguage-link-target">Zazaki</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vuolters" title="Vuolters – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Vuolters" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Žemaitėška</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BC%8F%E7%88%BE%E6%B3%B0" title="伏爾泰 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="伏爾泰" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-btm mw-list-item"><a href="https://btm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire – Batak Mandailing" lang="btm" hreflang="btm" data-title="Voltaire" data-language-autonym="Batak Mandailing" data-language-local-name="Batak Mandailing" class="interlanguage-link-target">Batak Mandailing</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zgh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zgh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E2%B4%BC%E2%B5%93%E2%B5%8D%E2%B5%9F%E2%B5%89%E2%B5%94" title="ⴼⵓⵍⵟⵉⵔ – Standard Moroccan Tamazight" lang="zgh" hreflang="zgh" data-title="ⴼⵓⵍⵟⵉⵔ" data-language-autonym="ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ" data-language-local-name="Standard Moroccan Tamazight" class="interlanguage-link-target">ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q9068#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a 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.infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:125%;"><div style="display:inline;" class="fn">Voltaire</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Atelier_de_Nicolas_de_Largilli%C3%A8re,_portrait_de_Voltaire,_d%C3%A9tail_(mus%C3%A9e_Carnavalet)_-001.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portrait c. 1720s, the Musée Carnavalet"><img alt="Portrait c. 1720s, the Musée Carnavalet" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Atelier_de_Nicolas_de_Largilli%C3%A8re%2C_portrait_de_Voltaire%2C_d%C3%A9tail_%28mus%C3%A9e_Carnavalet%29_-001.jpg/220px-Atelier_de_Nicolas_de_Largilli%C3%A8re%2C_portrait_de_Voltaire%2C_d%C3%A9tail_%28mus%C3%A9e_Carnavalet%29_-001.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="275" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Atelier_de_Nicolas_de_Largilli%C3%A8re%2C_portrait_de_Voltaire%2C_d%C3%A9tail_%28mus%C3%A9e_Carnavalet%29_-001.jpg/330px-Atelier_de_Nicolas_de_Largilli%C3%A8re%2C_portrait_de_Voltaire%2C_d%C3%A9tail_%28mus%C3%A9e_Carnavalet%29_-001.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Atelier_de_Nicolas_de_Largilli%C3%A8re%2C_portrait_de_Voltaire%2C_d%C3%A9tail_%28mus%C3%A9e_Carnavalet%29_-001.jpg/440px-Atelier_de_Nicolas_de_Largilli%C3%A8re%2C_portrait_de_Voltaire%2C_d%C3%A9tail_%28mus%C3%A9e_Carnavalet%29_-001.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="5000" /></a><div class="infobox-caption" style="line-height:1.4em;">Portrait <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1720s, the <a href="/wiki/Mus%C3%A9e_Carnavalet" title="Musée Carnavalet">Musée Carnavalet</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="line-height:1.2em; padding-right:0.65em;">Born</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.4em;">François-Marie Arouet (1694-11-21)21 November 1694 Paris, France</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="line-height:1.2em; padding-right:0.65em;">Died</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.4em;">30 May 1778(1778-05-30) (aged 83) Paris, France</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="line-height:1.2em; padding-right:0.65em;">Resting place</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.4em;"><a href="/wiki/Panth%C3%A9on" title="Panthéon">Panthéon</a>, Paris</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="line-height:1.2em; padding-right:0.65em;">Occupation</th><td class="infobox-data role" style="line-height:1.4em;">Writer, philosopher, historian</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="line-height:1.2em; padding-right:0.65em;">Education</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.4em;"><a href="/wiki/Coll%C3%A8ge_Louis-le-Grand" class="mw-redirect" title="Collège Louis-le-Grand">Collège Louis-le-Grand</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="line-height:1.2em; padding-right:0.65em;">Genres</th><td class="infobox-data category" style="line-height:1.4em;"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output 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dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fiction" title="Fiction">Fiction</a> (<a href="/wiki/Novella" title="Novella">novella</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Short_story" title="Short story">short story</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Tragedy" title="Tragedy">tragedy</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Poetry" title="Poetry">poetry</a>)</li></ul></div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Non-fiction" title="Non-fiction">Non-fiction</a> (<a href="/wiki/Polemic" title="Polemic">polemic</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Treatise" title="Treatise">treatise</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Essay" title="Essay">essay</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Article_(publishing)" title="Article (publishing)">article</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Historiography" title="Historiography">historiography</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Literary_criticism" title="Literary criticism">literary criticism</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Epistle" title="Epistle">epistle</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Letter_(message)" title="Letter (message)">correspondence</a>)</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="line-height:1.2em; padding-right:0.65em;">Subjects</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.4em;">Religious intolerance, freedom</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="line-height:1.2em; padding-right:0.65em;">Literary movement</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.4em;"><a href="/wiki/Classicism" title="Classicism">Classicism</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="line-height:1.2em; padding-right:0.65em;">Years active</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.4em;">From 1715</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="line-height:1.2em; padding-right:0.65em;">Notable works</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.4em;"><a href="/wiki/Candide" title="Candide">Candide</a> <a href="/wiki/The_Maid_of_Orleans_(poem)" title="The Maid of Orleans (poem)">The Maid of Orleans</a> <a href="/wiki/The_Age_of_Louis_XIV" title="The Age of Louis XIV">The Age of Louis XIV</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="line-height:1.2em; padding-right:0.65em;">Partner</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.4em;"><a href="/wiki/%C3%89milie_du_Ch%C3%A2telet" title="Émilie du Châtelet">Émilie du Châtelet</a> (1733–1749) <a href="/wiki/Marie_Louise_Mignot" title="Marie Louise Mignot">Marie Louise Mignot</a> (1744–1778)</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="line-height:1.4em;"><hr />Philosophy career<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Era</th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Region</th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western philosophy</a> <a href="/wiki/French_philosophy" title="French philosophy">French philosophy</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/List_of_schools_of_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="List of schools of philosophy">School</a></th><td class="infobox-data category"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lumi%C3%A8res" title="Lumières">Lumières</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophes" title="Philosophes">Philosophes</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Deism" title="Deism">Deism</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">Classical liberalism</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Main interests</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Literature" title="Literature">literature</a>, <a href="/wiki/Historiography" title="Historiography">historiography</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biblical_criticism" title="Biblical criticism">biblical criticism</a></td></tr><tr class="note"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Notable ideas</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">Philosophy of history</a>,<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion" title="Freedom of religion">freedom of religion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_speech" title="Freedom of speech">freedom of speech</a>, <a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state" title="Separation of church and state">separation of church and state</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Signature</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%91%D0%A1%D0%AD1._%D0%90%D0%B2%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84._%D0%90%D0%B2%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D1%8B._5.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/%D0%91%D0%A1%D0%AD1._%D0%90%D0%B2%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84._%D0%90%D0%B2%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D1%8B._5.svg/150px-%D0%91%D0%A1%D0%AD1._%D0%90%D0%B2%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84._%D0%90%D0%B2%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D1%8B._5.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="47" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/%D0%91%D0%A1%D0%AD1._%D0%90%D0%B2%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84._%D0%90%D0%B2%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D1%8B._5.svg/225px-%D0%91%D0%A1%D0%AD1._%D0%90%D0%B2%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84._%D0%90%D0%B2%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D1%8B._5.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/%D0%91%D0%A1%D0%AD1._%D0%90%D0%B2%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84._%D0%90%D0%B2%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D1%8B._5.svg/300px-%D0%91%D0%A1%D0%AD1._%D0%90%D0%B2%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84._%D0%90%D0%B2%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D1%8B._5.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="532" data-file-height="165" /></a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output 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.mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">This article is part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Liberalism_in_France" title="Category:Liberalism in France">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#FFD424; padding-top:0.25em; font-size:150%; font-weight:normal; color:black; line-height:1em"><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_France" title="Liberalism and radicalism in France">Liberalism in France</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><a href="/wiki/File:French_Liberalism_Flags_Symbol.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/French_Liberalism_Flags_Symbol.svg/120px-French_Liberalism_Flags_Symbol.svg.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="67" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/French_Liberalism_Flags_Symbol.svg/180px-French_Liberalism_Flags_Symbol.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/French_Liberalism_Flags_Symbol.svg/240px-French_Liberalism_Flags_Symbol.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="518" data-file-height="290" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-top:1px solid #AAA; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Schools</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">Classical</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_liberal_school" title="French liberal school">Orthodox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orl%C3%A9anist" title="Orléanist">Orléanism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_liberalism" title="Economic liberalism">Economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_liberalism" title="National liberalism">National</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_radicalism" title="Classical radicalism">Radical</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jacobin_(politics)" title="Jacobin (politics)">Jacobinism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_liberalism#France" title="Social liberalism">Social</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-top:1px solid #AAA; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Principles</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-clericalism" title="Anti-clericalism">Anti-clericalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civic_nationalism" title="Civic nationalism">Civic nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_and_political_rights" title="Civil and political rights">Civil and political rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_freedom" title="Economic freedom">Economic freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equality_before_the_law" title="Equality before the law">Equality before the law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_the_press" title="Freedom of the press">Freedom of the press</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_speech" title="Freedom of speech">Freedom of speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laicism" title="Laicism">Laicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laissez-faire" title="Laissez-faire">Laissez-faire</a></li> <li><div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Libert%C3%A9,_%C3%A9galit%C3%A9,_fraternit%C3%A9" title="Liberté, égalité, fraternité">Liberté, égalité, fraternité</a></div></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism" title="Republicanism">Republicanism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-top:1px solid #AAA; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">History</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dreyfus_affair" title="Dreyfus affair">Dreyfusards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Revolution_of_1848" title="French Revolution of 1848">February Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Resistance" title="French Resistance">French Resistance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/July_Monarchy" title="July Monarchy">July Monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/July_Revolution" title="July Revolution">July Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lumi%C3%A8res" title="Lumières">Lumières</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-top:1px solid #AAA; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">People</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alain_(philosopher)" title="Alain (philosopher)">Alain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Aron" title="Raymond Aron">Aron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Bastiat" title="Frédéric Bastiat">Bastiat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Pierre_Brissot" title="Jacques Pierre Brissot">Brissot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Clemenceau" title="Georges Clemenceau">Clemenceau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Condorcet" title="Marquis de Condorcet">Condorcet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Constant" title="Benjamin Constant">Constant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaston_Doumergue" title="Gaston Doumergue">Doumergue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armand_Falli%C3%A8res" title="Armand Fallières">Fallières</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julien_Freund" title="Julien Freund">Freund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%A9on_Gambetta" title="Léon Gambetta">Gambetta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olympe_de_Gouges" title="Olympe de Gouges">de Gouges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jules_Gr%C3%A9vy" title="Jules Grévy">Grévy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victor_Hugo" title="Victor Hugo">Hugo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Philippe_I" title="Louis Philippe I">Louis Philippe I</a> (early)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmanuel_Macron" title="Emmanuel Macron">Macron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Manent" title="Pierre Manent">Manent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Mend%C3%A8s_France" title="Pierre Mendès France">Mendès France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Merleau-Ponty" title="Maurice Merleau-Ponty">Merleau-Ponty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustave_de_Molinari" title="Gustave de Molinari">de Molinari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Poincar%C3%A9" title="Raymond Poincaré">Poincaré</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Rougier#Politics" title="Louis Rougier">Rougier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Say" title="Jean-Baptiste Say">Say</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adolphe_Thiers" title="Adolphe Thiers">Thiers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Tocqueville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Destutt_de_Tracy" title="Antoine Destutt de Tracy">de Tracy</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Voltaire</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-top:1px solid #AAA; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Parties</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist">Active <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agir_(France)" title="Agir (France)">Agir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centrist_Alliance" title="Centrist Alliance">Centrist Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Centrists" title="The Centrists">The Centrists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_European_Force" title="Democratic European Force">Democratic European Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Movement_(France)" title="Democratic Movement (France)">Democratic Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_Alternative" title="Liberal Alternative">Liberal Alternative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_Democratic_Party_(France)" title="Liberal Democratic Party (France)">Liberal Democratic Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radical_Party_(France)" title="Radical Party (France)">Radical Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radical_Party_of_the_Left" title="Radical Party of the Left">Radical Party of the Left</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_(French_political_party)" title="Renaissance (French political party)">Renaissance</a></li> <li><div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Union_of_Democrats_and_Independents" title="Union of Democrats and Independents">Union of Democrats and Independents</a></div></li></ul> Former <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republican_Alliance" title="Democratic Republican Alliance">Democratic Republican Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doctrinaires" title="Doctrinaires">Doctrinaires</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independent_Radicals" title="Independent Radicals">Independent Radicals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacobins" title="Jacobins">Jacobins</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Girondins" title="Girondins">Girondins</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_Party_(Bourbon_Restoration)" title="Liberal Party (Bourbon Restoration)">Liberal Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moderate_Republicans_(France,_1848%E2%80%931870)" title="Moderate Republicans (France, 1848–1870)">Moderate Republicans</a> (1848)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moderate_Republicans_(France,_1871%E2%80%931901)" title="Moderate Republicans (France, 1871–1901)">Moderate Republicans</a> (1871)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_Republicans_(France)" title="Progressive Republicans (France)">Progressive Republicans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radical_Movement" title="Radical Movement">Radical Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Union_(France)" title="Republican Union (France)">Republican Union</a></li> <li><div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Union_for_French_Democracy" title="Union for French Democracy">Union for French Democracy</a></div></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-top:1px solid #AAA; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Media</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="font-style:italic">Active <ul><li><a href="/wiki/BFM_TV" title="BFM TV">BFM TV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/La_Cha%C3%AEne_Info" title="La Chaîne Info">La Chaîne Info</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Courrier_International" title="Courrier International">Courrier International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Les_Echos_(France)" title="Les Echos (France)">Les Echos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Le_Figaro" title="Le Figaro">Le Figaro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Le_Monde" title="Le Monde">Le Monde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%27Opinion_(French_newspaper)" title="L'Opinion (French newspaper)">L'Opinion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Le_Parisien" title="Le Parisien">Le Parisien</a></li></ul> Former <ul><li><a href="/wiki/L%27Aurore" title="L'Aurore">L'Aurore</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-top:1px solid #AAA; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Related topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Centrism_in_France" title="Centrism in France">Centrism in France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_positions_of_Emmanuel_Macron" title="Political positions of Emmanuel Macron">Political positions of Emmanuel Macron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rally_of_Republican_Lefts" title="Rally of Republican Lefts">Rally of Republican Lefts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secularism_in_France" title="Secularism in France">Laïcité</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinistrisme" title="Sinistrisme">Sinistrisme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Together_(coalition)" class="mw-redirect" title="Together (coalition)">Together (coalition)</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below plainlist" style="padding-bottom:0.22em; border-top:1px solid #AAA; border-bottom:1px solid #AAA"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:Yellow_flag_waving.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Yellow_flag_waving.svg/15px-Yellow_flag_waving.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Yellow_flag_waving.svg/22px-Yellow_flag_waving.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Yellow_flag_waving.svg/30px-Yellow_flag_waving.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="249" data-file-height="268" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Liberalism" title="Portal:Liberalism">Liberalism portal</a></li> <li><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/16px-Flag_of_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/24px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/32px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:France" title="Portal:France">France portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Liberalism_in_France" title="Template:Liberalism in France"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Liberalism_in_France" title="Template talk:Liberalism in France"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Liberalism_in_France" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Liberalism in France"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> François-Marie Arouet (<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1177148991">.mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%}</style>French: <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/French" title="Help:IPA/French">[fʁɑ̃swa maʁi aʁwɛ]</a>; 21 November 1694 – 30 May 1778), known by his <a href="/wiki/Pen_name" title="Pen name">nom de plume</a> M. de Voltaire (<a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/vɒlˈtɛər, voʊl-/</a>,<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1177148991"><a href="/wiki/American_English" title="American English">US</a> also <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/vɔːl-/</a>;<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1177148991">French: <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/French" title="Help:IPA/French">[vɔltɛːʁ]</a>), was a French <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a> writer, philosopher (<a href="/wiki/Philosophe" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophe">philosophe</a>), satirist, and historian. Famous for his <a href="/wiki/Wit" title="Wit">wit</a> and his <a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Christianity" title="Criticism of Christianity">criticism of Christianity</a> (especially <a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="Criticism of the Catholic Church">of the Roman Catholic Church</a>) and of <a href="/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">slavery</a>, Voltaire was an advocate of <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_speech" title="Freedom of speech">freedom of speech</a>, <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion" title="Freedom of religion">freedom of religion</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state" title="Separation of church and state">separation of church and state</a>. Voltaire was a versatile and prolific writer, producing works in almost every literary form, including <a href="/wiki/Stageplay" class="mw-redirect" title="Stageplay">plays</a>, poems, novels, essays, histories, and even scientific <a href="/wiki/Exposition_(narrative)" title="Exposition (narrative)">expositions</a>. He wrote more than 20,000 letters and 2,000 books and pamphlets.<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> Voltaire was one of the first authors to become renowned and commercially successful internationally. He was an outspoken advocate of <a href="/wiki/Civil_liberties" title="Civil liberties">civil liberties</a> and was at constant risk from the strict censorship laws of the Catholic French monarchy. His <a href="/wiki/Polemic" title="Polemic">polemics</a> witheringly <a href="/wiki/Satire" title="Satire">satirized</a> <a href="/wiki/Toleration" title="Toleration">intolerance</a> and <a href="/wiki/Religious_dogma" class="mw-redirect" title="Religious dogma">religious dogma</a>, as well as the French institutions of his day. His best-known work and <a href="/wiki/Magnum_opus" class="mw-redirect" title="Magnum opus">magnum opus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Candide" title="Candide">Candide</a>, is a <a href="/wiki/Novella" title="Novella">novella</a> that comments on, criticizes, and ridicules many events, thinkers and philosophies of his time, most notably <a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Leibniz" class="mw-redirect" title="Gottfried Leibniz">Gottfried Leibniz</a> and his belief that our world is of necessity the "best of all possible worlds".<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_life">Early life</h2></div> François-Marie Arouet was born in Paris, the youngest of the five children of François Arouet, a lawyer who was a minor treasury official, and his wife, Marie Marguerite Daumard, whose family was on the lowest rank of the <a href="/wiki/French_nobility" title="French nobility">French nobility</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPearson20059–14-10">[10]</a> Some speculation surrounds Voltaire's date of birth, because he claimed he was born on 20 February 1694 as the illegitimate son of a nobleman, Guérin de Rochebrune or Roquebrune.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPearson20059-11">[11]</a> Two of his older brothers—Armand-François and Robert—died in infancy, and his surviving brother Armand and sister Marguerite-Catherine were nine and seven years older, respectively.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPearson200510-12">[12]</a> Nicknamed "Zozo" by his family, Voltaire was baptized on 22 November 1694, with <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_de_Ch%C3%A2teauneuf" class="mw-redirect" title="François de Châteauneuf">François de Castagnère, abbé de Châteauneuf</a> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_de_Ch%C3%A2teauneuf" class="extiw" title="fr:François de Châteauneuf">fr</a>], and Marie Daumard, the wife of his mother's cousin, standing as godparents.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPearson200512-13">[13]</a> He was educated by the <a href="/wiki/Jesuits" title="Jesuits">Jesuits</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Coll%C3%A8ge_Louis-le-Grand" class="mw-redirect" title="Collège Louis-le-Grand">Collège Louis-le-Grand</a> (1704–1711), where he was taught <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a>, theology, and rhetoric;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPearson200524–25-14">[14]</a> later in life he became fluent in Italian, Spanish, and English.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> By the time he left school, Voltaire had decided he wanted to be a writer, against the wishes of his father, who wanted him to become a lawyer.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPearson200532–33-16">[16]</a> Voltaire, pretending to work in Paris as an assistant to a notary, spent much of his time writing poetry. When his father found out, he sent Voltaire to study law, this time in <a href="/wiki/Caen" title="Caen">Caen</a>, Normandy. But the young man continued to write, producing essays and historical studies. Voltaire's wit made him popular among some of the aristocratic families with whom he mixed. In 1713, his father obtained a job for him as a secretary to the new French ambassador in the Netherlands, the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Pierre-Antoine_de_Ch%C3%A2teauneuf&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pierre-Antoine de Châteauneuf (page does not exist)">marquis de Châteauneuf</a> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre-Antoine_de_Ch%C3%A2teauneuf" class="extiw" title="fr:Pierre-Antoine de Châteauneuf">fr</a>], the brother of Voltaire's godfather.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPearson200536-17">[17]</a> At <a href="/wiki/The_Hague" title="The Hague">The Hague</a>, Voltaire fell in love with a <a href="/wiki/Huguenot" class="mw-redirect" title="Huguenot">French Protestant</a> refugee named Catherine Olympe Dunoyer (known as 'Pimpette').<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPearson200536-17">[17]</a> Their affair, considered scandalous, was discovered by de Châteauneuf and Voltaire was forced to return to France by the end of the year.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPearson200536–37-18">[18]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bastille_1715.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Bastille_1715.jpg/260px-Bastille_1715.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="132" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Bastille_1715.jpg/390px-Bastille_1715.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Bastille_1715.jpg/520px-Bastille_1715.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1250" data-file-height="633" /></a><figcaption>Voltaire was imprisoned in the <a href="/wiki/Bastille" title="Bastille">Bastille</a> from 16 May 1717 to 15 April 1718 in a windowless cell with ten-foot-thick walls.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPearson200543,_45-19">[19]</a></figcaption></figure> Most of Voltaire's early life revolved around Paris. From early on, Voltaire had trouble with the authorities for critiques of the government. As a result, he was twice sentenced to prison and once to temporary exile to England. One satirical verse, in which Voltaire accused the <a href="/wiki/Philippe_II,_Duke_of_Orl%C3%A9ans" title="Philippe II, Duke of Orléans">Régent</a> of incest with his daughter, resulted in an eleven-month imprisonment in the <a href="/wiki/Bastille" title="Bastille">Bastille</a>.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Com%C3%A9die-Fran%C3%A7aise" title="Comédie-Française">Comédie-Française</a> had agreed in January 1717 to stage his debut play, <a href="/wiki/Oedipe_(play)" class="mw-redirect" title="Oedipe (play)">Œdipe</a>, and it opened in mid-November 1718, seven months after his release.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPearson200549–50-21">[21]</a> Its immediate critical and financial success established his reputation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPearson200550–52-22">[22]</a> Both the Régent and King <a href="/wiki/George_I_of_Great_Britain" title="George I of Great Britain">George I of Great Britain</a> presented Voltaire with medals as a mark of their appreciation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPearson200552-23">[23]</a> Voltaire mainly argued for religious tolerance and freedom of thought. He campaigned to eradicate priestly and aristo-monarchical authority, and supported a constitutional monarchy that protects people's rights.<a href="#cite_note-Shank-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Name">Name</h3></div> Arouet adopted the name Voltaire in 1718, following his incarceration at the Bastille. Its origin is unclear. It is an <a href="/wiki/Anagram" title="Anagram">anagram</a> of AROVET LI, the Latinized spelling of his surname, Arouet, and the initial letters of le jeune ("the young").<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> According to a family tradition among the descendants of his sister, he was known as le petit volontaire ("determined little thing") as a child, and he resurrected a variant of the name in his adult life.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPearson200517-27">[27]</a> The name also <a href="/wiki/Verlan" title="Verlan">reverses the syllables</a> of <a href="/wiki/Airvault" title="Airvault">Airvault</a>, his family's home town in the <a href="/wiki/Poitou" title="Poitou">Poitou</a> region.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPearson200524-28">[28]</a> <a href="/wiki/Richard_Holmes_(biographer)" title="Richard Holmes (biographer)">Richard Holmes</a><a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> supports the anagrammatic derivation of the name, but adds that a writer such as Voltaire would have intended it to also convey connotations of speed and daring. These come from associations with words such as <a href="/wiki/Equestrian_vaulting" title="Equestrian vaulting">voltige</a> (acrobatics on a trapeze or horse), <a href="/wiki/Volte-face" title="Volte-face">volte-face</a> (a spinning about to face one's enemies), and volatile (originally, any winged creature). "Arouet" was not a noble name fit for his growing reputation, especially given that name's resonance with à rouer ("to be beaten up") and roué (a débauché). In a letter to <a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Rousseau" title="Jean-Baptiste Rousseau">Jean-Baptiste Rousseau</a> in March 1719, Voltaire concludes by asking that, if Rousseau wishes to send him a return letter, he do so by addressing it to Monsieur de Voltaire. A postscript explains: "J'ai été si malheureux sous le nom d'Arouet que j'en ai pris un autre surtout pour n'être plus confondu avec le poète Roi", ("I was so unhappy under the name of Arouet that I have taken another, primarily so as to cease to be confused with the poet Roi.")<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> This probably refers to <a href="/wiki/Adenes_le_Roi" class="mw-redirect" title="Adenes le Roi">Adenes le Roi</a>, and the 'oi' diphthong was then pronounced like modern 'ouai', so the similarity to 'Arouet' is clear, and thus, it could well have been part of his rationale. Voltaire is known also to have used at least 178 separate pen names during his lifetime.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Career">Career</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_fiction">Early fiction</h3></div> Voltaire's next play, <a href="/wiki/Art%C3%A9mire_(tragedy)" title="Artémire (tragedy)">Artémire</a>, set in ancient Macedonia, opened on 15 February 1720. It was a flop and only fragments of the text survive.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPearson200554-32">[32]</a> He instead turned to an epic poem about <a href="/wiki/Henry_IV_of_France" title="Henry IV of France">Henry IV of France</a> that he had begun in early 1717.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPearson200555-33">[33]</a> Denied a licence to publish, in August 1722 Voltaire headed north to find a publisher outside France. On the journey, he was accompanied by his mistress, Marie-Marguerite de Rupelmonde, a young widow.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPearson200557-34">[34]</a> At Brussels, Voltaire and Rousseau met up for a few days, before Voltaire and his mistress continued northwards. A publisher was eventually secured in The Hague.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPearson200559-35">[35]</a> In the Netherlands, Voltaire was struck and impressed by the openness and tolerance of Dutch society.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPearson200560–61-36">[36]</a> On his return to France, he secured a second publisher in <a href="/wiki/Rouen" title="Rouen">Rouen</a>, who agreed to publish <a href="/wiki/Henriade" title="Henriade">La Henriade</a> clandestinely.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPearson200561-37">[37]</a> After Voltaire's recovery from a month-long <a href="/wiki/Smallpox" title="Smallpox">smallpox</a> infection in November 1723, the first copies were smuggled into Paris and distributed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPearson200562-38">[38]</a> While the poem was an instant success, Voltaire's new play, <a href="/wiki/H%C3%A9rode_et_Mariamne" title="Hérode et Mariamne">Mariamne</a>, was a failure when it first opened in March 1724.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPearson200564-39">[39]</a> Heavily reworked, it opened at the Comédie-Française in April 1725 to a much-improved reception.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPearson200564-39">[39]</a> It was among the entertainments provided at the wedding of <a href="/wiki/Louis_XV" title="Louis XV">Louis XV</a> and <a href="/wiki/Marie_Leszczy%C5%84ska" title="Marie Leszczyńska">Marie Leszczyńska</a> in September 1725.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPearson200564-39">[39]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Great_Britain">Great Britain</h3></div> In early 1726, the aristocratic <a href="/wiki/Chevalier_de_Rohan-Chabot" class="mw-redirect" title="Chevalier de Rohan-Chabot">chevalier de Rohan-Chabot</a> taunted Voltaire about his change of name, and Voltaire retorted that his name would win the esteem of the world, while Rohan would sully his own.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPearson200565-40">[40]</a> The furious Rohan arranged for his thugs to beat up Voltaire a few days later.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPearson200566-41">[41]</a> Seeking redress, Voltaire challenged Rohan to a duel, but the powerful Rohan family arranged for Voltaire to be arrested and imprisoned without trial in the Bastille on 17 April 1726.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPearson200566–67-42">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-The_Life_of_Voltaire-43">[43]</a> Fearing indefinite imprisonment, Voltaire asked to be exiled to England as an alternative punishment, which the French authorities accepted.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> On 2 May, he was escorted from the Bastille to <a href="/wiki/Calais" title="Calais">Calais</a> and embarked for Britain.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPearson200567-45">[45]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Voltaire_-_%C3%89l%C3%A9mens_de_la_philosophie_de_Neuton.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Voltaire_-_%C3%89l%C3%A9mens_de_la_philosophie_de_Neuton.png/220px-Voltaire_-_%C3%89l%C3%A9mens_de_la_philosophie_de_Neuton.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="326" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Voltaire_-_%C3%89l%C3%A9mens_de_la_philosophie_de_Neuton.png/330px-Voltaire_-_%C3%89l%C3%A9mens_de_la_philosophie_de_Neuton.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Voltaire_-_%C3%89l%C3%A9mens_de_la_philosophie_de_Neuton.png/440px-Voltaire_-_%C3%89l%C3%A9mens_de_la_philosophie_de_Neuton.png 2x" data-file-width="1659" data-file-height="2459" /></a><figcaption>Elémens de la philosophie de Neuton, 1738</figcaption></figure> In England, Voltaire lived largely in <a href="/wiki/Wandsworth" title="Wandsworth">Wandsworth</a>, with acquaintances including <a href="/wiki/Everard_Fawkener" title="Everard Fawkener">Everard Fawkener</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPearson200576,_80,_83-46">[46]</a> From December 1727 to June 1728 he lodged at Maiden Lane, <a href="/wiki/Covent_Garden" title="Covent Garden">Covent Garden</a>, now commemorated by a plaque, to be nearer to his British publisher.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPearson200582-47">[47]</a> Voltaire circulated throughout English high society, meeting <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Pope" title="Alexander Pope">Alexander Pope</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Gay" title="John Gay">John Gay</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Swift" title="Jonathan Swift">Jonathan Swift</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lady_Mary_Wortley_Montagu" title="Lady Mary Wortley Montagu">Lady Mary Wortley Montagu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sarah,_Duchess_of_Marlborough" class="mw-redirect" title="Sarah, Duchess of Marlborough">Sarah, Duchess of Marlborough</a>, and many other members of the nobility and royalty.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPearson200578–82-48">[48]</a> Voltaire's exile in Great Britain greatly influenced his thinking. He was intrigued by Britain's <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_monarchy" title="Constitutional monarchy">constitutional monarchy</a> in contrast to French <a href="/wiki/Absolute_monarchy" title="Absolute monarchy">absolutism</a>, and by the country's greater freedom of speech and religion.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPearson200569–70-49">[49]</a> He was influenced by the writers of the time, and developed an interest in English literature, especially <a href="/wiki/William_Shakespeare" title="William Shakespeare">Shakespeare</a>, who was still little known in continental Europe.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPearson200577-50">[50]</a> Despite pointing out Shakespeare's deviations from neoclassical standards, Voltaire saw him as an example for French drama, which, though more polished, lacked on-stage action. Later, however, as Shakespeare's influence began growing in France, Voltaire tried to set a contrary example with his own plays, decrying what he considered Shakespeare's barbarities. Voltaire may have been present at the funeral of <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a>,<a href="#cite_note-51">[a]</a> and met Newton's niece <a href="/wiki/Catherine_Conduitt" class="mw-redirect" title="Catherine Conduitt">Catherine Conduitt</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPearson200582-47">[47]</a> In 1727, Voltaire published two essays in English, Upon the Civil Wars of France, Extracted from Curious Manuscripts and Upon Epic Poetry of the European Nations, from <a href="/wiki/Homer" title="Homer">Homer</a> Down to <a href="/wiki/John_Milton" title="John Milton">Milton</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPearson200582-47">[47]</a> He also published a letter about the <a href="/wiki/Quakers" title="Quakers">Quakers</a> after attending one of their services.<a href="#cite_note-52">[51]</a> After two and a half years in exile, Voltaire returned to France, and after a few months in <a href="/wiki/Dieppe" title="Dieppe">Dieppe</a>, the authorities permitted him to return to Paris.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPearson200585-53">[52]</a> At a dinner, French mathematician <a href="/wiki/Charles_Marie_de_La_Condamine" title="Charles Marie de La Condamine">Charles Marie de La Condamine</a> proposed buying up the lottery that was organized by the French government to pay off its debts, and Voltaire joined the consortium, earning perhaps a million <a href="/wiki/French_livre" title="French livre">livres</a>.<a href="#cite_note-54">[53]</a> He invested the money cleverly and on this basis managed to convince the <a href="/wiki/Court_of_Finances" class="mw-redirect" title="Court of Finances">Court of Finances</a> of his responsible conduct, allowing him to take control of a trust fund inherited from his father. He was now indisputably rich.<a href="#cite_note-55">[54]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPearson200587-56">[55]</a> Further success followed in 1732 with his play <a href="/wiki/Za%C3%AFre_(play)" title="Zaïre (play)">Zaïre</a>, which when published in 1733 carried a dedication to Fawkener praising English liberty and commerce.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPearson200592–93,_95-57">[56]</a> He published his admiring essays on British government, literature, religion, and science in <a href="/wiki/Letters_on_the_English" title="Letters on the English">Letters Concerning the English Nation</a> (London, 1733).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPearson200597-58">[57]</a> In 1734, they were published in Rouen as Lettres philosophiques, causing a huge scandal.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPearson200599-59">[58]</a><a href="#cite_note-60">[b]</a> Published without approval of the royal censor, the essays lauded British constitutional monarchy as more developed and more respectful of human rights than its French counterpart, particularly regarding religious tolerance. The book was <a href="/wiki/Book_burning" title="Book burning">publicly burnt</a> and banned, and Voltaire was again forced to flee Paris.<a href="#cite_note-Shank-24">[24]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Château_de_Cirey">Château de Cirey</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Voltaire_Philosophy_of_Newton_frontispiece.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Voltaire_Philosophy_of_Newton_frontispiece.jpg/260px-Voltaire_Philosophy_of_Newton_frontispiece.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="406" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Voltaire_Philosophy_of_Newton_frontispiece.jpg/390px-Voltaire_Philosophy_of_Newton_frontispiece.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Voltaire_Philosophy_of_Newton_frontispiece.jpg/520px-Voltaire_Philosophy_of_Newton_frontispiece.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1670" data-file-height="2608" /></a><figcaption>In the frontispiece to Voltaire's book on Newton's philosophy, <a href="/wiki/%C3%89milie_du_Ch%C3%A2telet" title="Émilie du Châtelet">Émilie du Châtelet</a> appears as Voltaire's muse, reflecting Newton's heavenly insights down to Voltaire.<a href="#cite_note-61">[59]</a></figcaption></figure> In 1733, Voltaire met <a href="/wiki/%C3%89milie_du_Ch%C3%A2telet" title="Émilie du Châtelet">Émilie du Châtelet</a> (Marquise du Châtelet), a mathematician and married mother of three, who was 12 years his junior and with whom he was to have an affair for 16 years.<a href="#cite_note-62">[60]</a> To avoid arrest after the publication of Lettres, Voltaire took refuge at her husband's château at <a href="/wiki/Chateau_de_Cirey" class="mw-redirect" title="Chateau de Cirey">Cirey</a> on the borders of <a href="/wiki/Champagne,_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Champagne, France">Champagne</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lorraine_(r%C3%A9gion)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lorraine (région)">Lorraine</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPearson2005117–21-63">[61]</a> Voltaire paid for the building's renovation,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPearson2005122-64">[62]</a> and Émilie's husband sometimes stayed at the château with his wife and her lover.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPearson2005155,_157-65">[63]</a> The intellectual paramours collected around 21,000 books, an enormous number for the time.<a href="#cite_note-66">[64]</a> Together, they studied these books and performed scientific experiments at Cirey, including an attempt to determine the nature of fire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPearson2005128,_138–39-67">[65]</a> Having learned from his previous brushes with the authorities, Voltaire began his habit of avoiding open confrontation with the authorities and denying any awkward responsibility.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESaintsbury1911201-68">[66]</a> He continued to write plays, such as <a href="/wiki/M%C3%A9rope" title="Mérope">Mérope</a> (or La Mérope française) and began his long researches into science and history. Again, a main source of inspiration for Voltaire were the years of his British exile, during which he had been strongly influenced by Newton's works. Voltaire strongly believed in Newton's theories; he performed experiments in <a href="/wiki/Optics" title="Optics">optics</a> at Cirey,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPearson2005138-69">[67]</a> and was one of the promulgators of the famous story of Newton's inspiration from the falling apple, which he had learned from Newton's niece in London and first mentioned in his Letters.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPearson200582-47">[47]</a> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Maurice_Quentin_de_La_Tour,_portrait_de_Voltaire_(1735)_avec_agrandissement.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Maurice_Quentin_de_La_Tour%2C_portrait_de_Voltaire_%281735%29_avec_agrandissement.jpg/190px-Maurice_Quentin_de_La_Tour%2C_portrait_de_Voltaire_%281735%29_avec_agrandissement.jpg" decoding="async" width="190" height="246" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Maurice_Quentin_de_La_Tour%2C_portrait_de_Voltaire_%281735%29_avec_agrandissement.jpg/285px-Maurice_Quentin_de_La_Tour%2C_portrait_de_Voltaire_%281735%29_avec_agrandissement.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Maurice_Quentin_de_La_Tour%2C_portrait_de_Voltaire_%281735%29_avec_agrandissement.jpg/380px-Maurice_Quentin_de_La_Tour%2C_portrait_de_Voltaire_%281735%29_avec_agrandissement.jpg 2x" data-file-width="421" data-file-height="546" /></a><figcaption>Pastel by <a href="/wiki/Maurice_Quentin_de_La_Tour" title="Maurice Quentin de La Tour">Maurice Quentin de La Tour</a>, 1735</figcaption></figure> In the fall of 1735, Voltaire was visited by <a href="/wiki/Francesco_Algarotti" title="Francesco Algarotti">Francesco Algarotti</a>, who was preparing a book about Newton in Italian.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPearson2005137-70">[68]</a> Partly inspired by the visit, the Marquise translated Newton's Latin Principia into French, which remained the definitive French version into the 21st century.<a href="#cite_note-Shank-24">[24]</a> Both she and Voltaire were also curious about the philosophy of <a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Leibniz" class="mw-redirect" title="Gottfried Leibniz">Gottfried Leibniz</a>, a contemporary and rival of Newton. While Voltaire remained a firm Newtonian, the Marquise adopted certain aspects of Leibniz's critiques.<a href="#cite_note-Shank-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPearson2005153-71">[69]</a> Voltaire's own book <a href="/wiki/Elements_of_the_Philosophy_of_Newton" title="Elements of the Philosophy of Newton">Elements of the Philosophy of Newton</a> made the great scientist accessible to a far greater public, and the Marquise wrote a celebratory review in the <a href="/wiki/Journal_des_savants" class="mw-redirect" title="Journal des savants">Journal des savants</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Shank-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPearson2005140–41-72">[70]</a> Voltaire's work was instrumental in bringing about general acceptance of Newton's optical and gravitational theories in France, in contrast to the theories of <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">Descartes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Shank-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-73">[71]</a> Voltaire and the Marquise also studied history, particularly the great contributors to civilization. Voltaire's second essay in English had been "Essay upon the Civil Wars in France". It was followed by La Henriade, an epic poem on the French <a href="/wiki/King_Henri_IV" class="mw-redirect" title="King Henri IV">King Henri IV</a>, glorifying his attempt to end the Catholic-Protestant massacres with the <a href="/wiki/Edict_of_Nantes" title="Edict of Nantes">Edict of Nantes</a>, which established religious toleration. There followed a historical novel on King <a href="/wiki/Charles_XII_of_Sweden" title="Charles XII of Sweden">Charles XII of Sweden</a>. These, along with his Letters on the English, mark the beginning of Voltaire's open criticism of intolerance and established religions.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Voltaire and the Marquise also explored philosophy, particularly <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysical</a> questions concerning the existence of God and the soul. Voltaire and the Marquise analyzed the Bible and concluded that much of its content was dubious.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPearson2005129–30-74">[72]</a> Voltaire's critical views on religion led to his belief in <a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state" title="Separation of church and state">separation of church and state</a> and religious freedom, ideas that he had formed after his stay in England. In August 1736, <a href="/wiki/Frederick_the_Great" title="Frederick the Great">Frederick the Great</a>, then Crown Prince of <a href="/wiki/Prussia" title="Prussia">Prussia</a> and a great admirer of Voltaire, initiated a correspondence with him.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPearson2005143–44-75">[73]</a> That December, Voltaire moved to <a href="/wiki/Holland" title="Holland">Holland</a> for two months and became acquainted with the scientists <a href="/wiki/Herman_Boerhaave" title="Herman Boerhaave">Herman Boerhaave</a> and <a href="/wiki/Willem_%27s_Gravesande" title="Willem 's Gravesande">Willem 's Gravesande</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPearson2005151–52-76">[74]</a> From mid-1739 to mid-1740 Voltaire lived largely in Brussels, at first with the Marquise, who was unsuccessfully attempting to pursue a 60-year-old family legal case regarding the ownership of two estates in <a href="/wiki/Limburg_(Belgium)" title="Limburg (Belgium)">Limburg</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPearson2005162–64-77">[75]</a> In July 1740, he traveled to the Hague on behalf of Frederick in an attempt to dissuade a dubious publisher, van Duren, from printing without permission Frederick's <a href="/wiki/Anti-Machiavel" title="Anti-Machiavel">Anti-Machiavel</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPearson2005166-78">[76]</a> In September Voltaire and Frederick (now King) met for the first time in <a href="/wiki/Moyland_Castle" title="Moyland Castle">Moyland Castle</a> near <a href="/wiki/Cleves" class="mw-redirect" title="Cleves">Cleves</a> and in November Voltaire was Frederick's guest in Berlin for two weeks,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPearson2005167–70-79">[77]</a> followed by a meeting in September 1742 at <a href="/wiki/Aix-la-Chapelle" class="mw-redirect" title="Aix-la-Chapelle">Aix-la-Chapelle</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPearson2005173-80">[78]</a> Voltaire was sent to Frederick's court in 1743 by the French government as an envoy and spy to gauge Frederick's military intentions in the <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Austrian_Succession" title="War of the Austrian Succession">War of the Austrian Succession</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPearson2005175–77-81">[79]</a> Though deeply committed to the Marquise, Voltaire by 1744 found life at her château confining. On a visit to Paris that year, he found a new love—his niece. At first, his attraction to <a href="/wiki/Marie_Louise_Mignot" title="Marie Louise Mignot">Marie Louise Mignot</a> was clearly sexual, as evidenced by his letters to her (only discovered in 1957).<a href="#cite_note-82">[80]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1980392-83">[81]</a> Much later, they lived together, perhaps platonically, and remained together until Voltaire's death. Meanwhile, the Marquise also took a lover, the <a href="/wiki/Jean_Fran%C3%A7ois_de_Saint-Lambert" title="Jean François de Saint-Lambert">Marquis de Saint-Lambert</a>.<a href="#cite_note-84">[82]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Prussia">Prussia</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tafelrunde.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Tafelrunde.PNG/260px-Tafelrunde.PNG" decoding="async" width="260" height="321" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Tafelrunde.PNG/390px-Tafelrunde.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Tafelrunde.PNG/520px-Tafelrunde.PNG 2x" data-file-width="620" data-file-height="766" /></a><figcaption>Die Tafelrunde by <a href="/wiki/Adolph_von_Menzel" class="mw-redirect" title="Adolph von Menzel">Adolph von Menzel</a>: guests of Frederick the Great at <a href="/wiki/Sanssouci" title="Sanssouci">Sanssouci</a>, including members of the <a href="/wiki/Prussian_Academy_of_Sciences" title="Prussian Academy of Sciences">Prussian Academy of Sciences</a> and Voltaire (third from left)</figcaption></figure> After the death of the Marquise in childbirth in September 1749, Voltaire briefly returned to Paris and in mid-1750 moved to <a href="/wiki/Potsdam" title="Potsdam">Potsdam</a>, Prussia, at the invitation of Frederick the Great.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPearson2005214–17-85">[83]</a> The Prussian king (with the permission of Louis XV) made him a chamberlain in his household, appointed him to the <a href="/wiki/Pour_le_M%C3%A9rite" title="Pour le Mérite">Order of Merit</a>, and gave him a salary of 20,000 <a href="/wiki/French_livre" title="French livre">French livres</a> a year.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPearson2005218-86">[84]</a> He had rooms at <a href="/wiki/Sanssouci" title="Sanssouci">Sanssouci</a> and <a href="/wiki/Charlottenburg_Palace" class="mw-redirect" title="Charlottenburg Palace">Charlottenburg Palace</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPearson2005219-87">[85]</a> Life went well for Voltaire at first,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPearson2005217-88">[86]</a> and in 1751 he completed <a href="/wiki/Microm%C3%A9gas" title="Micromégas">Micromégas</a>, a piece of science fiction involving ambassadors from another planet witnessing the follies of humankind.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPearson2005220–21-89">[87]</a> However, his relationship with Frederick began to deteriorate after he was accused of theft and forgery by a Jewish financier, Abraham Hirschel, who had invested in Saxon government bonds on behalf of Voltaire at a time when Frederick was involved in sensitive diplomatic negotiations with <a href="/wiki/Electorate_of_Saxony" title="Electorate of Saxony">Saxony</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPearson2005221–22-90">[88]</a> He encountered other difficulties: an argument with <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Louis_Maupertuis" title="Pierre Louis Maupertuis">Maupertuis</a>, the president of the <a href="/wiki/Berlin_Academy_of_Science" class="mw-redirect" title="Berlin Academy of Science">Berlin Academy of Science</a> and a former rival for Émilie's affections, provoked Voltaire's <a href="/wiki/Doctor_Akakia" title="Doctor Akakia">Diatribe du docteur Akakia</a> ("Diatribe of Doctor Akakia"), which satirized some of Maupertuis's theories and his persecutions of a mutual acquaintance, <a href="/wiki/Johann_Samuel_K%C3%B6nig" title="Johann Samuel König">Johann Samuel König</a>. This greatly angered Frederick, who ordered all copies of the document burned.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPearson2005225–29-91">[89]</a> On 1 January 1752, Voltaire offered to resign as chamberlain and return his insignia of the Order of Merit; at first, Frederick refused until eventually permitting Voltaire to leave in March.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPearson2005229–30-92">[90]</a> On a slow journey back to France, Voltaire stayed at <a href="/wiki/Leipzig" title="Leipzig">Leipzig</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gotha" title="Gotha">Gotha</a> for a month each, and <a href="/wiki/Kassel" title="Kassel">Kassel</a> for two weeks, arriving at <a href="/wiki/Frankfurt" title="Frankfurt">Frankfurt</a> on 31 May. The following morning, he was detained at an inn by Frederick's agents, who held him in the city for over three weeks while Voltaire and Frederick argued by letter over the return of a satirical book of poetry Frederick had lent to Voltaire. Marie Louise joined him on 9 June. She and her uncle only left Frankfurt in July after she had defended herself from the unwanted advances of one of Frederick's agents, and Voltaire's luggage had been ransacked and valuable items taken.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPearson2005232–35-93">[91]</a> Voltaire's attempts to vilify Frederick for his agents' actions at Frankfurt were largely unsuccessful, including his Mémoires pour Servir à la Vie de M. de Voltaire, published posthumously, in which he also explicitly made mention of Frederick's homosexuality, when he described how the king regularly invited pages, young cadets or lieutenants from his regiment to have coffee with him and then withdrew with the favourite for a quickie.<a href="#cite_note-94">[92]</a><a href="#cite_note-95">[93]</a> However, the correspondence between them continued, and though they never met in person again, after the <a href="/wiki/Seven_Years%27_War" title="Seven Years' War">Seven Years' War</a> they largely reconciled.<a href="#cite_note-96">[94]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Geneva_and_Ferney">Geneva and Ferney</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Voltaire_%C3%A0_Ferney_3.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Voltaire_%C3%A0_Ferney_3.JPG/260px-Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Voltaire_%C3%A0_Ferney_3.JPG" decoding="async" width="260" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Voltaire_%C3%A0_Ferney_3.JPG/390px-Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Voltaire_%C3%A0_Ferney_3.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Voltaire_%C3%A0_Ferney_3.JPG/520px-Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Voltaire_%C3%A0_Ferney_3.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4320" data-file-height="2432" /></a><figcaption>Voltaire's <a href="/wiki/Ch%C3%A2teau" title="Château">château</a> at <a href="/wiki/Ferney" class="mw-redirect" title="Ferney">Ferney</a>, France</figcaption></figure> Voltaire's slow progress toward Paris continued through <a href="/wiki/Mainz" title="Mainz">Mainz</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mannheim" title="Mannheim">Mannheim</a>, <a href="/wiki/Strasbourg" title="Strasbourg">Strasbourg</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Colmar" title="Colmar">Colmar</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPearson2005236–37-97">[95]</a> but in January 1754 <a href="/wiki/Louis_XV_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis XV of France">Louis XV</a> banned him from Paris,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPearson2005238-98">[96]</a> and he turned for <a href="/wiki/Geneva" title="Geneva">Geneva</a>, near which he bought a large estate (<a href="/wiki/Les_D%C3%A9lices" title="Les Délices">Les Délices</a>) in early 1755.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPearson2005244–45-99">[97]</a> Though he was received openly at first, the law in Geneva, which banned theatrical performances, and the publication of <a href="/wiki/The_Maid_of_Orleans_(poem)" title="The Maid of Orleans (poem)">The Maid of Orleans</a> against his will soured his relationship with Calvinist Genevans.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPearson2005247-100">[98]</a> In late 1758, he bought an even larger estate at <a href="/wiki/Ferney" class="mw-redirect" title="Ferney">Ferney</a>, on the French side of the <a href="/wiki/Franco-Swiss_border" class="mw-redirect" title="Franco-Swiss border">Franco-Swiss border</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPearson2005263–64-101">[99]</a> The town would adopt his name, calling itself Ferney-Voltaire, and this became its official name in 1878.<a href="#cite_note-102">[100]</a> Early in 1759, Voltaire completed and published <a href="/wiki/Candide" title="Candide">Candide, ou l'Optimisme</a> (Candide, or Optimism). This satire on Leibniz's philosophy of optimistic determinism remains Voltaire's best-known work. He would stay in Ferney for most of the remaining 20 years of his life, frequently entertaining distinguished guests, such as <a href="/wiki/James_Boswell" title="James Boswell">James Boswell</a> (who recorded their conversations in his journal and memoranda),<a href="#cite_note-Boswell-103">[101]</a> <a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Adam Smith</a>, <a href="/wiki/Giacomo_Casanova" title="Giacomo Casanova">Giacomo Casanova</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Edward_Gibbon" title="Edward Gibbon">Edward Gibbon</a>. In 1764, he published one of his best-known philosophical works, the <a href="/wiki/Dictionnaire_philosophique" title="Dictionnaire philosophique">Dictionnaire philosophique</a>, a series of articles mainly on Christian history and dogmas, a few of which were originally written in Berlin.<a href="#cite_note-The_Life_of_Voltaire-43">[43]</a> From 1762, as an unmatched intellectual celebrity, he began to champion unjustly persecuted individuals, most famously the <a href="/wiki/Huguenot" class="mw-redirect" title="Huguenot">Huguenot</a> merchant <a href="/wiki/Jean_Calas" title="Jean Calas">Jean Calas</a>.<a href="#cite_note-The_Life_of_Voltaire-43">[43]</a> Calas had been tortured to death in 1763, supposedly because he had murdered his eldest son for wanting to convert to Catholicism. His possessions were confiscated, and his two daughters were taken from his widow and forced into Catholic convents. Voltaire, seeing this as a clear case of religious persecution, managed to overturn the conviction in 1765.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPearson2005284–90-104">[102]</a> Voltaire was initiated into <a href="/wiki/Freemasonry" title="Freemasonry">Freemasonry</a> a little over a month before his death. On 4 April 1778, he attended <a href="/wiki/Les_Neuf_S%C5%93urs" title="Les Neuf Sœurs">la Loge des Neuf Sœurs</a> in Paris, and became an <a href="/wiki/Entered_Apprentice" class="mw-redirect" title="Entered Apprentice">Entered Apprentice</a> Freemason. According to some sources, "Benjamin Franklin ... urged Voltaire to become a freemason; and Voltaire agreed, perhaps only to please Franklin."<a href="#cite_note-Ridley2011-105">[103]</a><a href="#cite_note-106">[104]</a><a href="#cite_note-107">[105]</a> However, Franklin was merely a visitor at the time Voltaire was initiated, the two only met a month before Voltaire's death, and their interactions with each other were brief.<a href="#cite_note-108">[106]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Voltaire-last-house.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Voltaire-last-house.jpg/220px-Voltaire-last-house.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Voltaire-last-house.jpg/330px-Voltaire-last-house.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Voltaire-last-house.jpg/440px-Voltaire-last-house.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1306" /></a><figcaption>House in Paris where Voltaire died</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Death_and_burial">Death and burial</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jean-Antoine_Houdon,_Voltaire,_1778,_NGA_1266.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Jean-Antoine_Houdon%2C_Voltaire%2C_1778%2C_NGA_1266.jpg/220px-Jean-Antoine_Houdon%2C_Voltaire%2C_1778%2C_NGA_1266.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="275" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Jean-Antoine_Houdon%2C_Voltaire%2C_1778%2C_NGA_1266.jpg/330px-Jean-Antoine_Houdon%2C_Voltaire%2C_1778%2C_NGA_1266.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Jean-Antoine_Houdon%2C_Voltaire%2C_1778%2C_NGA_1266.jpg/440px-Jean-Antoine_Houdon%2C_Voltaire%2C_1778%2C_NGA_1266.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3200" data-file-height="4000" /></a><figcaption>Jean-Antoine Houdon, Voltaire, 1778, <a href="/wiki/National_Gallery_of_Art" title="National Gallery of Art">National Gallery of Art</a></figcaption></figure> In February 1778, Voltaire returned to Paris for the first time in over 25 years, partly to see the opening of his latest tragedy, <a href="/wiki/Ir%C3%A8ne_(tragedy)" title="Irène (tragedy)">Irene</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPearson2005364–65,_371–72-109">[107]</a> The five-day journey was too much for the 83-year-old, and he believed he was about to die on 28 February, writing "I die adoring God, loving my friends, not hating my enemies, and detesting superstition." However, he recovered, and in March he saw a performance of Irene, where he was treated by the audience as a returning hero.<a href="#cite_note-The_Life_of_Voltaire-43">[43]</a> He soon became ill again and died on 30 May 1778. The accounts of his deathbed have been numerous and varying, and it has not been possible to establish the details of what precisely occurred. His enemies related that he repented and accepted the last rites from a Catholic priest, or that he died in agony of body and soul, while his adherents told of his defiance to his last breath.<a href="#cite_note-110">[108]</a> According to one story of his last words, when the priest urged him to renounce Satan, he replied, "This is no time to make new enemies."<a href="#cite_note-111">[109]</a> Because of his well-known criticism of the Church, which he had refused to retract before his death, Voltaire was denied a Christian burial in Paris,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPearson2005386–87-112">[110]</a> but friends and relations managed to bury his body secretly at the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Abbey_of_Scelli%C3%A8res&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Abbey of Scellières (page does not exist)">Abbey of Scellières</a> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbaye_de_Selli%C3%A8res" class="extiw" title="fr:Abbaye de Sellières">fr</a>] in <a href="/wiki/Champagne_(region)" class="mw-redirect" title="Champagne (region)">Champagne</a>, where Marie Louise's brother was <a href="/wiki/Abb%C3%A9" title="Abbé">abbé</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPearson2005388–89-113">[111]</a> His heart and brain were embalmed separately.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPearson2005388,_391-114">[112]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tombeau_et_statue_de_Voltaire,_Paris_8_juin_2014.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Tombeau_et_statue_de_Voltaire%2C_Paris_8_juin_2014.jpg/220px-Tombeau_et_statue_de_Voltaire%2C_Paris_8_juin_2014.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Tombeau_et_statue_de_Voltaire%2C_Paris_8_juin_2014.jpg/330px-Tombeau_et_statue_de_Voltaire%2C_Paris_8_juin_2014.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Tombeau_et_statue_de_Voltaire%2C_Paris_8_juin_2014.jpg/440px-Tombeau_et_statue_de_Voltaire%2C_Paris_8_juin_2014.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3340" data-file-height="4448" /></a><figcaption>Voltaire's tomb in the Paris <a href="/wiki/Panth%C3%A9on" title="Panthéon">Panthéon</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:TombofVoltaire.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/TombofVoltaire.jpg/220px-TombofVoltaire.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/TombofVoltaire.jpg/330px-TombofVoltaire.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/TombofVoltaire.jpg/440px-TombofVoltaire.jpg 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="675" /></a><figcaption>Tomb of Voltaire in the Pantheon in Paris</figcaption></figure> On 11 July 1791, the <a href="/wiki/National_Constituent_Assembly_(France)" title="National Constituent Assembly (France)">National Assembly of France</a>, regarding Voltaire as a forerunner of the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a>, had his remains brought back to Paris and enshrined in the <a href="/wiki/Panth%C3%A9on" title="Panthéon">Panthéon</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPearson2005411–16-115">[113]</a><a href="#cite_note-118">[c]</a> An estimated million people attended the procession, which stretched throughout Paris. There was an elaborate ceremony, including music composed for the event by <a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Gr%C3%A9try" title="André Grétry">André Grétry</a>.<a href="#cite_note-119">[116]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Writings">Writings</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="History">History</h3></div> Voltaire had an enormous influence on the development of <a href="/wiki/Historiography" title="Historiography">historiography</a> through his demonstration of fresh new ways to look at the past. Guillaume de Syon argues: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">Voltaire recast historiography in both factual and analytical terms. Not only did he reject traditional biographies and accounts that claim the work of supernatural forces, but he went so far as to suggest that earlier historiography was rife with falsified evidence and required new investigations at the source. Such an outlook was not unique in that the scientific spirit that 18th-century intellectuals perceived themselves as invested with. A rationalistic approach was key to rewriting history.<a href="#cite_note-120">[117]</a></blockquote> Voltaire's best-known histories are <a href="/wiki/History_of_Charles_XII" title="History of Charles XII">History of Charles XII</a> (1731), <a href="/wiki/The_Age_of_Louis_XIV" title="The Age of Louis XIV">The Age of Louis XIV</a> (1751), and his <a href="/wiki/Essai_sur_les_m%C5%93urs_et_l%27esprit_des_nations" title="Essai sur les mœurs et l'esprit des nations">Essay on the Customs and the Spirit of the Nations</a> (1756). He broke from the tradition of narrating diplomatic and military events, and emphasized customs, social history and achievements in the arts and sciences. The Essay on Customs traced the progress of world civilization in a universal context, rejecting both nationalism and the traditional Christian frame of reference. Influenced by <a href="/wiki/Jacques-B%C3%A9nigne_Bossuet" title="Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet">Bossuet</a>'s Discourse on Universal History (1682), he was the first scholar to attempt seriously a history of the world, eliminating theological frameworks, and emphasizing economics, culture and political history. He treated Europe as a whole rather than a collection of nations. He was the first to emphasize the debt of medieval culture to Middle Eastern civilization, but otherwise was weak on the Middle Ages. Although he repeatedly warned against political bias on the part of the historian, he did not miss many opportunities to expose the intolerance and frauds of the church over the ages. Voltaire advised scholars that anything contradicting the normal course of nature was not to be believed. Although he found evil in the historical record, he fervently believed reason and expanding literacy would lead to progress. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Un_d%C3%AEner_de_philosophes.Jean_Huber.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Un_d%C3%AEner_de_philosophes.Jean_Huber.jpg/220px-Un_d%C3%AEner_de_philosophes.Jean_Huber.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Un_d%C3%AEner_de_philosophes.Jean_Huber.jpg/330px-Un_d%C3%AEner_de_philosophes.Jean_Huber.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Un_d%C3%AEner_de_philosophes.Jean_Huber.jpg/440px-Un_d%C3%AEner_de_philosophes.Jean_Huber.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="476" /></a><figcaption>Voltaire with <a href="/wiki/Denis_Diderot" title="Denis Diderot">Denis Diderot</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jean_le_Rond_d%27Alembert" title="Jean le Rond d'Alembert">Jean le Rond d'Alembert</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Condorcet" title="Marquis de Condorcet">Marquis de Condorcet</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois_de_La_Harpe" title="Jean-François de La Harpe">Jean-François de La Harpe</a></figcaption></figure> Voltaire explains his view of historiography in his article on "History" in Diderot's <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A9die" title="Encyclopédie">Encyclopédie</a>: "One demands of modern historians more details, better ascertained facts, precise dates, more attention to customs, laws, mores, commerce, finance, agriculture, population." Voltaire's histories imposed the values of the Enlightenment on the past, but at the same time he helped free historiography from antiquarianism, Eurocentrism, religious intolerance and a concentration on great men, diplomacy, and warfare.<a href="#cite_note-121">[118]</a><a href="#cite_note-122">[119]</a> Yale professor <a href="/wiki/Peter_Gay" title="Peter Gay">Peter Gay</a> says Voltaire wrote "very good history", citing his "scrupulous concern for truths", "careful sifting of evidence", "intelligent selection of what is important", "keen sense of drama", and "grasp of the fact that a whole civilization is a unit of study".<a href="#cite_note-123">[120]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Poetry">Poetry</h3></div> From an early age, Voltaire displayed a talent for writing verse, and his first published work was poetry. He wrote two book-long epic poems, including the first ever written in French, the <a href="/wiki/Henriade" title="Henriade">Henriade</a>, and later, <a href="/wiki/The_Maid_of_Orleans_(poem)" title="The Maid of Orleans (poem)">The Maid of Orleans</a>, besides many other smaller pieces.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The Henriade was written in imitation of <a href="/wiki/Virgil" title="Virgil">Virgil</a>, using the <a href="/wiki/French_alexandrine" title="French alexandrine">alexandrine</a> couplet reformed and rendered monotonous for modern readers but it was a huge success in the 18th and early 19th century, with sixty-five editions and translations into several languages. The epic poem transformed French King Henry IV into a national hero for his attempts at instituting tolerance with his Edict of Nantes. <a href="/wiki/The_Maid_of_Orleans_(poem)" title="The Maid of Orleans (poem)">La Pucelle</a>, on the other hand, is a <a href="/wiki/Burlesque" title="Burlesque">burlesque</a> on the legend of <a href="/wiki/Joan_of_Arc" title="Joan of Arc">Joan of Arc</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Prose">Prose</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Candide1759.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Candide1759.jpg/220px-Candide1759.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="400" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Candide1759.jpg/330px-Candide1759.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Candide1759.jpg/440px-Candide1759.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1242" data-file-height="2256" /></a><figcaption>Title page of Voltaire's <a href="/wiki/Candide" title="Candide">Candide</a>, 1759</figcaption></figure> Many of Voltaire's <a href="/wiki/Prose" title="Prose">prose</a> works and romances, usually composed as pamphlets, were written as <a href="/wiki/Polemics" class="mw-redirect" title="Polemics">polemics</a>. <a href="/wiki/Candide" title="Candide">Candide</a> attacks the passivity inspired by Leibniz's philosophy of <a href="/wiki/Optimism" title="Optimism">optimism</a> through the character Pangloss's frequent refrain that, because God created it, this is of necessity the "<a href="/wiki/Best_of_all_possible_worlds" title="Best of all possible worlds">best of all possible worlds</a>". L'Homme aux quarante ecus (The Man of Forty Pieces of Silver) addresses social and political ways of the time; <a href="/wiki/Zadig" title="Zadig">Zadig</a> and others, the received forms of moral and metaphysical orthodoxy; and some were written to deride the Bible. In these works, Voltaire's ironic style, free of exaggeration, is apparent, particularly the restraint and simplicity of the verbal treatment.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESaintsbury1911204i-124">[121]</a> Candide in particular is the best example of his style. Voltaire also has—in common with <a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Swift" title="Jonathan Swift">Jonathan Swift</a>—the distinction of paving the way for science fiction's philosophical irony, particularly in his <a href="/wiki/Microm%C3%A9gas" title="Micromégas">Micromégas</a> and the vignette "<a href="/wiki/Plato%27s_Dream" title="Plato's Dream">Plato's Dream</a>" (1756). <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Voltaire-Baquoy.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Voltaire-Baquoy.gif/220px-Voltaire-Baquoy.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Voltaire-Baquoy.gif/330px-Voltaire-Baquoy.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Voltaire-Baquoy.gif/440px-Voltaire-Baquoy.gif 2x" data-file-width="451" data-file-height="368" /></a><figcaption>Voltaire at <a href="/wiki/Frederick_the_Great" title="Frederick the Great">Frederick the Great</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Sanssouci" title="Sanssouci">Sanssouci</a>, by <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Charles_Baquoy" title="Pierre Charles Baquoy">Pierre Charles Baquoy</a></figcaption></figure> In general, his criticism and miscellaneous writing show a similar style to Voltaire's other works. Almost all of his more substantive works, whether in verse or prose, are preceded by prefaces of one sort or another, which are models of his caustic yet conversational tone. In a vast variety of nondescript pamphlets and writings, he displays his skills at journalism. In pure literary criticism his principal work is the <a href="/wiki/Commentaires_sur_Corneille" title="Commentaires sur Corneille">Commentaire sur Corneille</a>, although he wrote many more similar works—sometimes (as in his Life and Notices of Molière) independently and sometimes as part of his Siècles.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESaintsbury1911205-125">[122]</a> Voltaire's works, especially his private letters, frequently urge the reader: "écrasez l'infâme", or "crush the infamous".<a href="#cite_note-126">[123]</a> The phrase refers to contemporaneous abuses of power by royal and religious authorities, and the superstition and intolerance fomented by the clergy.<a href="#cite_note-127">[124]</a> He had seen and felt these effects in his own exiles, the burnings of his books and those of many others, and in the atrocious persecution of <a href="/wiki/Jean_Calas" title="Jean Calas">Jean Calas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois-Jean_de_la_Barre" title="François-Jean de la Barre">François-Jean de la Barre</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESaintsbury1911204-128">[125]</a> He stated in one of his most famous quotes that "Superstition sets the whole world in flames; philosophy quenches them" (La superstition met le monde entier en flammes; la philosophie les éteint).<a href="#cite_note-129">[126]</a> The most oft-cited Voltaire quotation is apocryphal. He is incorrectly credited with writing, "I disapprove of what you say, but I will defend to the death your right to say it." These were not his words, but rather those of <a href="/wiki/Evelyn_Beatrice_Hall" title="Evelyn Beatrice Hall">Evelyn Beatrice Hall</a>, written under the pseudonym S. G. Tallentyre in her 1906 biographical book <a href="/wiki/The_Friends_of_Voltaire" title="The Friends of Voltaire">The Friends of Voltaire</a>. Hall intended to summarize in her own words Voltaire's attitude towards <a href="/wiki/Claude_Adrien_Helv%C3%A9tius" title="Claude Adrien Helvétius">Claude Adrien Helvétius</a> and his controversial book De l'esprit, but her first-person expression was mistaken for an actual quotation from Voltaire. Her interpretation does capture the spirit of Voltaire's attitude towards Helvétius; it had been said Hall's summary was inspired by a quotation found in a 1770 Voltaire letter to an Abbot le Riche, in which he was reported to have said, "I detest what you write, but I would give my life to make it possible for you to continue to write."<a href="#cite_note-130">[127]</a> Nevertheless, scholars believe there must have again been misinterpretation, as the letter does not seem to contain any such quote.<a href="#cite_note-131">[d]</a> Voltaire's first major philosophical work in his battle against "l'infâme" was the Traité sur la tolérance (<a href="/wiki/Treatise_on_Tolerance" title="Treatise on Tolerance">Treatise on Tolerance</a>), exposing the Calas affair, along with the tolerance exercised by other faiths and in other eras (for example, by the Jews, the Romans, the Greeks and the Chinese). Then, in his <a href="/wiki/Dictionnaire_philosophique" title="Dictionnaire philosophique">Dictionnaire philosophique</a>, containing such articles as "Abraham", "Genesis", "Church Council", he wrote about what he perceived as the human origins of dogmas and beliefs, as well as inhuman behavior of religious and political institutions in shedding blood over the quarrels of competing sects. Amongst other targets, Voltaire criticized France's colonial policy in North America, dismissing the vast territory of <a href="/wiki/New_France" title="New France">New France</a> as "<a href="/wiki/A_few_acres_of_snow" title="A few acres of snow">a few acres of snow</a>" ("quelques arpents de neige"). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Letters">Letters</h3></div> Voltaire also engaged in an enormous amount of private correspondence during his life, totalling over 20,000 letters. <a href="/wiki/Theodore_Besterman" title="Theodore Besterman">Theodore Besterman</a>'s collected edition of these letters, completed only in 1964, fills 102 volumes.<a href="#cite_note-132">[128]</a> One historian called the letters "a feast not only of wit and eloquence but of warm friendship, humane feeling, and incisive thought."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967138-133">[129]</a> In Voltaire's correspondence with <a href="/wiki/Catherine_the_Great" title="Catherine the Great">Catherine the Great</a> he derided democracy. He wrote, "Almost nothing great has ever been done in the world except by the genius and firmness of a single man combating the prejudices of the multitude."<a href="#cite_note-134">[130]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Religious_and_philosophical_views">Religious and philosophical views</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Voltaire_dictionary.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Voltaire_dictionary.jpg/170px-Voltaire_dictionary.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="370" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Voltaire_dictionary.jpg/255px-Voltaire_dictionary.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Voltaire_dictionary.jpg/340px-Voltaire_dictionary.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1526" data-file-height="3321" /></a><figcaption>Voltaire at 70; engraving from 1843 edition of his <a href="/wiki/Dictionnaire_philosophique" title="Dictionnaire philosophique">Philosophical Dictionary</a></figcaption></figure> Like other key <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a> thinkers, Voltaire was a <a href="/wiki/Deism" title="Deism">deist</a>.<a href="#cite_note-135">[131]</a> He challenged orthodoxy by asking: "What is faith? Is it to believe that which is evident? No. It is perfectly evident to my mind that there exists a necessary, eternal, supreme, and intelligent being. This is no matter of faith, but of reason."<a href="#cite_note-136">[132]</a><a href="#cite_note-137">[133]</a> In a 1763 essay, Voltaire supported the <a href="/wiki/Religious_toleration" class="mw-redirect" title="Religious toleration">toleration</a> of other religions and ethnicities: "It does not require great art, or magnificently trained eloquence, to prove that Christians should tolerate each other. I, however, am going further: I say that we should regard all men as our brothers. What? The Turk my brother? The Chinaman my brother? The Jew? The Siam? Yes, without doubt; are we not all children of the same father and creatures of the same God?"<a href="#cite_note-138">[134]</a> In one of his many denunciations of priests of every religious sect, Voltaire describes them as those who "rise from an incestuous bed, manufacture a hundred versions of God, then eat and drink God, then piss and shit God."<a href="#cite_note-Ruthven-139">[135]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Christianity">Christianity</h3></div> Historians have described Voltaire's description of the history of Christianity as "propagandistic".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBremmer20109-140">[136]</a> His <a href="/wiki/Dictionnaire_philosophique" title="Dictionnaire philosophique">Dictionnaire philosophique</a> is responsible for the myth that the early Church had fifty gospels before settling on the standard canonical four as well as propagating the myth that the canon of the <a href="/wiki/New_Testament" title="New Testament">New Testament</a> was decided at the <a href="/wiki/First_Council_of_Nicaea" title="First Council of Nicaea">First Council of Nicaea</a>. Voltaire is partially responsible for the misattribution of the expression <a href="/wiki/Credo_quia_absurdum" title="Credo quia absurdum">Credo quia absurdum</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Church Fathers</a>.<a href="#cite_note-141">[137]</a> Furthermore, despite the death of <a href="/wiki/Hypatia" title="Hypatia">Hypatia</a> being the result of finding herself in the crossfires of a mob (likely Christian) during a political feud in 4th-century <a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a>, Voltaire <a href="/wiki/Hypatia#Early_modern_period" title="Hypatia">promoted the theory</a> that she was stripped naked and murdered by the minions of the bishop <a href="/wiki/Cyril_of_Alexandria" title="Cyril of Alexandria">Cyril of Alexandria</a>, concluding by stating that "when one finds a beautiful woman completely naked, it is not for the purpose of massacring her." Voltaire meant for this argument to bolster one of his anti-Catholic tracts.<a href="#cite_note-142">[138]</a> In a letter to Frederick the Great, dated 5 January 1767, he wrote about Christianity: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">La nôtre [religion] est sans contredit la plus ridicule, la plus absurde, et la plus sanguinaire qui ait jamais infecté le monde.<a href="#cite_note-143">[139]</a> "Ours [i.e., the Christian religion] is assuredly the most ridiculous, the most absurd and the most bloody religion which has ever infected this world. Your Majesty will do the human race an eternal service by extirpating this infamous superstition, I do not say among the rabble, who are not worthy of being enlightened and who are apt for every yoke; I say among honest people, among men who think, among those who wish to think. ... My one regret in dying is that I cannot aid you in this noble enterprise, the finest and most respectable which the human mind can point out."<a href="#cite_note-144">[140]</a><a href="#cite_note-145">[141]</a></blockquote> In La bible enfin expliquée, he expressed the following attitude to lay reading of the Bible: <blockquote>It is characteristic of fanatics who read the holy scriptures to tell themselves: God killed, so I must kill; Abraham lied, Jacob deceived, Rachel stole: so I must steal, deceive, lie. But, wretch, you are neither Rachel, nor Jacob, nor Abraham, nor God; you are just a mad fool, and the popes who forbade the reading of the Bible were extremely wise.<a href="#cite_note-146">[142]</a></blockquote> Voltaire's opinion of the Bible was mixed. Although influenced by <a href="/wiki/Socinian" class="mw-redirect" title="Socinian">Socinian</a> works such as the <a href="/wiki/Bibliotheca_Fratrum_Polonorum" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibliotheca Fratrum Polonorum">Bibliotheca Fratrum Polonorum</a>, Voltaire's skeptical attitude to the Bible separated him from Unitarian theologians like <a href="/wiki/Fausto_Sozzini" title="Fausto Sozzini">Fausto Sozzini</a> or even Biblical-political writers like <a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a>.<a href="#cite_note-147">[143]</a> His statements on religion also brought down on him the fury of the Jesuits and in particular <a href="/wiki/Claude-Adrien_Nonnotte" title="Claude-Adrien Nonnotte">Claude-Adrien Nonnotte</a>.<a href="#cite_note-148">[144]</a><a href="#cite_note-149">[145]</a><a href="#cite_note-150">[146]</a><a href="#cite_note-151">[147]</a> This did not hinder his religious practice, though it did win for him a bad reputation in certain religious circles. The deeply Christian <a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Amadeus_Mozart" title="Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart">Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart</a> wrote to his father the year of Voltaire's death, saying, "The arch-scoundrel Voltaire has finally kicked the bucket ..."<a href="#cite_note-152">[148]</a> Voltaire was later deemed to influence <a href="/wiki/Edward_Gibbon" title="Edward Gibbon">Edward Gibbon</a> in claiming that Christianity was a contributor to the fall of the Roman Empire in his book <a href="/wiki/The_History_of_the_Decline_and_Fall_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire">The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire</a>:<blockquote>As Christianity advances, disasters befall the [Roman] empire—arts, science, literature, decay—barbarism and all its revolting concomitants are made to seem the consequences of its decisive triumph—and the unwary reader is conducted, with matchless dexterity, to the desired conclusion—the abominable Manicheism of Candide, and, in fact, of all the productions of Voltaire's historic school—viz., "that instead of being a merciful, ameliorating, and benignant visitation, the religion of Christians would rather seem to be a scourge sent on man by the author of all evil."<a href="#cite_note-153">[149]</a></blockquote> However, Voltaire also acknowledged the self-sacrifice of Christians. He wrote: "Perhaps there is nothing greater on earth than the sacrifice of youth and beauty, often of high birth, made by the gentle sex in order to work in hospitals for the relief of human misery, the sight of which is so revolting to our delicacy. Peoples separated from the Roman religion have imitated but imperfectly so generous a charity."<a href="#cite_note-154">[150]</a> Yet, according to <a href="/wiki/Daniel-Rops" class="mw-redirect" title="Daniel-Rops">Daniel-Rops</a>, Voltaire's "hatred of religion increased with the passage of years. The attack, launched at first against clericalism and theocracy, ended in a furious assault upon Holy Scripture, the dogmas of the Church, and even upon the person of Jesus Christ Himself, who [he] depicted now as a degenerate."<a href="#cite_note-Daniel-Rops1964-155">[151]</a> Voltaire's reasoning may be summed up in his well-known saying, "<a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Voltaire" class="extiw" title="q:Voltaire">Those who can make you believe absurdities can make you commit atrocities</a>." <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Judaism">Judaism</h3></div> According to Orthodox rabbi <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Telushkin" title="Joseph Telushkin">Joseph Telushkin</a>, the most significant Enlightenment hostility against Judaism was found in Voltaire;<a href="#cite_note-Why?-156">[152]</a> 30 of the 118 articles in his <a href="/wiki/Dictionnaire_philosophique" title="Dictionnaire philosophique">Dictionnaire philosophique</a> dealt with Jews or Judaism, describing them in consistently negative ways.<a href="#cite_note-157">[153]</a><a href="#cite_note-158">[154]</a> For example, in Voltaire's A Philosophical Dictionary, he wrote of Jews: "In short, we find in them only an ignorant and barbarous people, who have long united the most sordid avarice with the most detestable superstition and the most invincible hatred for every people by whom they are tolerated and enriched."<a href="#cite_note-:1-159">[155]</a> Telushkin states that Voltaire did not limit his attack to aspects of Judaism that Christianity used as a foundation, repeatedly making it clear that he despised Jews.<a href="#cite_note-Why?-156">[152]</a> On the other hand, <a href="/wiki/Peter_Gay" title="Peter Gay">Peter Gay</a>, a contemporary authority on the Enlightenment,<a href="#cite_note-Why?-156">[152]</a> points to Voltaire's remarks (for instance, that the Jews were more tolerant than the Christians) in the Traité sur la tolérance and surmises that "Voltaire struck at the Jews to strike at Christianity". Whatever anti-semitism Voltaire may have felt, Gay suggests, derived from negative personal experience.<a href="#cite_note-160">[156]</a> <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Hertzberg" title="Arthur Hertzberg">Arthur Hertzberg</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Conservative_Judaism" title="Conservative Judaism">Conservative Rabbi</a>, claims that Gay's second suggestion is untenable, as Voltaire himself denied its validity when he remarked that he had "forgotten about much larger bankruptcies through Christians".[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>]<a href="#cite_note-161">[157]</a> However, Bertram Schwarzbach's far more detailed studies of Voltaire's dealings with Jewish people throughout his life concluded that he was anti-biblical, not anti-semitic. His remarks on the Jews and their "superstitions" were essentially no different from his remarks on Christians.<a href="#cite_note-162">[158]</a> Voltaire said of the Jews that they "have surpassed all nations in impertinent fables, in bad conduct and in barbarism. You deserve to be punished, for this is your destiny."<a href="#cite_note-163">[159]</a><a href="#cite_note-164">[160]</a><a href="#cite_note-165">[161]</a> He further said, "They are, all of them, born with raging fanaticism in their hearts, just as the Bretons and the Germans are born with blond hair. I would not be in the least bit surprised if these people would not some day become deadly to the human race."<a href="#cite_note-166">[162]</a><a href="#cite_note-167">[163]</a><a href="#cite_note-168">[164]</a> Some authors link Voltaire's <a href="/wiki/Anti-Judaism" title="Anti-Judaism">anti-Judaism</a> to his <a href="/wiki/Polygenism" title="Polygenism">polygenism</a>. According to <a href="/wiki/Joxe_Azurmendi" title="Joxe Azurmendi">Joxe Azurmendi</a> this anti-Judaism has a relative importance in Voltaire's philosophy of history. However, Voltaire's anti-Judaism influenced later authors like <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Renan" title="Ernest Renan">Ernest Renan</a>.<a href="#cite_note-169">[165]</a> Voltaire did have a Jewish friend, <a href="/wiki/Daniel_de_Fonseca" title="Daniel de Fonseca">Daniel de Fonseca</a>, whom he esteemed highly, and proclaimed him as "the only philosopher, perhaps, among the Jews of his time".<a href="#cite_note-170">[166]</a> Voltaire condemned the persecution of Jews on several occasions, including in <a href="/wiki/Henriade" title="Henriade">Henriade</a>, and he never advocated violence or attacks against them.<a href="#cite_note-:1-159">[155]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967629-171">[167]</a> According to the historian <a href="/wiki/Will_Durant" title="Will Durant">Will Durant</a>, Voltaire praised the simplicity, sobriety, regularity, and industry of Jews, but subsequently became strongly anti-Semitic after some personal financial transactions and quarrels with Jewish financiers. In his <a href="/wiki/Essai_sur_les_m%C5%93urs_et_l%27esprit_des_nations" title="Essai sur les mœurs et l'esprit des nations">Essai sur les moeurs</a> Voltaire denounced the ancient Hebrews in strong language. The anti-Semitic passages in Voltaire's Dictionnaire philosophique were criticized by <a href="/wiki/Isaac_de_Pinto" title="Isaac de Pinto">Isaac De Pinto</a> in 1762. Subsequently, Voltaire agreed with the criticism of the anti-Semitic passages and stated that De Pinto's letter convinced him that there are "highly intelligent and cultivated people" among the Jews and that he had been "wrong to attribute to a whole nation the vices of some individuals";<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967630-172">[168]</a> he also promised to revise the objectionable passages for forthcoming editions of the Dictionnaire philosophique, but he failed to do so.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967630-172">[168]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Islam">Islam</h3></div> Voltaire's views about Islam were generally negative, and he found its holy book, the <a href="/wiki/Quran" title="Quran">Quran</a>, to be ignorant of the laws of physics.<a href="#cite_note-173">[169]</a> In a 1740 letter to Frederick the Great, Voltaire ascribes to <a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a> a brutality that "is assuredly nothing any man can excuse" and suggests that his following stemmed from <a href="/wiki/Superstition" title="Superstition">superstition</a>; Voltaire continued, "But that a camel-merchant should stir up insurrection in his village; that in league with some miserable followers he persuades them that he talks with the angel <a href="/wiki/Gabriel_in_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Gabriel in Islam">Gabriel</a>; that he boasts of having been carried to heaven, where he received in part this unintelligible book, each page of which makes common sense shudder; that, to pay homage to this book, he delivers his country to iron and flame; that he cuts the throats of fathers and kidnaps daughters; that he gives to the defeated the choice of his religion or death: this is assuredly nothing any man can excuse, at least if he was not born a Turk, or if superstition has not extinguished all natural light in him."<a href="#cite_note-174">[170]</a> In 1748, after having read <a href="/wiki/Henri_de_Boulainvilliers" title="Henri de Boulainvilliers">Henri de Boulainvilliers</a> and <a href="/wiki/George_Sale" title="George Sale">George Sale</a>,<a href="#cite_note-175">[171]</a> he wrote again about Mohammed and Islam in "De l'Alcoran et de Mahomet" ("On the Quran and on Mohammed"). In this essay, Voltaire maintained that Mohammed was a "sublime charlatan".<a href="#cite_note-176">[e]</a> Drawing on complementary information in <a href="/wiki/Barth%C3%A9lemy_d%27Herbelot_de_Molainville" class="mw-redirect" title="Barthélemy d'Herbelot de Molainville">Herbelot</a>'s "Oriental Library", Voltaire, according to <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Pomeau" title="René Pomeau">René Pomeau</a>, adjudged the Quran, with its "contradictions, ... absurdities, ... anachronisms", to be "rhapsody, without connection, without order, and without art".<a href="#cite_note-177">[172]</a><a href="#cite_note-178">[173]</a><a href="#cite_note-179">[174]</a><a href="#cite_note-Pomeau-180">[175]</a> Thus he "henceforward conceded"<a href="#cite_note-Pomeau-180">[175]</a> that "if his book was bad for our times and for us, it was very good for his contemporaries, and his religion even more so. It must be admitted that he removed almost all of Asia from idolatry" and that "it was difficult for such a simple and wise religion, taught by a man who was constantly victorious, could hardly fail to subjugate a portion of the earth." He considered that "its civil laws are good; its dogma is admirable which it has in common with ours" but that "his means are shocking; <a href="/wiki/Deception_in_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Deception in Islam">deception</a> and murder".<a href="#cite_note-181">[176]</a> In his <a href="/wiki/Essai_sur_les_m%C5%93urs_et_l%27esprit_des_nations" title="Essai sur les mœurs et l'esprit des nations">Essay on the Manners and Spirit of Nations</a> (published 1756), Voltaire deals with the history of Europe before Charlemagne to the dawn of the age of Louis XIV, and that of the colonies and the East. As a historian, he devoted several chapters to Islam,<a href="#cite_note-182">[177]</a><a href="#cite_note-183">[178]</a><a href="#cite_note-184">[179]</a> Voltaire highlighted the Arabian, Turkish courts, and conducts.<a href="#cite_note-Pomeau-180">[175]</a><a href="#cite_note-books.google.com-185">[180]</a><a href="#cite_note-186">[181]</a> Here he called Mohammed a "poet", and stated that he was not an illiterate.<a href="#cite_note-187">[182]</a> As a "legislator", he "changed the face of part of Europe [and] one half of Asia."<a href="#cite_note-188">[183]</a><a href="#cite_note-189">[184]</a><a href="#cite_note-190">[185]</a> In chapter VI, Voltaire finds similarities between Arabs and ancient Hebrews, that they both kept running to battle in the name of God, and sharing a passion for the spoils of war.<a href="#cite_note-191">[186]</a> Voltaire continues that, "It is to be believed that Mohammed, like all enthusiasts, violently struck by his ideas, first presented them in good faith, strengthened them with fantasy, fooled himself in fooling others, and supported through necessary deceptions a doctrine which he considered good."<a href="#cite_note-192">[187]</a><a href="#cite_note-193">[188]</a> He thus compares "the genius of the Arab people" with "the genius of the ancient Romans".<a href="#cite_note-194">[189]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Malise_Ruthven" title="Malise Ruthven">Malise Ruthven</a>, as Voltaire learned more about Islam his opinion of the faith became more positive.<a href="#cite_note-195">[190]</a> As a result, his play <a href="/wiki/Mahomet_(play)" title="Mahomet (play)">Mahomet</a> inspired <a href="/wiki/Johann_Wolfgang_von_Goethe" title="Johann Wolfgang von Goethe">Goethe</a>, who was attracted to Islam, to write a drama on this theme, though he completed only the poem "Mahomets-Gesang" ("Mahomet's Singing").<a href="#cite_note-196">[191]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Drama_Mahomet">Drama Mahomet</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Mahomet_(play)" title="Mahomet (play)">Mahomet (play)</a></div> The tragedy Fanaticism, or Mahomet the Prophet (French: Le fanatisme, ou Mahomet le Prophete) was written in 1736 by Voltaire. The play is a study of <a href="/wiki/Religious_fanaticism" title="Religious fanaticism">religious fanaticism</a> and self-serving <a href="/wiki/Psychological_manipulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychological manipulation">manipulation</a>. The character Muhammad orders the murder of his critics.<a href="#cite_note-197">[192]</a> Voltaire described the play as "written in opposition to the founder of a false and barbarous sect."<a href="#cite_note-198">[193]</a> Voltaire described Muhammad as an "impostor", a "false prophet", a "fanatic" and a "hypocrite".<a href="#cite_note-199">[194]</a><a href="#cite_note-200">[195]</a> Defending the play, Voltaire said that he "tried to show in it into what horrible excesses fanaticism, led by an impostor, can plunge weak minds".<a href="#cite_note-201">[196]</a> When Voltaire wrote in 1742 to <a href="/wiki/C%C3%A9sar_de_Missy" title="César de Missy">César de Missy</a>, he described Muhammad as deceitful.<a href="#cite_note-202">[197]</a><a href="#cite_note-203">[198]</a> In his play, Muhammad is "whatever trickery can invent that is most atrocious and whatever fanaticism can accomplish that is most horrifying. Mahomet here is nothing other than <a href="/wiki/Tartuffe" title="Tartuffe">Tartuffe</a> with armies at his command."<a href="#cite_note-204">[199]</a><a href="#cite_note-205">[200]</a> After later having judged that he had made Muhammad in his play "somewhat nastier than he really was",<a href="#cite_note-206">[201]</a> Voltaire claimed that Muhammad stole the idea of an angel weighing both men and women from Zoroastrians, who are often referred to as "<a href="/wiki/Magi" title="Magi">Magi</a>". Voltaire continued about Islam, saying: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Nothing is more terrible than a people who, having nothing to lose, fight in the united spirit of rapine and of religion.<a href="#cite_note-207">[202]</a></blockquote> In a 1745 letter recommending the play to <a href="/wiki/Pope_Benedict_XIV" title="Pope Benedict XIV">Pope Benedict XIV</a>, Voltaire described Muhammad as "the founder of a false and barbarous sect" and "a false prophet". Voltaire wrote: "Your holiness will pardon the liberty taken by one of the lowest of the faithful, though a zealous admirer of virtue, of submitting to the head of the true religion this performance, written in opposition to the founder of a false and barbarous sect. To whom could I with more propriety inscribe a satire on the cruelty and errors of a false prophet, than to the vicar and representative of a God of truth and mercy?"<a href="#cite_note-208">[203]</a><a href="#cite_note-209">[204]</a> His view was modified slightly for Essai sur les Moeurs et l'Esprit des Nations, although it remained negative.<a href="#cite_note-Ruthven-139">[135]</a><a href="#cite_note-210">[205]</a><a href="#cite_note-211">[206]</a><a href="#cite_note-212">[207]</a> In 1751, Voltaire performed his play Mohamet once again, with great success.<a href="#cite_note-213">[208]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hinduism">Hinduism</h3></div> Commenting on the sacred texts of the Hindus, the <a href="/wiki/Vedas" title="Vedas">Vedas</a>, Voltaire observed: <blockquote>The Veda was the most precious gift for which the West had ever been indebted to the East.<a href="#cite_note-214">[209]</a></blockquote> He regarded Hindus as "a peaceful and innocent people, equally incapable of hurting others or of defending themselves."<a href="#cite_note-215">[210]</a> Voltaire was himself a supporter of <a href="/wiki/Animal_rights" title="Animal rights">animal rights</a> and was a vegetarian.<a href="#cite_note-216">[211]</a> He used the antiquity of Hinduism to land what he saw as a devastating blow to the Bible's claims and acknowledged that the Hindus' treatment of animals showed a shaming alternative to the immorality of European imperialists.<a href="#cite_note-217">[212]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Confucianism">Confucianism</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:LifeAndWorksOfConfucius1687.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/LifeAndWorksOfConfucius1687.jpg/220px-LifeAndWorksOfConfucius1687.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="178" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/LifeAndWorksOfConfucius1687.jpg/330px-LifeAndWorksOfConfucius1687.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/LifeAndWorksOfConfucius1687.jpg/440px-LifeAndWorksOfConfucius1687.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3240" /></a><figcaption>Life and Works of Confucius, by <a href="/wiki/Prospero_Intorcetta" title="Prospero Intorcetta">Prospero Intorcetta</a>, 1687</figcaption></figure> Works attributed to <a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a> were translated into European languages through the agency of <a href="/wiki/Jesuit_China_missions" class="mw-redirect" title="Jesuit China missions">Jesuit missionaries stationed in China</a>.<a href="#cite_note-218">[f]</a> <a href="/wiki/Matteo_Ricci" title="Matteo Ricci">Matteo Ricci</a> was among the earliest to report on the teachings of Confucius, and father <a href="/wiki/Prospero_Intorcetta" title="Prospero Intorcetta">Prospero Intorcetta</a> wrote about the life and works of Confucius in <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> in 1687.<a href="#cite_note-Windows_into_China-219">[213]</a> Translations of <a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucian texts</a> influenced European thinkers of the period,<a href="#cite_note-Mungello-220">[214]</a> particularly among the Deists and other philosophical groups of the Enlightenment who hoped to improve European morals and institutions by the serene doctrines of the East.<a href="#cite_note-Windows_into_China-219">[213]</a><a href="#cite_note-221">[215]</a> Voltaire shared these hopes,<a href="#cite_note-222">[216]</a><a href="#cite_note-223">[217]</a> seeing Confucian rationalism as an alternative to Christian dogma.<a href="#cite_note-epc-224">[218]</a> He praised <a href="/wiki/Confucian_ethics" class="mw-redirect" title="Confucian ethics">Confucian ethics</a> and politics, portraying the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_society" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese society">sociopolitical hierarchy of China</a> as a model for Europe.<a href="#cite_note-epc-224">[218]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Confucius has no interest in falsehood; he did not pretend to be prophet; he claimed no inspiration; he taught no new religion; he used no delusions; flattered not the emperor under whom he lived...<div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Voltaire<a href="#cite_note-epc-224">[218]</a></cite></div></blockquote> With the translation of Confucian texts during the Enlightenment, the concept of a <a href="/wiki/Meritocracy" title="Meritocracy">meritocracy</a> reached intellectuals in the West, who saw it as an alternative to the traditional <a href="/wiki/Ancien_R%C3%A9gime" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancien Régime">Ancien Régime</a> of Europe.<a href="#cite_note-EE-225">[219]</a> Voltaire wrote favourably of the idea, claiming that the Chinese had "perfected moral science" and advocating an economic and political system after the Chinese model.<a href="#cite_note-EE-225">[219]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Views_on_race_and_slavery">Views on race and slavery</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Moreau_Sucre_crop.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Moreau_Sucre_crop.jpg/220px-Moreau_Sucre_crop.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="207" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Moreau_Sucre_crop.jpg/330px-Moreau_Sucre_crop.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Moreau_Sucre_crop.jpg/440px-Moreau_Sucre_crop.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1141" data-file-height="1075" /></a><figcaption>An illustration of a scene from <a href="/wiki/Candide" title="Candide">Candide</a> where the protagonist encounters a slave in <a href="/wiki/French_Guiana" title="French Guiana">French Guiana</a></figcaption></figure> Voltaire rejected the biblical <a href="/wiki/Adam_and_Eve" title="Adam and Eve">Adam and Eve</a> story and was a <a href="/wiki/Polygenism" title="Polygenism">polygenist</a> who speculated that each race had entirely separate origins.<a href="#cite_note-226">[220]</a><a href="#cite_note-227">[221]</a> According to William Cohen, like most other polygenists, Voltaire believed that because of their different origins, Black Africans did not entirely share the natural humanity of white Europeans.<a href="#cite_note-Cohen_2003_86-228">[222]</a> According to David Allen Harvey, Voltaire often invoked racial differences as a means to attack religious orthodoxy, and the Biblical account of creation.<a href="#cite_note-229">[223]</a> Other historians, instead, have suggested that Voltaire's support for polygenism was more heavily encouraged by his investments in the French <a href="/wiki/French_East_India_Company" title="French East India Company">Compagnie des Indes</a> and other colonial enterprises that engaged in the slave trade.<a href="#cite_note-230">[224]</a><a href="#cite_note-231">[225]</a><a href="#cite_note-232">[226]</a> His most famous remark on slavery is found in Candide, where the hero is horrified to learn "at what price we eat sugar in Europe" after coming across a slave in <a href="/wiki/French_Guiana" title="French Guiana">French Guiana</a> who has been mutilated for escaping, who opines that, if all human beings have common origins as the Bible taught, it makes them cousins, concluding that "no one could treat their relatives more horribly". Elsewhere, he wrote caustically about "whites and Christians [who] proceed to purchase negroes cheaply, in order to sell them dear in America". Voltaire has been accused of supporting the slave trade as per a letter attributed to him,<a href="#cite_note-233">[227]</a><a href="#cite_note-234">[228]</a><a href="#cite_note-235">[229]</a> although it has been suggested that this letter is a forgery "since no satisfying source attests to the letter's existence."<a href="#cite_note-236">[230]</a> In his <a href="/wiki/Dictionnaire_philosophique" title="Dictionnaire philosophique">Philosophical Dictionary</a>, Voltaire endorses <a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a>'s criticism of the slave trade: "Montesquieu was almost always in error with the learned, because he was not learned, but he was almost always right against the fanatics and the promoters of slavery."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1980358-237">[231]</a> <a href="/wiki/Zeev_Sternhell" title="Zeev Sternhell">Zeev Sternhell</a> argues that despite his shortcomings, Voltaire was a forerunner of liberal <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/pluralism" class="extiw" title="wikt:pluralism">pluralism</a> in his approach to history and non-European cultures.<a href="#cite_note-:0-238">[232]</a> Voltaire wrote, "We have slandered the Chinese because their metaphysics is not the same as ours ... This great misunderstanding about Chinese rituals has come about because we have judged their usages by ours, for we carry the prejudices of our contentious spirit to the end of the world."<a href="#cite_note-:0-238">[232]</a> In speaking of Persia, he condemned Europe's "ignorant audacity" and "ignorant credulity". When writing about India, he declares, "It is time for us to give up the shameful habit of slandering all sects and insulting all nations!"<a href="#cite_note-:0-238">[232]</a> In Essai sur les mœurs et l'esprit des nations, he defended the integrity of the Native Americans and wrote favorably of the Inca Empire.<a href="#cite_note-239">[233]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Appreciation_and_influence">Appreciation and influence</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nicolas_de_Largilli%C3%A8re,_Fran%C3%A7ois-Marie_Arouet_dit_Voltaire_adjusted.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Nicolas_de_Largilli%C3%A8re%2C_Fran%C3%A7ois-Marie_Arouet_dit_Voltaire_adjusted.png/220px-Nicolas_de_Largilli%C3%A8re%2C_Fran%C3%A7ois-Marie_Arouet_dit_Voltaire_adjusted.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="276" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Nicolas_de_Largilli%C3%A8re%2C_Fran%C3%A7ois-Marie_Arouet_dit_Voltaire_adjusted.png/330px-Nicolas_de_Largilli%C3%A8re%2C_Fran%C3%A7ois-Marie_Arouet_dit_Voltaire_adjusted.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Nicolas_de_Largilli%C3%A8re%2C_Fran%C3%A7ois-Marie_Arouet_dit_Voltaire_adjusted.png/440px-Nicolas_de_Largilli%C3%A8re%2C_Fran%C3%A7ois-Marie_Arouet_dit_Voltaire_adjusted.png 2x" data-file-width="1250" data-file-height="1570" /></a><figcaption>Portrait of Voltaire in the <a href="/wiki/Palace_of_Versailles" title="Palace of Versailles">Palace of Versailles</a>, 1724-1725</figcaption></figure> According to <a href="/wiki/Victor_Hugo" title="Victor Hugo">Victor Hugo</a>: "To name Voltaire is to characterize the entire eighteenth century."<a href="#cite_note-Will_Durant_1933_259-240">[234]</a> Goethe regarded Voltaire as the greatest literary figure of modern times, and possibly of all time.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967881-241">[235]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Denis_Diderot" title="Denis Diderot">Diderot</a>, Voltaire's influence would extend far into the future.<a href="#cite_note-Besterman_1969_11-242">[236]</a><a href="#cite_note-243">[g]</a> <a href="/wiki/Napoleon" title="Napoleon">Napoleon</a> commented that till he was sixteen he "would have fought for <a href="/wiki/Rousseau" class="mw-redirect" title="Rousseau">Rousseau</a> against the friends of Voltaire, today it is the opposite ... The more I read Voltaire the more I love him. He is a man always reasonable, never a charlatan, never a fanatic"<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967880-244">[237]</a> (though he later criticized Voltaire's work <a href="/wiki/Mahomet_(play)" title="Mahomet (play)">Mahomet</a> during his captivity on <a href="/wiki/Saint_Helena" title="Saint Helena">Saint Helena</a>).<a href="#cite_note-245">[238]</a> Frederick the Great commented on his good fortune for having lived in the age of Voltaire, and corresponded with him throughout his reign until Voltaire's death.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967139-246">[239]</a> On 12 May 1760, Frederick wrote: "For my part I shall go to Hades and tell Virgil that a Frenchman has surpassed him in his own art. I shall say as much to Sophocles and Euripides; I shall speak to Thucydides of your histories, to Quintus Curtius of your Charles XII; and perhaps I shall be stoned by these jealous dead because a single man has united all their different merits in himself."<a href="#cite_note-247">[240]</a> In England, Voltaire's views influenced <a href="/wiki/William_Godwin" title="William Godwin">Godwin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Paine" title="Thomas Paine">Paine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mary_Wollstonecraft" title="Mary Wollstonecraft">Mary Wollstonecraft</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lord_Byron" title="Lord Byron">Byron</a> and <a href="/wiki/Percy_Bysshe_Shelley" title="Percy Bysshe Shelley">Shelley</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967881-241">[235]</a> <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Babington_Macaulay,_1st_Baron_Macaulay" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas Babington Macaulay, 1st Baron Macaulay">Macaulay</a> made note of the fear that Voltaire's very name incited in tyrants and fanatics.<a href="#cite_note-Wheeler_and_Foote_69-248">[241]</a><a href="#cite_note-249">[h]</a> In Russia, Catherine the Great had been reading Voltaire for sixteen years prior to becoming Empress in 1762.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967139-246">[239]</a><a href="#cite_note-250">[242]</a> In October 1763, she began a correspondence with the philosopher that continued till his death. The content of these letters has been described as being akin to a student writing to a teacher.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967139–40-251">[243]</a> Upon Voltaire's death, the Empress purchased his library, which was then transported and placed in <a href="/wiki/Hermitage_Museum" title="Hermitage Museum">The Hermitage</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967879-252">[244]</a> <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Herzen" title="Alexander Herzen">Alexander Herzen</a> remarked that "The writings of the egoist Voltaire did more for liberation than those of the loving Rousseau did for brotherhood."<a href="#cite_note-253">[245]</a> In his famous letter to <a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Gogol" title="Nikolai Gogol">N. V. Gogol</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vissarion_Belinsky" title="Vissarion Belinsky">Vissarion Belinsky</a> wrote that Voltaire "stamped out the fires of fanaticism and ignorance in Europe by ridicule."<a href="#cite_note-254">[246]</a> In his native Paris, Voltaire was remembered as the defender of Jean Calas and <a href="/wiki/Pierre-Paul_Sirven" title="Pierre-Paul Sirven">Pierre Sirven</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967881-241">[235]</a> Although Voltaire's campaign had failed to secure the annulment of <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois-Jean_de_la_Barre" title="François-Jean de la Barre">la Barre</a>'s execution for blasphemy against Christianity, the criminal code that sanctioned the execution was revised during Voltaire's lifetime.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1980734–36-255">[247]</a> In 1764, Voltaire successfully intervened and secured the release of Claude Chamont, arrested for attending <a href="/wiki/Protestant" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant">Protestant</a> services. When <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Arthur,_comte_de_Lally" title="Thomas Arthur, comte de Lally">Comte de Lally</a> was executed for treason in 1766, Voltaire wrote a 300-page document in his defense. Subsequently, in 1778, the judgment against de Lally was expunged just before Voltaire's death. The Genevan Protestant minister Pomaret once said to Voltaire, "You seem to attack Christianity, and yet you do the work of a Christian."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1980736-256">[248]</a> Frederick the Great noted the significance of a philosopher capable of influencing judges to change their unjust decisions, commenting that this alone is sufficient to ensure the prominence of Voltaire as a humanitarian.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1980736-256">[248]</a> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Les_salons_au_XVIIIe_si%C3%A8cle_-_Histoire_Image.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Les_salons_au_XVIIIe_si%C3%A8cle_-_Histoire_Image.jpg/250px-Les_salons_au_XVIIIe_si%C3%A8cle_-_Histoire_Image.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Les_salons_au_XVIIIe_si%C3%A8cle_-_Histoire_Image.jpg/375px-Les_salons_au_XVIIIe_si%C3%A8cle_-_Histoire_Image.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Les_salons_au_XVIIIe_si%C3%A8cle_-_Histoire_Image.jpg/500px-Les_salons_au_XVIIIe_si%C3%A8cle_-_Histoire_Image.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1400" data-file-height="923" /></a><figcaption>A reading of a work by Voltaire in the <a href="/wiki/Salon_(France)" title="Salon (France)">salon</a> of <a href="/wiki/Marie_Th%C3%A9r%C3%A8se_Geoffrin" title="Marie Thérèse Geoffrin">Madame Geoffrin</a>, 1755</figcaption></figure> Under the <a href="/wiki/French_Third_Republic" title="French Third Republic">French Third Republic</a>, anarchists and socialists often invoked Voltaire's writings in their struggles against militarism, nationalism, and the Catholic Church.<a href="#cite_note-257">[249]</a> The section condemning the futility and imbecility of war in the Dictionnaire philosophique was a frequent favorite, as were his arguments that nations can only grow at the expense of others.<a href="#cite_note-258">[250]</a> Following the <a href="/wiki/Liberation_of_France" title="Liberation of France">liberation of France</a> from the Vichy regime in 1944, Voltaire's 250th birthday was celebrated in both France and the Soviet Union, honoring him as "one of the most feared opponents" of the Nazi collaborators and someone "whose name symbolizes freedom of thought, and hatred of prejudice, superstition, and injustice."<a href="#cite_note-259">[251]</a> <a href="/wiki/Jorge_Luis_Borges" title="Jorge Luis Borges">Jorge Luis Borges</a> stated that "not to admire Voltaire is one of the many forms of stupidity" and included his short fiction such as <a href="/wiki/Microm%C3%A9gas" title="Micromégas">Micromégas</a> in "The Library of Babel" and "A Personal Library."<a href="#cite_note-260">[252]</a> <a href="/wiki/Gustave_Flaubert" title="Gustave Flaubert">Gustave Flaubert</a> believed that France had erred gravely by not following the path forged by Voltaire instead of Rousseau.<a href="#cite_note-261">[253]</a> Most architects of modern America were adherents of Voltaire's views.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967881-241">[235]</a> According to Will Durant:<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Italy had a <a href="/wiki/The_Renaissance" class="mw-redirect" title="The Renaissance">Renaissance</a>, and Germany had a <a href="/wiki/Protestant_Reformation" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant Reformation">Reformation</a>, but France had Voltaire; he was for his country both Renaissance and Reformation, and half the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">Revolution</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Will_Durant_1933_259-240">[234]</a> He was first and best in his time in his conception and writing of history, in the grace of his poetry, in the charm and wit of his prose, in the range of his thought and his influence. His spirit moved like a flame over the continent and the century, and stirs a million souls in every generation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1980753-262">[254]</a></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Voltaire_and_Rousseau">Voltaire and Rousseau</h2></div> Voltaire's junior contemporary Jean-Jacques Rousseau commented on how Voltaire's book <a href="/wiki/Letters_on_the_English" title="Letters on the English">Letters on the English</a> played a great role in his intellectual development.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1980370-263">[255]</a> Having written some literary works and also some music, in December 1745 Rousseau wrote a letter introducing himself to Voltaire, who was by then the most prominent literary figure in France, to which Voltaire replied with a polite response. Subsequently, when Rousseau sent Voltaire a copy of his book <a href="/wiki/Discourse_on_Inequality" title="Discourse on Inequality">Discourse on Inequality</a>, Voltaire replied, noting his disagreement with the views expressed in the book: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">No one has ever employed so much intellect to persuade men to be beasts. In reading your work one is seized with a desire to walk on all fours [marcher à quatre pattes]. However, as it is more than sixty years since I lost that habit, I feel, unfortunately, that it is impossible for me to resume it.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant196731-264">[256]</a></blockquote> Subsequently, commenting on Rousseau's romantic novel <a href="/wiki/Julie,_or_the_New_Heloise" class="mw-redirect" title="Julie, or the New Heloise">Julie, or the New Heloise</a>, Voltaire stated: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">No more about Jean-Jacques' romance if you please. I have read it, to my sorrow, and it would be to his if I had time to say what I think of this silly book.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967170-265">[257]</a></blockquote> Voltaire quipped that the first half of Julie had been written in a brothel and the second half in a lunatic asylum.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967149-266">[258]</a> In his Lettres sur La Nouvelle Heloise, written under a pseudonym, Voltaire criticized Rousseau's grammatical mistakes: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Paris recognized Voltaire's hand and judged the patriarch to be bitten by jealousy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967170-265">[257]</a></blockquote> In reviewing Rousseau's book <a href="/wiki/Emile,_or_On_Education" title="Emile, or On Education">Emile</a>, Voltaire dismissed it as "a hodgepodge of a silly wet nurse in four volumes, with forty pages against Christianity, among the boldest ever known." He expressed admiration for the section titled Profession of Faith of the Savoyard Vicar, calling it "fifty good pages ... it is regrettable that they should have been written by ... such a knave."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967190–91-267">[259]</a> He went on to predict that Emile would be forgotten within a month.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967149-266">[258]</a> In 1764, Rousseau published Lettres de la montagne on religion and politics. In the fifth letter he wondered why Voltaire had not been able to imbue the Genevan councilors, who frequently met him, "with that spirit of tolerance which he preaches without cease, and of which he sometimes has need". The letter continued with an imaginary speech in the voice of Voltaire, acknowledging authorship of the heretical book Sermon of the Fifty, which the real Voltaire had repeatedly denied.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967197–99-268">[260]</a> In 1772, when a priest sent Rousseau a pamphlet denouncing Voltaire, Rousseau responded by defending his rival: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">He has said and done so many good things that we should draw the curtain over his irregularities.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967197–99-268">[260]</a></blockquote> In 1778, when Voltaire was given unprecedented honors at the <a href="/wiki/Com%C3%A9die-Fran%C3%A7aise" title="Comédie-Française">Théâtre-Français</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967877–78-269">[261]</a> an acquaintance of Rousseau ridiculed the event. This was met by a sharp retort from Rousseau: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">How dare you mock the honors rendered to Voltaire in the temple of which he is the god, and by the priests who for fifty years have been living off his masterpieces?<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967886-270">[262]</a></blockquote> On 2 July 1778, Rousseau died one month after Voltaire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967879,_886-271">[263]</a> In October 1794, Rousseau's remains were moved to the Panthéon near the remains of Voltaire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967887-272">[264]</a><a href="#cite_note-273">[i]</a> <a href="/wiki/Louis_XVI_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis XVI of France">Louis XVI</a>, while incarcerated in the <a href="/wiki/Temple_(Paris)" class="mw-redirect" title="Temple (Paris)">Temple</a>, lamented that Rousseau and Voltaire had "destroyed France".<a href="#cite_note-274">[265]</a><a href="#cite_note-276">[j]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legacy">Legacy</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Voltaire_by_Jean-Antoine_Houdon_(1778)_-_Stierch.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Voltaire_by_Jean-Antoine_Houdon_%281778%29_-_Stierch.jpg/220px-Voltaire_by_Jean-Antoine_Houdon_%281778%29_-_Stierch.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="396" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Voltaire_by_Jean-Antoine_Houdon_%281778%29_-_Stierch.jpg/330px-Voltaire_by_Jean-Antoine_Houdon_%281778%29_-_Stierch.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Voltaire_by_Jean-Antoine_Houdon_%281778%29_-_Stierch.jpg/440px-Voltaire_by_Jean-Antoine_Houdon_%281778%29_-_Stierch.jpg 2x" data-file-width="552" data-file-height="993" /></a><figcaption>Voltaire, by <a href="/wiki/Jean-Antoine_Houdon" title="Jean-Antoine Houdon">Jean-Antoine Houdon</a>, 1778 (<a href="/wiki/National_Gallery_of_Art" title="National Gallery of Art">National Gallery of Art</a>)</figcaption></figure> Voltaire perceived the French <a href="/wiki/Bourgeoisie" title="Bourgeoisie">bourgeoisie</a> to be too small and ineffective, the <a href="/wiki/Aristocracy" title="Aristocracy">aristocracy</a> to be parasitic and corrupt, the commoners as ignorant and superstitious, and the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Church</a> as a static and oppressive force useful only on occasion as a counterbalance to the rapacity of kings, although all too often, even more rapacious itself. Voltaire distrusted democracy, which he saw as propagating the idiocy of the masses.<a href="#cite_note-277">[267]</a> Voltaire long thought only an enlightened monarch could bring about change, given the social structures of the time and the extremely high rates of illiteracy, and that it was in the king's rational interest to improve the education and welfare of his subjects. But his disappointments and disillusions with Frederick the Great changed his philosophy somewhat, and soon gave birth to one of his most enduring works, his novella <a href="/wiki/Candide,_ou_l%27Optimisme" class="mw-redirect" title="Candide, ou l'Optimisme">Candide, ou l'Optimisme</a> (Candide, or Optimism, 1759), which ends with a new conclusion of <a href="/wiki/Quietism_(philosophy)" title="Quietism (philosophy)">quietism</a>: "It is up to us to cultivate our garden." His most polemical and ferocious attacks on intolerance and religious persecutions indeed began to appear a few years later. Candide was also burned, and Voltaire jokingly claimed the actual author was a certain 'Demad' in a letter, where he reaffirmed the main polemical stances of the text.<a href="#cite_note-278">[268]</a> He is remembered and honored in France as a courageous polemicist who indefatigably fought for <a href="/wiki/Civil_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil rights">civil rights</a> (such as the <a href="/wiki/Right_to_a_fair_trial" title="Right to a fair trial">right to a fair trial</a> and <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion" title="Freedom of religion">freedom of religion</a>) and who denounced the hypocrisies and injustices of the <a href="/wiki/Ancien_R%C3%A9gime" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancien Régime">Ancien Régime</a>. The Ancien Régime involved an unfair balance of power and taxes between the three <a href="/wiki/Estates_General_(France)" title="Estates General (France)">Estates</a>: clergy and nobles on one side, the commoners and middle class, who were burdened with most of the taxes, on the other. He particularly had admiration for the ethics and government as exemplified by the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese philosopher</a> <a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a>.<a href="#cite_note-liu53-279">[269]</a> Voltaire is also known for many memorable aphorisms, such as "Si Dieu n'existait pas, il faudrait l'inventer" ("If God did not exist, it would be necessary to invent him"), contained in a verse epistle from 1768, addressed to the anonymous author of a controversial work on <a href="/wiki/Treatise_of_the_Three_Impostors" title="Treatise of the Three Impostors">The Three Impostors</a>. But far from being the cynical remark it is often taken for, it was meant as a retort to atheistic opponents such as <a href="/wiki/D%27Holbach" class="mw-redirect" title="D'Holbach">d'Holbach</a>, <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Melchior,_Baron_von_Grimm" title="Friedrich Melchior, Baron von Grimm">Grimm</a>, and others.<a href="#cite_note-280">[270]</a> He has had his detractors among his later colleagues. The Scottish Victorian writer <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Thomas Carlyle</a> argued that "Voltaire read history, not with the eye of devout seer or even critic, but through a pair of mere anti-catholic spectacles."<a href="#cite_note-281">[271]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Statue_Voltaire_Ferney_Voltaire_8.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Statue_Voltaire_Ferney_Voltaire_8.jpg/220px-Statue_Voltaire_Ferney_Voltaire_8.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Statue_Voltaire_Ferney_Voltaire_8.jpg/330px-Statue_Voltaire_Ferney_Voltaire_8.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Statue_Voltaire_Ferney_Voltaire_8.jpg/440px-Statue_Voltaire_Ferney_Voltaire_8.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3024" data-file-height="4032" /></a><figcaption>Statue of Voltaire in Ferney</figcaption></figure> The town of Ferney, where Voltaire lived out the last 20 years of his life, was officially named <a href="/wiki/Ferney-Voltaire" title="Ferney-Voltaire">Ferney-Voltaire</a> in honor of its most famous resident, in 1878.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPearson2005430-282">[272]</a> His <a href="/wiki/Ch%C3%A2teau" title="Château">château</a> is a museum. Voltaire's library is preserved intact in the <a href="/wiki/National_Library_of_Russia" title="National Library of Russia">National Library of Russia</a> at <a href="/wiki/Saint_Petersburg" title="Saint Petersburg">Saint Petersburg</a>. In the Zürich of 1916, the theatre and performance group who would become the early avant-garde <a href="/wiki/Dada" title="Dada">Dada</a> movement named their theater the <a href="/wiki/Cabaret_Voltaire_(Z%C3%BCrich)" title="Cabaret Voltaire (Zürich)">Cabaret Voltaire</a>. A late-20th-century <a href="/wiki/Industrial_music" title="Industrial music">industrial music</a> group later adopted the <a href="/wiki/Cabaret_Voltaire_(band)" title="Cabaret Voltaire (band)">same name</a>. Astronomers have bestowed his name on the <a href="/wiki/Voltaire_(crater)" title="Voltaire (crater)">Voltaire crater</a> on <a href="/wiki/Deimos_(moon)" title="Deimos (moon)">Deimos</a> and the asteroid <a href="/wiki/5676_Voltaire" class="mw-redirect" title="5676 Voltaire">5676 Voltaire</a>.<a href="#cite_note-283">[273]</a> Voltaire was also known to have been an advocate for coffee, drinking it at every turn: fifty times a day, according to Frederick the Great; three times a day, said Wagniere.<a href="#cite_note-284">[274]</a> It has been suggested that high amounts of caffeine stimulated his creativity.<a href="#cite_note-285">[275]</a> His great-grandniece was the mother of <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Teilhard_de_Chardin" title="Pierre Teilhard de Chardin">Pierre Teilhard de Chardin</a>, a Catholic philosopher and Jesuit priest.<a href="#cite_note-286">[276]</a><a href="#cite_note-287">[277]</a> His book <a href="/wiki/Candide" title="Candide">Candide</a> was listed as one of <a href="/wiki/The_100_Most_Influential_Books_Ever_Written" title="The 100 Most Influential Books Ever Written">The 100 Most Influential Books Ever Written</a>, by <a href="/wiki/Martin_Seymour-Smith" title="Martin Seymour-Smith">Martin Seymour-Smith</a>. In the 1950s, the <a href="/wiki/Bibliography" title="Bibliography">bibliographer</a> and translator <a href="/wiki/Theodore_Besterman" title="Theodore Besterman">Theodore Besterman</a> started to collect, transcribe and publish all of Voltaire's writings.<a href="#cite_note-besterman-288">[278]</a> He founded <a href="/wiki/Institut_et_Mus%C3%A9e_Voltaire" title="Institut et Musée Voltaire">the Voltaire Institute and Museum</a> in Geneva where he began publishing collected volumes of Voltaire's correspondence.<a href="#cite_note-besterman-288">[278]</a> On his death in 1976, he left his collection to the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Oxford" title="University of Oxford">University of Oxford</a>, where the <a href="/wiki/Voltaire_Foundation" title="Voltaire Foundation">Voltaire Foundation</a> became established as a department.<a href="#cite_note-289">[279]</a><a href="#cite_note-rddm-290">[280]</a> The Foundation has published the <a href="/wiki/Complete_Works_of_Voltaire" title="Complete Works of Voltaire">Complete Works of Voltaire</a>, a chronological series in 205 volumes completed in 2022, more than fifty years after the first volume appeared.<a href="#cite_note-rddm-290">[280]</a><a href="#cite_note-291">[281]</a><a href="#cite_note-292">[282]</a> It also publishes the series <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Studies_in_the_Enlightenment" title="Oxford University Studies in the Enlightenment">Oxford University Studies in the Enlightenment</a>, begun by Bestermann as Studies on Voltaire and the Eighteenth Century, which has reached more than 500 volumes.<a href="#cite_note-rddm-290">[280]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Works">Works</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Non-fiction">Non-fiction</h3></div> <ul><li>Letters on the Quakers (1727)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Letters_on_the_English" title="Letters on the English">Letters concerning the English nation</a> (London, 1733) (French version entitled Lettres philosophiques sur les Anglais, Rouen, 1734), revised as <a href="/wiki/Letters_on_the_English" title="Letters on the English">Letters on the English</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1778)</li> <li>Sept Discours en Vers sur l'Homme (1738)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elements_of_the_Philosophy_of_Newton" title="Elements of the Philosophy of Newton">The Elements of Sir Isaac Newton's Philosophy</a> (1738; 2nd expanded ed. 1745)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dictionnaire_philosophique" title="Dictionnaire philosophique">Dictionnaire philosophique</a> (1752)</li> <li>The Sermon of the Fifty (1759)</li> <li>The Calas Affair: A Treatise on Tolerance (1762)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treatise_on_Tolerance" title="Treatise on Tolerance">Traité sur la tolérance</a> (1763)</li> <li>Ce qui plaît aux dames (1764)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Id%C3%A9es_r%C3%A9publicaines" title="Idées républicaines">Idées républicaines</a> (1765)</li> <li>La Philosophie de l'histoire (1765)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Questions_sur_les_Miracles" title="Questions sur les Miracles">Questions sur les Miracles</a> (1765)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Des_singularit%C3%A9s_de_la_nature" title="Des singularités de la nature">Des singularités de la nature</a> (1768)</li> <li>Questions sur l'Encyclopédie (1770–1774)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Les_Dialogues_d%E2%80%99Evh%C3%A9m%C3%A8re" class="mw-redirect" title="Les Dialogues d’Evhémère">Les Dialogues d’Evhémère</a> (1777)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="History_2">History</h4></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Charles_XII" title="History of Charles XII">History of Charles XII</a>, King of Sweden (1731)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Age_of_Louis_XIV" title="The Age of Louis XIV">The Age of Louis XIV</a> (1751)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pr%C3%A9cis_du_si%C3%A8cle_de_Louis_XV" title="Précis du siècle de Louis XV">The Age of Louis XV</a> (1746–1752; published separately 1768)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annals_of_the_Empire" title="Annals of the Empire">Annals of the Empire</a> – Charlemagne, AD 742 – Henry VII 1313, Vol. I (1754)</li> <li>Annals of the Empire – Louis of Bavaria, 1315 to Ferdinand II 1631 Vol. II (1754)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Essai_sur_les_m%C5%93urs_et_l%27esprit_des_nations" title="Essai sur les mœurs et l'esprit des nations">Essay on Universal History, the Manners, and Spirit of Nations</a> (1756)</li> <li>History of the Russian Empire Under <a href="/wiki/Peter_the_Great" title="Peter the Great">Peter the Great</a> (Vol. I 1759; Vol. II 1763)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Novellas">Novellas</h3></div> <ul><li>The One-eyed Street Porter, Cosi-sancta (1715)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microm%C3%A9gas" title="Micromégas">Micromégas</a> (1738)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zadig" title="Zadig">Zadig, or Destiny</a> (1747)</li> <li>The World as It Goes (1750)</li> <li>Memnon (1750)</li> <li>Bababec and the Fakirs (1750)</li> <li>Timon (1755)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato%27s_Dream" title="Plato's Dream">Plato's Dream</a> (1756)</li> <li>The Travels of Scarmentado (1756)</li> <li>The Two Consoled Ones (1756)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Candide" title="Candide">Candide, or Optimism</a> (1759)</li> <li>Story of a Good Brahman (1759)</li> <li>The City of Cashmere (1760)</li> <li>The King of Boutan (1761)</li> <li>An Indian Adventure (1764)</li> <li>The White and the Black (1764)</li> <li>Jeannot and Colin (1764)</li> <li>The Blind Judges of Colors (1766)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%27Ing%C3%A9nu" title="L'Ingénu">The Huron, or Pupil of Nature</a> (1767)</li> <li>The Princess of Babylon (1768)</li> <li>The Man with Forty Crowns (1768)</li> <li>The Letters of Amabed (1769)</li> <li>The White Bull (1772)</li> <li>An Incident of Memory (1773)</li> <li>The History of Jenni (1774)</li> <li>The Travels of Reason (1774)</li> <li>The Ears of Lord Chesterfield and Chaplain Goudman (1775)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Plays">Plays</h3></div> Voltaire wrote between fifty and sixty plays (<a href="/wiki/Tragedy" title="Tragedy">tragedies</a>), including a few unfinished ones.<a href="#cite_note-293">[283]</a> Among them are: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oedipus_(Voltaire_play)" title="Oedipus (Voltaire play)">Œdipe</a> (1717)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art%C3%A9mire_(tragedy)" title="Artémire (tragedy)">Artémire</a> (1720)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/H%C3%A9rode_et_Mariamne" title="Hérode et Mariamne">Mariamne</a> (1724)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brutus_(tragedy)" title="Brutus (tragedy)">Brutus</a> (1730)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89riphyle_(tragedy)" title="Ériphyle (tragedy)">Éryphile</a> (1732)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Za%C3%AFre_(play)" title="Zaïre (play)">Zaïre</a> (1732), inspiration for <a href="/wiki/Zaira_(opera)" title="Zaira (opera)">Zaira</a>, opera by <a href="/wiki/Vincenzo_Bellini" title="Vincenzo Bellini">Vincenzo Bellini</a> (1829)</li> <li>Alzire, ou les Américains (1736), inspiration for <a href="/wiki/Alzira_(opera)" title="Alzira (opera)">Alzira</a>, opera by <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Verdi" title="Giuseppe Verdi">Giuseppe Verdi</a> (1845)</li> <li>Zulima (1740)<a href="#cite_note-294">[284]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahomet_(play)" title="Mahomet (play)">Mahomet</a> (1741)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C3%A9rope" title="Mérope">Mérope</a> (1743)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/La_princesse_de_Navarre" title="La princesse de Navarre">La princesse de Navarre</a> (1745)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%A9miramis_(tragedy)" title="Sémiramis (tragedy)">Sémiramis</a> (1748), inspiration for <a href="/wiki/Semiramide" title="Semiramide">Semiramide</a>, opera by <a href="/wiki/Gioachino_Rossini" title="Gioachino Rossini">Gioachino Rossini</a> (1823)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanine" title="Nanine">Nanine</a> (1749)</li> <li><figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Voltaire-5.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="First page to volume 19 of Oeuvres complètes de Voltaire. Nouvelle édition (1818)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Voltaire-5.jpg/150px-Voltaire-5.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="246" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Voltaire-5.jpg/225px-Voltaire-5.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Voltaire-5.jpg/300px-Voltaire-5.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2898" data-file-height="4745" /></a><figcaption>First page to volume 19 of Oeuvres complètes de Voltaire. Nouvelle édition (1818)</figcaption></figure><a href="/wiki/L%27Orphelin_de_la_Chine" title="L'Orphelin de la Chine">L'Orphelin de la Chine</a> (1755)<a href="#cite_note-liu53-279">[269]</a><a href="#cite_note-295">[k]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socrates_(Voltaire)" title="Socrates (Voltaire)">Socrate</a> (published 1759)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/La_Femme_qui_a_Raison" title="La Femme qui a Raison">La Femme qui a Raison</a> (1759)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tancr%C3%A8de_(tragedy)" title="Tancrède (tragedy)">Tancrède</a> (1760), inspiration for <a href="/wiki/Tancredi" title="Tancredi">Tancredi</a>, opera by <a href="/wiki/Gioachino_Rossini" title="Gioachino Rossini">Gioachino Rossini</a> (1813)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Don_P%C3%A8dre,_roi_de_Castille" title="Don Pèdre, roi de Castille">Don Pèdre, roi de Castille</a> (1774)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sophonisbe_(tragedy)" title="Sophonisbe (tragedy)">Sophonisbe</a> (1774)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ir%C3%A8ne_(tragedy)" title="Irène (tragedy)">Irène</a> (1778)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agathocle" title="Agathocle">Agathocle</a> (1779)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Poetry_2">Poetry</h3></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Henriade" title="Henriade">Henriade</a> (1723)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Maid_of_Orleans_(poem)" title="The Maid of Orleans (poem)">The Maid of Orleans</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1730, edited and republished 1762)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Le_Mondain" title="Le Mondain">Le Mondain</a> (1736)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Po%C3%A8me_sur_le_d%C3%A9sastre_de_Lisbonne" title="Poème sur le désastre de Lisbonne">Poème sur le désastre de Lisbonne</a> (1755–1756)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89p%C3%AEtre_%C3%A0_l%27Auteur_du_Livre_des_Trois_Imposteurs" title="Épître à l'Auteur du Livre des Trois Imposteurs">Épître à l'Auteur du Livre des Trois Imposteurs</a> (1770)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Collected_works">Collected works</h3></div> <ul><li>Oeuvres complètes de Voltaire, A. Beuchot (ed.). 72 vols. (1829–1840)</li> <li>Oeuvres complètes de Voltaire, Louis E.D. Moland and G. Bengesco (eds.). 52 vols. (1877–1885)</li> <li>Oeuvres complètes de Voltaire, Theodore Besterman, et al. (eds.). 144 vols. (1968–2018)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" 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href="/wiki/Voltaire_Prize_for_Tolerance,_International_Understanding_and_Respect_for_Differences" class="mw-redirect" title="Voltaire Prize for Tolerance, International Understanding and Respect for Differences">Voltaire Prize for Tolerance, International Understanding and Respect for Differences</a>, University of Potsdam, Germany</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Informational_notes">Informational notes</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> Dobre and Nyden suggest that there is no clear evidence that Voltaire was present; see <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFMihnea_Dobre,_Tammy_Nyden2013" class="citation book cs1">Mihnea Dobre, Tammy Nyden (2013). Cartesian Empiricism. Springer. p. 89. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-94-007-7690-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-94-007-7690-6"><bdi>978-94-007-7690-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cartesian+Empiricism&rft.pages=89&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-94-007-7690-6&rft.au=Mihnea+Dobre%2C+Tammy+Nyden&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVoltaire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> Contrary to the idea that Voltaire wrote the Letters in English, they were written in French and then translated into English by <a href="/wiki/John_Lockman_(author)" title="John Lockman (author)">John Lockman</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPearson200597-58">[57]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a> It was rumoured that in May 1814, his and Rousseau's bones were removed from the Panthéon and discarded on the outskirts of Paris by supporters of the <a href="/wiki/Bourbon_Restoration_in_France" title="Bourbon Restoration in France">Bourbon Restoration</a>. Both tombs were opened in 1897, and the remains were still there.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPearson2005416–17-116">[114]</a> Nevertheless, some modern historians have published the rumor as fact.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967926-117">[115]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a> Charles Wirz, archivist at the Voltaire Institute and Museum in Geneva, recalled in 1994, that Hall 'wrongly' placed this quotation between speech marks in two of her works about Voltaire, recognising expressly the quotation in question was not one, in a letter of 9 May 1939, which was published in 1943 in volume LVIII under the title "Voltaire never said it" (pp. 534–35) of the review Modern language notes, Johns Hopkins Press, 1943, Baltimore. An extract from the letter: 'The phrase "I disapprove of what you say, but I will defend to the death your right to say it" which you have found in my book Voltaire in His Letters is my own expression and should not have been put in inverted commas. Please accept my apologies for having, quite unintentionally, misled you into thinking I was quoting a sentence used by Voltaire (or anyone else but myself).' The words "my own" were underlined personally by Hall in her letter. To believe certain commentators – Norbert Guterman, A Book of French Quotations, 1963 – Hall was referencing back to a Voltaire letter of 6 February 1770 to an abbot le Riche where Voltaire supposedly said, "Reverend, I hate what you write, but I will give my life so that you can continue to write." The problem is that, if you consult the letter itself, the sentence there does not appear, nor even the idea: "A M Le Riche a Amiens. 6 February. You left, Sir, des Welches for des Welches. You will find everywhere barbarians obstinate. The number of wise will always be small. It is true ... it has increased; but it is nothing in comparison with the stupid ones; and, by misfortune, one says that God is always for the big battalions. It is necessary that the decent people stick together and stay under cover. There are no means that their small troop could tackle the party of the fanatics in open country. I was very sick, I was near death every winter; this is the reason, Sir, why I have answered you so late. I am not less touched by it than your memory. Continue to me your friendship; it comforts me my evils and stupidities of the human genre. Receive my assurances, etc." Voltaire, however, did not hesitate to wish censure against slander and personal libels. Here is what he writes in his "Atheism" article in the Dictionnaire philosophique: "Aristophanes (this man that the commentators admire because he was Greek, not thinking that Socrates was Greek also), Aristophanes was the first who accustomed the Athenians to consider Socrates an atheist. ... The tanners, the shoemakers and the dressmakers of Athens applauded a joke in which one represented Socrates raised in the air in a basket, announcing there was God, and praising himself to have stolen a coat by teaching philosophy. A whole people, whose bad government authorized such infamous licences, deserved well what it got, to become the slave of the Romans, and today of the Turks." </li> <li id="cite_note-176"><a href="#cite_ref-176">^</a> Written and published in 1748 in Volume IV of the Œuvres de Voltaire, following his Tragedy of Mahomet. </li> <li id="cite_note-218"><a href="#cite_ref-218">^</a> The first was <a href="/wiki/Michele_Ruggieri" title="Michele Ruggieri">Michele Ruggieri</a>, who had returned from China to Italy in 1588 and carried on translating in Latin the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_classics" title="Chinese classics">Chinese classics</a> while residing in <a href="/wiki/Salerno" title="Salerno">Salerno</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-243"><a href="#cite_ref-243">^</a> Diderot, in a letter to E.M. Falconet, dated 15 February 1766: Pile assumptions on assumptions; accumulate wars on wars; make interminable disturbances succeed to interminable disturbances; let the universe be inundated by a general spirit of confusion; and it would take a hundred thousand years for the works and the name of Voltaire to be lost.<a href="#cite_note-Besterman_1969_11-242">[236]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-249"><a href="#cite_ref-249">^</a> Macaulay, in his essay on Frederick the Great: In truth, of all the intellectual weapons that have been wielded by man, the most terrible was the mockery of Voltaire. Bigots and tyrants, who had never been moved by the wailings and cursing of millions, turned pale at his name.<a href="#cite_note-Wheeler_and_Foote_69-248">[241]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-273"><a href="#cite_ref-273">^</a> "From that haven of neighborly peace their spirits rose to renew their war for the soul of the Revolution, of France, and of Western man", writes Will Durant.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967887-272">[264]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-276"><a href="#cite_ref-276">^</a> In a celebrated letter, dated 2 April 1764, Voltaire had predicted the future occurrence of the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a> which he characterized as "a splendid outburst."<a href="#cite_note-Durant_1933_187-275">[266]</a> Will Durant commented: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Yet...he never for a moment supposed that in this "splendid outburst" all France would accept enthusiastically the philosophy of this queer Jean-Jacques Rousseau who, from Geneva and Paris, was thrilling the world with sentimental romances and revolutionary pamphlets. The complex soul of France seemed to have divided itself into these two men, so different and yet so French. <a href="/wiki/Nietzsche" class="mw-redirect" title="Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a> speaks of "la gaya scienza, the light feet, wit, fire, grace, strong logic, arrogant intellectuality, the dance of the stars"—surely he was thinking of Voltaire. Now beside Voltaire put Rousseau: all heat and fantasy, a man with noble and jejune visions, the idol of la bourgeois gentile-femme, announcing like Pascal that the heart has its reason which the head can never understand.<a href="#cite_note-Durant_1933_187-275">[266]</a></blockquote> </li> <li id="cite_note-295"><a href="#cite_ref-295">^</a> This is an adaptation of the famous Chinese play <a href="/wiki/The_Orphan_of_Zhao" title="The Orphan of Zhao">The Orphan of Zhao</a>, based on historical events in the <a href="/wiki/Spring_and_Autumn_period" title="Spring and Autumn period">Spring and Autumn period</a>. </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> Voltaire, La philosophie de l'histoire, Changuion, 1765. </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/voltaire">"Voltaire"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Random_House_Webster%27s_Unabridged_Dictionary" title="Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary">Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/voltaire">"Voltaire"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Collins_English_Dictionary" title="Collins English Dictionary">Collins English Dictionary</a>. <a href="/wiki/HarperCollins" title="HarperCollins">HarperCollins</a>. Retrieved 1 August 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Collins+English+Dictionary&rft.atitle=Voltaire&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.collinsdictionary.com%2Fdictionary%2Fenglish%2Fvoltaire&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVoltaire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200322182100/https://www.lexico.com/definition/voltaire">"Voltaire"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Lexico" title="Lexico">Lexico</a> UK English Dictionary. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. 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HarperCollins. Retrieved 1 August 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+American+Heritage+Dictionary+of+the+English+Language&rft.atitle=Voltaire&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ahdictionary.com%2Fword%2Fsearch.html%3Fq%3DVoltaire&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVoltaire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Voltaire">"Voltaire"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Merriam-Webster" title="Merriam-Webster">Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary</a>. Merriam-Webster. 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Biography Online.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Biography+Online&rft.atitle=Voltaire+Biography+%26%23124%3B&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.biographyonline.net%2Fwriters%2Fvoltaire.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVoltaire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Pangloss">"Pangloss | fictional character | Britannica"</a>. Britannica. Retrieved 27 June 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Britannica&rft.atitle=Pangloss+%7C+fictional+character+%7C+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2FPangloss&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVoltaire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFowen.pham2021" class="citation web cs1">owen.pham (20 August 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230627234452/https://www.wondriumdaily.com/the-voltaire-rousseau-debate-and-their-views-on-evil/">"The Voltaire–Rousseau Debate and Their Views on Evil"</a>. Wondrium Daily. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wondriumdaily.com/the-voltaire-rousseau-debate-and-their-views-on-evil/">the original</a> on 27 June 2023. Retrieved 27 June 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Wondrium+Daily&rft.atitle=The+Voltaire%E2%80%93Rousseau+Debate+and+Their+Views+on+Evil&rft.date=2021-08-20&rft.au=owen.pham&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wondriumdaily.com%2Fthe-voltaire-rousseau-debate-and-their-views-on-evil%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVoltaire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPearson20059–14-10"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPearson20059–14_10-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPearson2005">Pearson 2005</a>, pp. 9–14. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPearson20059-11"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPearson20059_11-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPearson2005">Pearson 2005</a>, p. 9. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPearson200510-12"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPearson200510_12-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPearson2005">Pearson 2005</a>, p. 10. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPearson200512-13"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPearson200512_13-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPearson2005">Pearson 2005</a>, p. 12. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPearson200524–25-14"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPearson200524–25_14-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPearson2005">Pearson 2005</a>, pp. 24–25. </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLiukkonen" class="citation web cs1">Liukkonen, Petri. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150217150230/http://www.kirjasto.sci.fi/voltaire.htm">"Voltaire"</a>. Books and Writers (kirjasto.sci.fi). Finland: <a href="/wiki/Kuusankoski" title="Kuusankoski">Kuusankoski</a> Public Library. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.kirjasto.sci.fi/voltaire.htm">the original</a> on 17 February 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Books+and+Writers+%28kirjasto.sci.fi%29&rft.atitle=Voltaire&rft.aulast=Liukkonen&rft.aufirst=Petri&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.kirjasto.sci.fi%2Fvoltaire.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVoltaire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPearson200532–33-16"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPearson200532–33_16-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPearson2005">Pearson 2005</a>, pp. 32–33. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPearson200536-17">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPearson200536_17-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPearson200536_17-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFPearson2005">Pearson 2005</a>, p. 36. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPearson200536–37-18"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPearson200536–37_18-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPearson2005">Pearson 2005</a>, pp. 36–37. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPearson200543,_45-19"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPearson200543,_45_19-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPearson2005">Pearson 2005</a>, pp. 43, 45. </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> Fitzpatrick, Martin (2000). "Toleration and the Enlightenment Movement" in Grell/Porter, Toleration in Enlightenment Europe, p. 64, footnote 91, Cambridge University Press </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPearson200549–50-21"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPearson200549–50_21-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPearson2005">Pearson 2005</a>, pp. 49–50. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPearson200550–52-22"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPearson200550–52_22-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPearson2005">Pearson 2005</a>, pp. 50–52. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPearson200552-23"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPearson200552_23-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPearson2005">Pearson 2005</a>, p. 52. </li> <li id="cite_note-Shank-24">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Shank_24-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shank_24-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shank_24-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shank_24-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shank_24-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shank_24-5">f</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShank2009" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Shank, J. B. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/voltaire/#NewWar173">"Voltaire"</a>. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Voltaire&rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.pub=Metaphysics+Research+Lab%2C+Stanford+University&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Shank&rft.aufirst=J.+B.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fvoltaire%2F%23NewWar173&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVoltaire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> Marvin Perry et al. (2015), Western Civilization: Ideas, Politics, and Society, Volume II, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-305-09142-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-305-09142-9">978-1-305-09142-9</a>, p. 427 </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChristopher_Thacker1971" class="citation book cs1">Christopher Thacker (1971). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=D5s9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA3">Voltaire</a>. 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Political Science Quarterly. 72 (2): 182–99. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2145772">10.2307/2145772</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2145772">2145772</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Political+Science+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Carl+Becker%27s+Heavenly+City&rft.volume=72&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=182-99&rft.date=1957&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2145772&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2145772%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.au=Gay%2C+Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVoltaire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESaintsbury1911204i-124"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESaintsbury1911204i_124-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSaintsbury1911">Saintsbury 1911</a>, p. 204i. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESaintsbury1911205-125"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESaintsbury1911205_125-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSaintsbury1911">Saintsbury 1911</a>, p. 205. </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a> McCabe, Joseph, A Treatise on Toleration and Other Essays (Amherst: Prometheus Books 1994) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87975-881-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-87975-881-3">0-87975-881-3</a> p. viii. </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPalmerColton,_Joel1950" class="citation book cs1">Palmer, R.R.; Colton, Joel (1950). A History of the Modern World. McGraw-Hill, Inc. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-07-040826-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-07-040826-2"><bdi>0-07-040826-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Modern+World&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill%2C+Inc.&rft.date=1950&rft.isbn=0-07-040826-2&rft.aulast=Palmer&rft.aufirst=R.R.&rft.au=Colton%2C+Joel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVoltaire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESaintsbury1911204-128"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESaintsbury1911204_128-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSaintsbury1911">Saintsbury 1911</a>, p. 204. </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGeoffrey_Parrinder2000" class="citation book cs1">Geoffrey Parrinder (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/routledgediction00parr_498">The Routledge Dictionary of Religious and Spiritual Quotations</a>. 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Jr.; George, John (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/theyneversaiditb00boll">They Never Said It: A Book of Fake Quotes, Misquotes, and Misleading Attributions</a>. New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-505541-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-505541-1"><bdi>0-19-505541-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=They+Never+Said+It%3A+A+Book+of+Fake+Quotes%2C+Misquotes%2C+and+Misleading+Attributions&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=0-19-505541-1&rft.aulast=Boller&rft.aufirst=Paul+F.+Jr.&rft.au=George%2C+John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ftheyneversaiditb00boll&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVoltaire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrumfitt1965" class="citation journal cs1">Brumfitt, J. H. (1965). "The Present State of Voltaire Studies". Forum for Modern Language Studies. I (3). Court of the University of St Andrews: 230. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Ffmls%2FI.3.230">10.1093/fmls/I.3.230</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Forum+for+Modern+Language+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Present+State+of+Voltaire+Studies&rft.volume=I&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=230&rft.date=1965&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Ffmls%2FI.3.230&rft.aulast=Brumfitt&rft.aufirst=J.+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVoltaire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967138-133"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967138_133-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDurantDurant1967">Durant & Durant 1967</a>, p. 138. </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a> Massie, Robert K. (2011). Catherine the Great: Portrait of a Woman. New York: Random House. p. 335 </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a> Paul Hazard, European thought in the eighteenth century from Montesquieu to Lessing (1954). pp 402–15. </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090608153319/http://www.deism.com/voltaire.htm">"Voltaire"</a>. Deism.com. 25 June 2009. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://deism.com/voltaire.htm">the original</a> on 8 June 2009. Retrieved 3 August 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Voltaire&rft.pub=Deism.com&rft.date=2009-06-25&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdeism.com%2Fvoltaire.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVoltaire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a> Voltaire. W. Dugdale, A Philosophical Dictionary ver 2, 1843, p. 473 sec 1. Retrieved 31 October 2007. </li> <li id="cite_note-138"><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a> Voltaire (1763) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060107013835/http://www.wsu.edu:8080/~wldciv/world_civ_reader/world_civ_reader_2/voltaire.html">A Treatise on Toleration</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ruthven-139">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ruthven_139-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ruthven_139-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRuthven" class="citation web cs1">Ruthven, Malise. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://litwinbooks.com/mahomet-preface.php">"Voltaire's Fanaticism, or Mahomet the Prophet:A New Translation; Preface: Voltaire and Islam"</a>. Retrieved 12 August 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Voltaire%27s+Fanaticism%2C+or+Mahomet+the+Prophet%3AA+New+Translation%3B+Preface%3A+Voltaire+and+Islam&rft.aulast=Ruthven&rft.aufirst=Malise&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flitwinbooks.com%2Fmahomet-preface.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVoltaire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBremmer20109-140"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBremmer20109_140-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBremmer2010">Bremmer 2010</a>, p. 9. </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a> Harrison, Peter (2017). "'I Believe Because It Is Absurd': The Enlightenment Invention of Tertullian's Credo". Church History 86.2: 350–59. </li> <li id="cite_note-142"><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a> Watts, Edward Jay. Hypatia: the life and legend of an ancient philosopher. Oxford University Press, 2017, 139. </li> <li id="cite_note-143"><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVoltaire1869" class="citation book cs1">Voltaire (1869). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=z9MWAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA184">Œuvres complètes de Voltaire, Volume 7</a>. p. 184.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%C5%92uvres+compl%C3%A8tes+de+Voltaire%2C+Volume+7&rft.pages=184&rft.date=1869&rft.au=Voltaire&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dz9MWAAAAQAAJ%26pg%3DPA184&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVoltaire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMathews2009" class="citation book cs1">Mathews, Chris (2009). Modern Satanism: Anatomy of a Radical Subculture. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 16.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Modern+Satanism%3A+Anatomy+of+a+Radical+Subculture&rft.pages=16&rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Mathews&rft.aufirst=Chris&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVoltaire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-145"><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoakley2012" class="citation book cs1">Coakley, Sarah (2012). Faith, Rationality and the Passions. p. 37.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Faith%2C+Rationality+and+the+Passions&rft.pages=37&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Coakley&rft.aufirst=Sarah&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVoltaire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-146"><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCronk2009" class="citation book cs1">Cronk, Nicholas (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cambridgecompani00cron">The Cambridge Companion to Voltaire</a>. Cambridge University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cambridgecompani00cron/page/n214">199</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Companion+to+Voltaire&rft.pages=199&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Cronk&rft.aufirst=Nicholas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcambridgecompani00cron&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVoltaire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-147"><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a> R. E. Florida Voltaire and the Socinians 1974 "Voltaire from his very first writings on the subject of religion showed a libertine scorn of scripture, which he never lost. This set him apart from Socinianism even though he admired the simplicity of Socinian theology as well as their ...". </li> <li id="cite_note-148"><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">The Papers of Thomas Jefferson, Retirement Series: Volume 7: 28 November 1813 to 30 September 1814: Volume 7: 28 November 1813 to 30 September 1814. Princeton University Press. p. 27.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Papers+of+Thomas+Jefferson%2C+Retirement+Series%3A+Volume+7%3A+28+November+1813+to+30+September+1814%3A+Volume+7%3A+28+November+1813+to+30+September+1814&rft.pages=27&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVoltaire" class="Z3988">edited by J. Jefferson Looney </li> <li id="cite_note-149"><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a> Les chrétiens n'avaient regardé jusqu'à présent le fameux Mahomet que comme un heureux brigand, un imposteur habile, un législateur presque toujours extravagant. Quelques Savants de ce siècle, sur la foi des rapsodies arabesques, ont entrepris de le venger de l'injustice que lui font nos écrivains. Ils nous le donnent comme un génie sublime, et comme un homme des plus admirables, par la grandeur de ses entreprises, de ses vue, de ses succès, <a href="/wiki/Claude-Adrien_Nonnotte" title="Claude-Adrien Nonnotte">Claude-Adrien Nonnotte</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-150"><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a> Les erreurs de Voltaire, Jacquenod père et Rusand, 1770, Vol I, p. 70. </li> <li id="cite_note-151"><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a> M. de Voltaire nous assure qu'il [Mahomet] avait une éloquence vive et forte, des yeux perçants, une physionomie heureuse, l'intrépidité d'Alexandre, la libéralité et la sobriété dont Alexandre aurait eu besoin pour être un grand homme en tout ... Il nous représente Mahomet comme un homme qui a eu la gloire de tirer presque toute l'Asie des ténèbres de l'idolâtrie. Il extrait quelques paroles de divers endroits de l'Alcoran, dont il admire le Sublime. Il trouve que sa loi est extrêmement sage, que ses lois civiles sont bonnes et que son dogme est admirable en ce qu'il se conforme avec le nôtre. Enfin pour prémunir les lecteurs contre tout ce que les Chrétiens ont dit méchamment de Mahomet, il avertit que ce ne sont guère que des sottises débitées par des moines ignorants et insensés., Nonnotte, p. 71. </li> <li id="cite_note-152"><a href="#cite_ref-152">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeffe2003" class="citation book cs1">Keffe, Simon P. (2003). The Cambridge Companion to Mozart. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_Companions_to_Music" class="mw-redirect" title="Cambridge Companions to Music">Cambridge Companions to Music</a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-00192-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-00192-7"><bdi>0-521-00192-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Companion+to+Mozart&rft.series=Cambridge+Companions+to+Music&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-521-00192-7&rft.aulast=Keffe&rft.aufirst=Simon+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVoltaire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-153"><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JItKAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA208">"Gibbon; or, the Infidel Historian"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Dublin_Review_(Catholic_periodical)" title="Dublin Review (Catholic periodical)">The Dublin Review</a>. 8. Burns, Oates and Washbourne: 208. 1840.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Dublin+Review&rft.atitle=Gibbon%3B+or%2C+the+Infidel+Historian&rft.volume=8&rft.pages=208&rft.date=1840&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJItKAAAAcAAJ%26pg%3DPA208&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVoltaire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-154"><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a> Thomas E. Woods, How the Catholic Church Built Western Civilization (Regnery Publishing 2005) pp. 169–70 </li> <li id="cite_note-Daniel-Rops1964-155"><a href="#cite_ref-Daniel-Rops1964_155-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDaniel-Rops1964" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Daniel-Rops" class="mw-redirect" title="Daniel-Rops">Daniel-Rops, Henri</a> (1964). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=P5gsAQAAMAAJ">History of the Church of Christ</a>. Dutton. p. 47. <q>His hatred of religion increased with the passage of years. The attack, launched at first against clericalism and theocracy, ended in a furious assault upon Holy Scripture, the dogmas of the Church, and even upon the person of Jesus Christ Himself, who was depicted now as a degenerate</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+the+Church+of+Christ&rft.pages=47&rft.pub=Dutton&rft.date=1964&rft.aulast=Daniel-Rops&rft.aufirst=Henri&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DP5gsAQAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVoltaire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Why?-156">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Why?_156-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Why?_156-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Why?_156-2">c</a> <a href="/wiki/Dennis_Prager" title="Dennis Prager">Prager, D</a>; <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Telushkin" title="Joseph Telushkin">Telushkin, J</a>. Why the Jews?: The Reason for Antisemitism. New York: <a href="/wiki/Simon_%26_Schuster" title="Simon & Schuster">Simon & Schuster</a>, 1983, pp. 128–89. </li> <li id="cite_note-157"><a href="#cite_ref-157">^</a> <a href="/wiki/L%C3%A9on_Poliakov" title="Léon Poliakov">Poliakov, L</a>. The History of Anti-Semitism: From Voltaire to Wagner. Routledge & Kegan Paul, Ltd., 1975 (translated). pp. 88–89. </li> <li id="cite_note-158"><a href="#cite_ref-158">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVoltaire1827" class="citation book cs1">Voltaire, François-Marie (1827). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/essaisurlesmurs04voltgoog">Essai sur les Moeurs</a>. Garnery.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Essai+sur+les+Moeurs&rft.pub=Garnery&rft.date=1827&rft.aulast=Voltaire&rft.aufirst=Fran%C3%A7ois-Marie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fessaisurlesmurs04voltgoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVoltaire" class="Z3988"> See also: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVoltaire1789" class="citation book cs1">Voltaire, François-Marie (1789). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/dictionnairephi11voltgoog">Dictionnaire Philosophique</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dictionnaire+Philosophique&rft.date=1789&rft.aulast=Voltaire&rft.aufirst=Fran%C3%A7ois-Marie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdictionnairephi11voltgoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVoltaire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-159">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_159-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_159-1">b</a> Voltaire. 1843. A Philosophical Dictionary, p. 94 </li> <li id="cite_note-160"><a href="#cite_ref-160">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Peter_Gay" title="Peter Gay">Gay, P</a>. The Party of Humanity: Essays in the French Enlightenment. Alfred Knopf, 1964, pp. 103–05. </li> <li id="cite_note-161"><a href="#cite_ref-161">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Hertzberg" title="Arthur Hertzberg">Hertzberg, A</a>. The French Enlightenment and the Jews. Columbia University, 1968, p. 284. </li> <li id="cite_note-162"><a href="#cite_ref-162">^</a> (Schwarzbach, Bertram), "Voltaire et les juifs: bilan et plaidoyer", Studies on Voltaire and the Eighteenth Century (SVEC) 358, Oxford </li> <li id="cite_note-163"><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZeitlin2012" class="citation book cs1">Zeitlin, Irving M. (2012). Jews The Making of a Diaspora People. Polity Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jews+The+Making+of+a+Diaspora+People&rft.pub=Polity+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Zeitlin&rft.aufirst=Irving+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVoltaire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-164"><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFenby2015" class="citation book cs1">Fenby, Jonathan (2015). The History of Modern France From the Revolution to the War on Terror. Simon & Schuster.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+Modern+France+From+the+Revolution+to+the+War+on+Terror&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=Fenby&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVoltaire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-165"><a href="#cite_ref-165">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSamuels2009" class="citation book cs1">Samuels, Maurice (2009). Inventing the Israelite Jewish Fiction in Nineteenth-Century France. Stanford University Press. p. 266.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Inventing+the+Israelite+Jewish+Fiction+in+Nineteenth-Century+France&rft.pages=266&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Samuels&rft.aufirst=Maurice&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVoltaire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-166"><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">History of the Jews in Modern Times. Oxford University Press. 2001. p. 85.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+the+Jews+in+Modern+Times&rft.pages=85&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVoltaire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-167"><a href="#cite_ref-167">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarroll2002" class="citation book cs1">Carroll, James (2002). Constantine's Sword The Church and the Jews – A History. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Constantine%27s+Sword+The+Church+and+the+Jews+%E2%80%93+A+History&rft.pub=Houghton+Mifflin+Harcourt&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Carroll&rft.aufirst=James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVoltaire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-168"><a href="#cite_ref-168">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRousseau1990" class="citation book cs1">Rousseau, G. S. (1990). The Languages of Psyche Mind and Body in Enlightenment Thought. University of California Press. p. 413.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Languages+of+Psyche+Mind+and+Body+in+Enlightenment+Thought&rft.pages=413&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.aulast=Rousseau&rft.aufirst=G.+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVoltaire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-169"><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Joxe_Azurmendi" title="Joxe Azurmendi">Azurmendi, Joxe</a> (2014). Historia, arraza, nazioa. Donostia: Elkar, pp. 177–86. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-84-9027-297-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-84-9027-297-8">978-84-9027-297-8</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-170"><a href="#cite_ref-170">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFriedenwald1944" class="citation book cs1">Friedenwald, Harry (1944). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jfLdrTb69fMC">The Jews and Medicine</a>. Johns Hopkins Press. p. 725.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Jews+and+Medicine&rft.pages=725&rft.pub=Johns+Hopkins+Press&rft.date=1944&rft.aulast=Friedenwald&rft.aufirst=Harry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjfLdrTb69fMC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVoltaire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967629-171"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967629_171-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDurantDurant1967">Durant & Durant 1967</a>, p. 629. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967630-172">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967630_172-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967630_172-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFDurantDurant1967">Durant & Durant 1967</a>, p. 630. </li> <li id="cite_note-173"><a href="#cite_ref-173">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGunny1996" class="citation book cs1">Gunny, Ahmad (1996). Images of Islam in 18th Century Writings. <q>However, Islam still remains a false religion in Voltaire's eyes—he claims that the Quran betrays ignorance of the most elementary laws of physics.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Images+of+Islam+in+18th+Century+Writings&rft.date=1996&rft.aulast=Gunny&rft.aufirst=Ahmad&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVoltaire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-174"><a href="#cite_ref-174">^</a> Letter to Frederick II of Prussia (December 1740), published in <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/oeuvrescomplete09voltgoog">Oeuvres complètes de Voltaire</a>, Vol. 7 (1869), edited by Georges Avenel, p. 105 </li> <li id="cite_note-175"><a href="#cite_ref-175">^</a> Pomeau. Voltaire en son temps. </li> <li id="cite_note-177"><a href="#cite_ref-177">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFareed_Ali_Haddawy1962" class="citation book cs1">Fareed Ali Haddawy, Hussain (1962). English Arabesque: The Oriental Mode in Eighteenth-century English Literature. Cornell University.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=English+Arabesque%3A+The+Oriental+Mode+in+Eighteenth-century+English+Literature&rft.pub=Cornell+University&rft.date=1962&rft.aulast=Fareed+Ali+Haddawy&rft.aufirst=Hussain&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVoltaire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-178"><a href="#cite_ref-178">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOrmsby1899" class="citation book cs1">Ormsby, F.E. (1899). Planets and People, Volume 5, Issue 1. p. 184.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Planets+and+People%2C+Volume+5%2C+Issue+1&rft.pages=184&rft.date=1899&rft.aulast=Ormsby&rft.aufirst=F.E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVoltaire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-179"><a href="#cite_ref-179">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmollettMorley1901" class="citation book cs1">Smollett, Tobias; Morley, John (1901). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/worksofvoltairec21volt">The Works of Voltaire: A philosophical dictionary</a>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/worksofvoltairec21volt/page/101">101</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Works+of+Voltaire%3A+A+philosophical+dictionary&rft.pages=101&rft.date=1901&rft.aulast=Smollett&rft.aufirst=Tobias&rft.au=Morley%2C+John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fworksofvoltairec21volt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVoltaire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pomeau-180">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Pomeau_180-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pomeau_180-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pomeau_180-2">c</a> <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Pomeau" title="René Pomeau">Pomeau, René</a> (1995) La religion de Voltaire. A.G Nizet. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/2-7078-0331-6" title="Special:BookSources/2-7078-0331-6">2-7078-0331-6</a>. p. 157. </li> <li id="cite_note-181"><a href="#cite_ref-181">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmollettMorley1901" class="citation book cs1">Smollett, Tobias; Morley, John (1901). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/worksofvoltairec11volt">The Works of Voltaire: A philosophical dictionary</a>. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/worksofvoltairec11volt/page/102">102</a>–04.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Works+of+Voltaire%3A+A+philosophical+dictionary&rft.pages=102-04&rft.date=1901&rft.aulast=Smollett&rft.aufirst=Tobias&rft.au=Morley%2C+John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fworksofvoltairec11volt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVoltaire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-182"><a href="#cite_ref-182">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Pomeau" title="René Pomeau">Pomeau, René</a> (1995) La religion de Voltaire. A.G Nizet. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/2-7078-0331-6" title="Special:BookSources/2-7078-0331-6">2-7078-0331-6</a>. pp. 156–57. </li> <li id="cite_note-183"><a href="#cite_ref-183">^</a> Voltaire, Essais sur les Mœurs, 1756, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.voltaire-integral.com/Html/11/08ESS_10.html#i06">Chap. VI. – De l'Arabie et de Mahomet</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-184"><a href="#cite_ref-184">^</a> Voltaire, Essais sur les Mœurs, 1756, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.voltaire-integral.com/Html/11/08ESS_10.html#i07">Chap. VII. – De l'Alcoran, et de la loi musulmane. Examen si la religion musulmane était nouvelle, et si elle a été persécutante</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-books.google.com-185"><a href="#cite_ref-books.google.com_185-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Mo8DAAAAQAAJ">The history of Charles xii. king of Sweden [tr. and abridged by A. Henderson from the work by F.M.A. de Voltaire]</a>. 1734. p. 112.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+history+of+Charles+xii.+king+of+Sweden+%5Btr.+and+abridged+by+A.+Henderson+from+the+work+by+F.M.A.+de+Voltaire%5D&rft.pages=112&rft.date=1734&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DMo8DAAAAQAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVoltaire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-186"><a href="#cite_ref-186">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShah_Kazemi" class="citation book cs1">Shah Kazemi, Reza. The Spirit of Tolerance in Islam. pp. 5–6. <q>Voltaire also 'pointed out that no Christian state allowed the presence of a mosque; but that the Ottoman state was filled with Churches.'</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Spirit+of+Tolerance+in+Islam&rft.pages=5-6&rft.aulast=Shah+Kazemi&rft.aufirst=Reza&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVoltaire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-187"><a href="#cite_ref-187">^</a> Avez-vous oublié que ce poète était astronome, et qu'il réforma le calendrier des Arabes ?, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.voltaire-integral.com/Html/24/26_Lettre_civile.html">Lettre civile et honnête à l'auteur malhonnête de la "Critique de l'histoire universelle de M. de Voltaire"</a> (1760), dans Œuvres complètes de Voltaire, Voltaire. Moland, 1875, Vol. 24, p. 164. </li> <li id="cite_note-188"><a href="#cite_ref-188">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVoltaire1824" class="citation book cs1">Voltaire (1824). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_HwpJAQAAIAAJ">A Philosophical Dictionary, Volume 1</a>. J. and H.L. Hunt. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_HwpJAQAAIAAJ/page/n121">76</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Philosophical+Dictionary%2C+Volume+1&rft.pages=76&rft.pub=J.+and+H.L.+Hunt&rft.date=1824&rft.au=Voltaire&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbub_gb_HwpJAQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVoltaire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-189"><a href="#cite_ref-189">^</a> Ce fut certainement un très grand homme, et qui forma de grands hommes. Il fallait qu'il fût martyr ou conquérant, il n'y avait pas de milieu. Il vainquit toujours, et toutes ses victoires furent remportées par le petit nombre sur le grand. Conquérant, législateur, monarque et pontife, il joua le plus grand rôle qu'on puisse jouer sur la terre aux yeux du commun des hommes; mais les sages lui préféreront toujours Confutzée, précisément parce qu'il ne fut rien de tout cela, et qu'il se contenta d'enseigner la morale la plus pure à une nation plus ancienne, plus nombreuse, et plus policée que la nation arabe., <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.voltaire-integral.com/Html/24/68_Remarques.html#IX.—%20DE%20MAHOMET.">Remarques pour servir de supplément à l'Essai sur les Mœurs</a> (1763), dans Œuvres complètes de Voltaire, Voltaire. Moland, 1875, Vol. 24, Chap. IX – De Mahomet, p. 590. </li> <li id="cite_note-190"><a href="#cite_ref-190">^</a> J'ai dit qu'on reconnut Mahomet pour un grand homme; rien n'est plus impie, dites-vous. Je vous répondrai que ce n'est pas ma faute si ce petit homme a changé la face d'une partie du monde, s'il a gagné des batailles contre des armées dix fois plus nombreuses que les siennes, s'il a fait trembler l'Empire romain, s'il a donné les premiers coups à ce colosse que ses successeurs ont écrasé, et s'il a été législateur de l'Asie, de l'Afrique, et d'une partie de l'Europe., « Lettre civile et honnête à l'auteur malhonnête de la Critique de l'histoire universelle. Voltaire (1760), in Œuvres complètes de Voltaire, Voltaire. Moland, 1875, Vol. 24, p. 164. </li> <li id="cite_note-191"><a href="#cite_ref-191">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGunny1996" class="citation book cs1">Gunny, Ahmad (1996). Images of Islam in 18th Century Writings. p. 142.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Images+of+Islam+in+18th+Century+Writings&rft.pages=142&rft.date=1996&rft.aulast=Gunny&rft.aufirst=Ahmad&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVoltaire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-192"><a href="#cite_ref-192">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAllen_Harvey" class="citation book cs1">Allen Harvey, David. The French Enlightenment and Its Others: The Mandarin, the Savage, and the Invention of the Human Sciences.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+French+Enlightenment+and+Its+Others%3A+The+Mandarin%2C+the+Savage%2C+and+the+Invention+of+the+Human+Sciences&rft.aulast=Allen+Harvey&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVoltaire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-193"><a href="#cite_ref-193">^</a> « Essai sur les Mœurs et l'Esprit des Nations » (1756), dans Œuvres complètes de Voltaire, Voltaire. Moland, 1875, Vol. 11, Chap. VII – De l'Alcoran, et de la loi musulmane, p. 244. </li> <li id="cite_note-194"><a href="#cite_ref-194">^</a> Il est évident que le génie du peuple arabe, mis en mouvement par Mahomet, fit tout de lui-même pendant près de trois siècles, et ressembla en cela au génie des anciens Romains., « Essais sur les Mœurs » (1756), dans Œuvres complètes de Voltaire, Voltaire, éd. Moland, 1875, Vol. 11, Chap. VI – De l'Arabie et de Mahomet, p. 237. et écrit que « dans nos siècles de barbarie et d'ignorance, qui suivirent la décadence et le déchirement de l'Empire romain, nous reçûmes presque tout des Arabes : astronomie, chimie, médecine <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.voltaire-integral.com/Html/24/07_Preface.html">Préface de l'Essai sur l'Histoire universelle</a> » (1754), dans Œuvres complètes de Voltaire, Voltaire, éd. Moland, 1875, Vol. 24, p. 49. Si ces Ismaélites ressemblaient aux Juifs par l'enthousiasme et la soif du pillage, ils étaient prodigieusement supérieurs par le courage, par la grandeur d'âme, par la magnanimité., « Essai sur les Mœurs et l'Esprit des Nations » (1756), dans Œuvres complètes de Voltaire, Voltaire, éd. Moland, 1875, Vol. 11, Chap. VI – De l'Arabie et de Mahomet, p. 231. et que « dès le second siècle de Mahomet, il fallut que les chrétiens d'Occident s'instruisissent chez les musulmans » Essais sur les Mœurs » (1756), dans Œuvres complètes de Voltaire, Voltaire, éd. Moland, 1875, Vol. 11, Chap. VI – De l'Arabie et de Mahomet, p. 237. </li> <li id="cite_note-195"><a href="#cite_ref-195">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMalise_Ruthven2018" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Malise_Ruthven" title="Malise Ruthven">Malise Ruthven</a> (26 November 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://litwinbooks.com/voltaires-fanaticism-or-mahomet-the-prophet-preface/">"Voltaire's Fanaticism, or Mahomet the Prophet: A New Translation"</a>. <q>As Voltaire's knowledge of Islam deepened, he clearly became better disposed towards the faith.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Voltaire%27s+Fanaticism%2C+or+Mahomet+the+Prophet%3A+A+New+Translation&rft.date=2018-11-26&rft.au=Malise+Ruthven&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flitwinbooks.com%2Fvoltaires-fanaticism-or-mahomet-the-prophet-preface%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVoltaire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-196"><a href="#cite_ref-196">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNasr" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Seyyed_Hossein_Nasr" title="Seyyed Hossein Nasr">Nasr, Seyyed Hossein</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160320052438/http://www.britannica.com/biography/Muhammad/The-image-of-Muhammad-in-the-West">Muhammad</a>. Encyclopedia Britannica. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britannica.com/biography/Muhammad/The-image-of-Muhammad-in-the-West">the original</a> on 20 March 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Muhammad&rft.pub=Encyclopedia+Britannica&rft.aulast=Nasr&rft.aufirst=Seyyed+Hossein&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fbiography%2FMuhammad%2FThe-image-of-Muhammad-in-the-West&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVoltaire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-197"><a href="#cite_ref-197">^</a> Voltaire, Mahomet the Prophet or Fanaticism: A Tragedy in Five Acts, trans. Robert L. Myers, (New York: Frederick Ungar, 1964). </li> <li id="cite_note-198"><a href="#cite_ref-198">^</a> Voltaire Letter to Benedict XIV written in Paris on 17 August 1745: "Your holiness will pardon the liberty taken by one of the lowest of the faithful, though a zealous admirer of virtue, of submitting to the head of the true religion this performance, written in opposition to the founder of a false and barbarous sect. To whom could I with more propriety inscribe a satire on the cruelty and errors of a false prophet, than to the vicar and representative of a God of truth and mercy? Your holiness will therefore give me leave to lay at your feet both the piece and the author of it, and humbly to request your protection of the one, and your benediction upon the other; in hopes of which, with the profoundest reverence, I kiss your sacred feet." </li> <li id="cite_note-199"><a href="#cite_ref-199">^</a> Voltaire, Le Fanatisme ou Mahomet le prophète (1741), Œuvres complètes. Garnier, 1875, Vol.4, p135. </li> <li id="cite_note-200"><a href="#cite_ref-200">^</a> Mahomet le fanatique, le cruel, le fourbe, et, à la honte des hommes, le grand, qui de garçon marchand devient prophète, législateur et monarque, (Mohammed the fanatic, the cruel, the deceiver, and to men's shame, the great, who from a grocer's boy became a prophet, a legislator and a monarch). Recueil des Lettres de Voltaire (1739–1741), Voltaire, Sanson et Compagnie, 1792, Lettre à M. De Cideville, conseiller honoraire du parlement (5 mai 1740), p. 163. </li> <li id="cite_note-201"><a href="#cite_ref-201">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Voltaire in His Letters: Being a Selection from His Correspondence. p. 74.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Voltaire+in+His+Letters%3A+Being+a+Selection+from+His+Correspondence&rft.pages=74&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVoltaire" class="Z3988"> translated and edited by <a href="/wiki/Evelyn_Beatrice_Hall" title="Evelyn Beatrice Hall">Evelyn Beatrice Hall</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-202"><a href="#cite_ref-202">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGunny1996" class="citation book cs1">Gunny, Ahmad (1996). Images of Islam in 18th Century Writings. <q>He expanded on this idea in his letter to César de Missy (Ist September 1742) where he described Mahomet as a deceitful character.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Images+of+Islam+in+18th+Century+Writings&rft.date=1996&rft.aulast=Gunny&rft.aufirst=Ahmad&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVoltaire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-203"><a href="#cite_ref-203">^</a> Voltaire, Lettres inédites de Voltaire, Didier, 1856, Vol 1, Letter to César De Missy, 1 September 1743, p. 450. </li> <li id="cite_note-204"><a href="#cite_ref-204">^</a> "The Atheist's Bible", p. 198, by Georges Minois, 2012 </li> <li id="cite_note-205"><a href="#cite_ref-205">^</a> Je sais que Mahomet n'a pas tramé précisément l'espèce de trahison qui fait le sujet de cette tragédie ... Je n'ai pas prétendu mettre seulement une action vraie sur la scène, mais des mœurs vraies, faire penser les hommes comme ils pensent dans les circonstances où ils se trouvent, et représenter enfin ce que la fourberie peut inventer de plus atroce, et ce que le Fanatisme peut exécuter de plus horrible. Mahomet n'est ici autre chose que Tartuffe les armes à la main. Je me croirai bien récompensé de mon travail, si quelqu'une de ces âmes faibles, toujours prêtes à recevoir les impressions d'une fureur étrangère qui n'est pas au fond de leur cœur, peut s'affermir contre ces funestes séductions par la lecture de cet ouvrage., Voltaire, Letter to Frederick II, King of Prussia, 20 January 1742. </li> <li id="cite_note-206"><a href="#cite_ref-206">^</a> Il n'appartenait assurément qu'aux musulmans de se plaindre; car j'ai fait Mahomet un peu plus méchant qu'il n'était, Lettre à Mme Denis, 29 October 1751, Lettres choisies de Voltaire, Libraires associés, 1792, Vol. 2, p. 113. </li> <li id="cite_note-207"><a href="#cite_ref-207">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmollettMorley1905" class="citation book cs1">Smollett, Tobias; Morley, John (1905). The Works of Voltaire: A philosophical dictionary. p. 105.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Works+of+Voltaire%3A+A+philosophical+dictionary&rft.pages=105&rft.date=1905&rft.aulast=Smollett&rft.aufirst=Tobias&rft.au=Morley%2C+John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVoltaire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-208"><a href="#cite_ref-208">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/worksofvoltairec08volt">The Works of Voltaire: The dramatic works of Voltaire</a>. St. Hubert Guild. 1901. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/worksofvoltairec08volt/page/12">12</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Works+of+Voltaire%3A+The+dramatic+works+of+Voltaire&rft.pages=12&rft.pub=St.+Hubert+Guild&rft.date=1901&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fworksofvoltairec08volt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVoltaire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-209"><a href="#cite_ref-209">^</a> Voltaire, Letter to Benedict XIV written in Paris on 17 August 1745: Your holiness will pardon the liberty taken by one of the lowest of the faithful, though a zealous admirer of virtue, of submitting to the head of the true religion this performance, written in opposition to the founder of a false and barbarous sect. To whom could I with more propriety inscribe a satire on the cruelty and errors of a false prophet, than to the vicar and representative of a God of truth and mercy? Your holiness will therefore give me leave to lay at your feet both the piece and the author of it, and humbly to request your protection of the one, and your benediction upon the other; in hopes of which, with the profoundest reverence, I kiss your sacred feet. </li> <li id="cite_note-210"><a href="#cite_ref-210">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBerman2011" class="citation book cs1">Berman, Nina (2011). German Literature on the Middle East: Discourses and Practices, 1000–1989. University of Michigan Press. p. 118.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=German+Literature+on+the+Middle+East%3A+Discourses+and+Practices%2C+1000%E2%80%931989&rft.pages=118&rft.pub=University+of+Michigan+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Berman&rft.aufirst=Nina&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVoltaire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-211"><a href="#cite_ref-211">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">The Concept of Human Dignity in the French and American Enlightenments: Religion, Virtue, Liberty. 2006. p. 280. <q>Voltaire goes on to accuse other religions such as Islam for their own intolerance (359). Voltaire, then, seems to consider Christianity as one of many intolerant and absurd religions.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Concept+of+Human+Dignity+in+the+French+and+American+Enlightenments%3A+Religion%2C+Virtue%2C+Liberty&rft.pages=280&rft.date=2006&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVoltaire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-212"><a href="#cite_ref-212">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFElmarsafy,_Ziad2010" class="citation journal cs1">Elmarsafy, Ziad (2010). "The Enlightenment Qur'an: The Politics of Translation and the Construction of Islam". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 130 (3): 462–64. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/23044965">23044965</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+American+Oriental+Society&rft.atitle=The+Enlightenment+Qur%27an%3A+The+Politics+of+Translation+and+the+Construction+of+Islam&rft.volume=130&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=462-64&rft.date=2010&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F23044965%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.au=Elmarsafy%2C+Ziad&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVoltaire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-213"><a href="#cite_ref-213">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMathilde_Hilger2009" class="citation book cs1">Mathilde Hilger, Stephanie (2009). Strategies of Response and the Dynamics of European Literary Culture, 1790–1805. Rodopi. p. 100.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Strategies+of+Response+and+the+Dynamics+of+European+Literary+Culture%2C+1790%E2%80%931805&rft.pages=100&rft.pub=Rodopi&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Mathilde+Hilger&rft.aufirst=Stephanie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVoltaire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-214"><a href="#cite_ref-214">^</a> "Lectures on the science of language, delivered at the Royal institution of Great Britain in 1861 [and 1863]", by <a href="/wiki/Max_Muller" class="mw-redirect" title="Max Muller">Max Muller</a>, p. 148, originally from Oxford University </li> <li id="cite_note-215"><a href="#cite_ref-215">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChatterjee1922" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ramananda_Chatterjee" title="Ramananda Chatterjee">Chatterjee, Ramananda</a>, ed. (1922). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.b2868077;view=1up;seq=199">"Review and Notices of Books: Hindu Culture"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Modern_Review_(Calcutta)" title="Modern Review (Calcutta)">The Modern Review</a>. 32: 183.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Modern+Review&rft.atitle=Review+and+Notices+of+Books%3A+Hindu+Culture&rft.volume=32&rft.pages=183&rft.date=1922&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbabel.hathitrust.org%2Fcgi%2Fpt%3Fid%3Duc1.b2868077%3Bview%3D1up%3Bseq%3D199&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVoltaire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-216"><a href="#cite_ref-216">^</a> Pensées végétariennes, Voltaire, éditions Mille et une nuits. </li> <li id="cite_note-217"><a href="#cite_ref-217">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/books/2006/aug/21/extract">"Meaty arguments"</a>. The Guardian. 21 August 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Meaty+arguments&rft.date=2006-08-21&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fbooks%2F2006%2Faug%2F21%2Fextract&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVoltaire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Windows_into_China-219">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Windows_into_China_219-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Windows_into_China_219-1">b</a> Windows into China – John Parker, p. 25, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-89073-050-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-89073-050-4">0-89073-050-4</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-Mungello-220"><a href="#cite_ref-Mungello_220-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMungello1971" class="citation journal cs1">Mungello, David E. (1971). "Leibniz's Interpretation of Neo-Confucianism". <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_East_and_West" title="Philosophy East and West">Philosophy East and West</a>. 21 (1). <a href="/wiki/University_of_Hawaii_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Hawaii Press">University of Hawaii Press</a>: 3–22. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1397760">10.2307/1397760</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1397760">1397760</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophy+East+and+West&rft.atitle=Leibniz%27s+Interpretation+of+Neo-Confucianism&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=3-22&rft.date=1971&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1397760&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1397760%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Mungello&rft.aufirst=David+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVoltaire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-221"><a href="#cite_ref-221">^</a> <a href="/wiki/John_M._Hobson" title="John M. 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Comparative Literature. 5 (3): 206–07. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1768912">10.2307/1768912</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1768912">1768912</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Comparative+Literature&rft.atitle=The+Original+Orphan+of+China&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=206-07&rft.date=1953&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1768912&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1768912%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Liu&rft.aufirst=Wu-Chi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVoltaire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-280"><a href="#cite_ref-280">^</a> Gay, Peter Voltaire's Politics: The Poet as Realist (New Haven:Yale University 1988), p. 265: "If the heavens, despoiled of his august stamp could ever cease to manifest him, if God didn't exist, it would be necessary to invent him. Let the wise proclaim him, and kings fear him." </li> <li id="cite_note-281"><a href="#cite_ref-281">^</a> "Beacon Lights of History", p. 207, by Jon Lord, publisher = Cosimo, Inc, 2009. – German Philosopher <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Friedrich Nietzsche</a>, however, called Carlyle a muddlehead who had not even understood the Enlightenment values he thought he was promoting. See – Nietzsche and Legal Theory: Half-Written Laws, by Peter Goodrich, Mariana Valverde, published by <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>, p. 5 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPearson2005430-282"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPearson2005430_282-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPearson2005">Pearson 2005</a>, p. 430. </li> <li id="cite_note-283"><a href="#cite_ref-283">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchmadelInternational_Astronomical_Union2003" class="citation book cs1">Schmadel, Lutz D.; International Astronomical Union (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KWrB1jPCa8AC&pg=PA481">Dictionary of minor planet names</a>. 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New York: Simon and Schuster. p. 134. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-671-63058-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-671-63058-X"><bdi>0-671-63058-X</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/4751149">4751149</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rousseau+and+revolution+%3A+a+history+of+civilization+in+France%2C+England%2C+and+Germany+from+1756%2C+and+in+the+remainder+of+Europe+from+1715+to+1789&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=134&rft.pub=Simon+and+Schuster&rft.date=1967&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F4751149&rft.isbn=0-671-63058-X&rft.aulast=Durant&rft.aufirst=Will&rft.au=Ariel+Durant&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F4751149&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVoltaire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-285"><a href="#cite_ref-285">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKoerner2005" class="citation journal cs1">Koerner, Brendan (June 2005). "Brain Brew". The Washington Monthly: 46–49.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Monthly&rft.atitle=Brain+Brew&rft.pages=46-49&rft.date=2005-06&rft.aulast=Koerner&rft.aufirst=Brendan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVoltaire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-286"><a href="#cite_ref-286">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCowell2001" class="citation book cs1">Cowell, Siôn (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xormixizYc0C&pg=PR6">The Teilhard Lexicon: Understanding the language, terminology, and vision of the writings of Pierre Teilhard de Chardin</a>. Brighton: Sussex Academic Press. p. 6. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-902210-37-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-902210-37-7"><bdi>978-1-902210-37-7</bdi></a>. Retrieved 30 November 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Teilhard+Lexicon%3A+Understanding+the+language%2C+terminology%2C+and+vision+of+the+writings+of+Pierre+Teilhard+de+Chardin&rft.place=Brighton&rft.pages=6&rft.pub=Sussex+Academic+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-1-902210-37-7&rft.aulast=Cowell&rft.aufirst=Si%C3%B4n&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxormixizYc0C%26pg%3DPR6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVoltaire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-287"><a href="#cite_ref-287">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKurian2010" class="citation book cs1">Kurian, George Thomas (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dk4G-52QT-8C&pg=PA591">The Encyclopedia of Christian Literature</a>. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press. p. 591. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8108-6987-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8108-6987-5"><bdi>978-0-8108-6987-5</bdi></a>. Retrieved 30 November 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+Christian+Literature&rft.place=Lanham%2C+MD&rft.pages=591&rft.pub=Scarecrow+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-8108-6987-5&rft.aulast=Kurian&rft.aufirst=George+Thomas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Ddk4G-52QT-8C%26pg%3DPA591&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVoltaire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-besterman-288">^ <a href="#cite_ref-besterman_288-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-besterman_288-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarber2004" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Barber, Giles (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/37189">"Besterman, Theodore Deodatus Nathaniel (1904–1976)"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_National_Biography#Oxford_Dictionary_of_National_Biography" title="Dictionary of National Biography">Oxford Dictionary of National Biography</a>. Vol. <a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_National_Biography" title="Dictionary of National Biography">Dictionary of National Biography</a> (online ed.). Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fref%3Aodnb%2F37189">10.1093/ref:odnb/37189</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Besterman%2C+Theodore+Deodatus+Nathaniel+%281904%E2%80%931976%29&rft.btitle=Oxford+Dictionary+of+National+Biography&rft.edition=online&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fref%3Aodnb%2F37189&rft.aulast=Barber&rft.aufirst=Giles&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxforddnb.com%2Fview%2Farticle%2F37189&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVoltaire" class="Z3988"> (Subscription or <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxforddnb.com/help/subscribe#public">UK public library membership</a> required.) </li> <li id="cite_note-289"><a href="#cite_ref-289">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMason" class="citation web cs1">Mason, Haydn. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160304073631/http://www.voltaire.ox.ac.uk/www_vf/about_us/History-of-VF.pdf">"A history of the Voltaire Foundation"</a> (PDF). Voltaire Foundation. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.voltaire.ox.ac.uk/www_vf/about_us/History-of-VF.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 4 May 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=A+history+of+the+Voltaire+Foundation&rft.pub=Voltaire+Foundation&rft.aulast=Mason&rft.aufirst=Haydn&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.voltaire.ox.ac.uk%2Fwww_vf%2Fabout_us%2FHistory-of-VF.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVoltaire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-rddm-290">^ <a href="#cite_ref-rddm_290-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-rddm_290-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-rddm_290-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJulia2011" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Julia, Aurélie (October 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170201151533/http://rddm.revuedesdeuxmondes.fr/archive/article.php?code=71933">"Voltaire à Oxford, The Voltaire Foundation"</a>. Revue des Deux Mondes (in French). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://rddm.revuedesdeuxmondes.fr/archive/article.php?code=71933">the original</a> on 1 February 2017. Retrieved 6 May 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Revue+des+Deux+Mondes&rft.atitle=Voltaire+%C3%A0+Oxford%2C+The+Voltaire+Foundation&rft.date=2011-10&rft.aulast=Julia&rft.aufirst=Aur%C3%A9lie&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Frddm.revuedesdeuxmondes.fr%2Farchive%2Farticle.php%3Fcode%3D71933&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVoltaire" class="Z3988"> English translation at <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAurélie_Julia" class="citation web cs1">Aurélie Julia. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160306043806/http://www.voltaire.ox.ac.uk/www_vf/newsEvents/VoltaireFoundation_RevueDeuxMondes_Eng.pdf">"Voltaire in Oxford"</a> (PDF). The Voltaire Foundation. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.voltaire.ox.ac.uk/www_vf/newsEvents/VoltaireFoundation_RevueDeuxMondes_Eng.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 6 March 2016. Retrieved 6 May 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Voltaire+in+Oxford&rft.pub=The+Voltaire+Foundation&rft.au=Aur%C3%A9lie+Julia&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.voltaire.ox.ac.uk%2Fwww_vf%2FnewsEvents%2FVoltaireFoundation_RevueDeuxMondes_Eng.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVoltaire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-291"><a href="#cite_ref-291">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohnson2010" class="citation news cs1">Johnson, Michael (23 January 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2010/01/23/opinion/23iht-edjohnson.html?ref=global&_r=0">"Voltaire the Survivor"</a>. The International Herald Tribune. The New York Times Company. Retrieved 4 May 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+International+Herald+Tribune.&rft.atitle=Voltaire+the+Survivor&rft.date=2010-01-23&rft.aulast=Johnson&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2010%2F01%2F23%2Fopinion%2F23iht-edjohnson.html%3Fref%3Dglobal%26_r%3D0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVoltaire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-292"><a href="#cite_ref-292">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://voltaire.ox.ac.uk/news-item/the-complete-works-of-voltaire-are-complete-in-205-volumes/">The Complete Works of Voltaire are complete</a> at voltaire.ox.ac.uk </li> <li id="cite_note-293"><a href="#cite_ref-293">^</a> Dates of the first performance, unless otherwise noted. Garreau, Joseph E. (1984). "Voltaire", vol. 5, pp. 113–17, in McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of World Drama, Stanley Hochman, editor in chief. New York: McGraw-Hill. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-07-079169-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-07-079169-5">978-0-07-079169-5</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-294"><a href="#cite_ref-294">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://history-biography.com/voltaire/">"Voltaire"</a>. History and biography. 27 July 2018. Retrieved 3 October 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=History+and+biography&rft.atitle=Voltaire&rft.date=2018-07-27&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhistory-biography.com%2Fvoltaire%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVoltaire" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBremmer2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jan_Bremmer" class="mw-redirect" title="Jan Bremmer">Bremmer, Jan</a> (2010). The Rise of Christianity Through the Eyes of Gibbon, Harnack and Rodney Stark. Barkhuis. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-77922-70-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-77922-70-5"><bdi>978-90-77922-70-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rise+of+Christianity+Through+the+Eyes+of+Gibbon%2C+Harnack+and+Rodney+Stark&rft.pub=Barkhuis&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-90-77922-70-5&rft.aulast=Bremmer&rft.aufirst=Jan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVoltaire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDurantDurant1980" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Will_Durant" title="Will Durant">Durant, Will</a>; <a href="/wiki/Ariel_Durant" title="Ariel Durant">Durant, Ariel</a> (1980) [1965]. <a href="/wiki/The_Story_of_Civilization#IX._The_Age_of_Voltaire_(1965)" title="The Story of Civilization">The Story of Civilization: The Age of Voltaire</a>. <a href="/wiki/Simon_%26_Schuster" title="Simon & Schuster">Simon & Schuster</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-671-01325-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-671-01325-7"><bdi>978-0-671-01325-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Story+of+Civilization%3A+The+Age+of+Voltaire&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=978-0-671-01325-7&rft.aulast=Durant&rft.aufirst=Will&rft.au=Durant%2C+Ariel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVoltaire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDurantDurant1967" class="citation book cs1">Durant, Will; Durant, Ariel (1967). <a href="/wiki/The_Story_of_Civilization#X._Rousseau_and_Revolution_(1967)" title="The Story of Civilization">The Story of Civilization: Rousseau and Revolution</a>. Simon & Schuster. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-56731-021-4" title="Special:BookSources/1-56731-021-4"><bdi>1-56731-021-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Story+of+Civilization%3A+Rousseau+and+Revolution&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=1967&rft.isbn=1-56731-021-4&rft.aulast=Durant&rft.aufirst=Will&rft.au=Durant%2C+Ariel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVoltaire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPearson2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Roger_Pearson_(literary_scholar)" title="Roger Pearson (literary scholar)">Pearson, Roger</a> (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/voltairealmighty00pear">Voltaire Almighty: A Life in Pursuit of Freedom</a>. Bloomsbury. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58234-630-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-58234-630-4"><bdi>978-1-58234-630-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Voltaire+Almighty%3A+A+Life+in+Pursuit+of+Freedom&rft.pub=Bloomsbury&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1-58234-630-4&rft.aulast=Pearson&rft.aufirst=Roger&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fvoltairealmighty00pear&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVoltaire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/12px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/18px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/24px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /> This article incorporates text from a publication now in the <a href="/wiki/Public_domain" title="Public domain">public domain</a>: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSaintsbury1911" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/George_Saintsbury" title="George Saintsbury">Saintsbury, George</a> (1911). "<a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Voltaire,_Fran%C3%A7ois_Marie_Arouet_de" class="extiw" title="s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Voltaire, François Marie Arouet de">Voltaire, François Marie Arouet de</a>". In <a href="/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm" title="Hugh Chisholm">Chisholm, Hugh</a> (ed.). <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a>. Vol. 28 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 199–205.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Voltaire%2C+Fran%C3%A7ois+Marie+Arouet+de&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.pages=199-205&rft.edition=11th&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1911&rft.aulast=Saintsbury&rft.aufirst=George&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVoltaire" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urs_App" title="Urs App">App, Urs</a>. The Birth of Orientalism. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2010 (hardcover, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-4261-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-4261-4">978-0-8122-4261-4</a>); contains a 60-page chapter (pp. 15–76) on Voltaire as a pioneer of Indomania and his use of fake Indian texts in anti-Christian propaganda.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodore_Besterman" title="Theodore Besterman">Besterman, Theodore</a>, Voltaire, (1969).</li> <li>Brumfitt, J. H. Voltaire: Historian (1958) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/read/14509369?title=Voltaire%3a%20Historian">online edition</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120505020617/http://www.questia.com/read/14509369?title=Voltaire%3a%20Historian">Archived</a> 5 May 2012 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarlyle1829" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Carlyle, Thomas</a> (1829). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/worksofthomascar26carliala/page/396/mode/2up">"Voltaire"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Critical_and_Miscellaneous_Essays" title="Critical and Miscellaneous Essays">Critical and Miscellaneous Essays: Volume I</a>. The Works of Thomas Carlyle in Thirty Volumes. Vol. XXVI. New York: <a href="/wiki/Charles_Scribner%27s_Sons" title="Charles Scribner's Sons">Charles Scribner's Sons</a> (published 1904). pp. 396–468.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Voltaire&rft.btitle=Critical+and+Miscellaneous+Essays%3A+Volume+I&rft.place=New+York&rft.series=The+Works+of+Thomas+Carlyle+in+Thirty+Volumes&rft.pages=396-468&rft.pub=Charles+Scribner%27s+Sons&rft.date=1829&rft.aulast=Carlyle&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fworksofthomascar26carliala%2Fpage%2F396%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVoltaire" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Davidson, Ian, Voltaire in Exile: The Last Years, Grove Press, 2004. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0802117910" title="Special:BookSources/0802117910">0802117910</a></li> <li>Davidson, Ian, Voltaire: A Life, London, <a href="/wiki/Profile_Books" title="Profile Books">Profile Books</a>, 2010. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-60598-287-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-60598-287-8">978-1-60598-287-8</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Gay" title="Peter Gay">Gay, Peter</a>, Voltaire's Politics: The Poet as Realist, Princeton University Press, 1959.</li> <li>Hadidi, Djavâd, Voltaire et l'Islam, Publications Orientalistes de France, 1974. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-84161-510-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-84161-510-0">978-2-84161-510-0</a>.</li> <li>Knapp, Bettina L., Voltaire Revisited (2000).</li> <li>Mason, Haydn, Voltaire: A Biography (1981) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-2611-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-2611-5">978-0-8018-2611-5</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcElroy2008" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Wendy_McElroy" title="Wendy McElroy">McElroy, Wendy</a> (2008). "Voltaire (1694–1778)". In <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Hamowy" title="Ronald Hamowy">Hamowy, Ronald</a> (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yxNgXs3TkJYC">The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism</a>. Thousand Oaks, CA: <a href="/wiki/SAGE_Publishing" class="mw-redirect" title="SAGE Publishing">Sage</a>; <a href="/wiki/Cato_Institute" title="Cato Institute">Cato Institute</a>. p. 523. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4135%2F9781412965811.n319">10.4135/9781412965811.n319</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4129-6580-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4129-6580-4"><bdi>978-1-4129-6580-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2008009151">2008009151</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/750831024">750831024</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Voltaire+%281694%E2%80%931778%29&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+Libertarianism&rft.place=Thousand+Oaks%2C+CA&rft.pages=523&rft.pub=Sage%3B+Cato+Institute&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F750831024&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2008009151&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4135%2F9781412965811.n319&rft.isbn=978-1-4129-6580-4&rft.aulast=McElroy&rft.aufirst=Wendy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DyxNgXs3TkJYC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVoltaire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nancy_Mitford" title="Nancy Mitford">Mitford, Nancy</a>, Voltaire in Love. New York: Harper, 1957.</li> <li>Muller, Jerry Z., 2002. The Mind and the Market: Capitalism in Western Thought. <a href="/wiki/Anchor_Books" class="mw-redirect" title="Anchor Books">Anchor Books</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-385-72166-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-385-72166-0">978-0-385-72166-0</a>.</li> <li>Quinones, Ricardo J. Erasmus and Voltaire: Why They Still Matter (University of Toronto Press; 2010) 240 pp; Draws parallels between the two thinkers as voices of moderation with relevance today.</li> <li>Schwarzbach, Bertram Eugene, Voltaire's Old Testament Criticism, Librairie Droz, Geneva, 1971.</li> <li>Torrey, Norman L., The Spirit of Voltaire, Columbia University Press, 1938.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVernon,_Thomas_S.1989" class="citation book cs1">Vernon, Thomas S. (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20010208224557/http://www.positiveatheism.org/hist/voltvern.htm">"Chapter V: Voltaire"</a>. Great Infidels. M & M Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-943099-05-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-943099-05-6"><bdi>0-943099-05-6</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.positiveatheism.org/hist/voltvern.htm">the original</a> on 8 February 2001.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+V%3A+Voltaire&rft.btitle=Great+Infidels&rft.pub=M+%26+M+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=0-943099-05-6&rft.au=Vernon%2C+Thomas+S.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.positiveatheism.org%2Fhist%2Fvoltvern.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVoltaire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWade,_Ira_O.1967" class="citation book cs1">Wade, Ira O. (1967). Studies on Voltaire. New York: Russell & Russell.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Studies+on+Voltaire&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Russell+%26+Russell&rft.date=1967&rft.au=Wade%2C+Ira+O.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVoltaire" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Wright, Charles Henry Conrad, A History of French Literature, <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>, 1912.</li> <li>The Cambridge Companion to Voltaire, ed. by Nicholas Cronk, 2009.</li></ul> In French <ul><li>Korolev, S. "Voltaire et la reliure des livres". Revue Voltaire. Paris, 2013. No. 13. pp. 233–40.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Pomeau" title="René Pomeau">René Pomeau</a>, La Religion de Voltaire, Librairie Nizet, Paris, 1974.</li> <li>Valérie Crugten-André, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160101202058/http://www.memo.fr/dossier.asp?ID=629">La vie de Voltaire</a></li></ul> Primary sources <ul><li>Morley, J., The Works of Voltaire: A Contemporary Version (21 vol.; 1901), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110727030713/http://app.libraryofliberty.org/?option=com_staticxt&staticfile=show.php%3Fperson=3804&Itemid=28">online edition</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid 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href="https://archive.org/search.php?query=%28%28subject%3A%22Voltaire%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Voltaire%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Voltaire%22%20OR%20title%3A%22Voltaire%22%29%20OR%20%28%221694-1778%22%20AND%20Voltaire%29%29%20AND%20%28-mediatype:software%29">Works by or about Voltaire</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://librivox.org/author/4298">Works by Voltaire</a> at <a href="/wiki/LibriVox" title="LibriVox">LibriVox</a> (public domain audiobooks) <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/15px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/23px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/30px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="500" /></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/history/Biographies/Chatelet.html">Gabrielle Émilie Le Tonnelier de Breteuil Marquise du Châtelet</a>, School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of St Andrews, Scotland</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHewett,_Caspar_J._M.2006" class="citation web cs1">Hewett, Caspar J. M. (August 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://thegreatdebate.org.uk/Voltaire.html">"The Great Debate: Life of Voltaire"</a>. Retrieved 2 November 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Great+Debate%3A+Life+of+Voltaire&rft.date=2006-08&rft.au=Hewett%2C+Caspar+J.+M.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fthegreatdebate.org.uk%2FVoltaire.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVoltaire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://societe-voltaire.org/">The Société Voltaire</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bacdefrancais.net/">An analysis of Voltaire's texts (in the "textes" topic)</a> (in French)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160101202057/http://www.livres-et-ebooks.fr/auteur/Voltaire-738/">Complete French ebooks of Voltaire</a> (in French)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ville-ge.ch/imv/">Institut et Musée Voltaire, Geneva, Switzerland</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090512210443/http://www.ville-ge.ch/imv/">Archived</a> 12 May 2009 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://athena.unige.ch/athena/voltaire/voltaire.html">Works by Voltaire edited at athena.unige.ch</a> (in French)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/d/deismfre.htm">Internet Encyclopaedia of Philosophy on Voltaire</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160523173331/http://www.voltaire.ox.ac.uk/www_vf/ocv/Best_avail_editions.pdf">Complete listing of current published editions of Voltaire's works</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://oll.libertyfund.org/index.php?option=com_staticxt&staticfile=show.php&person=3804">Online Library of Liberty – The Works of Voltaire (1901)</a>. Some volumes, including mostly the unabridged <a href="/wiki/Dictionnaire_philosophique" title="Dictionnaire philosophique">Dictionnaire philosophique</a>, translated by William F. Fleming</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.intratext.com/Catalogo/Autori/AUT396.HTM">Voltaire's works</a>: works: text, concordances and frequency list</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://history.hanover.edu/texts/voltaire/volindex.html">Voltaire's writings from Philosophical Dictionary</a>. Selected and Translated by H.I. Woolf, 1924</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.litteratureaudio.com/livre-audio-gratuit-mp3/auteur/voltaire">Voltaire, his work in audio version</a> <img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/15px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/23px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/30px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="500" /> (in French)</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox 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class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible expanded navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Voltaire" title="Template:Voltaire"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Voltaire" title="Template talk:Voltaire"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Voltaire" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Voltaire"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Voltaire" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Voltaire</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Prose works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Letters_on_the_English" title="Letters on the English">Letters on the English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elements_of_the_Philosophy_of_Newton" title="Elements of the Philosophy of Newton">Elements of the Philosophy of Newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zadig" title="Zadig">Zadig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Charles_XII" title="History of Charles XII">History of Charles XII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Age_of_Louis_XIV" title="The Age of Louis XIV">The Age of Louis XIV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microm%C3%A9gas" title="Micromégas">Micromégas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annals_of_the_Empire" title="Annals of the Empire">Annals of the Empire</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Plato%27s_Dream" title="Plato's Dream">Plato's Dream</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doctor_Akakia" title="Doctor Akakia">Doctor Akakia</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Essai_sur_les_m%C5%93urs_et_l%27esprit_des_nations" title="Essai sur les mœurs et l'esprit des nations">Essai sur les mœurs et l'esprit des nations</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Candide" title="Candide">Candide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treatise_on_Tolerance" title="Treatise on Tolerance">Treatise on Tolerance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dictionnaire_philosophique" title="Dictionnaire philosophique">Dictionnaire philosophique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commentaires_sur_Corneille" title="Commentaires sur Corneille">Commentaires sur Corneille</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Id%C3%A9es_r%C3%A9publicaines" title="Idées républicaines">Idées républicaines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Questions_sur_les_Miracles" title="Questions sur les Miracles">Questions sur les Miracles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%27Ing%C3%A9nu" title="L'Ingénu">L'Ingénu</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/The_Historical_Praise_of_Reason" title="The Historical Praise of Reason">The Historical Praise of Reason</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pr%C3%A9cis_du_si%C3%A8cle_de_Louis_XV" title="Précis du siècle de Louis XV">Précis du siècle de Louis XV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Des_singularit%C3%A9s_de_la_nature" title="Des singularités de la nature">Des singularités de la nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Man_of_Forty_Crowns" title="The Man of Forty Crowns">The Man of Forty Crowns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_White_Bull" title="The White Bull">The White Bull</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Les_Dialogues_d%E2%80%99Evh%C3%A9m%C3%A8re" class="mw-redirect" title="Les Dialogues d’Evhémère">Les Dialogues d’Evhémère</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Poetry</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Henriade" title="Henriade">Henriade</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Le_Mondain" title="Le Mondain">Le Mondain</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Po%C3%A8me_sur_le_d%C3%A9sastre_de_Lisbonne" title="Poème sur le désastre de Lisbonne">Poème sur le désastre de Lisbonne</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/%C3%89p%C3%AEtre_%C3%A0_l%27Auteur_du_Livre_des_Trois_Imposteurs" title="Épître à l'Auteur du Livre des Trois Imposteurs">Épître à l'Auteur du Livre des Trois Imposteurs</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Maid_of_Orleans_(poem)" title="The Maid of Orleans (poem)">The Maid of Orleans</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Drama</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oedipus_(Voltaire_play)" title="Oedipus (Voltaire play)">Oedipus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art%C3%A9mire_(tragedy)" title="Artémire (tragedy)">Artémire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H%C3%A9rode_et_Mariamne" title="Hérode et Mariamne">Hérode et Mariamne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brutus_(tragedy)" title="Brutus (tragedy)">Brutus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89riphyle_(tragedy)" title="Ériphyle (tragedy)">Ériphyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Za%C3%AFre_(play)" title="Zaïre (play)">Zaïre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/La_Prude" title="La Prude">La Prude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socrates_(Voltaire)" title="Socrates (Voltaire)">Socrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahomet_(play)" title="Mahomet (play)">Mahomet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C3%A9rope" title="Mérope">Mérope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/La_princesse_de_Navarre" title="La princesse de Navarre">La princesse de Navarre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%A9miramis_(tragedy)" title="Sémiramis (tragedy)">Sémiramis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanine" title="Nanine">Nanine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%27Orphelin_de_la_Chine" title="L'Orphelin de la Chine">L'Orphelin de la Chine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/La_Femme_qui_a_Raison" title="La Femme qui a Raison">La Femme qui a Raison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tancr%C3%A8de_(tragedy)" title="Tancrède (tragedy)">Tancrède</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Don_P%C3%A8dre,_roi_de_Castille" title="Don Pèdre, roi de Castille">Don Pèdre, roi de Castille</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sophonisbe_(tragedy)" title="Sophonisbe (tragedy)">Sophonisbe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ir%C3%A8ne_(tragedy)" title="Irène (tragedy)">Irène</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agathocle" title="Agathocle">Agathocle</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Samson_(opera)" title="Samson (opera)">Samson (opera)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Les_D%C3%A9lices" title="Les Délices">Les Délices</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Institut_et_Mus%C3%A9e_Voltaire" title="Institut et Musée Voltaire">Institut et Musée Voltaire</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89milie_du_Ch%C3%A2telet" title="Émilie du Châtelet">Émilie du Châtelet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voltaire_Foundation" title="Voltaire Foundation">Voltaire Foundation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Complete_Works_of_Voltaire" title="Complete Works of Voltaire">Complete Works of Voltaire</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferney-Voltaire" title="Ferney-Voltaire">Ferney-Voltaire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Friends_of_Voltaire" title="The Friends of Voltaire">The Friends of Voltaire</a> (1906 book)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voltaire_(film)" title="Voltaire (film)">Voltaire</a> (1933 film)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passionate_Minds" title="Passionate Minds">Passionate Minds</a> (2006 novel)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Animal_rights" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Animal_rights" title="Template:Animal rights"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Animal_rights" title="Template talk:Animal rights"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Animal_rights" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Animal rights"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Animal_rights" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Animal_rights" title="Animal rights">Animal rights</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Topics_(overviews,_concepts,_issues,_cases)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Topics (overviews, concepts, issues, cases)</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Overviews</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_rights_movement" title="Animal rights movement">Animal rights movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_rights_by_country_or_territory" title="Animal rights by country or territory">Animal rights by country or territory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_and_animal_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Anarchism and animal rights">Anarchism and animal rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_rights_and_punk_subculture" title="Animal rights and punk subculture">Animal rights and punk subculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_cruelty_and_the_Holocaust_analogy" class="mw-redirect" title="Animal cruelty and the Holocaust analogy">Animal cruelty–Holocaust analogies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_rights_in_Indian_religions" title="Animal rights in Indian religions">Animal rights in Indian religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_and_animal_rights" title="Christianity and animal rights">Christianity and animal rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_animal_rights" title="History of animal rights">History of animal rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_international_animal_welfare_conventions" title="List of international animal welfare conventions">List of international animal welfare conventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_status_of_animals_in_the_ancient_world" title="Moral status of animals in the ancient world">Moral status of animals in the ancient world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_animal_welfare_and_rights" title="Timeline of animal welfare and rights">Timeline of animal welfare and rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Total_liberation" title="Total liberation">Total liberation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_Declaration_on_Animal_Welfare" title="Universal Declaration on Animal Welfare">Universal Declaration on Animal Welfare</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_(animal_rights)" title="Abolitionism (animal rights)">Abolitionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahimsa" title="Ahimsa">Ahimsa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_cognition" title="Animal cognition">Animal cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_consciousness" title="Animal consciousness">Animal consciousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_ethics" title="Animal ethics">Animal ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal%E2%80%93industrial_complex" title="Animal–industrial complex">Animal–industrial complex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_law" title="Animal law">Animal law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_protectionism" title="Animal protectionism">Animal protectionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_welfare" title="Animal welfare">Animal welfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal-free_agriculture" title="Animal-free agriculture">Animal-free agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthrozoology" title="Anthrozoology">Anthrozoology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_marginal_cases" title="Argument from marginal cases">Argument from marginal cases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambridge_Declaration_on_Consciousness" class="mw-redirect" title="Cambridge Declaration on Consciousness">Cambridge Declaration on Consciousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carnism" title="Carnism">Carnism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equal_consideration_of_interests" title="Equal consideration of interests">Equal consideration of interests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotion_in_animals" title="Emotion in animals">Emotion in animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_eating_meat" title="Ethics of eating meat">Ethics of eating meat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_uncertain_sentience" title="Ethics of uncertain sentience">Ethics of uncertain sentience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethology" title="Ethology">Ethology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insects_in_ethics" title="Insects in ethics">Insects in ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meat_paradox" class="mw-redirect" title="Meat paradox">Meat paradox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonviolence" title="Nonviolence">Nonviolence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_rescue" title="Open rescue">Open rescue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opposition_to_hunting" title="Opposition to hunting">Opposition to hunting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personism" title="Personism">Personism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Replaceability_argument" title="Replaceability argument">Replaceability argument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sentiocentrism" class="mw-redirect" title="Sentiocentrism">Sentiocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speciesism" title="Speciesism">Speciesism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veganism" title="Veganism">Veganism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vegaphobia" title="Vegaphobia">Vegaphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vegetarianism" title="Vegetarianism">Vegetarianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Issues</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Animal_agriculture" class="mw-redirect" title="Animal agriculture">Animal agriculture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_product" title="Animal product">Animal product</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battery_cage" title="Battery cage">Battery cage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bile_bear" title="Bile bear">Bile bear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chick_culling" title="Chick culling">Chick culling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concentrated_animal_feeding_operation" title="Concentrated animal feeding operation">Concentrated animal feeding operation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fish_farming" title="Fish farming">Fish farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fur_farming" title="Fur farming">Fur farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fur_trade" title="Fur trade">Fur trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insect_farming" title="Insect farming">Insect farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intensive_animal_farming" title="Intensive animal farming">Intensive animal farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intensive_pig_farming" title="Intensive pig farming">Intensive pig farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Livestock" title="Livestock">Livestock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poultry_farming" title="Poultry farming">Poultry farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slaughterhouse" title="Slaughterhouse">Slaughterhouse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_farming" title="Wildlife farming">Wildlife farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Working_animal" title="Working animal">Working animal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feedback_(pork_industry)" title="Feedback (pork industry)">Feedback (pork industry)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foam_depopulation" title="Foam depopulation">Foam depopulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ventilation_shutdown" title="Ventilation shutdown">Ventilation shutdown</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Animal_testing" title="Animal testing">Animal testing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternatives_to_animal_testing" title="Alternatives to animal testing">Alternatives to animal testing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_testing_on_non-human_primates" title="Animal testing on non-human primates">Animal testing on non-human primates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_testing_regulations" title="Animal testing regulations">Animal testing regulations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_ape_research_ban" class="mw-redirect" title="Great ape research ban">Great ape research ban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_Scare" title="Green Scare">Green Scare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huntingdon_Life_Sciences" title="Huntingdon Life Sciences">Huntingdon Life Sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Model_organism" title="Model organism">Model organism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nafovanny" title="Nafovanny">Nafovanny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Backfire_(FBI)" title="Operation Backfire (FBI)">Operation Backfire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vivisection" title="Vivisection">Vivisection</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Animal_welfare" title="Animal welfare">Animal welfare</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_euthanasia" title="Animal euthanasia">Animal euthanasia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cruelty_to_animals" title="Cruelty to animals">Cruelty to animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pain_in_animals" title="Pain in animals">Pain in animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pain_in_amphibians" title="Pain in amphibians">Pain in amphibians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pain_in_cephalopods" title="Pain in cephalopods">Pain in cephalopods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pain_in_crustaceans" title="Pain in crustaceans">Pain in crustaceans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pain_in_fish" title="Pain in fish">Pain in fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pain_in_invertebrates" title="Pain in invertebrates">Pain in invertebrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pain_and_suffering_in_laboratory_animals" class="mw-redirect" title="Pain and suffering in laboratory animals">Pain and suffering in laboratory animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welfare_of_farmed_insects" title="Welfare of farmed insects">Welfare of farmed insects</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Fishing" title="Fishing">Fishing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commercial_fishing" title="Commercial fishing">Commercial fishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fishing_bait" title="Fishing bait">Fishing bait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recreational_fishing" title="Recreational fishing">Recreational fishing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Wild_animals" class="mw-redirect" title="Wild animals">Wild animals</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Culling_wildlife" class="mw-redirect" title="Culling wildlife">Culling wildlife</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hare_coursing" title="Hare coursing">Hare coursing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunting" title="Hunting">Hunting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_primate_trade" title="International primate trade">International primate trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivory_trade" title="Ivory trade">Ivory trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Predation_problem" title="Predation problem">Predation problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seal_hunting" title="Seal hunting">Seal hunting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wild_animal_suffering" title="Wild animal suffering">Wild animal suffering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_management" title="Wildlife management">Wildlife management</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abandoned_pets" title="Abandoned pets">Abandoned pets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_sacrifice" title="Animal sacrifice">Animal sacrifice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_slaughter" title="Animal slaughter">Animal slaughter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_trial" title="Animal trial">Animal trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animals_in_sport" title="Animals in sport">Animals in sport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Live_food" title="Live food">Live food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Live_export" title="Live export">Live export</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cases</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brown_Dog_affair" title="Brown Dog affair">Brown Dog affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_primates" title="Cambridge University primates">Cambridge University primates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/McLibel_case" title="McLibel case">McLibel case</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monkey_selfie_copyright_dispute" title="Monkey selfie copyright dispute">Monkey selfie copyright dispute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pit_of_despair" title="Pit of despair">Pit of despair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stop_Huntingdon_Animal_Cruelty" title="Stop Huntingdon Animal Cruelty">SHAC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silver_Spring_monkeys" title="Silver Spring monkeys">Silver Spring monkeys</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_Riverside_1985_laboratory_raid" title="University of California, Riverside 1985 laboratory raid">University of California, Riverside 1985 laboratory raid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unnecessary_Fuss" title="Unnecessary Fuss">Unnecessary Fuss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_the_currents" title="War of the currents">War of the currents</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Methodologies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Direct_Action_Everywhere" title="Direct Action Everywhere">Direct Action Everywhere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunt_sabotage" title="Hunt sabotage">Hunt sabotage</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Observances</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/World_Animal_Day" title="World Animal Day">World Animal Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Day_for_the_End_of_Speciesism" title="World Day for the End of Speciesism">World Day for the End of Speciesism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Day_for_Laboratory_Animals" title="World Day for Laboratory Animals">World Day for Laboratory Animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Day_for_the_End_of_Fishing" title="World Day for the End of Fishing">World Day for the End of Fishing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Advocates_(academics,_writers,_activists)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_animal_rights_advocates" title="List of animal rights advocates">Advocates</a> (academics, writers, activists)</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academics and writers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Contemporary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carol_J._Adams" title="Carol J. Adams">Carol J. Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aysha_Akhtar" title="Aysha Akhtar">Aysha Akhtar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kristin_Andrews" title="Kristin Andrews">Kristin Andrews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tom_Beauchamp" title="Tom Beauchamp">Tom Beauchamp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marc_Bekoff" title="Marc Bekoff">Marc Bekoff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steven_Best" title="Steven Best">Steven Best</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paola_Cavalieri" title="Paola Cavalieri">Paola Cavalieri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_R._L._Clark" title="Stephen R. L. Clark">Stephen R. L. Clark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alasdair_Cochrane" title="Alasdair Cochrane">Alasdair Cochrane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._M._Coetzee" title="J. M. Coetzee">J. M. Coetzee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alice_Crary" title="Alice Crary">Alice Crary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_DeGrazia" title="David DeGrazia">David DeGrazia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Dombrowski" title="Daniel Dombrowski">Daniel Dombrowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sue_Donaldson" title="Sue Donaldson">Sue Donaldson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josephine_Donovan" title="Josephine Donovan">Josephine Donovan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joan_Dunayer" title="Joan Dunayer">Joan Dunayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mylan_Engel" title="Mylan Engel">Mylan Engel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catia_Faria" title="Catia Faria">Catia Faria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Finsen" title="Lawrence Finsen">Lawrence Finsen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gary_L._Francione" title="Gary L. Francione">Gary L. Francione</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Garner" title="Robert Garner">Robert Garner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Val%C3%A9ry_Giroux" title="Valéry Giroux">Valéry Giroux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lori_Gruen" title="Lori Gruen">Lori Gruen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Hadley_(philosopher)" title="John Hadley (philosopher)">John Hadley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oscar_Horta" title="Oscar Horta">Oscar Horta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dale_Jamieson" title="Dale Jamieson">Dale Jamieson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyle_Johannsen" title="Kyle Johannsen">Kyle Johannsen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melanie_Joy" title="Melanie Joy">Melanie Joy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hilda_Kean" title="Hilda Kean">Hilda Kean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Will_Kymlicka" title="Will Kymlicka">Will Kymlicka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renan_Larue" title="Renan Larue">Renan Larue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Lepeltier" title="Thomas Lepeltier">Thomas Lepeltier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Linzey" title="Andrew Linzey">Andrew Linzey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clair_Linzey" title="Clair Linzey">Clair Linzey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dan_Lyons" title="Dan Lyons">Dan Lyons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Nibert" title="David Nibert">David Nibert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Martha Nussbaum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clare_Palmer" title="Clare Palmer">Clare Palmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Patterson_(author)" title="Charles Patterson (author)">Charles Patterson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Pearce_(philosopher)" title="David Pearce (philosopher)">David Pearce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jessica_Pierce" title="Jessica Pierce">Jessica Pierce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evelyn_Pluhar" title="Evelyn Pluhar">Evelyn Pluhar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Rowlands" title="Mark Rowlands">Mark Rowlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_D._Ryder" title="Richard D. Ryder">Richard D. Ryder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steve_F._Sapontzis" title="Steve F. Sapontzis">Steve F. Sapontzis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeff_Sebo" title="Jeff Sebo">Jeff Sebo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%A9r%C3%B4me_Segal" title="Jérôme Segal">Jérôme Segal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Singer" title="Peter Singer">Peter Singer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gary_Steiner" title="Gary Steiner">Gary Steiner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cass_Sunstein" title="Cass Sunstein">Cass Sunstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Sztybel" title="David Sztybel">David Sztybel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Tye_(philosopher)" title="Michael Tye (philosopher)">Michael Tye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tatjana_Vi%C5%A1ak" title="Tatjana Višak">Tatjana Višak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Waldau" title="Paul Waldau">Paul Waldau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corey_Lee_Wrenn" title="Corey Lee Wrenn">Corey Lee Wrenn</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Jeremy Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Renaud_Boullier" title="David Renaud Boullier">David Renaud Boullier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_St._C._Bostock" title="Stephen St. C. Bostock">Stephen St. C. Bostock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brigid_Brophy" title="Brigid Brophy">Brigid Brophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Buchan" title="Peter Buchan">Peter Buchan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mona_Caird" title="Mona Caird">Mona Caird</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priscilla_Cohn" title="Priscilla Cohn">Priscilla Cohn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Crowe_(vicar)" title="Henry Crowe (vicar)">Henry Crowe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herman_Daggett" title="Herman Daggett">Herman Daggett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Dean_(curate)" title="Richard Dean (curate)">Richard Dean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Dietler" title="Wilhelm Dietler">Wilhelm Dietler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Hamilton_Drummond" title="William Hamilton Drummond">William Hamilton Drummond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Payson_Evans" title="Edward Payson Evans">Edward Payson Evans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T._Forster" title="T. Forster">T. Forster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Galsworthy" title="John Galsworthy">John Galsworthy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_G._Gentry" title="Thomas G. Gentry">Thomas G. Gentry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Helps" title="Arthur Helps">Arthur Helps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Hildrop" title="John Hildrop">John Hildrop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Zephaniah_Holwell" title="John Zephaniah Holwell">John Zephaniah Holwell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soame_Jenyns" title="Soame Jenyns">Soame Jenyns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Christian_Friedrich_Krause" title="Karl Christian Friedrich Krause">Karl Christian Friedrich Krause</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Lawrence_(writer)" title="John Lawrence (writer)">John Lawrence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_R._Magel" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles R. Magel">Charles R. Magel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Meslier" title="Jean Meslier">Jean Meslier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Midgley" title="Mary Midgley">Mary Midgley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Howard_Moore" title="J. Howard Moore">J. Howard Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ferrater_Mora" title="José Ferrater Mora">José Ferrater Mora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonard_Nelson" title="Leonard Nelson">Leonard Nelson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Nicholson_(librarian)" title="Edward Nicholson (librarian)">Edward Nicholson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siobhan_O%27Sullivan" title="Siobhan O'Sullivan">Siobhan O'Sullivan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rod_Preece" title="Rod Preece">Rod Preece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humphrey_Primatt" title="Humphrey Primatt">Humphrey Primatt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Rachels" title="James Rachels">James Rachels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tom_Regan" title="Tom Regan">Tom Regan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nathaniel_Peabody_Rogers" title="Nathaniel Peabody Rogers">Nathaniel Peabody Rogers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Rollin" title="Bernard Rollin">Bernard Rollin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Stephens_Salt" title="Henry Stephens Salt">Henry Stephens Salt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Arthur Schopenhauer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laurids_Smith" title="Laurids Smith">Laurids Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Styles" title="John Styles">John Styles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Tryon" title="Thomas Tryon">Thomas Tryon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gary_Varner" title="Gary Varner">Gary Varner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Friedrich_Ludwig_Volckmann" title="Johann Friedrich Ludwig Volckmann">Johann Friedrich Ludwig Volckmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Anne_Warren" title="Mary Anne Warren">Mary Anne Warren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Gottlieb_Weigen" title="Adam Gottlieb Weigen">Adam Gottlieb Weigen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Heinrich_Winckler" title="Johann Heinrich Winckler">Johann Heinrich Winckler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steven_M._Wise" title="Steven M. Wise">Steven M. Wise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jon_Wynne-Tyson" title="Jon Wynne-Tyson">Jon Wynne-Tyson</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Voltaire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Activists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Contemporary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/James_Aspey" title="James Aspey">James Aspey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greg_Avery" title="Greg Avery">Greg Avery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matt_Ball" title="Matt Ball">Matt Ball</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Balluch" title="Martin Balluch">Martin Balluch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carole_Baskin" title="Carole Baskin">Carole Baskin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbi_Twins" title="Barbi Twins">Barbi Twins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brigitte_Bardot" title="Brigitte Bardot">Brigitte Bardot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gene_Baur" title="Gene Baur">Gene Baur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yves_Bonnardel" title="Yves Bonnardel">Yves Bonnardel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joey_Carbstrong" title="Joey Carbstrong">Joey Carbstrong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aymeric_Caron" title="Aymeric Caron">Aymeric Caron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jake_Conroy" title="Jake Conroy">Jake Conroy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rod_Coronado" title="Rod Coronado">Rod Coronado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karen_Dawn" title="Karen Dawn">Karen Dawn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chris_DeRose" title="Chris DeRose">Chris DeRose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Feldmann" title="John Feldmann">John Feldmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruce_Friedrich" title="Bruce Friedrich">Bruce Friedrich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juliet_Gellatley" title="Juliet Gellatley">Juliet Gellatley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tal_Gilboa" title="Tal Gilboa">Tal Gilboa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Goetschel" title="Antoine Goetschel">Antoine Goetschel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Gold_(activist)" title="Mark Gold (activist)">Mark Gold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brigitte_Gothi%C3%A8re" title="Brigitte Gothière">Brigitte Gothière</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wayne_Hsiung" title="Wayne Hsiung">Wayne Hsiung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charlotte_Laws" title="Charlotte Laws">Charlotte Laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronnie_Lee" title="Ronnie Lee">Ronnie Lee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Howard_Lyman" title="Howard Lyman">Howard Lyman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evanna_Lynch" title="Evanna Lynch">Evanna Lynch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bill_Maher" title="Bill Maher">Bill Maher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keith_Mann" title="Keith Mann">Keith Mann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Mason_(activist)" title="Jim Mason (activist)">Jim Mason</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dan_Mathews" title="Dan Mathews">Dan Mathews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jo-Anne_McArthur" title="Jo-Anne McArthur">Jo-Anne McArthur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lu%C3%ADsa_Mell" class="mw-redirect" title="Luísa Mell">Luísa Mell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virginia_McKenna" title="Virginia McKenna">Virginia McKenna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morrissey" title="Morrissey">Morrissey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ingrid_Newkirk" title="Ingrid Newkirk">Ingrid Newkirk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heather_Nicholson" title="Heather Nicholson">Heather Nicholson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_Norris_(activist)" title="Jack Norris (activist)">Jack Norris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ric_O%27Barry" title="Ric O'Barry">Ric O'Barry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Olivier" title="David Olivier">David Olivier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alex_Pacheco_(activist)" title="Alex Pacheco (activist)">Alex Pacheco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Craig_Rosebraugh" title="Craig Rosebraugh">Craig Rosebraugh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nathan_Runkle" class="mw-redirect" title="Nathan Runkle">Nathan Runkle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jasmin_Singer" title="Jasmin Singer">Jasmin Singer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kim_Stallwood" title="Kim Stallwood">Kim Stallwood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynda_Stoner" title="Lynda Stoner">Lynda Stoner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marianne_Thieme" title="Marianne Thieme">Marianne Thieme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Darren_Thurston" title="Darren Thurston">Darren Thurston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christine_Townend" title="Christine Townend">Christine Townend</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wendy_Turner-Webster" title="Wendy Turner-Webster">Wendy Turner-Webster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerry_Vlasak" title="Jerry Vlasak">Jerry Vlasak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louise_Wallis" title="Louise Wallis">Louise Wallis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gary_Yourofsky" title="Gary Yourofsky">Gary Yourofsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/That_Vegan_Teacher" title="That Vegan Teacher">That Vegan Teacher</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cleveland_Amory" title="Cleveland Amory">Cleveland Amory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_B._Amos" title="Henry B. Amos">Henry B. Amos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Barker" title="Bob Barker">Bob Barker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Bell_(animal_rights_activist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ernest Bell (animal rights activist)">Ernest Bell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edith_Carrington" title="Edith Carrington">Edith Carrington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frances_Power_Cobbe" title="Frances Power Cobbe">Frances Power Cobbe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joan_Court" title="Joan Court">Joan Court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karen_Davis_(activist)" title="Karen Davis (activist)">Karen Davis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Dixon" title="Royal Dixon">Royal Dixon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muriel_Dowding,_Baroness_Dowding" title="Muriel Dowding, Baroness Dowding">Muriel Dowding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Farians" title="Elizabeth Farians">Elizabeth Farians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emarel_Freshel" title="Emarel Freshel">Emarel Freshel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_G%C3%A9raud" title="André Géraud">André Géraud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lewis_Gompertz" title="Lewis Gompertz">Lewis Gompertz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Granger" title="James Granger">James Granger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barry_Horne_(activist)" title="Barry Horne (activist)">Barry Horne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marie_Huot" title="Marie Huot">Marie Huot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lizzy_Lind_af_Hageby" title="Lizzy Lind af Hageby">Lizzy Lind af Hageby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jessie_Mackay" title="Jessie Mackay">Jessie Mackay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norm_Phelps" title="Norm Phelps">Norm Phelps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_of_Jill_Phipps" title="Death of Jill Phipps">Jill Phipps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maud_Ingersoll_Probasco" title="Maud Ingersoll Probasco">Maud Ingersoll Probasco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Ruesch" title="Hans Ruesch">Hans Ruesch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nell_Shipman" title="Nell Shipman">Nell Shipman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Spira" title="Henry Spira">Henry Spira</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Tyler" title="Andrew Tyler">Andrew Tyler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gretchen_Wyler" title="Gretchen Wyler">Gretchen Wyler</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Movement_(groups,_parties)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Animal_rights_movement" title="Animal rights movement">Movement</a> (groups, parties)</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Contemporary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Anti-Vivisection_Society" title="American Anti-Vivisection Society">American Anti-Vivisection Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_Aid" title="Animal Aid">Animal Aid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_Ethics_(organization)" title="Animal Ethics (organization)">Animal Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_Justice_(organization)" title="Animal Justice (organization)">Animal Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_Justice_Project" title="Animal Justice Project">Animal Justice Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_Legal_Defense_Fund" title="Animal Legal Defense Fund">Animal Legal Defense Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_Liberation_(organisation)" title="Animal Liberation (organisation)">Animal Liberation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_Liberation_Front" title="Animal Liberation Front">Animal Liberation Front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_Rising" title="Animal Rising">Animal Rising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AnimaNaturalis" title="AnimaNaturalis">AnimaNaturalis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Vivisection_Coalition" title="Anti-Vivisection Coalition">Anti-Vivisection Coalition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anonymous_for_the_Voiceless" title="Anonymous for the Voiceless">Anonymous for the Voiceless</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beauty_Without_Cruelty" title="Beauty Without Cruelty">Beauty Without Cruelty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Born_Free_Foundation" title="Born Free Foundation">Born Free Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centre_for_Animals_and_Social_Justice" title="Centre for Animals and Social Justice">Centre for Animals and Social Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Animal_Protection_Network" title="Chinese Animal Protection Network">Chinese Animal Protection Network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cruelty_Free_International" title="Cruelty Free International">Cruelty Free International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_Action_Everywhere" title="Direct Action Everywhere">Direct Action Everywhere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doctors_Against_Animal_Experiments" title="Doctors Against Animal Experiments">Doctors Against Animal Experiments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equanimal" title="Equanimal">Equanimal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Every_Animal" title="Every Animal">Every Animal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Farm_Animal_Rights_Movement" title="Farm Animal Rights Movement">Farm Animal Rights Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faunalytics" title="Faunalytics">Faunalytics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Ape_Project" title="Great Ape Project">Great Ape Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunt_Saboteurs_Association" title="Hunt Saboteurs Association">Hunt Saboteurs Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/In_Defense_of_Animals" title="In Defense of Animals">In Defense of Animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korea_Animal_Rights_Advocates" title="Korea Animal Rights Advocates">Korea Animal Rights Advocates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L214" title="L214">L214</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Last_Chance_for_Animals" title="Last Chance for Animals">Last Chance for Animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Animal_Rights_Coalition" title="Massachusetts Animal Rights Coalition">Massachusetts Animal Rights Coalition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercy_for_Animals" title="Mercy for Animals">Mercy for Animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxford_Centre_for_Animal_Ethics" title="Oxford Centre for Animal Ethics">Oxford Centre for Animal Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People_for_the_Ethical_Treatment_of_Animals" title="People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals">People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rise_for_Animals" title="Rise for Animals">Rise for Animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sentience_Politics" title="Sentience Politics">Sentience Politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uncaged_Campaigns" title="Uncaged Campaigns">Uncaged Campaigns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Activists_for_Animal_Rights" title="United Activists for Animal Rights">United Activists for Animal Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Poultry_Concerns" title="United Poultry Concerns">United Poultry Concerns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UPF-Centre_for_Animal_Ethics" title="UPF-Centre for Animal Ethics">UPF-Centre for Animal Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viva!_(organisation)" title="Viva! (organisation)">Viva!</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voice_for_Animals_Humane_Society" title="Voice for Animals Humane Society">Voice for Animals Humane Society</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_Anti-Vivisection_Society" title="Canadian Anti-Vivisection Society">Canadian Anti-Vivisection Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanitarian_League" title="Humanitarian League">Humanitarian League</a> (1891–1919)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Millennium_Guild" class="mw-redirect" title="Millennium Guild">Millennium Guild</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxford_Group_(animal_rights)" title="Oxford Group (animal rights)">Oxford Group</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Parties</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_Justice_Party" title="Animal Justice Party">Animal Justice Party</a> (Australia)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_Politics_EU" title="Animal Politics EU">Animal Politics EU</a> (Europe)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_Protection_Party_of_Canada" title="Animal Protection Party of Canada">Animal Protection Party of Canada</a> (Canada)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_Justice_Party_of_Finland" title="Animal Justice Party of Finland">Animal Justice Party of Finland</a> (Finland)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animals%27_Party" title="Animals' Party">Animals' Party</a> (Sweden)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animalist_Movement" title="Animalist Movement">Animalist Movement</a> (Italy)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animalist_Party_with_the_Environment" title="Animalist Party with the Environment">Animalist Party with the Environment</a> (Spain)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/DierAnimal" title="DierAnimal">DierAnimal</a> (Belgium)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_Environment_Animal_Protection_Party" title="Human Environment Animal Protection Party">Human Environment Animal Protection Party</a> (Germany)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Animalist_Party" title="Italian Animalist Party">Italian Animalist Party</a> (Italy)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Party_for_the_Animals" title="Party for the Animals">Party for the Animals</a> (Netherlands)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/People_Animals_Nature" title="People Animals Nature">People Animals Nature</a> (Portugal)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/V-Partei3" title="V-Partei3">V-Partei³</a> (Germany)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Activism</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_Rights_National_Conference" title="Animal Rights National Conference">Animal Rights National Conference</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Media_(books,_films,_periodicals,_albums)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Media (books, films, periodicals, albums)</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Books</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/On_Abstinence_from_Eating_Animals" title="On Abstinence from Eating Animals">On Abstinence from Eating Animals</a> (3rd century)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_Inquiries_on_the_Situation_of_Man_and_of_Brutes" title="Moral Inquiries on the Situation of Man and of Brutes">Moral Inquiries on the Situation of Man and of Brutes</a> (1824)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Rights_of_Animals" class="mw-redirect" title="The Rights of Animals">The Rights of Animals</a> (1838)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Ethics_of_Diet" title="The Ethics of Diet">The Ethics of Diet</a> (1883)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animals%27_Rights" title="Animals' Rights">Animals' Rights</a> (1892)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutional_Ethics_and_Animal_Psychology" title="Evolutional Ethics and Animal Psychology">Evolutional Ethics and Animal Psychology</a> (1897)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Better-World_Philosophy" title="Better-World Philosophy">Better-World Philosophy</a> (1899)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Universal_Kinship" title="The Universal Kinship">The Universal Kinship</a> (1906)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_New_Ethics" title="The New Ethics">The New Ethics</a> (1907)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animals,_Men_and_Morals" title="Animals, Men and Morals">Animals, Men and Morals</a> (1971)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_Liberation_(book)" title="Animal Liberation (book)">Animal Liberation</a> (1975)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Case_for_Animal_Rights" title="The Case for Animal Rights">The Case for Animal Rights</a> (1983)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morals,_Reason,_and_Animals" title="Morals, Reason, and Animals">Morals, Reason, and Animals</a> (1987)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoos_and_Animal_Rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Zoos and Animal Rights">Zoos and Animal Rights</a> (1993)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animals,_Property,_and_the_Law" title="Animals, Property, and the Law">Animals, Property, and the Law</a> (1995)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Lives_of_Animals" title="The Lives of Animals">The Lives of Animals</a> (1999)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eternal_Treblinka" title="Eternal Treblinka">Eternal Treblinka</a> (2001)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Do_Animals_Have_Rights%3F_(book)" title="Do Animals Have Rights? (book)">Do Animals Have Rights?</a> (2005)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Striking_at_the_Roots" title="Striking at the Roots">Striking at the Roots</a> (2008)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/An_American_Trilogy_(book)" title="An American Trilogy (book)">An American Trilogy</a> (2009)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/An_Introduction_to_Animals_and_Political_Theory" title="An Introduction to Animals and Political Theory">An Introduction to Animals and Political Theory</a> (2010)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_Rights_Without_Liberation" title="Animal Rights Without Liberation">Animal Rights Without Liberation</a> (2012)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_Animals_and_Animal_Politics" title="Political Animals and Animal Politics">Political Animals and Animal Politics</a> (2014)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_(De)liberation" title="Animal (De)liberation">Animal (De)liberation</a> (2016)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sentientist_Politics" title="Sentientist Politics">Sentientist Politics</a> (2018)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wild_Animal_Ethics" title="Wild Animal Ethics">Wild Animal Ethics</a> (2020)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_Ethics_in_the_Wild" title="Animal Ethics in the Wild">Animal Ethics in the Wild</a> (2022)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Making_a_Stand_for_Animals" title="Making a Stand for Animals">Making a Stand for Animals</a> (2022)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Films</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Animals_Film" title="The Animals Film">The Animals Film</a> (1981)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Cow_at_My_Table" title="A Cow at My Table">A Cow at My Table</a> (1998)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shores_of_Silence" title="Shores of Silence">Shores of Silence</a> (2000)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Witness_(2000_film)" title="The Witness (2000 film)">The Witness</a> (2000)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meet_Your_Meat" title="Meet Your Meat">Meet Your Meat</a> (2002)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legally_Blonde_2:_Red,_White_%26_Blonde" title="Legally Blonde 2: Red, White & Blonde">Legally Blonde 2</a> (2003)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Meatrix" title="The Meatrix">The Meatrix</a> (2003)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peaceable_Kingdom_(film)" title="Peaceable Kingdom (film)">Peaceable Kingdom</a> (2004)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earthlings_(film)" title="Earthlings (film)">Earthlings</a> (2005)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behind_the_Mask_(2006_film)" title="Behind the Mask (2006 film)">Behind the Mask</a> (2006)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Your_Mommy_Kills_Animals" title="Your Mommy Kills Animals">Your Mommy Kills Animals</a> (2007)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Cove_(film)" title="The Cove (film)">The Cove</a> (2009)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peaceable_Kingdom:_The_Journey_Home" title="Peaceable Kingdom: The Journey Home">Peaceable Kingdom: The Journey Home</a> (2009)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forks_Over_Knives" title="Forks Over Knives">Forks Over Knives</a> (2011)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vegucated" title="Vegucated">Vegucated</a> (2011)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/An_Apology_to_Elephants" title="An Apology to Elephants">An Apology to Elephants</a> (2013)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speciesism:_The_Movie" title="Speciesism: The Movie">Speciesism: The Movie</a> (2013)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Ghosts_in_Our_Machine" title="The Ghosts in Our Machine">The Ghosts in Our Machine</a> (2013)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unlocking_the_Cage" title="Unlocking the Cage">Unlocking the Cage</a> (2016)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominion_(2018_film)" title="Dominion (2018 film)">Dominion</a> (2018)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seaspiracy" title="Seaspiracy">Seaspiracy</a> (2021)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Periodicals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Journals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_Sentience_(journal)" title="Animal Sentience (journal)">Animal Sentience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Between_the_Species" title="Between the Species">Between the Species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cahiers_antisp%C3%A9cistes" title="Cahiers antispécistes">Cahiers antispécistes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etica_%26_Animali" title="Etica & Animali">Etica & Animali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Animal_Ethics" title="Journal of Animal Ethics">Journal of Animal Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relations._Beyond_Anthropocentrism" title="Relations. Beyond Anthropocentrism">Relations. Beyond Anthropocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Animals%27_Defender" class="mw-redirect" title="The Animals' Defender">The Animals' Defender</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Magazines</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arkangel_(magazine)" title="Arkangel (magazine)">Arkangel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bite_Back" title="Bite Back">Bite Back</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muutoksen_kev%C3%A4t" title="Muutoksen kevät">Muutoksen kevät</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/No_Compromise_(magazine)" title="No Compromise (magazine)">No Compromise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satya_(magazine)" title="Satya (magazine)">Satya</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_songs_about_animal_rights" title="List of songs about animal rights">Albums</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_Liberation_(album)" title="Animal Liberation (album)">Animal Liberation</a> (1987)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tame_Yourself" title="Tame Yourself">Tame Yourself</a> (1991)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manifesto_(Deadlock_album)" title="Manifesto (Deadlock album)">Manifesto</a> (2008)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salvation_of_Innocents" title="Salvation of Innocents">Salvation of Innocents</a> (2014)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Onward_to_Freedom" title="Onward to Freedom">Onward to Freedom</a> (2014)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Fairs and exhibitions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_on_your_Plate" title="Holocaust on your Plate">Holocaust on your Plate</a> (2003)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Animal_rights" title="Category:Animal rights">Category</a> ( 139 )</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Articles_related_to_Voltaire" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#e8e8ff;"><div id="Articles_related_to_Voltaire" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Articles related to Voltaire</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-size:114%"><div style="padding:0px"> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Voltaire&#039;s_Candide" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Candide" title="Template:Candide"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Candide" title="Template talk:Candide"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Candide" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Candide"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Voltaire&#039;s_Candide" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Voltaire</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Candide" title="Candide">Candide</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Adaptations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Candide,_Part_II" title="Candide, Part II">Candide, Part II</a> (1760 novel)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Candide_(operetta)" title="Candide (operetta)">Candide</a> (1956 operetta)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Modern interpretations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Candy_(Southern_and_Hoffenberg_novel)" title="Candy (Southern and Hoffenberg novel)">Candy</a> (1958 novel)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Candide_ou_l%27optimisme_au_XXe_si%C3%A8cle" title="Candide ou l'optimisme au XXe siècle">Candide ou l'optimisme au XXe siècle</a> (1960 film)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Candy_(1968_film)" title="Candy (1968 film)">Candy</a> (1968 film)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mondo_candido" title="Mondo candido">Mondo candido</a> (1975 film)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Optimists_(film)" title="The Optimists (film)">The Optimists</a> (2006 film)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cun%C3%A9gonde" title="Cunégonde">Cunégonde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johan_Robeck" title="Johan Robeck">Johan Robeck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Urban_X" title="Pope Urban X">Pope Urban X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_few_acres_of_snow" title="A few acres of snow">A few acres of snow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Po%C3%A8me_sur_le_d%C3%A9sastre_de_Lisbonne" title="Poème sur le désastre de Lisbonne">Poème sur le désastre de Lisbonne</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Académie_française_seat_33" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Acad%C3%A9mie_fran%C3%A7aise_Seat_33" title="Template:Académie française Seat 33"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Acad%C3%A9mie_fran%C3%A7aise_Seat_33" title="Template talk:Académie française Seat 33"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Acad%C3%A9mie_fran%C3%A7aise_Seat_33" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Académie française Seat 33"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Académie_française_seat_33" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Acad%C3%A9mie_fran%C3%A7aise" class="mw-redirect" title="Académie française">Académie française</a> <a href="/wiki/List_of_members_of_the_Acad%C3%A9mie_fran%C3%A7aise" title="List of members of the Académie française">seat 33</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vincent_Voiture" title="Vincent Voiture">Vincent Voiture</a> (1634)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Eudes_de_M%C3%A9zeray" title="François Eudes de Mézeray">François Eudes de Mézeray</a> (1648)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Barbier_d%27Aucour" title="Jean Barbier d'Aucour">Jean Barbier d'Aucour</a> (1683)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_de_Clermont-Tonnerre" title="François de Clermont-Tonnerre">François de Clermont-Tonnerre</a> (1694)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolas_de_Mal%C3%A9zieu" title="Nicolas de Malézieu">Nicolas de Malézieu</a> (1701)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Bouhier_(jurist)" title="Jean Bouhier (jurist)">Jean Bouhier</a> (1727)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">François-Marie Arouet dit Voltaire</a> (1746)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois_Ducis" title="Jean-François Ducis">Jean-François Ducis</a> (1778)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Des%C3%A8ze" class="mw-redirect" title="Raymond Desèze">Raymond Desèze</a> (1816)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amable_Guillaume_Prosper_Brugi%C3%A8re,_baron_de_Barante" title="Amable Guillaume Prosper Brugière, baron de Barante">Amable Guillaume Prosper Brugière, baron de Barante</a> (1828)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Joseph_Alphonse_Gratry" title="Auguste Joseph Alphonse Gratry">Auguste Joseph Alphonse Gratry</a> (1867)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint-Ren%C3%A9_Taillandier" title="Saint-René Taillandier">René Taillandier</a> (1873)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maxime_Du_Camp" title="Maxime Du Camp">Maxime Du Camp</a> (1880)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Bourget" title="Paul Bourget">Paul Bourget</a> (1894)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmond_Jaloux" title="Edmond Jaloux">Edmond Jaloux</a> (1936)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Louis_Vaudoyer" title="Jean-Louis Vaudoyer">Jean-Louis Vaudoyer</a> (1950)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcel_Brion" title="Marcel Brion">Marcel Brion</a> (1964)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Mohrt" title="Michel Mohrt">Michel Mohrt</a> (1985)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominique_Bona" title="Dominique Bona">Dominique Bona</a> (2013)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Age_of_Enlightenment" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Template:Age of Enlightenment"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Template talk:Age of Enlightenment"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Age of Enlightenment"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Age_of_Enlightenment" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Topics</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atheism_during_the_Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Atheism during the Age of Enlightenment">Atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_liberties" title="Civil liberties">Civil liberties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classicism" title="Classicism">Classicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-Enlightenment" title="Counter-Enlightenment">Counter-Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_thinking" title="Critical thinking">Critical thinking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deism" title="Deism">Deism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A9distes" title="Encyclopédistes">Encyclopédistes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enlightened_absolutism" title="Enlightened absolutism">Enlightened absolutism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haskalah" title="Haskalah">Haskalah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libert%C3%A9,_%C3%A9galit%C3%A9,_fraternit%C3%A9" title="Liberté, égalité, fraternité">Liberté, égalité, fraternité</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lumi%C3%A8res" title="Lumières">Lumières</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cartesian_doubt" title="Cartesian doubt">Methodological skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midlands_Enlightenment" title="Midlands Enlightenment">Midlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernity" title="Modernity">Modernity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_philosophy" title="Natural philosophy">Natural philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressivism" title="Progressivism">Progressivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationality" title="Rationality">Rationality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">Reason</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sapere_aude" title="Sapere aude">Sapere aude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_in_the_Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Science in the Age of Enlightenment">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">Scientific method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_American_Enlightenment" title="Spanish American Enlightenment">Spanish America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universality_(philosophy)" title="Universality (philosophy)">Universality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utopianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Utopianism">Utopianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Thinkers" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Thinkers</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">England</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Addison" title="Joseph Addison">Addison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Ashley-Cooper,_3rd_Earl_of_Shaftesbury" title="Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 3rd Earl of Shaftesbury">Ashley-Cooper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Bacon" title="Francis Bacon">Bacon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Collins_(philosopher)" title="Anthony Collins (philosopher)">Collins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Gibbon" title="Edward Gibbon">Gibbon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Godwin" title="William Godwin">Godwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Harrington_(author)" title="James Harrington (author)">Harrington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Hooke" title="Robert Hooke">Hooke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Johnson" title="Samuel Johnson">Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Milton" title="John Milton">Milton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Pope" title="Alexander Pope">Pope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Price" title="Richard Price">Price</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Priestley" title="Joseph Priestley">Priestley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joshua_Reynolds" title="Joshua Reynolds">Reynolds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algernon_Sidney" title="Algernon Sidney">Sidney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matthew_Tindal" title="Matthew Tindal">Tindal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Wollstonecraft" title="Mary Wollstonecraft">Wollstonecraft</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">France</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jean_le_Rond_d%27Alembert" title="Jean le Rond d'Alembert">d'Alembert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Louis_de_Voyer_de_Paulmy_d%27Argenson" class="mw-redirect" title="René Louis de Voyer de Paulmy d'Argenson">d'Argenson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Bayle" title="Pierre Bayle">Bayle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Beaumarchais" title="Pierre Beaumarchais">Beaumarchais</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Chamfort" title="Nicolas Chamfort">Chamfort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89milie_du_Ch%C3%A2telet" title="Émilie du Châtelet">Châtelet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Bonnot_de_Condillac" title="Étienne Bonnot de Condillac">Condillac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Condorcet" title="Marquis de Condorcet">Condorcet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">Descartes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denis_Diderot" title="Denis Diderot">Diderot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Le_Bovier_de_Fontenelle" title="Bernard Le Bovier de Fontenelle">Fontenelle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olympe_de_Gouges" title="Olympe de Gouges">Gouges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Adrien_Helv%C3%A9tius" title="Claude Adrien Helvétius">Helvétius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baron_d%27Holbach" title="Baron d'Holbach">d'Holbach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_de_Jaucourt" title="Louis de Jaucourt">Jaucourt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julien_Offray_de_La_Mettrie" title="Julien Offray de La Mettrie">La Mettrie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Lavoisier" title="Antoine Lavoisier">Lavoisier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges-Louis_Leclerc,_Comte_de_Buffon" title="Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon">Leclerc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Bonnot_de_Mably" title="Gabriel Bonnot de Mably">Mably</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sylvain_Mar%C3%A9chal" title="Sylvain Maréchal">Maréchal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Meslier" title="Jean Meslier">Meslier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne-Gabriel_Morelly" title="Étienne-Gabriel Morelly">Morelly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blaise_Pascal" title="Blaise Pascal">Pascal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Quesnay" title="François Quesnay">Quesnay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guillaume_Thomas_Fran%C3%A7ois_Raynal" title="Guillaume Thomas François Raynal">Raynal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Sade" title="Marquis de Sade">Sade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anne_Robert_Jacques_Turgot" title="Anne Robert Jacques Turgot">Turgot</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Voltaire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Geneva</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Firmin_Abauzit" title="Firmin Abauzit">Abauzit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Bonnet" title="Charles Bonnet">Bonnet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Burlamaqui" title="Jean-Jacques Burlamaqui">Burlamaqui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Pr%C3%A9vost_(physicist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pierre Prévost (physicist)">Prévost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horace_B%C3%A9n%C3%A9dict_de_Saussure" title="Horace Bénédict de Saussure">Saussure</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Germany</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Wolfgang_von_Goethe" title="Johann Wolfgang von Goethe">Goethe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Herder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_von_Humboldt" title="Wilhelm von Humboldt">Humboldt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Leibniz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gotthold_Ephraim_Lessing" title="Gotthold Ephraim Lessing">Lessing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Christoph_Lichtenberg" title="Georg Christoph Lichtenberg">Lichtenberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moses_Mendelssohn" title="Moses Mendelssohn">Mendelssohn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_von_Pufendorf" title="Samuel von Pufendorf">Pufendorf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Schiller" title="Friedrich Schiller">Schiller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Thomasius" title="Christian Thomasius">Thomasius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Weishaupt" title="Adam Weishaupt">Weishaupt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christoph_Martin_Wieland" title="Christoph Martin Wieland">Wieland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Wolff_(philosopher)" title="Christian Wolff (philosopher)">Wolff</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Modern_Greek_Enlightenment" title="Modern Greek Enlightenment">Greece</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theoklitos_Farmakidis" title="Theoklitos Farmakidis">Farmakidis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rigas_Feraios" title="Rigas Feraios">Feraios</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theophilos_Kairis" title="Theophilos Kairis">Kairis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adamantios_Korais" title="Adamantios Korais">Korais</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ireland</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">Berkeley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Boyle" title="Robert Boyle">Boyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Swift" title="Jonathan Swift">Swift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Toland" title="John Toland">Toland</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Italian_Enlightenment" title="Italian Enlightenment">Italy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cesare_Beccaria" title="Cesare Beccaria">Beccaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferdinando_Galiani" title="Ferdinando Galiani">Galiani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luigi_Galvani" title="Luigi Galvani">Galvani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Genovesi" title="Antonio Genovesi">Genovesi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francesco_Mario_Pagano" title="Francesco Mario Pagano">Pagano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pietro_Verri" title="Pietro Verri">Verri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giambattista_Vico" title="Giambattista Vico">Vico</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Netherlands</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balthasar_Bekker" title="Balthasar Bekker">Bekker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pieter_de_la_Court" title="Pieter de la Court">de la Court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugo_Grotius" title="Hugo Grotius">Grotius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christiaan_Huygens" title="Christiaan Huygens">Huygens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adriaan_Koerbagh" title="Adriaan Koerbagh">Koerbagh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonie_van_Leeuwenhoek" title="Antonie van Leeuwenhoek">Leeuwenhoek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Mandeville" title="Bernard Mandeville">Mandeville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lodewijk_Meyer" title="Lodewijk Meyer">Meyer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Nieuwentyt" title="Bernard Nieuwentyt">Nieuwentyt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jan_Swammerdam" title="Jan Swammerdam">Swammerdam</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Enlightenment_in_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="Enlightenment in Poland">Poland</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hugo_Ko%C5%82%C5%82%C4%85taj" title="Hugo Kołłątaj">Kołłątaj</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Konarski" title="Stanisław Konarski">Konarski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ignacy_Krasicki" title="Ignacy Krasicki">Krasicki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_Ursyn_Niemcewicz" title="Julian Ursyn Niemcewicz">Niemcewicz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_August_Poniatowski" title="Stanisław August Poniatowski">Poniatowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C4%99drzej_%C5%9Aniadecki" title="Jędrzej Śniadecki">Śniadecki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Staszic" title="Stanisław Staszic">Staszic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_Wybicki" title="Józef Wybicki">Wybicki</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Portugal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sebasti%C3%A3o_Jos%C3%A9_de_Carvalho_e_Melo,_1st_Marquis_of_Pombal" title="Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo, 1st Marquis of Pombal">Carvalho e Melo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Romania</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ion_Budai-Deleanu" title="Ion Budai-Deleanu">Budai-Deleanu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petru_Maior" title="Petru Maior">Maior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuil_Micu-Klein" title="Samuil Micu-Klein">Micu-Klein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gheorghe_%C8%98incai" title="Gheorghe Șincai">Șincai</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Russian_Enlightenment" title="Russian Enlightenment">Russia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catherine_the_Great" title="Catherine the Great">Catherine II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denis_Fonvizin" title="Denis Fonvizin">Fonvizin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antiochus_Kantemir" title="Antiochus Kantemir">Kantemir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Kheraskov" title="Mikhail Kheraskov">Kheraskov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Lomonosov" title="Mikhail Lomonosov">Lomonosov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolay_Novikov" title="Nikolay Novikov">Novikov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Radishchev" title="Alexander Radishchev">Radishchev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yekaterina_Vorontsova-Dashkova" title="Yekaterina Vorontsova-Dashkova">Vorontsova-Dashkova</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Serbia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dositej_Obradovi%C4%87" title="Dositej Obradović">Obradović</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avram_Mrazovi%C4%87" title="Avram Mrazović">Mrazović</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Enlightenment_in_Spain" title="Enlightenment in Spain">Spain</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Cadalso" title="José Cadalso">Cadalso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_III_of_Spain" title="Charles III of Spain">Charles III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benito_Jer%C3%B3nimo_Feij%C3%B3o_y_Montenegro" title="Benito Jerónimo Feijóo y Montenegro">Feijóo y Montenegro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leandro_Fern%C3%A1ndez_de_Morat%C3%ADn" title="Leandro Fernández de Moratín">Moratín</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaspar_Melchor_de_Jovellanos" title="Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos">Jovellanos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diego_de_Torres_Villarroel" title="Diego de Torres Villarroel">Villarroel</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Enlightenment" title="Scottish Enlightenment">Scotland</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/James_Beattie_(poet)" title="James Beattie (poet)">Beattie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Black" title="Joseph Black">Black</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugh_Blair" title="Hugh Blair">Blair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Boswell" title="James Boswell">Boswell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Burnett,_Lord_Monboddo" title="James Burnett, Lord Monboddo">Burnett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Burns" title="Robert Burns">Burns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Cullen" title="William Cullen">Cullen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Ferguson" title="Adam Ferguson">Ferguson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Hutcheson_(philosopher)" title="Francis Hutcheson (philosopher)">Hutcheson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Hutton" title="James Hutton">Hutton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Mill" title="James Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Playfair" title="John Playfair">Playfair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Reid" title="Thomas Reid">Reid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dugald_Stewart" title="Dugald Stewart">Stewart</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/American_Enlightenment" title="American Enlightenment">United States</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">Madison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Mason" title="George Mason">Mason</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Paine" title="Thomas Paine">Paine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div><div style="position:relative;"> <div style="position:absolute;right:0;"><a href="/wiki/Template:Romanticism" title="Template:Romanticism">Romanticism</a> →</div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Category:Age of Enlightenment">Category</a></li></ul> </div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="French_Revolution" style=";wide;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:French_Revolution" title="Template:French Revolution"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:French_Revolution" title="Template talk:French Revolution"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:French_Revolution" title="Special:EditPage/Template:French Revolution"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="French_Revolution" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_the_French_Revolution" title="Causes of the French Revolution">Causes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_French_Revolution" title="Timeline of the French Revolution">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancien_R%C3%A9gime" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancien Régime">Ancien Régime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_France_(1791%E2%80%9392)" title="Kingdom of France (1791–92)">Constitutional monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_First_Republic" title="French First Republic">Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Directory" title="French Directory">Directory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Consulate" title="French Consulate">Consulate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_the_French_Revolution" title="Glossary of the French Revolution">Glossary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_journals_appearing_under_the_French_Revolution" title="List of journals appearing under the French Revolution">Journals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mus%C3%A9e_de_la_R%C3%A9volution_fran%C3%A7aise" title="Musée de la Révolution française">Museum</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><div id="Significant_civil_and_political_events_by_year" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Significant civil and political events by year</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1788</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Day_of_the_Tiles" title="Day of the Tiles">Day of the Tiles</a> (7 Jun 1788)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assembly_of_Vizille" title="Assembly of Vizille">Assembly of Vizille</a> (21 Jul 1788)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1789</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/What_Is_the_Third_Estate%3F" title="What Is the Third Estate?">What Is the Third Estate?</a> (Jan 1789)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/R%C3%A9veillon_riots" title="Réveillon riots">Réveillon riots</a> (28 Apr 1789)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estates_General_of_1789" title="Estates General of 1789">Convocation of the Estates General</a> (5 May 1789)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Joseph,_Dauphin_of_France#Illness" title="Louis Joseph, Dauphin of France">Death of the Dauphin</a> (4 June 1789)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Assembly_(French_Revolution)" title="National Assembly (French Revolution)">National Assembly</a> (17 Jun – 9 Jul 1790)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tennis_Court_Oath" title="Tennis Court Oath">Tennis Court Oath</a> (20 Jun 1789)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Constituent_Assembly_(France)" title="National Constituent Assembly (France)">National Constituent Assembly</a> (9 Jul – 30 Sep 1791)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Storming_of_the_Bastille" title="Storming of the Bastille">Storming of the Bastille</a> (14 Jul 1789)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Fear" title="Great Fear">Great Fear</a> (20 Jul – 5 Aug 1789)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abolition_of_feudalism_in_France" title="Abolition of feudalism in France">Abolition of Feudalism</a> (4–11 Aug 1789)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Declaration_of_the_Rights_of_Man_and_of_the_Citizen" title="Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen">Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen</a> (26 Aug 1789)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_March_on_Versailles" title="Women's March on Versailles">Women's March on Versailles</a> (5 Oct 1789)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biens_nationaux" title="Biens nationaux">Nationalization of the Church properties</a> (2 Nov 1789)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1790</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parlement#Abolition" title="Parlement">Abolition of the Parlements</a> (Feb–Jul 1790)</li> <li>Abolition of the <a href="/wiki/French_nobility#The_abolition_of_privileges_during_the_French_Revolution" title="French nobility">Nobility</a> (23 Jun 1790)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Constitution_of_the_Clergy" title="Civil Constitution of the Clergy">Civil Constitution of the Clergy</a> (12 Jul 1790)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/F%C3%AAte_de_la_F%C3%A9d%C3%A9ration" title="Fête de la Fédération">Fête de la Fédération</a> (14 Jul 1790)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1791</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flight_to_Varennes" title="Flight to Varennes">Flight to Varennes</a> (20–21 Jun 1791)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Champ_de_Mars_massacre" title="Champ de Mars massacre">Champ de Mars massacre</a> (17 Jul 1791)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Declaration_of_Pillnitz" title="Declaration of Pillnitz">Declaration of Pillnitz</a> (27 Aug 1791)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Constitution_of_1791" title="French Constitution of 1791">The Constitution of 1791</a> (3 Sep 1791)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legislative_Assembly_(France)" title="Legislative Assembly (France)">National Legislative Assembly</a> (1 Oct 1791 – Sep 1792)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1792</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/War_of_the_First_Coalition" title="War of the First Coalition">France declares war</a> (20 Apr 1792)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brunswick_Manifesto" title="Brunswick Manifesto">Brunswick Manifesto</a> (25 Jul 1792)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paris_Commune_(1789%E2%80%931795)" title="Paris Commune (1789–1795)">Paris Commune becomes insurrectionary</a> (Jun 1792)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insurrection_of_10_August_1792" title="Insurrection of 10 August 1792">10th of August</a> (10 Aug 1792)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/September_Massacres" title="September Massacres">September Massacres</a> (Sep 1792)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Convention" title="National Convention">National Convention</a> (20 Sep 1792 – 26 Oct 1795)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_First_Republic" title="French First Republic">First republic declared</a> (22 Sep 1792)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1793</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Execution_of_Louis_XVI" title="Execution of Louis XVI">Execution of Louis XVI</a> (21 Jan 1793)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_Tribunal" title="Revolutionary Tribunal">Revolutionary Tribunal</a> (9 Mar 1793 – 31 May 1795)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reign_of_Terror" title="Reign of Terror">Reign of Terror</a> (27 Jun 1793 – 27 Jul 1794) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Committee_of_Public_Safety" title="Committee of Public Safety">Committee of Public Safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Committee_of_General_Security" title="Committee of General Security">Committee of General Security</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insurrection_of_31_May_%E2%80%93_2_June_1793" title="Insurrection of 31 May – 2 June 1793">Fall of the Girondists</a> (2 Jun 1793)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Marat#Death" title="Jean-Paul Marat">Assassination of Marat</a> (13 Jul 1793)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lev%C3%A9e_en_masse" title="Levée en masse">Levée en masse</a> (23 Aug 1793)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Death_of_Marat" title="The Death of Marat">The Death of Marat</a> (painting)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Suspects" title="Law of Suspects">Law of Suspects</a> (17 Sep 1793)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marie_Antoinette#Trial_and_execution_(14–16_October_1793)" title="Marie Antoinette">Marie Antoinette is guillotined</a> (16 Oct 1793)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dechristianization_of_France_during_the_French_Revolution#The_Revolution_and_the_Church" title="Dechristianization of France during the French Revolution">Anti-clerical laws</a> (throughout the year)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1794</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Danton#Life" title="Georges Danton">Danton</a> and <a href="/wiki/Camille_Desmoulins#Trial_and_execution" title="Camille Desmoulins">Desmoulins guillotined</a> (5 Apr 1794)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_22_Prairial" title="Law of 22 Prairial">Law of 22 Prairial</a> (10 Jun 1794)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermidorian_Reaction" title="Thermidorian Reaction">Thermidorian Reaction</a> (27 Jul 1794)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maximilien_Robespierre" title="Maximilien Robespierre">Robespierre</a> guillotined (28 Jul 1794)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_White_Terror" title="First White Terror">White Terror</a> (Fall 1794)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacobins#Fall_from_power" title="Jacobins">Closing of the Jacobin Club</a> (11 Nov 1794)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1795–6</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Insurrection_of_12_Germinal_Year_III" title="Insurrection of 12 Germinal Year III">Insurrection of 12 Germinal Year III</a> (1 Apr 1795)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Year_III" title="Constitution of the Year III">Constitution of the Year III</a> (22 Aug 1795)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Directory" title="French Directory">Directoire</a> (1795–99) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Five_Hundred" title="Council of Five Hundred">Council of Five Hundred</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Ancients" title="Council of Ancients">Council of Ancients</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/13_Vend%C3%A9miaire" title="13 Vendémiaire">13 Vendémiaire</a> 5 Oct 1795</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conspiracy_of_the_Equals" title="Conspiracy of the Equals">Conspiracy of the Equals</a> (May 1796)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1797</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coup_of_18_Fructidor" title="Coup of 18 Fructidor">Coup of 18 Fructidor</a> (4 Sep 1797)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Congress_of_Rastatt" title="Second Congress of Rastatt">Second Congress of Rastatt</a> (Dec 1797)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1798</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_22_Flor%C3%A9al_Year_VI" title="Law of 22 Floréal Year VI">Law of 22 Floréal Year VI</a> (11 May 1798)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1799</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coup_of_30_Prairial_VII" title="Coup of 30 Prairial VII">Coup of 30 Prairial VII</a> (18 Jun 1799)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coup_of_18_Brumaire" title="Coup of 18 Brumaire">Coup of 18 Brumaire</a> (9 Nov 1799)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Year_VIII" title="Constitution of the Year VIII">Constitution of the Year VIII</a> (24 Dec 1799)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Consulate" title="French Consulate">Consulate</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><div id="Revolutionary_campaigns" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Revolutionary campaigns</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Campaigns_of_1792_in_the_French_Revolutionary_Wars" title="Campaigns of 1792 in the French Revolutionary Wars">1792</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Verdun_(1792)" title="Battle of Verdun (1792)">Verdun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Thionville_(1792)" title="Siege of Thionville (1792)">Thionville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Valmy" title="Battle of Valmy">Valmy</a></li> <li>Royalist Revolts <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chouannerie" title="Chouannerie">Chouannerie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_in_the_Vend%C3%A9e" title="War in the Vendée">Vendée</a></li> <li>Dauphiné</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Column_of_the_Goddess" title="Column of the Goddess">Lille</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Mainz_(1792)" title="Siege of Mainz (1792)">Siege of Mainz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Jemappes" title="Battle of Jemappes">Jemappes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Namur_(1792)" title="Siege of Namur (1792)">Namur</a> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Si%C3%A8ge_de_Namur_(1792)" class="extiw" title="fr:Siège de Namur (1792)">fr</a>]</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Campaigns_of_1793_in_the_French_Revolutionary_Wars" title="Campaigns of 1793 in the French Revolutionary Wars">1793</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/War_of_the_First_Coalition" title="War of the First Coalition">First Coalition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_in_the_Vend%C3%A9e" title="War in the Vendée">War in the Vendée</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Neerwinden_(1793)" title="Battle of Neerwinden (1793)">Battle of Neerwinden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Famars" title="Battle of Famars">Battle of Famars</a> (23 May 1793)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_expedition_to_Sardinia" title="French expedition to Sardinia">Expedition to Sardinia</a> (21 Dec 1792 - 25 May 1793)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kaiserslautern" title="Battle of Kaiserslautern">Battle of Kaiserslautern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Mainz_(1793)" title="Siege of Mainz (1793)">Siege of Mainz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Wattignies" title="Battle of Wattignies">Battle of Wattignies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hondschoote" title="Battle of Hondschoote">Battle of Hondschoote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Bellegarde_(1793)" title="Siege of Bellegarde (1793)">Siege of Bellegarde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Peyrestortes" title="Battle of Peyrestortes">Battle of Peyrestortes (Pyrenees)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Toulon" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Toulon">Siege of Toulon</a> (18 Sep – 18 Dec 1793)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Battle_of_Wissembourg_(1793)" class="mw-redirect" title="First Battle of Wissembourg (1793)">First Battle of Wissembourg</a> (13 Oct 1793)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Truillas" title="Battle of Truillas">Battle of Truillas (Pyrenees)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Wissembourg_(1793)" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Battle of Wissembourg (1793)">Second Battle of Wissembourg</a> (26–27 Dec 1793)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Campaigns_of_1794_in_the_French_Revolutionary_Wars" title="Campaigns of 1794 in the French Revolutionary Wars">1794</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Villers-en-Cauchies" title="Battle of Villers-en-Cauchies">Battle of Villers-en-Cauchies</a> (24 Apr 1794)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Boulou" title="Second Battle of Boulou">Second Battle of Boulou</a> (Pyrenees) (30 Apr – 1 May 1794)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tourcoing" title="Battle of Tourcoing">Battle of Tourcoing</a> (18 May 1794)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tournay_(1794)" title="Battle of Tournay (1794)">Battle of Tournay</a> (22 May 1794)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glorious_First_of_June" title="Glorious First of June">Glorious First of June</a> (1 Jun 1794)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Fleurus_(1794)" title="Battle of Fleurus (1794)">Battle of Fleurus</a> (26 Jun 1794)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chouannerie" title="Chouannerie">Chouannerie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Aldenhoven_(1794)" title="Battle of Aldenhoven (1794)">Battle of Aldenhoven</a> (2 Oct 1794)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Luxembourg_(1794-95)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Luxembourg (1794-95)">Siege of Luxembourg</a> (22 Nov 1794 - 7 Jun 1795)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Campaigns_of_1795_in_the_French_Revolutionary_Wars" title="Campaigns of 1795 in the French Revolutionary Wars">1795</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Luxembourg_(1794-95)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Luxembourg (1794-95)">Siege of Luxembourg</a> (22 Nov 1794 - 7 Jun 1795)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Basel" title="Peace of Basel">Peace of Basel</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Campaigns_of_1796_in_the_French_Revolutionary_Wars" title="Campaigns of 1796 in the French Revolutionary Wars">1796</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Campaign_of_1796%E2%80%931797" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian Campaign of 1796–1797">Italian campaign</a> (1796)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lonato" title="Battle of Lonato">Battle of Lonato</a> (3–4 Aug 1796)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Castiglione" title="Battle of Castiglione">Battle of Castiglione</a> (5 Aug 1796)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Theiningen" title="Battle of Theiningen">Battle of Theiningen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Neresheim" title="Battle of Neresheim">Battle of Neresheim</a> (11 Aug 1796)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Amberg" title="Battle of Amberg">Battle of Amberg</a> (24 Aug 1796)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_W%C3%BCrzburg" title="Battle of Würzburg">Battle of Würzburg</a> (3 Sep 1796)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Rovereto" title="Battle of Rovereto">Battle of Rovereto</a> (4 Sep 1796)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bassano" title="Battle of Bassano">First Battle of Bassano</a> (8 Sep 1796)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Emmendingen" title="Battle of Emmendingen">Battle of Emmendingen</a> (19 Oct 1796)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Schliengen" title="Battle of Schliengen">Battle of Schliengen</a> (26 Oct 1796)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Bassano" title="Second Battle of Bassano">Second Battle of Bassano</a> (6 Nov 1796)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Calliano" title="Battle of Calliano">Battle of Calliano</a> (6–7 Nov 1796)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Arcole" title="Battle of Arcole">Battle of Arcole</a> (15–17 Nov 1796)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_expedition_to_Ireland_(1796)" title="French expedition to Ireland (1796)">Ireland expedition</a> (Dec 1796)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Campaigns_of_1797_in_the_French_Revolutionary_Wars" title="Campaigns of 1797 in the French Revolutionary Wars">1797</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Campaign_of_1796-1797" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian Campaign of 1796-1797">Italian campaign</a> (1797)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Action_of_13_January_1797" title="Action of 13 January 1797">Naval Engagement off Brittany</a> (13 Jan 1797)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Rivoli" title="Battle of Rivoli">Battle of Rivoli</a> (14–15 Jan 1797)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Action_of_25_January_1797" title="Action of 25 January 1797">Battle of the Bay of Cádiz</a> (25 Jan 1797)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Leoben" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaty of Leoben">Treaty of Leoben</a> (17 Apr 1797)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Neuwied_(1797)" title="Battle of Neuwied (1797)">Battle of Neuwied</a> (18 Apr 1797)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Campo_Formio" title="Treaty of Campo Formio">Treaty of Campo Formio</a> (17 Oct 1797)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Campaigns_of_1798_in_the_French_Revolutionary_Wars" title="Campaigns of 1798 in the French Revolutionary Wars">1798</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_invasion_of_Switzerland" title="French invasion of Switzerland">French invasion of Switzerland</a> (28 January – 17 May 1798)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_campaign_in_Egypt_and_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="French campaign in Egypt and Syria">French Invasion of Egypt</a> (1798–1801)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_Rebellion_of_1798#French_landing" title="Irish Rebellion of 1798">Irish Rebellion of 1798</a> (23 May – 23 Sep 1798)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quasi-War" title="Quasi-War">Quasi-War</a> (1798–1800)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peasants%27_War_(1798)" title="Peasants' War (1798)">Peasants' War</a> (12 Oct – 5 Dec 1798)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Campaigns_of_1799_in_the_French_Revolutionary_Wars" title="Campaigns of 1799 in the French Revolutionary Wars">1799</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Second_Coalition" title="War of the Second Coalition">Second Coalition</a> (1798–1802)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Acre_(1799)" title="Siege of Acre (1799)">Siege of Acre</a> (20 Mar – 21 May 1799)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ostrach" title="Battle of Ostrach">Battle of Ostrach</a> (20–21 Mar 1799)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Stockach_(1799)" title="Battle of Stockach (1799)">Battle of Stockach</a> (25 Mar 1799)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Magnano" title="Battle of Magnano">Battle of Magnano</a> (5 Apr 1799)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cassano_(1799)" title="Battle of Cassano (1799)">Battle of Cassano</a> (27–28 Apr 1799)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Battle_of_Zurich" title="First Battle of Zurich">First Battle of Zurich</a> (4–7 Jun 1799)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Trebbia_(1799)" title="Battle of Trebbia (1799)">Battle of Trebbia</a> (17–20 Jun 1799)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Novi_(1799)" title="Battle of Novi (1799)">Battle of Novi</a> (15 Aug 1799)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Zurich" title="Second Battle of Zurich">Second Battle of Zurich</a> (25–26 Sep 1799)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Campaigns_of_1800_in_the_French_Revolutionary_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Campaigns of 1800 in the French Revolutionary Wars">1800</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Marengo" title="Battle of Marengo">Battle of Marengo</a> (14 Jun 1800)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convention_of_Alessandria" title="Convention of Alessandria">Convention of Alessandria</a> (15 Jun 1800)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hohenlinden" title="Battle of Hohenlinden">Battle of Hohenlinden</a> (3 Dec 1800)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_League_of_Armed_Neutrality" title="Second League of Armed Neutrality">League of Armed Neutrality</a> (1800–02)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Campaigns_of_1801_in_the_French_Revolutionary_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Campaigns of 1801 in the French Revolutionary Wars">1801</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Lun%C3%A9ville" title="Treaty of Lunéville">Treaty of Lunéville</a> (9 Feb 1801)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Florence" title="Treaty of Florence">Treaty of Florence</a> (18 Mar 1801)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algeciras_campaign" title="Algeciras campaign">Algeciras campaign</a> (8 Jul 1801)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1802</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Amiens" title="Treaty of Amiens">Treaty of Amiens</a> (25 Mar 1802)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Paris_(1802)" title="Treaty of Paris (1802)">Treaty of Paris</a> (25 Jun 1802)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><div id="Military_leaders" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Military leaders</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/French_First_Republic" title="French First Republic"><img alt="French First Republic" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Flag_of_France_official.svg/23px-Flag_of_France_official.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Flag_of_France_official.svg/35px-Flag_of_France_official.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Flag_of_France_official.svg/45px-Flag_of_France_official.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/French_First_Republic" title="French First Republic">France</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/French_Revolutionary_Army" title="French Revolutionary Army">French Army</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eustache_Charles_d%27Aoust" title="Eustache Charles d'Aoust">Eustache Charles d'Aoust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Augereau" class="mw-redirect" title="Pierre Augereau">Pierre Augereau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexandre_de_Beauharnais" title="Alexandre de Beauharnais">Alexandre de Beauharnais</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_XIV_John" title="Charles XIV John">Jean-Baptiste Bernadotte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis-Alexandre_Berthier" title="Louis-Alexandre Berthier">Louis-Alexandre Berthier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Bessi%C3%A8res" title="Jean-Baptiste Bessières">Jean-Baptiste Bessières</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Napoleon" title="Napoleon">Napoléon Bonaparte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guillaume_Brune" title="Guillaume Brune">Guillaume Brune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Fran%C3%A7ois_Carteaux" title="Jean François Carteaux">Jean François Carteaux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-%C3%89tienne_Championnet" title="Jean-Étienne Championnet">Jean-Étienne Championnet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Bertin_Gaston_Chapuis_de_Tourville" title="Charles Bertin Gaston Chapuis de Tourville">Chapuis de Tourville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Philippe,_Comte_de_Custine" title="Adam Philippe, Comte de Custine">Adam Philippe, Comte de Custine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis-Nicolas_Davout" title="Louis-Nicolas Davout">Louis-Nicolas Davout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Desaix" title="Louis Desaix">Louis Desaix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Fran%C3%A7ois_Dugommier" title="Jacques François Dugommier">Jacques François Dugommier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas-Alexandre_Dumas" title="Thomas-Alexandre Dumas">Thomas-Alexandre Dumas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Fran%C3%A7ois_Dumouriez" title="Charles François Dumouriez">Charles François Dumouriez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Marie_Barth%C3%A9lemy_Ferino" title="Pierre Marie Barthélemy Ferino">Pierre Marie Barthélemy Ferino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis-Charles_de_Flers" title="Louis-Charles de Flers">Louis-Charles de Flers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Grenier" title="Paul Grenier">Paul Grenier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmanuel_de_Grouchy,_marquis_de_Grouchy" title="Emmanuel de Grouchy, marquis de Grouchy">Emmanuel de Grouchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Maurice_Hatry" title="Jacques Maurice Hatry">Jacques Maurice Hatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lazare_Hoche" title="Lazare Hoche">Lazare Hoche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Jourdan" title="Jean-Baptiste Jourdan">Jean-Baptiste Jourdan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Christophe_de_Kellermann" title="François Christophe de Kellermann">François Christophe de Kellermann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Kl%C3%A9ber" title="Jean-Baptiste Kléber">Jean-Baptiste Kléber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Choderlos_de_Laclos" title="Pierre Choderlos de Laclos">Pierre Choderlos de Laclos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Lannes" title="Jean Lannes">Jean Lannes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Leclerc_(general,_born_1772)" title="Charles Leclerc (general, born 1772)">Charles Leclerc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Lecourbe" title="Claude Lecourbe">Claude Lecourbe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Joseph_Lefebvre" title="François Joseph Lefebvre">François Joseph Lefebvre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Macdonald" title="Étienne Macdonald">Étienne Macdonald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Antoine_Marbot" title="Jean-Antoine Marbot">Jean-Antoine Marbot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcellin_Marbot" title="Marcellin Marbot">Marcellin Marbot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_S%C3%A9verin_Marceau" title="François Séverin Marceau">François Séverin Marceau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_de_Marmont" title="Auguste de Marmont">Auguste de Marmont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Mass%C3%A9na" title="André Masséna">André Masséna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bon-Adrien_Jeannot_de_Moncey" title="Bon-Adrien Jeannot de Moncey">Bon-Adrien Jeannot de Moncey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Victor_Marie_Moreau" title="Jean Victor Marie Moreau">Jean Victor Marie Moreau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89douard_Mortier,_Duke_of_Tr%C3%A9vise" class="mw-redirect" title="Édouard Mortier, Duke of Trévise">Édouard Mortier, Duke of Trévise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joachim_Murat" title="Joachim Murat">Joachim Murat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Ney" title="Michel Ney">Michel Ney</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pierre-Jacques_Osten&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pierre-Jacques Osten (page does not exist)">Pierre-Jacques Osten</a> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre-Jacques_Osten" class="extiw" title="fr:Pierre-Jacques Osten">fr</a>]</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Oudinot" title="Nicolas Oudinot">Nicolas Oudinot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catherine-Dominique_de_P%C3%A9rignon" title="Catherine-Dominique de Pérignon">Catherine-Dominique de Pérignon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Charles_Pichegru" title="Jean-Charles Pichegru">Jean-Charles Pichegru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_Poniatowski" title="Józef Poniatowski">Józef Poniatowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laurent_de_Gouvion_Saint-Cyr" title="Laurent de Gouvion Saint-Cyr">Laurent de Gouvion Saint-Cyr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barth%C3%A9lemy_Louis_Joseph_Sch%C3%A9rer" title="Barthélemy Louis Joseph Schérer">Barthélemy Louis Joseph Schérer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Mathieu-Philibert_S%C3%A9rurier" title="Jean-Mathieu-Philibert Sérurier">Jean-Mathieu-Philibert Sérurier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Souham" title="Joseph Souham">Joseph Souham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-de-Dieu_Soult" title="Jean-de-Dieu Soult">Jean-de-Dieu Soult</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis-Gabriel_Suchet" title="Louis-Gabriel Suchet">Louis-Gabriel Suchet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude-Henri_Belgrand_de_Vaubois" title="Claude-Henri Belgrand de Vaubois">Belgrand de Vaubois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude-Victor_Perrin" title="Claude-Victor Perrin">Claude Victor-Perrin, Duc de Belluno</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/French_Navy#18th_century" title="French Navy">French Navy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charles-Alexandre_L%C3%A9on_Durand_Linois" title="Charles-Alexandre Léon Durand Linois">Charles-Alexandre Linois</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Coalition_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Coalition Wars">Opposition</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Austrian_Empire" title="Austrian Empire"><img alt="Austrian Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Austrian_Empire" title="Austrian Empire">Austria</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%B3zsef_Alvinczi" title="József Alvinczi">József Alvinczi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archduke_Charles,_Duke_of_Teschen" title="Archduke Charles, Duke of Teschen">Archduke Charles, Duke of Teschen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_S%C3%A9bastien_Charles_Joseph_de_Croix,_Count_of_Clerfayt" title="François Sébastien Charles Joseph de Croix, Count of Clerfayt">Count of Clerfayt (Walloon)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Aloys_zu_F%C3%BCrstenberg" title="Karl Aloys zu Fürstenberg">Karl Aloys zu Fürstenberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Freiherr_von_Hotze" title="Friedrich Freiherr von Hotze">Friedrich Freiherr von Hotze (Swiss)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Adolf,_Count_von_Kalckreuth" title="Friedrich Adolf, Count von Kalckreuth">Friedrich Adolf, Count von Kalckreuth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Kray" title="Paul Kray">Pál Kray (Hungarian)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Eugene,_Prince_of_Lambesc" title="Charles Eugene, Prince of Lambesc">Charles Eugene, Prince of Lambesc (French)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maximilian_Anton_Karl,_Count_Baillet_de_Latour" title="Maximilian Anton Karl, Count Baillet de Latour">Maximilian Baillet de Latour (Walloon)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Mack_von_Leiberich" title="Karl Mack von Leiberich">Karl Mack von Leiberich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Ritter_von_Otto" title="Rudolf Ritter von Otto">Rudolf Ritter von Otto (Saxon)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prince_Josias_of_Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld" title="Prince Josias of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld">Prince Josias of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Vitus_von_Quosdanovich" title="Peter Vitus von Quosdanovich">Peter Vitus von Quosdanovich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prince_Heinrich_XV_of_Reuss-Plauen" class="mw-redirect" title="Prince Heinrich XV of Reuss-Plauen">Prince Heinrich XV of Reuss-Plauen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_M%C3%A9sz%C3%A1ros_von_Szoboszl%C3%B3" title="Johann Mészáros von Szoboszló">Johann Mészáros von Szoboszló (Hungarian)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Philipp_Sebottendorf" title="Karl Philipp Sebottendorf">Karl Philipp Sebottendorf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dagobert_Sigmund_von_Wurmser" title="Dagobert Sigmund von Wurmser">Dagobert von Wurmser</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Great_Britain" title="Kingdom of Great Britain"><img alt="Kingdom of Great Britain" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Flag_of_Great_Britain_%281707%E2%80%931800%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Great_Britain_%281707%E2%80%931800%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Flag_of_Great_Britain_%281707%E2%80%931800%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Great_Britain_%281707%E2%80%931800%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Flag_of_Great_Britain_%281707%E2%80%931800%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Great_Britain_%281707%E2%80%931800%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Great_Britain" title="Kingdom of Great Britain">Britain</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sir" title="Sir">Sir</a> <a href="/wiki/Ralph_Abercromby" title="Ralph Abercromby">Ralph Abercromby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Saumarez,_1st_Baron_de_Saumarez" title="James Saumarez, 1st Baron de Saumarez">James Saumarez, 1st Baron de Saumarez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Pellew,_1st_Viscount_Exmouth" title="Edward Pellew, 1st Viscount Exmouth">Edward Pellew, 1st Viscount Exmouth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prince_Frederick,_Duke_of_York_and_Albany" title="Prince Frederick, Duke of York and Albany">Prince Frederick, Duke of York and Albany</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic"><img alt="Dutch Republic" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Statenvlag.svg/23px-Statenvlag.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Statenvlag.svg/35px-Statenvlag.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Statenvlag.svg/45px-Statenvlag.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Netherlands</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_V,_Prince_of_Orange" title="William V, Prince of Orange">William V, Prince of Orange</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia" title="Kingdom of Prussia"><img alt="Kingdom of Prussia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Flag_of_the_Kingdom_of_Prussia_%281803-1892%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Kingdom_of_Prussia_%281803-1892%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Flag_of_the_Kingdom_of_Prussia_%281803-1892%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Kingdom_of_Prussia_%281803-1892%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Flag_of_the_Kingdom_of_Prussia_%281803-1892%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Kingdom_of_Prussia_%281803-1892%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1000" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia" title="Kingdom of Prussia">Prussia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charles_William_Ferdinand,_Duke_of_Brunswick" title="Charles William Ferdinand, Duke of Brunswick">Charles William Ferdinand, Duke of Brunswick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Louis,_Prince_of_Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen" class="mw-redirect" title="Frederick Louis, Prince of Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen">Frederick Louis, Prince of Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire"><img alt="Russian Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/45px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Korsakov" title="Alexander Korsakov">Alexander Korsakov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Suvorov" title="Alexander Suvorov">Alexander Suvorov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrei_Rosenberg" title="Andrei Rosenberg">Andrei Rosenberg</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain"><img alt="Spain" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Flag_of_Spain_%281785%E2%80%931873%2C_1875%E2%80%931931%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Spain_%281785%E2%80%931873%2C_1875%E2%80%931931%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Flag_of_Spain_%281785%E2%80%931873%2C_1875%E2%80%931931%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Spain_%281785%E2%80%931873%2C_1875%E2%80%931931%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Flag_of_Spain_%281785%E2%80%931873%2C_1875%E2%80%931931%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Spain_%281785%E2%80%931873%2C_1875%E2%80%931931%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></a> <a href="/wiki/History_of_Spain_(1700%E2%80%931810)#Charles_IV,_decline_and_fall_(1788–1808)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Spain (1700–1810)">Spain</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Luis_Firm%C3%ADn_de_Carvajal,_Conde_de_la_Uni%C3%B3n" class="mw-redirect" title="Luis Firmín de Carvajal, Conde de la Unión">Luis Firmin de Carvajal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Ricardos" title="Antonio Ricardos">Antonio Ricardos</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><div id="Other_significant_figures_and_factions" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Other significant figures and factions</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Patriotic_Society_of_1789" title="Patriotic Society of 1789">Patriotic Society of 1789</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Sylvain_Bailly" title="Jean Sylvain Bailly">Jean Sylvain Bailly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_du_Motier,_Marquis_de_Lafayette" title="Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette">Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Alexandre_Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric,_duc_de_la_Rochefoucauld-Liancourt" class="mw-redirect" title="François Alexandre Frédéric, duc de la Rochefoucauld-Liancourt">François Alexandre Frédéric, duc de la Rochefoucauld-Liancourt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Ren%C3%A9_Guy_le_Chapelier" title="Isaac René Guy le Chapelier">Isaac René Guy le Chapelier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honor%C3%A9_Gabriel_Riqueti,_comte_de_Mirabeau" title="Honoré Gabriel Riqueti, comte de Mirabeau">Honoré Gabriel Riqueti, comte de Mirabeau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmanuel_Joseph_Siey%C3%A8s" title="Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès">Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Maurice_de_Talleyrand-P%C3%A9rigord" title="Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord">Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Condorcet" title="Marquis de Condorcet">Nicolas de Condorcet</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Feuillant_(political_group)" title="Feuillant (political group)">Feuillants</a> and <a href="/wiki/Club_de_Clichy" title="Club de Clichy">monarchiens</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grace_Elliott" title="Grace Elliott">Grace Elliott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arnaud_II_de_La_Porte" title="Arnaud II de La Porte">Arnaud de La Porte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Sifrein_Maury" title="Jean-Sifrein Maury">Jean-Sifrein Maury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois-Marie,_marquis_de_Barth%C3%A9lemy" title="François-Marie, marquis de Barthélemy">François-Marie, marquis de Barthélemy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guillaume-Mathieu_Dumas" title="Guillaume-Mathieu Dumas">Guillaume-Mathieu Dumas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Barnave" title="Antoine Barnave">Antoine Barnave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_du_Motier,_Marquis_de_Lafayette" title="Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette">Lafayette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexandre-Th%C3%A9odore-Victor,_comte_de_Lameth" title="Alexandre-Théodore-Victor, comte de Lameth">Alexandre-Théodore-Victor, comte de Lameth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Malo_Fran%C3%A7ois_Lameth" title="Charles Malo François Lameth">Charles Malo François Lameth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Ch%C3%A9nier" title="André Chénier">André Chénier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois_Rewbell" title="Jean-François Rewbell">Jean-François Rewbell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camille_Jordan_(politician)" title="Camille Jordan (politician)">Camille Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germaine_de_Sta%C3%ABl" title="Germaine de Staël">Madame de Staël</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Antoine_de_Boissy_d%27Anglas" title="François Antoine de Boissy d'Anglas">Boissy d'Anglas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Charles_Pichegru" title="Jean-Charles Pichegru">Jean-Charles Pichegru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Paul_Royer-Collard" title="Pierre Paul Royer-Collard">Pierre Paul Royer-Collard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Bar%C3%A8re" title="Bertrand Barère">Bertrand Barère de Vieuzac</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Girondins" title="Girondins">Girondins</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Pierre_Brissot" title="Jacques Pierre Brissot">Jacques Pierre Brissot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Marie_Roland_de_la_Plati%C3%A8re" title="Jean-Marie Roland de la Platière">Jean-Marie Roland de la Platière</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madame_Roland" title="Madame Roland">Madame Roland</a></li> <li>Father <a href="/wiki/Henri_Gr%C3%A9goire" title="Henri Grégoire">Henri Grégoire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Clavi%C3%A8re" title="Étienne Clavière">Étienne Clavière</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Condorcet" title="Marquis de Condorcet">Marquis de Condorcet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charlotte_Corday" title="Charlotte Corday">Charlotte Corday</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marie-Jean_H%C3%A9rault_de_S%C3%A9chelles" title="Marie-Jean Hérault de Séchelles">Marie Jean Hérault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Baptiste_Treilhard" title="Jean Baptiste Treilhard">Jean Baptiste Treilhard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Victurnien_Vergniaud" title="Pierre Victurnien Vergniaud">Pierre Victurnien Vergniaud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%A9r%C3%B4me_P%C3%A9tion_de_Villeneuve" title="Jérôme Pétion de Villeneuve">Jérôme Pétion de Villeneuve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Debry" title="Jean Debry">Jean Debry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olympe_de_Gouges" title="Olympe de Gouges">Olympe de Gouges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Robert_Lindet" title="Jean-Baptiste Robert Lindet">Jean-Baptiste Robert Lindet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Marie_de_La_R%C3%A9velli%C3%A8re-L%C3%A9peaux" title="Louis Marie de La Révellière-Lépeaux">Louis Marie de La Révellière-Lépeaux</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/The_Plain" title="The Plain">The Plain</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emmanuel_Joseph_Siey%C3%A8s" title="Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès">Abbé Sieyès</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Jacques_R%C3%A9gis_de_Cambac%C3%A9r%C3%A8s" class="mw-redirect" title="Jean Jacques Régis de Cambacérès">de Cambacérès</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles-Fran%C3%A7ois_Lebrun" title="Charles-François Lebrun">Charles-François Lebrun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre-Joseph_Cambon" title="Pierre-Joseph Cambon">Pierre-Joseph Cambon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Bar%C3%A8re" title="Bertrand Barère">Bertrand Barère</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lazare_Carnot" title="Lazare Carnot">Lazare Nicolas Marguerite Carnot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Philippe_II,_Duke_of_Orl%C3%A9ans" title="Louis Philippe II, Duke of Orléans">Philippe Égalité</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Philippe_I" title="Louis Philippe I">Louis Philippe I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honor%C3%A9_Gabriel_Riqueti,_comte_de_Mirabeau" title="Honoré Gabriel Riqueti, comte de Mirabeau">Mirabeau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Christophe_Merlin" title="Antoine Christophe Merlin">Antoine Christophe Merlin de Thionville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Joseph_Mounier" title="Jean Joseph Mounier">Jean Joseph Mounier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Samuel_du_Pont_de_Nemours" title="Pierre Samuel du Pont de Nemours">Pierre Samuel du Pont de Nemours</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_de_Neufch%C3%A2teau" class="mw-redirect" title="François de Neufchâteau">François de Neufchâteau</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/The_Mountain" title="The Mountain">Montagnards</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maximilien_Robespierre" title="Maximilien Robespierre">Maximilien Robespierre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Danton" title="Georges Danton">Georges Danton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Marat" title="Jean-Paul Marat">Jean-Paul Marat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camille_Desmoulins" title="Camille Desmoulins">Camille Desmoulins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Antoine_de_Saint-Just" title="Louis Antoine de Saint-Just">Louis Antoine de Saint-Just</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Barras" title="Paul Barras">Paul Barras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Philippe_I" title="Louis Philippe I">Louis Philippe I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis-Michel_le_Peletier,_marquis_de_Saint-Fargeau" title="Louis-Michel le Peletier, marquis de Saint-Fargeau">Louis Michel le Peletier de Saint-Fargeau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques-Louis_David" title="Jacques-Louis David">Jacques-Louis David</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Sade" title="Marquis de Sade">Marquis de Sade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Couthon" title="Georges Couthon">Georges Couthon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Ducos" title="Roger Ducos">Roger Ducos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Marie_Collot_d%27Herbois" title="Jean-Marie Collot d'Herbois">Jean-Marie Collot d'Herbois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Henri_Voulland" title="Jean-Henri Voulland">Jean-Henri Voulland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippe-Antoine_Merlin_de_Douai" title="Philippe-Antoine Merlin de Douai">Philippe-Antoine Merlin de Douai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Quentin_Fouquier-Tinville" title="Antoine Quentin Fouquier-Tinville">Antoine Quentin Fouquier-Tinville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippe-Fran%C3%A7ois-Joseph_Le_Bas" title="Philippe-François-Joseph Le Bas">Philippe-François-Joseph Le Bas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marc-Guillaume_Alexis_Vadier" title="Marc-Guillaume Alexis Vadier">Marc-Guillaume Alexis Vadier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Pierre-Andr%C3%A9_Amar" title="Jean-Pierre-André Amar">Jean-Pierre-André Amar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Antoine,_comte_Prieur-Duvernois" title="Claude Antoine, comte Prieur-Duvernois">Prieur de la Côte-d'Or</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Louis_Prieur" title="Pierre Louis Prieur">Prieur de la Marne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Romme" title="Gilbert Romme">Gilbert Romme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Bon_Saint-Andr%C3%A9" class="mw-redirect" title="Jean Bon Saint-André">Jean Bon Saint-André</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Lambert_Tallien" title="Jean-Lambert Tallien">Jean-Lambert Tallien</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Louis_Prieur" title="Pierre Louis Prieur">Pierre Louis Prieur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Christophe_Saliceti" title="Antoine Christophe Saliceti">Antoine Christophe Saliceti</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/H%C3%A9bertists" title="Hébertists">Hébertists</a> and <a href="/wiki/Enrag%C3%A9s" title="Enragés">Enragés</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_H%C3%A9bert" title="Jacques Hébert">Jacques Hébert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques-Nicolas_Billaud-Varenne" title="Jacques-Nicolas Billaud-Varenne">Jacques-Nicolas Billaud-Varenne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Gaspard_Chaumette" title="Pierre Gaspard Chaumette">Pierre Gaspard Chaumette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles-Philippe_Ronsin" title="Charles-Philippe Ronsin">Charles-Philippe Ronsin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoine-Fran%C3%A7ois_Momoro" title="Antoine-François Momoro">Antoine-François Momoro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois-Nicolas_Vincent" title="François-Nicolas Vincent">François-Nicolas Vincent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Chabot" title="François Chabot">François Chabot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Baptiste_No%C3%ABl_Bouchotte" title="Jean Baptiste Noël Bouchotte">Jean Baptiste Noël Bouchotte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste-Joseph_Gobel" title="Jean-Baptiste-Joseph Gobel">Jean-Baptiste-Joseph Gobel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Hanriot" title="François Hanriot">François Hanriot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Roux" title="Jacques Roux">Jacques Roux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanislas-Marie_Maillard" title="Stanislas-Marie Maillard">Stanislas-Marie Maillard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles-Philippe_Ronsin" title="Charles-Philippe Ronsin">Charles-Philippe Ronsin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois_Varlet" title="Jean-François Varlet">Jean-François Varlet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Th%C3%A9ophile_Victor_Leclerc" title="Jean Théophile Victor Leclerc">Theophile Leclerc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claire_Lacombe" title="Claire Lacombe">Claire Lacombe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pauline_L%C3%A9on" title="Pauline Léon">Pauline Léon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois-No%C3%ABl_Babeuf" title="François-Noël Babeuf">Gracchus Babeuf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sylvain_Mar%C3%A9chal" title="Sylvain Maréchal">Sylvain Maréchal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Figures</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charles_X_of_France" title="Charles X of France">Charles X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_XVI" title="Louis XVI">Louis XVI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_XVII" title="Louis XVII">Louis XVII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_XVIII" title="Louis XVIII">Louis XVIII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Antoine,_Duke_of_Enghien" title="Louis Antoine, Duke of Enghien">Louis Antoine, Duke of Enghien</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Henri,_Prince_of_Cond%C3%A9" title="Louis Henri, Prince of Condé">Louis Henri, Prince of Condé</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Joseph,_Prince_of_Cond%C3%A9" title="Louis Joseph, Prince of Condé">Louis Joseph, Prince of Condé</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marie_Antoinette" title="Marie Antoinette">Marie Antoinette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Napoleon" title="Napoleon">Napoléon Bonaparte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucien_Bonaparte" title="Lucien Bonaparte">Lucien Bonaparte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Bonaparte" title="Joseph Bonaparte">Joseph Bonaparte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Fesch" title="Joseph Fesch">Joseph Fesch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9phine_de_Beauharnais" title="Joséphine de Beauharnais">Joséphine de Beauharnais</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joachim_Murat" title="Joachim Murat">Joachim Murat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Sylvain_Bailly" title="Jean Sylvain Bailly">Jean Sylvain Bailly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques-Donatien_Le_Ray_de_Chaumont" title="Jacques-Donatien Le Ray de Chaumont">Jacques-Donatien Le Ray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guillaume-Chr%C3%A9tien_de_Lamoignon_de_Malesherbes" title="Guillaume-Chrétien de Lamoignon de Malesherbes">Guillaume-Chrétien de Malesherbes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Maurice_de_Talleyrand-P%C3%A9rigord" title="Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord">Talleyrand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Th%C3%A9r%C3%A9sa_Tallien" title="Thérésa Tallien">Thérésa Tallien</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gui-Jean-Baptiste_Target" title="Gui-Jean-Baptiste Target">Gui-Jean-Baptiste Target</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catherine_Th%C3%A9ot" title="Catherine Théot">Catherine Théot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marie_Th%C3%A9r%C3%A8se_Louise_of_Savoy,_Princesse_de_Lamballe" title="Marie Thérèse Louise of Savoy, Princesse de Lamballe">Madame de Lamballe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madame_du_Barry" title="Madame du Barry">Madame du Barry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Auguste_Le_Tonnelier_de_Breteuil" title="Louis Auguste Le Tonnelier de Breteuil">Louis de Breteuil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois-Ren%C3%A9_de_Chateaubriand" title="François-René de Chateaubriand">de Chateaubriand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Chouan" title="Jean Chouan">Jean Chouan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Charles_de_Lom%C3%A9nie_de_Brienne" title="Étienne Charles de Loménie de Brienne">Loménie de Brienne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Alexandre_de_Calonne" title="Charles Alexandre de Calonne">Charles Alexandre de Calonne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Necker" title="Jacques Necker">Jacques Necker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Duval_d%27Epr%C3%A9mesnil" title="Jean-Jacques Duval d'Eprémesnil">Jean-Jacques Duval d'Eprémesnil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_people_associated_with_the_French_Revolution" title="List of people associated with the French Revolution">List of people associated with the French Revolution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Factions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jacobins" title="Jacobins">Jacobins</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cordeliers" title="Cordeliers">Cordeliers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panth%C3%A9on_Club" title="Panthéon Club">Panthéon Club</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society_of_the_Friends_of_Truth" title="Society of the Friends of Truth">Social Club</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><div id="Influential_thinkers" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Influential thinkers</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Les Lumières</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Beaumarchais" title="Pierre Beaumarchais">Beaumarchais</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Edmund Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anacharsis_Cloots" title="Anacharsis Cloots">Anacharsis Cloots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles-Augustin_de_Coulomb" title="Charles-Augustin de Coulomb">Charles-Augustin de Coulomb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Claude_Fran%C3%A7ois_Daunou" title="Pierre Claude François Daunou">Pierre Claude François Daunou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denis_Diderot" title="Denis Diderot">Diderot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Benjamin Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Lavoisier" title="Antoine Lavoisier">Antoine Lavoisier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Paine" title="Thomas Paine">Thomas Paine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Jean-Jacques Rousseau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmanuel_Joseph_Siey%C3%A8s" title="Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès">Abbé Sieyès</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Voltaire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Wollstonecraft" title="Mary Wollstonecraft">Mary Wollstonecraft</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><div id="Cultural_impact" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Cultural impact</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/La_Marseillaise" title="La Marseillaise">La Marseillaise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cockade_of_France" title="Cockade of France">Cockade of France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_France" title="Flag of France">Flag of France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libert%C3%A9,_%C3%A9galit%C3%A9,_fraternit%C3%A9" title="Liberté, égalité, fraternité">Liberté, égalité, fraternité</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marianne" title="Marianne">Marianne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muscadin" title="Muscadin">Muscadin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bastille_Day" title="Bastille Day">Bastille Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panth%C3%A9on" title="Panthéon">Panthéon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Republican_calendar" title="French Republican calendar">French Republican calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metric_system" title="Metric system">Metric system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Declaration_of_the_Rights_of_Man_and_of_the_Citizen" title="Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen">Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cult_of_the_Supreme_Being" title="Cult of the Supreme Being">Cult of the Supreme Being</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cult_of_Reason" title="Cult of Reason">Cult of Reason</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Reason" title="Temple of Reason">Temple of Reason</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sans-culottes" title="Sans-culottes">Sans-culottes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phrygian_cap" title="Phrygian cap">Phrygian cap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_French_Revolution" title="Women in the French Revolution">Women in the French Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incroyables_and_merveilleuses" title="Incroyables and merveilleuses">Incroyables and merveilleuses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbolism_in_the_French_Revolution" title="Symbolism in the French Revolution">Symbolism in the French Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_French_Revolution" title="Historiography of the French Revolution">Historiography of the French Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Influence_of_the_French_Revolution" title="Influence of the French Revolution">Influence of the French Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_films_set_during_the_French_Revolution_and_French_Revolutionary_Wars" title="List of films set during the French Revolution and French Revolutionary Wars">Films</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Social_philosophy" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Social_philosophy" title="Template:Social philosophy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Social_philosophy" title="Template talk:Social philosophy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Social_philosophy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Social philosophy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Social_philosophy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Social_philosophy" title="Social philosophy">Social philosophy</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agency_(philosophy)" title="Agency (philosophy)">Agency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anomie" title="Anomie">Anomie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convention_(norm)" title="Convention (norm)">Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmopolitanism" title="Cosmopolitanism">Cosmopolitanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Customary_law" title="Customary law">Customs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_heritage" title="Cultural heritage">Cultural heritage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culturalism" title="Culturalism">Culturalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Interculturalism" title="Interculturalism">Inter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monoculturalism" title="Monoculturalism">Mono</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiculturalism" title="Multiculturalism">Multi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">Culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Counterculture" title="Counterculture">Counter</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Familialism" title="Familialism">Familialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History" title="History">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honour" title="Honour">Honour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_nature" title="Human nature">Human nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Identity_(social_science)" title="Identity (social science)">Identity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Identity_formation" title="Identity formation">Formation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideology" title="Ideology">Ideology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institution" title="Institution">Institutions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invisible_hand" title="Invisible hand">Invisible hand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loyalty" title="Loyalty">Loyalty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernity" title="Modernity">Modernity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">Morality</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Public_morality" title="Public morality">Public</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mores" title="Mores">Mores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_character" title="National character">National character</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reification_(Marxism)" title="Reification (Marxism)">Reification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ressentiment" title="Ressentiment">Ressentiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rights" title="Rights">Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sittlichkeit" title="Sittlichkeit">Sittlichkeit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_alienation" title="Social alienation">Social alienation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_norm" title="Social norm">Social norms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_order" title="Spontaneous order">Spontaneous order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stewardship" title="Stewardship">Stewardship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tradition" title="Tradition">Traditions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Value_(ethics_and_social_sciences)" title="Value (ethics and social sciences)">Values</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Family_values" title="Family values">Family</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volksgeist" class="mw-redirect" title="Volksgeist">Volksgeist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Worldview" title="Worldview">Worldview</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Schools</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Budapest_School" title="Budapest School">Budapest School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_social_teaching" title="Catholic social teaching">Catholic social teaching</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Distributism" title="Distributism">Distributism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_conservatism" title="Social conservatism">Social</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_School" title="Frankfurt School">Frankfurt School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personalism" title="Personalism">Personalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philosophers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ancient</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lactantius" title="Lactantius">Lactantius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laozi" title="Laozi">Laozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mencius" title="Mencius">Mencius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozi" title="Mozi">Mozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origen" title="Origen">Origen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philo" title="Philo">Philo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thucydides" title="Thucydides">Thucydides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xunzi_(philosopher)" title="Xunzi (philosopher)">Xunzi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Medieval</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">Alpharabius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avempace" title="Avempace">Avempace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonardo_Bruni" title="Leonardo Bruni">Bruni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dante_Alighieri" title="Dante Alighieri">Dante</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Gelasius_I" title="Pope Gelasius I">Gelasius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photios_I_of_Constantinople" title="Photios I of Constantinople">Photios</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gemistos_Plethon" title="Gemistos Plethon">Plethon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Tufayl" title="Ibn Tufayl">Ibn Tufayl</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Early modern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Calvin" title="John Calvin">Calvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erasmus" title="Erasmus">Erasmus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francesco_Guicciardini" title="Francesco Guicciardini">Guicciardini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Luther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Milton" title="John Milton">Milton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_de_Montaigne" title="Michel de Montaigne">Montaigne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer" title="Thomas Müntzer">Müntzer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">18th and 19th centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Matthew_Arnold" title="Matthew Arnold">Arnold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_de_Bonald" title="Louis de Bonald">Bonald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Carlyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Comte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Condorcet" title="Marquis de Condorcet">Condorcet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Waldo_Emerson" title="Ralph Waldo Emerson">Emerson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Engels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte">Fichte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Fourier" title="Charles Fourier">Fourier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Adrien_Helv%C3%A9tius" title="Claude Adrien Helvétius">Helvétius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Herder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustave_Le_Bon" title="Gustave Le Bon">Le Bon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Guillaume_Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_le_Play" title="Pierre Guillaume Frédéric le Play">Le Play</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Owen" title="Robert Owen">Owen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Renan" title="Ernest Renan">Renan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josiah_Royce" title="Josiah Royce">Royce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Ruskin" title="John Ruskin">Ruskin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Spencer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germaine_de_Sta%C3%ABl" title="Germaine de Staël">de Staël</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Stirner" title="Max Stirner">Stirner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippolyte_Taine" title="Hippolyte Taine">Taine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_David_Thoreau" title="Henry David Thoreau">Thoreau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Tocqueville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giambattista_Vico" title="Giambattista Vico">Vico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swami_Vivekananda" title="Swami Vivekananda">Vivekananda</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Voltaire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">20th and 21st centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theodor_W._Adorno" title="Theodor W. Adorno">Adorno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giorgio_Agamben" title="Giorgio Agamben">Agamben</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hannah_Arendt" title="Hannah Arendt">Arendt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Aron" title="Raymond Aron">Aron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_Badiou" title="Alain Badiou">Badiou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Baudrillard" title="Jean Baudrillard">Baudrillard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zygmunt_Bauman" title="Zygmunt Bauman">Bauman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_de_Benoist" title="Alain de Benoist">Benoist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaiah_Berlin" title="Isaiah Berlin">Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judith_Butler" title="Judith Butler">Butler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Camus" title="Albert Camus">Camus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simone_de_Beauvoir" title="Simone de Beauvoir">de Beauvoir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guy_Debord" title="Guy Debord">Debord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilles_Deleuze" title="Gilles Deleuze">Deleuze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">Dewey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Durkheim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umberto_Eco" title="Umberto Eco">Eco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Evola" title="Julius Evola">Evola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Foucault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erich_Fromm" title="Erich Fromm">Fromm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Gandhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arnold_Gehlen" title="Arnold Gehlen">Gehlen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Gentile" title="Giovanni Gentile">Gentile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Gramsci" title="Antonio Gramsci">Gramsci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Gu%C3%A9non" title="René Guénon">Guénon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Habermas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byung-Chul_Han" title="Byung-Chul Han">Han</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Heidegger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Hermann_Hoppe" title="Hans-Hermann Hoppe">Hoppe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luce_Irigaray" title="Luce Irigaray">Irigaray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russell_Kirk" title="Russell Kirk">Kirk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leszek_Ko%C5%82akowski" title="Leszek Kołakowski">Kołakowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Kropotkin" title="Peter Kropotkin">Kropotkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nick_Land" title="Nick Land">Land</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Lasch" title="Christopher Lasch">Lasch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alasdair_MacIntyre" title="Alasdair MacIntyre">MacIntyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Marcuse" title="Herbert Marcuse">Marcuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Maritain" title="Jacques Maritain">Maritain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Negri" title="Antonio Negri">Negri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reinhold_Niebuhr" title="Reinhold Niebuhr">Niebuhr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Nussbaum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Oakeshott" title="Michael Oakeshott">Oakeshott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ortega_y_Gasset" title="José Ortega y Gasset">Ortega</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vilfredo_Pareto" title="Vilfredo Pareto">Pareto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Polanyi" title="Karl Polanyi">Polanyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarvepalli_Radhakrishnan" title="Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan">Radhakrishnan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_R%C3%B6pke" title="Wilhelm Röpke">Röpke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Santayana" title="George Santayana">Santayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Scruton" title="Roger Scruton">Scruton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Shariati" title="Ali Shariati">Shariati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Simmel" title="Georg Simmel">Simmel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B._F._Skinner" title="B. F. Skinner">Skinner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Werner_Sombart" title="Werner Sombart">Sombart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Sowell" title="Thomas Sowell">Sowell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oswald_Spengler" title="Oswald Spengler">Spengler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Taylor_(philosopher)" title="Charles Taylor (philosopher)">Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Voegelin" title="Eric Voegelin">Voegelin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Walzer" title="Michael Walzer">Walzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Weber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simone_Weil" title="Simone Weil">Weil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Howard_Zinn" title="Howard Zinn">Zinn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavoj_%C5%BDi%C5%BEek" title="Slavoj Žižek">Žižek</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/De_Officiis" title="De Officiis">De Officiis</a> (44 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oration_on_the_Dignity_of_Man" title="Oration on the Dignity of Man">Oration on the Dignity of Man</a> (1486)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Vindication_of_Natural_Society" title="A Vindication of Natural Society">A Vindication of Natural Society</a> (1756)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_America" title="Democracy in America">Democracy in America</a> (1835–1840)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civilization_and_Its_Discontents" title="Civilization and Its Discontents">Civilization and Its Discontents</a> (1930)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Work_of_Art_in_the_Age_of_Mechanical_Reproduction" title="The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction">The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction</a> (1935)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Second_Sex" title="The Second Sex">The Second Sex</a> (1949)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/One-Dimensional_Man" title="One-Dimensional Man">One-Dimensional Man</a> (1964)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Society_of_the_Spectacle" title="The Society of the Spectacle">The Society of the Spectacle</a> (1967)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality" title="The History of Sexuality">The History of Sexuality</a> (1976)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Culture_of_Narcissism" title="The Culture of Narcissism">The Culture of Narcissism</a> (1979)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Conflict_of_Visions" title="A Conflict of Visions">A Conflict of Visions</a> (1987)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Closing_of_the_American_Mind" title="The Closing of the American Mind">The Closing of the American Mind</a> (1987)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_Trouble" title="Gender Trouble">Gender Trouble</a> (1990)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Malaise_of_Modernity" title="The Malaise of Modernity">The Malaise of Modernity</a> (1991)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intellectuals_and_Society" title="Intellectuals and Society">Intellectuals and Society</a> (2010)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agnotology" title="Agnotology">Agnotology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Axiology">Axiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_critic" title="Cultural critic">Cultural criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_pessimism" title="Cultural pessimism">Cultural pessimism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historism" title="Historism">Historism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanities" title="Humanities">Humanities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_culture" title="Philosophy of culture">Philosophy of culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_education" title="Philosophy of education">Philosophy of education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">Philosophy of history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_criticism" title="Social criticism">Social criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">Social science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_theory" title="Social theory">Social theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">Sociology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Social_philosophy" title="Category:Social philosophy">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Political_philosophy" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Political_philosophy" title="Template:Political philosophy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Political_philosophy" title="Template talk:Political philosophy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Political_philosophy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Political philosophy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Political_philosophy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Terms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authority" title="Authority">Authority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Citizenship" title="Citizenship">Citizenship‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duty" title="Duty">Duty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elite" title="Elite">Elite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation" title="Emancipation">Emancipation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom" title="Freedom">Freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government" title="Government">Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hegemony" title="Hegemony">Hegemony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hierarchy" title="Hierarchy">Hierarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legitimacy_(political)" title="Legitimacy (political)">Legitimacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">Liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monopoly" title="Monopoly">Monopoly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nation" title="Nation">Nation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obedience_(human_behavior)" class="mw-redirect" title="Obedience (human behavior)">Obedience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace" title="Peace">Peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People" title="People">People</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pluralism_(political_philosophy)" title="Pluralism (political philosophy)">Pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_(social_and_political)" title="Power (social and political)">Power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progress" title="Progress">Progress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda">Propaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property" title="Property">Property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regime" title="Regime">Regime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolution" title="Revolution">Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rights" title="Rights">Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruling_class" title="Ruling class">Ruling class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society" title="Society">Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sovereignty" title="Sovereignty">Sovereignty‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_(polity)" title="State (polity)">State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utopia" title="Utopia">Utopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War" title="War">War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Government</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristocracy" title="Aristocracy">Aristocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autocracy" title="Autocracy">Autocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bureaucracy" title="Bureaucracy">Bureaucracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dictatorship" title="Dictatorship">Dictatorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerontocracy" title="Gerontocracy">Gerontocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meritocracy" title="Meritocracy">Meritocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy" title="Monarchy">Monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oligarchy" title="Oligarchy">Oligarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutocracy" title="Plutocracy">Plutocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technocracy" title="Technocracy">Technocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theocracy" title="Theocracy">Theocracy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ideologies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agrarianism" title="Agrarianism">Agrarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_democracy" title="Christian democracy">Christian democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">Colonialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">Communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporatism" title="Corporatism">Corporatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributism" title="Distributism">Distributism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmentalism" title="Environmentalism">Environmentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fascism" title="Fascism">Fascism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_political_theory" title="Feminist political theory">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">Feudalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperialism" title="Imperialism">Imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamism" title="Islamism">Islamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism" title="Libertarianism">Libertarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Localism_(politics)" title="Localism (politics)">Localism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchism" title="Monarchism">Monarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiculturalism" title="Multiculturalism">Multiculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazism" title="Nazism">Nazism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Populism" title="Populism">Populism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism" title="Republicanism">Republicanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_Darwinism" title="Social Darwinism">Social Darwinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_democracy" title="Social democracy">Social democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Way" title="Third Way">Third Way</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balance_of_power_(international_relations)" title="Balance of power (international relations)">Balance of power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bellum_omnium_contra_omnes" title="Bellum omnium contra omnes">Bellum omnium contra omnes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Body_politic" title="Body politic">Body politic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clash_of_Civilizations" title="Clash of Civilizations">Clash of civilizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_good" title="Common good">Common good</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consent_of_the_governed" title="Consent of the governed">Consent of the governed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_right_of_kings" title="Divine right of kings">Divine right of kings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_as_a_model_for_the_state" title="Family as a model for the state">Family as a model for the state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monopoly_on_violence" title="Monopoly on violence">Monopoly on violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negative_and_positive_rights" title="Negative and positive rights">Negative and positive rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Night-watchman_state" title="Night-watchman state">Night-watchman state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noble_lie" title="Noble lie">Noble lie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noblesse_oblige" title="Noblesse oblige">Noblesse oblige</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_society" title="Open society">Open society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordered_liberty" title="Ordered liberty">Ordered liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Original_position" title="Original position">Original position</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overton_window" title="Overton window">Overton window</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers" title="Separation of powers">Separation of powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_of_nature" title="State of nature">State of nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statolatry" title="Statolatry">Statolatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyranny_of_the_majority" title="Tyranny of the majority">Tyranny of the majority</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_philosophers" title="List of political philosophers">Philosophers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Antiquity</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chanakya" title="Chanakya">Chanakya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Han_Fei" title="Han Fei">Han Fei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lactantius" title="Lactantius">Lactantius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mencius" title="Mencius">Mencius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozi" title="Mozi">Mozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plato%27s_political_philosophy" title="Plato's political philosophy">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shang_Yang" title="Shang Yang">Shang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_Tzu" title="Sun Tzu">Sun Tzu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thucydides" title="Thucydides">Thucydides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophon" title="Xenophon">Xenophon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Middle Ages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">Alpharabius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonardo_Bruni" title="Leonardo Bruni">Bruni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dante_Alighieri" title="Dante Alighieri">Dante</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Gelasius_I" title="Pope Gelasius I">Gelasius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Ghazali" title="Al-Ghazali">al-Ghazali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marsilius_of_Padua" title="Marsilius of Padua">Marsilius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nizam_al-Mulk" title="Nizam al-Mulk">Nizam al-Mulk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_of_Ockham" title="William of Ockham">Ockham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gemistos_Plethon" title="Gemistos Plethon">Plethon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Anshi" title="Wang Anshi">Wang</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Early modern period</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_de_La_Bo%C3%A9tie" title="Étienne de La Boétie">Boétie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Bodin" title="Jean Bodin">Bodin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques-B%C3%A9nigne_Bossuet" title="Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet">Bossuet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Calvin" title="John Calvin">Calvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tommaso_Campanella" title="Tommaso Campanella">Campanella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Filmer" title="Robert Filmer">Filmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugo_Grotius" title="Hugo Grotius">Grotius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francesco_Guicciardini" title="Francesco Guicciardini">Guicciardini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Hobbes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hobbes%27s_moral_and_political_philosophy" title="Hobbes's moral and political philosophy">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_VI_and_I" title="James VI and I">James</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Leibniz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Luther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_Machiavelli" title="Niccolò Machiavelli">Machiavelli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Milton" title="John Milton">Milton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_More" title="Thomas More">More</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer" title="Thomas Müntzer">Müntzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_von_Pufendorf" title="Samuel von Pufendorf">Pufendorf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Su%C3%A1rez" title="Francisco Suárez">Suárez</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">18th and 19th centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Bakunin" title="Mikhail Bakunin">Bakunin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Bastiat" title="Frédéric Bastiat">Bastiat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cesare_Beccaria" title="Cesare Beccaria">Beccaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_St_John,_1st_Viscount_Bolingbroke" title="Henry St John, 1st Viscount Bolingbroke">Bolingbroke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_de_Bonald" title="Louis de Bonald">Bonald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Carlyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Comte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Condorcet" title="Marquis de Condorcet">Condorcet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Constant" title="Benjamin Constant">Constant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_Donoso_Cort%C3%A9s" title="Juan Donoso Cortés">Cortés</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Engels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte">Fichte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Fourier" title="Charles Fourier">Fourier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Godwin" title="William Godwin">Godwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Ludwig_von_Haller" title="Karl Ludwig von Haller">Haller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Herder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Iqbal" title="Muhammad Iqbal">Iqbal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Iqbal%27s_political_philosophy" title="Muhammad Iqbal's political philosophy">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy_of_Immanuel_Kant" title="Political philosophy of Immanuel Kant">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustave_Le_Bon" title="Gustave Le Bon">Le Bon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Guillaume_Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_le_Play" title="Pierre Guillaume Frédéric le Play">Le Play</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">Madison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_de_Maistre" title="Joseph de Maistre">Maistre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Mazzini" title="Giuseppe Mazzini">Mazzini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Owen" title="Robert Owen">Owen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Paine" title="Thomas Paine">Paine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Renan" title="Ernest Renan">Renan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Sade" title="Marquis de Sade">Sade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_de_Saint-Simon" title="Henri de Saint-Simon">Saint-Simon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Spencer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germaine_de_Sta%C3%ABl" title="Germaine de Staël">de Staël</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Stirner" title="Max Stirner">Stirner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippolyte_Taine" title="Hippolyte Taine">Taine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_David_Thoreau" title="Henry David Thoreau">Thoreau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Tocqueville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Tucker" title="Benjamin Tucker">Tucker</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Voltaire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">20th and 21st centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Giorgio_Agamben" title="Giorgio Agamben">Agamben</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B._R._Ambedkar" title="B. R. Ambedkar">Ambedkar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hannah_Arendt" title="Hannah Arendt">Arendt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Aron" title="Raymond Aron">Aron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_Badiou" title="Alain Badiou">Badiou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zygmunt_Bauman" title="Zygmunt Bauman">Bauman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_de_Benoist" title="Alain de Benoist">Benoist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaiah_Berlin" title="Isaiah Berlin">Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eduard_Bernstein" title="Eduard Bernstein">Bernstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Burnham" title="James Burnham">Burnham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Chomsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Dmowski" title="Roman Dmowski">Dmowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aleksandr_Dugin" title="Aleksandr Dugin">Dugin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Dworkin" title="Ronald Dworkin">Dworkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Evola" title="Julius Evola">Evola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Foucault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erich_Fromm" title="Erich Fromm">Fromm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Fukuyama" title="Francis Fukuyama">Fukuyama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Gandhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Gentile" title="Giovanni Gentile">Gentile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Gramsci" title="Antonio Gramsci">Gramsci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Gu%C3%A9non" title="René Guénon">Guénon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Habermas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Hayek" title="Friedrich Hayek">Hayek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Hermann_Hoppe" title="Hans-Hermann Hoppe">Hoppe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_P._Huntington" title="Samuel P. Huntington">Huntington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Kautsky" title="Karl Kautsky">Kautsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russell_Kirk" title="Russell Kirk">Kirk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Kropotkin" title="Peter Kropotkin">Kropotkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernesto_Laclau" title="Ernesto Laclau">Laclau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Lenin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosa_Luxemburg" title="Rosa Luxemburg">Luxemburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvey_Mansfield" title="Harvey Mansfield">Mansfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Marcuse" title="Herbert Marcuse">Marcuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Maurras" title="Charles Maurras">Maurras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Michels" title="Robert Michels">Michels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_von_Mises" title="Ludwig von Mises">Mises</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaetano_Mosca" title="Gaetano Mosca">Mosca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chantal_Mouffe" title="Chantal Mouffe">Mouffe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Negri" title="Antonio Negri">Negri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Nozick" title="Robert Nozick">Nozick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Nussbaum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Oakeshott" title="Michael Oakeshott">Oakeshott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ortega_y_Gasset" title="José Ortega y Gasset">Ortega</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vilfredo_Pareto" title="Vilfredo Pareto">Pareto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Popper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sayyid_Qutb" title="Sayyid Qutb">Qutb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayn_Rand" title="Ayn Rand">Rand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_R%C3%B6pke" title="Wilhelm Röpke">Röpke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murray_Rothbard" title="Murray Rothbard">Rothbard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Sartre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Schmitt" title="Carl Schmitt">Schmitt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Scruton" title="Roger Scruton">Scruton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Shariati" title="Ali Shariati">Shariati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Sorel" title="Georges Sorel">Sorel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Othmar_Spann" title="Othmar Spann">Spann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oswald_Spengler" title="Oswald Spengler">Spengler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Strauss" title="Leo Strauss">Strauss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_Yat-sen" title="Sun Yat-sen">Sun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Taylor_(philosopher)" title="Charles Taylor (philosopher)">Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Voegelin" title="Eric Voegelin">Voegelin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Walzer" title="Michael Walzer">Walzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Weber</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Republic_(Plato)" title="Republic (Plato)">Republic</a> (c. 375 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_(Aristotle)" title="Politics (Aristotle)">Politics</a> (c. 350 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/De_re_publica" title="De re publica">De re publica</a> (51 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treatise_on_Law" title="Treatise on Law">Treatise on Law</a> (c. 1274)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchia" title="Monarchia">Monarchia</a> (1313)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Prince" title="The Prince">The Prince</a> (1532)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leviathan_(Hobbes_book)" title="Leviathan (Hobbes book)">Leviathan</a> (1651)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two_Treatises_of_Government" title="Two Treatises of Government">Two Treatises of Government</a> (1689)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Spirit_of_Law" title="The Spirit of Law">The Spirit of Law</a> (1748)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Social_Contract" title="The Social Contract">The Social Contract</a> (1762)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reflections_on_the_Revolution_in_France" title="Reflections on the Revolution in France">Reflections on the Revolution in France</a> (1790)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rights_of_Man" title="Rights of Man">Rights of Man</a> (1791)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elements_of_the_Philosophy_of_Right" title="Elements of the Philosophy of Right">Elements of the Philosophy of Right</a> (1820)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_America" title="Democracy in America">Democracy in America</a> (1835–1840)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Communist_Manifesto" title="The Communist Manifesto">The Communist Manifesto</a> (1848)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Liberty" title="On Liberty">On Liberty</a> (1859)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Revolt_of_the_Masses" title="The Revolt of the Masses">The Revolt of the Masses</a> (1929)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Road_to_Serfdom" title="The Road to Serfdom">The Road to Serfdom</a> (1944)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Open_Society_and_Its_Enemies" title="The Open Society and Its Enemies">The Open Society and Its Enemies</a> (1945)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Origins_of_Totalitarianism" title="The Origins of Totalitarianism">The Origins of Totalitarianism</a> (1951)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Theory_of_Justice" title="A Theory of Justice">A Theory of Justice</a> (1971)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_End_of_History_and_the_Last_Man" title="The End of History and the Last Man">The End of History and the Last Man</a> (1992)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authoritarianism" title="Authoritarianism">Authoritarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_organization#Collectivism_and_individualism" title="Social organization">Collectivism and individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_theories" title="Conflict theories">Conflict theories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contractualism" title="Contractualism">Contractualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_political_economy" title="Critique of political economy">Critique of political economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egalitarianism" title="Egalitarianism">Egalitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elite_theory" title="Elite theory">Elite theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elitism" title="Elitism">Elitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_political_thought" title="History of political thought">History of political thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_discrimination" title="Institutional discrimination">Institutional discrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">Jurisprudence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justification_for_the_state" title="Justification for the state">Justification for the state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machiavellianism_(politics)" title="Machiavellianism (politics)">Machiavellianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_ethics" title="Political ethics">Political ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_spectrum" title="Political spectrum">Political spectrum</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Left-wing_politics" title="Left-wing politics">Left-wing politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centrism" title="Centrism">Centrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right-wing_politics" title="Right-wing politics">Right-wing politics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_theology" title="Political theology">Political theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_violence" title="Political violence">Political violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state" title="Separation of church and state">Separation of church and state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separatism" title="Separatism">Separatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_justice" title="Social justice">Social justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statism" title="Statism">Statism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Totalitarianism" title="Totalitarianism">Totalitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_social_and_political_philosophy_articles" title="Index of social and political philosophy articles">Index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Political_philosophy" title="Category:Political philosophy">Category:Political philosophy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output 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