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id="toc-Jābir_ibn_Ḥayyān-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Abū_Bakr_al-Rāzī" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Abū_Bakr_al-Rāzī"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Abū Bakr al-Rāzī</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Abū_Bakr_al-Rāzī-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ibn_Umayl" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ibn_Umayl"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Ibn Umayl</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ibn_Umayl-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Al-Tughrai" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Al-Tughrai"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Al-Tughrai</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Al-Tughrai-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Al-Jildaki" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Al-Jildaki"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Al-Jildaki</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Al-Jildaki-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Alchemical_and_chemical_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Alchemical_and_chemical_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Alchemical and chemical theory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Alchemical_and_chemical_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Processes_and_equipment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Processes_and_equipment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Processes and equipment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Processes_and_equipment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sources_used" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources_used"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Sources used</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources_used-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" 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> <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 14 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-14" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">14 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AE%D9%8A%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%A1_%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%83%D9%8A%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%A1_%D9%81%D9%8A_%D8%B9%D8%B5%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%B6%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A5%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="الخيمياء والكيمياء في عصر الحضارة الإسلامية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="الخيمياء والكيمياء في عصر الحضارة الإسلامية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A7%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%AF%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%97%E0%A7%87_%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%80_%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%87_%E0%A6%86%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BF_%E0%A6%93_%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%A8" title="মধ্যযুগে ইসলামী বিশ্বে আলকেমি ও রসায়ন – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="মধ্যযুগে ইসলামী বিশ্বে আলকেমি ও রসায়ন" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alquimia_en_el_mundo_isl%C3%A1mico_medieval" title="Alquimia en el mundo islámico medieval – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Alquimia en el mundo islámico medieval" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkemio_kaj_kemio_en_mezepoka_Islamo" title="Alkemio kaj kemio en mezepoka Islamo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Alkemio kaj kemio en mezepoka Islamo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%DB%8C%D9%85%DB%8C%D8%A7%DA%AF%D8%B1%DB%8C_%D9%88_%D8%B4%DB%8C%D9%85%DB%8C_%D8%AF%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85_%D9%82%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%86_%D9%88%D8%B3%D8%B7%DB%8C" title="کیمیاگری و شیمی در اسلام قرون وسطی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="کیمیاگری و شیمی در اسلام قرون وسطی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alchimie_en_Islam" title="Alchimie en Islam – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Alchimie en Islam" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alchemy_a_cikin_duniyar_Islama_ta_zamani" title="Alchemy a cikin duniyar Islama ta zamani – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Alchemy a cikin duniyar Islama ta zamani" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hausa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkimia_dan_kimia_Islam_abad_pertengahan" title="Alkimia dan kimia Islam abad pertengahan – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Alkimia dan kimia Islam abad pertengahan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkimia_lan_kimia_ing_jaman_Islam_tengahan" title="Alkimia lan kimia ing jaman Islam tengahan – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Alkimia lan kimia ing jaman Islam tengahan" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AE%D9%8A%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%A7_%D9%88_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%83%D9%8A%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%A7_%D9%81%D9%89_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D9%87%D8%AF_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%89" title="الخيميا و الكيميا فى العهد الاسلامى – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="الخيميا و الكيميا فى العهد الاسلامى" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alquimia_e_qu%C3%ADmica_no_Isl%C3%A3_medieval" title="Alquimia e química no Islã medieval – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Alquimia e química no Islã medieval" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%B2_%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC_%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B5" title="Химия в исламском мире – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Химия в исламском мире" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orta_%C3%87a%C4%9F_%C4%B0slam_d%C3%BCnyas%C4%B1nda_simya_ve_kimya" title="Orta Çağ İslam dünyasında simya ve kimya – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Orta Çağ İslam dünyasında simya ve kimya" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B1%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%85%D1%96%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Арабська алхімія – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Арабська алхімія" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q4119147#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" 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dir="ltr"><p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ibn_Umayl_The_Silvery_Water.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Ibn_Umayl_The_Silvery_Water.jpg/370px-Ibn_Umayl_The_Silvery_Water.jpg" decoding="async" width="370" height="269" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Ibn_Umayl_The_Silvery_Water.jpg/555px-Ibn_Umayl_The_Silvery_Water.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Ibn_Umayl_The_Silvery_Water.jpg/740px-Ibn_Umayl_The_Silvery_Water.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1642" data-file-height="1193" /></a><figcaption>Ibn Umail describes a statue of a sage holding the tablet of ancient alchemical knowledge. Illustration from a transcript of <a href="/wiki/Muhammed_ibn_Umail_al-Tamimi" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammed ibn Umail al-Tamimi">Muhammed ibn Umail al-Tamimi</a>'s book <i>Al-mâ' al-waraqî</i> (The Silvery Water), <a href="/wiki/Islamic_miniature" title="Islamic miniature">Islamic miniature</a> probably from <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a>, 608H/1211.</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Alchemy in the medieval Islamic world</b> refers to both traditional <a href="/wiki/Alchemy" title="Alchemy">alchemy</a> and early practical <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a> (the early chemical investigation of nature in general) by <a href="/wiki/Science_in_medieval_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Science in medieval Islam">Muslim scholars</a> in the medieval <a href="/wiki/Islamic_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic world">Islamic world</a>. The word <i>alchemy</i> was derived from the <a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a> word كيمياء or <i>kīmiyāʾ</i><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-anawati854_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-anawati854-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Chemistry_(etymology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemistry (etymology)">may ultimately derive</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Egyptian language">ancient Egyptian</a> word <i>kemi</i>, meaning black.<sup id="cite_ref-anawati854_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-anawati854-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After the fall of the <a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Roman Empire</a> and the Islamic conquest of <a href="/wiki/Roman_Egypt" title="Roman Egypt">Roman Egypt</a>, the focus of alchemical development moved to the <a href="/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate">Caliphate</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Islamic civilization</a>. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-2"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definition_and_relationship_with_medieval_western_sciences">Definition and relationship with medieval western sciences</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Alchemy_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Definition and relationship with medieval western sciences"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In considering Islamic sciences as a distinct, local practice, it is important to define words such as "Arabic," "Islamic," "alchemy," and "chemistry" in order to gain an understanding of what these terms mean historically. This may also help to clear up any misconceptions regarding the possible differences between alchemy and early chemistry in the context of medieval times. As <a href="/wiki/A._I._Sabra" title="A. I. Sabra">A. I. Sabra</a> writes in his article entitled, "Situating Arabic Science: Location versus Essence," "the term Arabic (or Islamic) science denotes the scientific activities of individuals who lived in a region that roughly extended chronologically from the eighth century A.D. to the beginning of the modern era, and geographically from the Iberian Peninsula and <a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North Africa</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Indus" class="mw-redirect" title="Indus">Indus</a> valley and from <a href="/wiki/Southern_Arabia" class="mw-redirect" title="Southern Arabia">southern Arabia</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Caspian_Sea" title="Caspian Sea">Caspian Sea</a> - that is, the region covered for most of that period by what we call Islamic civilization, and in which the results of the activities referred to were for the most part expressed in the Arabic language."<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This definition of Arabic science provides a sense that there are many distinguishing factors to contrast with science of the Western hemisphere regarding physical location, culture, and language, though there are also several similarities in the goals pursued by scientists of the Middle Ages, and in the origins of thinking from which both were derived. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Principe" class="mw-redirect" title="Lawrence Principe">Lawrence Principe</a> describes the relationship between alchemy and chemistry in his article entitled, "Alchemy Restored," in which he states, "The search for metallic transmutation — what we call "alchemy" but that is more accurately termed "<a href="/wiki/Chrysopoeia" title="Chrysopoeia">Chrysopoeia</a>" — was ordinarily viewed in the late seventeenth century as synonymous with or as a subset of chemistry."<sup id="cite_ref-Principe_2011,_P._306_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Principe_2011,_P._306-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He therefore proposes that the early spelling of chemistry as "chymistry" refers to a unified science including both alchemy and early chemistry. Principe goes on to argue that, "[a]ll their chymical activities were unified by a common focus on the analysis, synthesis, transformation, and production of material substances."<sup id="cite_ref-Principe_2011,_P._306_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Principe_2011,_P._306-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Therefore, there is not a defined contrast between the two fields until the early 18th century.<sup id="cite_ref-Principe_2011,_P._306_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Principe_2011,_P._306-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Though Principe's discussion is centered on the Western practice of alchemy and chemistry, this argument is supported in the context of Islamic science as well when considering the similarity in methodology and <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotelian</a> inspirations, as noted in other sections of this article. This distinction between alchemy and early chemistry is one that lies predominantly in semantics, though with an understanding of previous uses of the words, we can better understand the historical lack of distinct connotations regarding the terms despite their altered connotations in modern contexts. </p><p>The transmission of these sciences throughout the Eastern and Western hemispheres is also important to understand when distinguishing the sciences of both regions. The beginnings of cultural, religious, and scientific diffusion of information between the Western and Eastern societies began with the successful conquests of <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a> (334-323 B.C). By establishing territory throughout the East, Alexander the Great allowed greater communication between the two hemispheres that would continue throughout history. A thousand years later, those Asian territories conquered by Alexander the Great, such as <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a> and <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a>, became a center of religious movements with a focus on <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Manicheism" class="mw-redirect" title="Manicheism">Manicheism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a>, which all involve sacred texts as a basis, thus encouraging literacy, scholarship, and the spread of ideas.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Aristotelian logic was soon included in the curriculum a center for higher education in <a href="/wiki/Nisibis" class="mw-redirect" title="Nisibis">Nisibis</a>, located east of the Persian border, and was used to enhance the philosophical discussion of theology taking place at the time.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Qur%27an" class="mw-redirect" title="Qur'an">Qur'an</a>, the holy book of Islam, became an important source of "theology, morality, law, and cosmology," in what <a href="/wiki/David_C._Lindberg" title="David C. Lindberg">David C. Lindberg</a> describes as "the centerpiece of Islamic education." After the death of Muhammad in 632, Islam was extended throughout the Arabian peninsula, parts of Byzantium, Persia, Syria, Egypt, and Palestine by means of military conquest, solidifying the region as a predominantly Muslim one.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While the expansion of the Islamic empire was an important factor in diminishing political barriers between such areas, there was still a wide range of religions, beliefs, and philosophies that could move freely and be translated throughout the regions. This development made way for contributions to be made on behalf of the East towards the Western conception of sciences such as alchemy. </p><p>While this transmission of information and practices allowed for the further development of the field, and though both were inspired by Aristotelian logic and <a href="/wiki/Hellenic_philosophy_and_Christianity" class="mw-redirect" title="Hellenic philosophy and Christianity">Hellenic philosophies</a>, as well as by mystical aspects<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> it is also important to note that cultural and religious boundaries remained. The mystical and religious elements discussed previously in the article distinguished Islamic alchemy from that of its Western counterpart, given that the West had predominantly Christian ideals on which to base their beliefs and results, while the Islamic tradition differed greatly. While the motives differed in some ways, as did the calculations, the practice and development of alchemy and chemistry was similar given the contemporaneous nature of the fields and the ability with which scientists could transmit their beliefs. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Contributions_of_Islamic_alchemists_to_mystical_alchemy">Contributions of Islamic alchemists to mystical alchemy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Alchemy_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Contributions of Islamic alchemists to mystical alchemy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Marie-Louise_von_Franz" title="Marie-Louise von Franz">Marie-Louise von Franz</a> describes in her introduction to <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Umail" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn Umail">Ibn Umail</a>'s "Book of the Explanation of the Symbols — Kitāb Ḥall ar-Rumūz" the contributions of Islamic alchemy as follows: In the 7th to 8th century, Islamic scholars were mainly concerned with translating ancient <a href="/wiki/Hermeticism" title="Hermeticism">Hermetic</a>-<a href="/wiki/Gnosticism" title="Gnosticism">Gnostic</a> texts without changing them. Gradually they began "'confronting' their content with the Islamic religion" and began "to think independently and experiment themselves in the realm of alchemy". Thus they added "an emphasis on the monotheistic outlook" (tawḥīd) and more and more creating a synopsis of the diverse antique traditions. Thus unifying their meaning, the Islamic scholars arrived at the idea, that the secret and aim of alchemy were the achievement of "<i>one</i> inner psychic experience, namely the God-image" and that stone, water, prima materia etc. were "all aspects of the inner mystery through which the alchemist unites with the transcendent God". Secondly, they added "a passionate feeling tone" by using much more a poetic language than the antique Hermetists did, also giving "a greater emphasis on the coniunctio motif", i.e. images of the union of male and female, sun and moon, king and queen etc.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "The mystical masters of Islam understood alchemy as a transformative process of the alchemist's psyche. The fire which promoted this transformation was the love of God."<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Alchemists_and_works">Alchemists and works</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Alchemy_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Alchemists and works"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Khālid_ibn_Yazīd"><span id="Kh.C4.81lid_ibn_Yaz.C4.ABd"></span>Khālid ibn Yazīd</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Alchemy_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Khālid ibn Yazīd"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>According to the bibliographer <a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Nad%C4%ABm" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn al-Nadīm">Ibn al-Nadīm</a>, the first Muslim alchemist was <a href="/wiki/Kh%C4%81lid_ibn_Yaz%C4%ABd" class="mw-redirect" title="Khālid ibn Yazīd">Khālid ibn Yazīd</a>, who is said to have studied alchemy under the Christian Marianos of <a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a>. The historicity of this story is not clear; according to M. Ullmann, it is a legend.<sup id="cite_ref-holmyard63-66_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-holmyard63-66-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-eoikhalid_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eoikhalid-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Ibn al-Nadīm and <a href="/wiki/Katip_%C3%87elebi" class="mw-redirect" title="Katip Çelebi">Ḥajjī Khalīfa</a>, he is the author of the alchemical works <i>Kitāb al-kharazāt</i> (<i>The Book of Pearls</i>), <i>Kitāb al-ṣaḥīfa al-kabīr</i> (<i>The Big Book of the Roll</i>), <i>Kitāb al-ṣaḥīfa al-saghīr</i> (<i>The Small Book of the Roll</i>), <i>Kitāb Waṣīyatihi ilā bnihi fī-ṣ-ṣanʿa</i> (<i>The Book of his Testament to his Son about the Craft</i>), and <i>Firdaws al-ḥikma</i> (<i>The Paradise of Wisdom</i>), but again, these works may be <a href="/wiki/Pseudepigraphical" class="mw-redirect" title="Pseudepigraphical">pseudepigraphical</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-anawati864_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-anawati864-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-eoikhalid_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eoikhalid-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-holmyard63-66_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-holmyard63-66-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Jābir_ibn_Ḥayyān"><span id="J.C4.81bir_ibn_.E1.B8.A4ayy.C4.81n"></span>Jābir ibn Ḥayyān</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Alchemy_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Jābir ibn Ḥayyān"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Al-Jaahith_-_African_Arab_Naturalist_-_Basra_-_al_jahiz.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Al-Jaahith_-_African_Arab_Naturalist_-_Basra_-_al_jahiz.jpg/150px-Al-Jaahith_-_African_Arab_Naturalist_-_Basra_-_al_jahiz.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="184" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Al-Jaahith_-_African_Arab_Naturalist_-_Basra_-_al_jahiz.jpg/225px-Al-Jaahith_-_African_Arab_Naturalist_-_Basra_-_al_jahiz.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Al-Jaahith_-_African_Arab_Naturalist_-_Basra_-_al_jahiz.jpg/300px-Al-Jaahith_-_African_Arab_Naturalist_-_Basra_-_al_jahiz.jpg 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="922" /></a><figcaption>15th-century artistic impression of <a href="/wiki/Jabir_ibn_Hayyan" title="Jabir ibn Hayyan">Jābir ibn Ḥayyān</a> (Geber)</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Jabir_ibn_Hayyan" title="Jabir ibn Hayyan">Jābir ibn Ḥayyān</a> (Arabic/Persian: <span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">جابر بن حیان</span></span>, died c. 806−816),<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is the supposed<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> author of an enormous number and variety of works in Arabic often called the Jabirian corpus. Popularly known as the father of chemistry, Jabir's works contain the oldest known systematic classification of chemical substances, and the oldest known instructions for deriving an <a href="/wiki/Inorganic_compound" title="Inorganic compound">inorganic compound</a> (<a href="/wiki/Sal_ammoniac" class="mw-redirect" title="Sal ammoniac">sal ammoniac</a> or <a href="/wiki/Ammonium_chloride" title="Ammonium chloride">ammonium chloride</a>) from <a href="/wiki/Organic_compound" title="Organic compound">organic substances</a> (such as plants, blood, and hair) by chemical means.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some Arabic Jabirian works (e.g., the "Book of Mercy", and the "Book of Seventy") were later translated into Latin under the <a href="/wiki/Latinisation_of_names" title="Latinisation of names">Latinized</a> name "Geber".<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 13th-century Europe an anonymous writer, usually referred to as <a href="/wiki/Pseudo-Geber" title="Pseudo-Geber">pseudo-Geber</a>, started to produce alchemical and metallurgical writings under this name.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Abū_Bakr_al-Rāzī"><span id="Ab.C5.AB_Bakr_al-R.C4.81z.C4.AB"></span>Abū Bakr al-Rāzī</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Alchemy_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Abū Bakr al-Rāzī"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Ab%C5%AB_Bakr_al-R%C4%81z%C4%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="Abū Bakr al-Rāzī">Abū Bakr ibn Zakariyā’ al-Rāzī</a> (Latin: Rhazes), born around 865 in <a href="/wiki/Rey,_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="Rey, Iran">Rayy</a>, was mainly known as a Persian physician. He wrote a number of alchemical works, including the <i>Sirr al-asrār</i> (Latin: <i>Secretum secretorum;</i> English: <i>Secret of Secrets</i>.)<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ibn_Umayl">Ibn Umayl</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Alchemy_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Ibn Umayl"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Muhammed_ibn_Umail_al-Tamimi" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammed ibn Umail al-Tamimi">Muḥammad ibn Umayl al-Tamīmī</a> was a 10th-century Egyptian alchemist of the symbolic-mystical branch. One of his surviving works is <i>Kitāb al-māʿ al-waraqī wa-l-arḍ al-najmiyya</i> (<i>The Book on Silvery Water and Starry Earth</i>). This work is a commentary on his poem, the <i>Risālat al-shams ilā al-hilāl</i> (<i>The Epistle of the Sun to the Crescent Moon</i>) and contains numerous quotations from ancient authors.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ibn Umayl had important influence on <a href="/wiki/Alchemy#Medieval_Europe" title="Alchemy">medieval Western (Latin) alchemy</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> where his work is found under different names, mainly as Senior or as Zadith.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His "Silvery Water" e.g. was reprinted as "The Chemical Tables of Senior Zadith" in the collection of alchemical texts: <a href="/wiki/Theatrum_Chemicum" title="Theatrum Chemicum">Theatrum Chemicum</a>, and commented upon by Pseudo Aquinas in <a href="/wiki/Aurora_Consurgens" class="mw-redirect" title="Aurora Consurgens">Aurora Consurgens</a>. They both also give his (modified) image of the sage holding a chemical table (see image above).<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Al-Tughrai">Al-Tughrai</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Alchemy_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Al-Tughrai"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Al-Tughrai" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Tughrai">Al-Tughrai</a> was an 11th–12th century <a href="/wiki/Persian_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian people">Persian</a> <a href="/wiki/Physician" title="Physician">physician</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Khadem_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Khadem-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> whose work the <i>Masabih al-hikma wa-mafatih al-rahma</i> (The Lanterns of Wisdom and the Keys of Mercy) is one of the earliest works of material sciences. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Al-Jildaki">Al-Jildaki</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Alchemy_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Al-Jildaki"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Al-Jildaki" title="Al-Jildaki">Al-Jildaki</a> was an <a href="/wiki/Egyptians" title="Egyptians">Egyptian</a> alchemist who urged in his book the need for <a href="/wiki/Experiment" title="Experiment">experimental</a> chemistry and mentioned many experiments <i>Kanz al-ikhtisas fi ma'rifat al-khawas by Abu 'l-Qasim Aydamir al-Jildaki</i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Alchemical_and_chemical_theory">Alchemical and chemical theory</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Alchemy_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Alchemical and chemical theory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable" style="float: right"> <caption>Elemental scheme used by Jābir<sup id="cite_ref-holmyard74-82_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-holmyard74-82-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <td> </td> <td><b>Hot</b> </td> <td><b>Cold</b> </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>Dry</b> </td> <td>Fire </td> <td>Earth </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>Moist</b> </td> <td>Air </td> <td>Water </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Jābir analyzed each <a href="/wiki/Classical_element" title="Classical element">Aristotelian element</a> in terms of <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>'s four basic qualities of <i>hotness</i>, <i>coldness</i>, <i>dryness</i>, and <i>moistness</i>. For example, fire is a substance that is hot and dry, as shown in the table.<sup id="cite_ref-holmyard74-82_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-holmyard74-82-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Jābir, in each metal two of these qualities were interior and two were exterior. For example, lead was externally cold and dry but internally hot and moist; gold, on the other hand, was externally hot and moist but internally cold and dry. He believed that metals were formed in the Earth by fusion of <a href="/wiki/Sulfur" title="Sulfur">sulfur</a> (giving the hot and dry qualities) with <a href="/wiki/Mercury_(element)" title="Mercury (element)">mercury</a> (giving the cold and moist.) These elements, mercury and sulfur, should be thought of as not the ordinary elements but ideal, hypothetical substances. Which metal is formed depends on the purity of the mercury and sulfur and the proportion in which they come together.<sup id="cite_ref-holmyard74-82_26-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-holmyard74-82-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The later alchemist <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_ibn_Zakariya_al-Razi" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi">al-Rāzī</a> (c. 865–925) followed Jābir's mercury-sulfur theory, but added a third, salty, component.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Thus, Jābir theorized, by rearranging the qualities of one metal, a different metal would result. By this reasoning, the search for the <a href="/wiki/Philosopher%27s_stone" title="Philosopher's stone">philosopher's stone</a> was introduced to Western alchemy.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jābir developed an elaborate <a href="/wiki/Numerology" title="Numerology">numerology</a> whereby the root letters of a substance's name in Arabic, when treated with various transformations, held correspondences to the element's physical properties.<sup id="cite_ref-holmyard74-82_26-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-holmyard74-82-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Processes_and_equipment">Processes and equipment</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Alchemy_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Processes and equipment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Al-Rāzī mentions the following chemical processes: <a href="/wiki/Distillation" title="Distillation">distillation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Calcination" title="Calcination">calcination</a>, <a href="/wiki/Solution_(chemistry)" title="Solution (chemistry)">solution</a>, <a href="/wiki/Evaporation" title="Evaporation">evaporation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Crystallization" title="Crystallization">crystallization</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sublimation_(phase_transition)" title="Sublimation (phase transition)">sublimation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Filtration" title="Filtration">filtration</a>, <a href="/wiki/Amalgam_(chemistry)" title="Amalgam (chemistry)">amalgamation</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ceration" title="Ceration">ceration</a> (a process for making solids pasty or fusible.)<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some of these operations (calcination, solution, filtration, crystallization, sublimation and distillation) are also known to have been practiced by pre-Islamic Alexandrian alchemists.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In his <i>Secretum secretorum</i>, Al-Rāzī mentions the following equipment:<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Tools for melting substances (<i>li-tadhwīb</i>): <a href="/wiki/Hearth" title="Hearth">hearth</a> (<i>kūr</i>), <a href="/wiki/Bellows" title="Bellows">bellows</a> (<i>minfākh</i> or <i>ziqq</i>), <a href="/wiki/Crucible" title="Crucible">crucible</a> (<i>bawtaqa</i>), the <i>būt bar būt</i> (in Arabic, from Persian) or <i>botus barbatus</i> (in Latin), <a href="/wiki/Ladle_(foundry)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ladle (foundry)">ladle</a> (<i>mighrafa</i> or <i>milʿaqa</i>), <a href="/wiki/Tongs" title="Tongs">tongs</a> (<i>māsik</i> or <i>kalbatān</i>), <a href="/wiki/Scissors" title="Scissors">scissors</a> (<i>miqṭaʿ</i>), <a href="/wiki/Hammer" title="Hammer">hammer</a> (<i>mukassir</i>), <a href="/wiki/File_(tool)" title="File (tool)">file</a> (<i>mibrad</i>).</li> <li>Tools for the preparation of drugs (<i>li-tadbīr al-ʿaqāqīr</i>): cucurbit and still with evacuation tube (<i>qarʿ</i> or <i>anbīq dhū khatm</i>), receiving matras (<i>qābila</i>), blind still (without evacuation tube) (<i>al-anbīq al-aʿmā</i>), <a href="/wiki/Aludel" title="Aludel">aludel</a> (<i>al-uthāl</i>), <a href="/wiki/Goblet" class="mw-redirect" title="Goblet">goblets</a> (<i>qadaḥ</i>), <a href="/wiki/Laboratory_flask" title="Laboratory flask">flasks</a> (<i>qārūra</i>, plural <i>quwārīr</i>), <a href="/wiki/Rosewater" class="mw-redirect" title="Rosewater">rosewater</a> flasks (<i>mā’ wardiyya</i>), <a href="/wiki/Cauldron" title="Cauldron">cauldron</a> (<i>marjal</i> or <i>tanjīr</i>), <a href="/wiki/Earthenware" title="Earthenware">earthenware</a> pots varnished on the inside with their lids (<i>qudūr</i> and <i>makabbāt</i>), <a href="/wiki/Laboratory_water_bath" title="Laboratory water bath">water bath</a> or <a href="/wiki/Sand_bath" title="Sand bath">sand bath</a> (<i>qidr</i>), oven (<i>al-tannūr</i> in Arabic, <i>athanor</i> in Latin), small cylindirical oven for heating <a href="/wiki/Aludel" title="Aludel">aludel</a> (<i>mustawqid</i>), <a href="/wiki/Funnel" title="Funnel">funnels</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sieve" title="Sieve">sieves</a>, <a href="/wiki/Filter_(chemistry)" class="mw-redirect" title="Filter (chemistry)">filters</a>, etc.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Alchemy_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_alchemy" title="Chinese alchemy">Chinese alchemy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic science">Islamic science</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Alchemy_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"alchemy", entry in <i>The Oxford English Dictionary</i>, J. A. Simpson and E. S. C. Weiner, vol. 1, 2nd ed., 1989, <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-861213-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-861213-3">0-19-861213-3</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-anawati854-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-anawati854_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-anawati854_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAnawati1996">Anawati 1996</a>, p. 854.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSabra1996">Sabra 1996</a>, p. 655.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Principe_2011,_P._306-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Principe_2011,_P._306_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Principe_2011,_P._306_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Principe_2011,_P._306_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPrincipe2011">Principe 2011</a>, p. 306.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLindberg2007">Lindberg 2007</a>, p. 163.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLindberg2007">Lindberg 2007</a>, p. 164.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLindberg2007">Lindberg 2007</a>, p. 166.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFvon_Franz2006">von Franz 2006</a>, p. 26.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFvon_Franz2006">von Franz 2006</a>, pp. 26–27.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFvon_Franz2006">von Franz 2006</a>, p. 39.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-holmyard63-66-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-holmyard63-66_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-holmyard63-66_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHolmyard1990" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Eric_John_Holmyard" title="Eric John Holmyard">Holmyard, Eric John</a> (1990). <i>Alchemy</i> (Unabridged and unaltered republ. of the work 1. publ. by Penguin Books ed.). New York: Dover Publ. pp. 63–66. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-486-26298-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-486-26298-7"><bdi>0-486-26298-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Alchemy&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=63-66&rft.edition=Unabridged+and+unaltered+republ.+of+the+work+1.+publ.+by+Penguin+Books&rft.pub=Dover+Publ&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=0-486-26298-7&rft.aulast=Holmyard&rft.aufirst=Eric+John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlchemy+in+the+medieval+Islamic+world" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-eoikhalid-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-eoikhalid_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-eoikhalid_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">M. Ullmann, "Ḵh̲ālid b. Yazīd b. Muʿāwiya, abū hās̲h̲im.", in <i>Encyclopedia of Islam</i>, second edition, edited by P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C. E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, and W.P. Heinrichs, Brill, 2011. Brill Online. Accessed 20 January 2011. <<a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.brillonline.nl/subscriber/entry?entry=islam_SIM-4151">http://www.brillonline.nl/subscriber/entry?entry=islam_SIM-4151</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged September 2021">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup>></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-anawati864-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-anawati864_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAnawati1996">Anawati 1996</a>, p. 864.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Delva, Thijs 2017. "The Abbasid Activist Ḥayyān al-ʿAṭṭār as the Father of Jābir b. Ḥayyān: An Influential Hypothesis Revisited" in: <i>Journal of Abbasid Studies</i>, 4(1), pp. 35–61, pp. 36−37, note 6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Plessner, Martin 1981. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.encyclopedia.com/people/science-and-technology/chemistry-biographies/jabir">“Jābir Ibn Hayyān”</a> in: Gillispie, Charles C. (ed.). <i>Dictionary of Scientific Biography</i>. New York: Charles Scribners’s Sons, vol. 7, pp. 39–43; Forster, Regula 2018. “Jābir B. Ḥayyān” in: <i>Encyclopaedia of Islam, Three</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStapletonAzoHidayat_Husain1927" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Henry_Ernest_Stapleton" title="Henry Ernest Stapleton">Stapleton, Henry E.</a>; Azo, R.F.; Hidayat Husain, M. (1927). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.southasiaarchive.com/Content/sarf.100203/231270">"Chemistry in Iraq and Persia in the Tenth Century A.D."</a> <i>Memoirs of the Asiatic Society of Bengal</i>. <b>VIII</b> (6): 317–418. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/706947607">706947607</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Memoirs+of+the+Asiatic+Society+of+Bengal&rft.atitle=Chemistry+in+Iraq+and+Persia+in+the+Tenth+Century+A.D.&rft.volume=VIII&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=317-418&rft.date=1927&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F706947607&rft.aulast=Stapleton&rft.aufirst=Henry+E.&rft.au=Azo%2C+R.F.&rft.au=Hidayat+Husain%2C+M.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.southasiaarchive.com%2FContent%2Fsarf.100203%2F231270&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlchemy+in+the+medieval+Islamic+world" class="Z3988"></span> pp. 338–340; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKraus1942–1943" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Paul_Kraus_(Arabist)" title="Paul Kraus (Arabist)">Kraus, Paul</a> (1942–1943). <i>Jâbir ibn Hayyân: Contribution à l'histoire des idées scientifiques dans l'Islam. I. Le corpus des écrits jâbiriens. II. Jâbir et la science grecque</i>. Cairo: Institut Français d'Archéologie Orientale. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-487-09115-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-487-09115-0"><bdi>978-3-487-09115-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/468740510">468740510</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=J%C3%A2bir+ibn+Hayy%C3%A2n%3A+Contribution+%C3%A0+l%27histoire+des+id%C3%A9es+scientifiques+dans+l%27Islam.+I.+Le+corpus+des+%C3%A9crits+j%C3%A2biriens.+II.+J%C3%A2bir+et+la+science+grecque&rft.place=Cairo&rft.pub=Institut+Fran%C3%A7ais+d%27Arch%C3%A9ologie+Orientale&rft.date=1942%2F1943&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F468740510&rft.isbn=978-3-487-09115-0&rft.aulast=Kraus&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlchemy+in+the+medieval+Islamic+world" class="Z3988"></span> vol. II, pp. 41–42.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Darmstaedter, Ernst. "Liber Misericordiae Geber: Eine lateinische Übersetzung des gröβeren Kitâb l-raḥma", <i>Archiv für Geschichte der Medizin</i>, 17/4, 1925, pp. 181–197; Berthelot, Marcellin. "Archéologie et Histoire des sciences", <i>Mémoires de l’Académie des sciences de l’Institut de France</i>, 49, 1906, pp. 308–363; see also Forster, Regula. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-3/jabir-b-hayyan-COM_32665">"Jābir b. Ḥayyān"</a>, <i>Encyclopaedia of Islam, Three</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Newman, William R. "New Light on the Identity of Geber", <i>Sudhoffs Archiv</i>, 1985, 69, pp. 76–90; Newman, William R. <i>The Summa perfectionis of Pseudo-Geber: A critical edition, translation and study</i>, Leiden: Brill, 1991, pp. 57–103. It has been argued by Ahmad Y. Al-Hassan that the pseudo-Geber works were actually translated into Latin from the Arabic (see Al-Hassan, Ahmad Y. "The Arabic Origin of the <i>Summa</i> and Geber Latin Works: A Refutation of Berthelot, Ruska, and Newman Based on Arabic Sources", in: Ahmad Y. Al-Hassan. <i>Studies in al-Kimya': Critical Issues in Latin and Arabic Alchemy and Chemistry</i>. Hildesheim: Georg Olms Verlag, 2009, pp. 53–104; also available <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.history-science-technology.com/geber/geber%2004.html">online</a>).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAnawati1996">Anawati 1996</a>, pp. 867–879.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">pp. 86-92, Holmyard 1990.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAnawati1996">Anawati 1996</a>, pp. 870–872.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFvon_Franz2006">von Franz 2006</a>, p. 55.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Julius Ruska, "Senior Zadith = Ibn Umail." <i>Orientalistische Literaturzeitung 31,</i> 1928, pp. 665-666</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Theodor Abt: "The Transmission of Ibn Umail's Vision to the Occident" in: <i>Book of the Explanation of the Symbols - Kitāb Hall ar-Rumūz by Muhammad ibn Umail. Psychological Commentary by Theodor Abt.</i> Corpus Alchemicum Arabicum (CALA) IB, Living Human Heritage Publications, Zurich 2009, p. 59-64.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Khadem-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Khadem_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEl_Khadem1995" class="citation journal cs1">El Khadem, H. S. (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/ed072p774">"A Lost Text By Zosimos Reproduced in an Old Alchemy Book"</a>. <i>Journal of Chemical Education</i>. <b>72</b> (9): 774. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1995JChEd..72..774E">1995JChEd..72..774E</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fed072p774">10.1021/ed072p774</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Chemical+Education&rft.atitle=A+Lost+Text+By+Zosimos+Reproduced+in+an+Old+Alchemy+Book&rft.volume=72&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=774&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1021%2Fed072p774&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1995JChEd..72..774E&rft.aulast=El+Khadem&rft.aufirst=H.+S.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpubs.acs.org%2Fdoi%2Fabs%2F10.1021%2Fed072p774&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlchemy+in+the+medieval+Islamic+world" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-holmyard74-82-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-holmyard74-82_26-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-holmyard74-82_26-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-holmyard74-82_26-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-holmyard74-82_26-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">pp. 74-82, Holmyard 1990.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Holmyard 1990, pp. 21-22.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Aristotle, <i>On Generation and Corruption</i>, II.3, 330a-330b.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Holmyard 1990, p. 88.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRagai1992" class="citation journal cs1">Ragai, Jehane (1992). "The Philosopher's Stone: Alchemy and Chemistry". <i>Journal of Comparative Poetics</i>. <b>12</b> (Metaphor and Allegory in the Middle Ages): 58–77. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F521636">10.2307/521636</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/521636">521636</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Comparative+Poetics&rft.atitle=The+Philosopher%27s+Stone%3A+Alchemy+and+Chemistry&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=Metaphor+and+Allegory+in+the+Middle+Ages&rft.pages=58-77&rft.date=1992&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F521636&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F521636%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Ragai&rft.aufirst=Jehane&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlchemy+in+the+medieval+Islamic+world" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHolmyard1924" class="citation journal cs1">Holmyard, E. J. (1924). "Maslama al-Majriti and the Rutbatu'l-Hakim". <i><a href="/wiki/Isis_(journal)" title="Isis (journal)">Isis</a></i>. <b>6</b> (3): 293–305. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F358238">10.1086/358238</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144175388">144175388</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Isis&rft.atitle=Maslama+al-Majriti+and+the+Rutbatu%27l-Hakim&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=293-305&rft.date=1924&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F358238&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144175388%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Holmyard&rft.aufirst=E.+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlchemy+in+the+medieval+Islamic+world" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">p. 89, Holmyard 1990.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">p. 23, <i>A short history of chemistry</i>, James Riddick Partington, 3rd ed., Courier Dover Publications, 1989, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-486-65977-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-486-65977-1">0-486-65977-1</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAnawati1996">Anawati 1996</a>, p. 868.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources_used">Sources used</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Alchemy_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Sources used"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnawati1996" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Anawati, Georges C. (1996). "Arabic Alchemy". In <a href="/wiki/Roshdi_Rashed" title="Roshdi Rashed">Rashed, Roshdi</a> (ed.). <i>Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science</i>. Vol. 3. London: Routledge. pp. 853–885. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780415020633" title="Special:BookSources/9780415020633"><bdi>9780415020633</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Arabic+Alchemy&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+the+History+of+Arabic+Science&rft.place=London&rft.pages=853-885&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=9780415020633&rft.aulast=Anawati&rft.aufirst=Georges+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlchemy+in+the+medieval+Islamic+world" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLindberg2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_C._Lindberg" title="David C. Lindberg">Lindberg, David C.</a> (2007). "Islamic Science". <i>The Beginnings of Western Science: The European Scientific Tradition in Philosophical, Religious, and Institutional Context, Prehistory to A.D. 1450</i>. Chicago: U of Chicago. pp. 163–92. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-48205-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-48205-7"><bdi>978-0-226-48205-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Islamic+Science&rft.btitle=The+Beginnings+of+Western+Science%3A+The+European+Scientific+Tradition+in+Philosophical%2C+Religious%2C+and+Institutional+Context%2C+Prehistory+to+A.D.+1450&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pages=163-92&rft.pub=U+of+Chicago&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-226-48205-7&rft.aulast=Lindberg&rft.aufirst=David+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlchemy+in+the+medieval+Islamic+world" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPrincipe2011" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_M._Principe" title="Lawrence M. Principe">Principe, Lawrence M.</a> (2011). "Alchemy Restored". <i><a href="/wiki/Isis_(journal)" title="Isis (journal)">Isis</a></i>. <b>102</b> (2): 305–12. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F660139">10.1086/660139</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21874690">21874690</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:23581980">23581980</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Isis&rft.atitle=Alchemy+Restored&rft.volume=102&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=305-12&rft.date=2011&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A23581980%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21874690&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F660139&rft.aulast=Principe&rft.aufirst=Lawrence+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlchemy+in+the+medieval+Islamic+world" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSabra1996" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/A._I._Sabra" title="A. I. Sabra">Sabra, A. I.</a> (1996). "Situating Arabic Science: Locality versus Essence". <i>Isis</i>. <b>87</b> (4): 654–70. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1996Isis...87..654S">1996Isis...87..654S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F357651">10.1086/357651</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/235197">235197</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144596511">144596511</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Isis&rft.atitle=Situating+Arabic+Science%3A+Locality+versus+Essence&rft.volume=87&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=654-70&rft.date=1996&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F357651&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144596511%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F235197%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1996Isis...87..654S&rft.aulast=Sabra&rft.aufirst=A.+I.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlchemy+in+the+medieval+Islamic+world" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFvon_Franz2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Marie-Louise_von_Franz" title="Marie-Louise von Franz">von Franz, Marie-Louise</a> (2006). "Introduction". In Theodor Abt (ed.). <i>Book of the Explanation of the Symbols. Kitāb Ḥall ar-Rumūz by Muḥammad ibn Umail. Psychological commentary by Marie-Louise von Franz</i>. Corpus Alchemicum Arabicum (CALA) IA. Zurich: Living Human Heritage Publications. pp. 15–58. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3952260838" title="Special:BookSources/978-3952260838"><bdi>978-3952260838</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction&rft.btitle=Book+of+the+Explanation+of+the+Symbols.+Kit%C4%81b+%E1%B8%A4all+ar-Rum%C5%ABz+by+Mu%E1%B8%A5ammad+ibn+Umail.+Psychological+commentary+by+Marie-Louise+von+Franz.&rft.place=Zurich&rft.series=Corpus+Alchemicum+Arabicum+%28CALA%29+IA&rft.pages=15-58&rft.pub=Living+Human+Heritage+Publications&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-3952260838&rft.aulast=von+Franz&rft.aufirst=Marie-Louise&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlchemy+in+the+medieval+Islamic+world" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Alchemy_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="no" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Anawati, Georges C. (1996). "Arabic Alchemy". In <a href="/wiki/Roshdi_Rashed" title="Roshdi Rashed">Rashed, Roshdi</a> (ed.). <i>Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science</i>. Vol. 3. London: Routledge. pp. 853–885. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780415020633" title="Special:BookSources/9780415020633"><bdi>9780415020633</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Arabic+Alchemy&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+the+History+of+Arabic+Science&rft.place=London&rft.pages=853-885&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=9780415020633&rft.aulast=Anawati&rft.aufirst=Georges+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlchemy+in+the+medieval+Islamic+world" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArtun2013" class="citation thesis cs1">Artun, Tuna (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://arks.princeton.edu/ark:/88435/dsp01xd07gs731"><i>Hearts of Gold and Silver: The Production of Alchemical Knowledge in the Early Modern Ottoman World</i></a> (PhD thesis). Princeton University.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=Hearts+of+Gold+and+Silver%3A+The+Production+of+Alchemical+Knowledge+in+the+Early+Modern+Ottoman+World&rft.inst=Princeton+University&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Artun&rft.aufirst=Tuna&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farks.princeton.edu%2Fark%3A%2F88435%2Fdsp01xd07gs731&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlchemy+in+the+medieval+Islamic+world" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurnettMoureau2023" class="citation book cs1">Burnett, Charles; Moureau, Sébastien, eds. (2023). <i>A Cultural History of Chemistry in the Middle Ages</i>. A Cultural History of Chemistry. Vol. 2. London: Bloomsbury Academic. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5040%2F9781474203777">10.5040/9781474203777</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Cultural+History+of+Chemistry+in+the+Middle+Ages&rft.place=London&rft.series=A+Cultural+History+of+Chemistry&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Academic&rft.date=2023&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5040%2F9781474203777&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlchemy+in+the+medieval+Islamic+world" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFForster2023" class="citation book cs1">Forster, Regula (2023). "Alchemy and the Chemical Crafts". In <a href="/wiki/Sonja_Brentjes" title="Sonja Brentjes">Brentjes, Sonja</a> (ed.). <i>Routledge Handbook on the Sciences in Islamicate Societies: Practices from the 2nd/8th to the 13th/19th Centuries</i>. New York: Routledge. pp. 154–165. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9781315170718-14">10.4324/9781315170718-14</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Alchemy+and+the+Chemical+Crafts&rft.btitle=Routledge+Handbook+on+the+Sciences+in+Islamicate+Societies%3A+Practices+from+the+2nd%2F8th+to+the+13th%2F19th+Centuries&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=154-165&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2023&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4324%2F9781315170718-14&rft.aulast=Forster&rft.aufirst=Regula&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlchemy+in+the+medieval+Islamic+world" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoureau2023" class="citation book cs1">Moureau, Sébastien (2023). "Alchemical Equipment". In <a href="/wiki/Sonja_Brentjes" title="Sonja Brentjes">Brentjes, Sonja</a> (ed.). <i>Routledge Handbook on the Sciences in Islamicate Societies: Practices from the 2nd/8th to the 13th/19th Centuries</i>. New York: Routledge. pp. 512–522. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9781315170718-46">10.4324/9781315170718-46</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Alchemical+Equipment&rft.btitle=Routledge+Handbook+on+the+Sciences+in+Islamicate+Societies%3A+Practices+from+the+2nd%2F8th+to+the+13th%2F19th+Centuries&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=512-522&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2023&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4324%2F9781315170718-46&rft.aulast=Moureau&rft.aufirst=S%C3%A9bastien&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlchemy+in+the+medieval+Islamic+world" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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href="/wiki/Template:Islamic_alchemy_and_chemistry" title="Template:Islamic alchemy and chemistry"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Islamic_alchemy_and_chemistry" title="Template talk:Islamic alchemy and chemistry"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Islamic_alchemy_and_chemistry" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Islamic alchemy and chemistry"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Alchemy_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Alchemy in the medieval Islamic world</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Alchemists_of_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Category:Alchemists of the medieval Islamic world">Alchemists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">8th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Khalid_ibn_Yazid" title="Khalid ibn Yazid">pseudo-Khālid ibn Yazīd (Calid)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sirr_al-khaliqa" class="mw-redirect" title="Sirr al-khaliqa">pseudo-Apollonius of Tyana</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">9th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jabir_ibn_Hayyan" title="Jabir ibn Hayyan">Jābir ibn Ḥayyān (Geber)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">10th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Bakr_al-Razi" title="Abu Bakr al-Razi">Abū Bakr al-Rāzī (Rhazes)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Umayl" title="Ibn Umayl">Ibn Umayl (Senior Zadith)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Wahshiyya" title="Ibn Wahshiyya">Ibn Waḥshiyya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Picatrix" title="Picatrix">Maslama al-Qurṭubī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Mansur_Muwaffaq" title="Abu Mansur Muwaffaq">Abū Manṣūr al-Muwaffaq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Zahrawi" title="Al-Zahrawi">al-Zahrāwī (Abulcasis)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">11th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">pseudo-Avicenna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Khwarizmi_al-Khati" title="Al-Khwarizmi al-Khati">al-Khawārizmī al-Kāthī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mu%27izz_ibn_Badis" title="Al-Mu'izz ibn Badis">al-Muʿizz ibn Bādīs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmad_ibn_%27Imad_al-Din" title="Ahmad ibn 'Imad al-Din">Aḥmad ibn ʿImād al-Dīn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Wafid" title="Ibn al-Wafid">Ibn al-Wāfid (pharmacist)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">12th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Tughra%27i" title="Al-Tughra'i">al-Ṭughrāʾī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Arfa%27_Ra%27s" title="Ibn Arfa' Ra's">Ibn Arfaʿ Raʾs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artephius" title="Artephius">Artephius</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">13th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Simawi" title="Al-Simawi">al-Simāwī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Baytar" title="Ibn al-Baytar">Ibn al-Bayṭār (pharmacist)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_al-Abbas_al-Nabati" title="Abu al-Abbas al-Nabati">Abū l-ʿAbbās al-Nabātī (pharmacist)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hasan_al-Rammah" title="Hasan al-Rammah">Ḥasan al-Rammāḥ (engineer)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">14th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Jildaki" title="Al-Jildaki">al-Jildakī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Rassam" title="Ibn Rassam">Ibn al-Rassām</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abul_Ashba_ibn_Tammam" title="Abul Ashba ibn Tammam">Abū l-Ashbā ibn Tammām</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Takwin" title="Takwin">Takwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosopher%27s_stone" title="Philosopher's stone">Philosopher's stone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elixir_of_life" title="Elixir of life">al-iksīr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alembic" title="Alembic">Alembic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Athanor" title="Athanor">Athanor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Alchemical_works_of_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Category:Alchemical works of the medieval Islamic world">Works</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Mercy_(alchemical_treatise)" class="mw-redirect" title="Book of Mercy (alchemical treatise)">Book of Mercy</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Books_of_the_Balances" class="mw-redirect" title="Books of the Balances">Books of the Balances</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Jildaki" title="Al-Jildaki"><i>al-Burhān fī asrār ʿilm al-mīzān</i></a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Liber_de_compositione_alchemiae" title="Liber de compositione alchemiae">Masāʾil Khālid li-Maryānus al-rāhib</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Emerald_Tablet" title="Emerald Tablet">Emerald Tablet</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Five_Hundred_Books" class="mw-redirect" title="Five Hundred Books">Five Hundred Books</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Simawi" title="Al-Simawi"><i>al-ʿIlm al-muktasab fī zirāʿat al-dhahab</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mifthah_al-hikma" class="mw-redirect" title="Mifthah al-hikma"><i>Mifthāḥ al-ḥikma</i> (<i>Clavis sapientiae</i>)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Jildaki" title="Al-Jildaki"><i>al-Miṣbāḥ fī ʿilm al-miftāḥ</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Nabataean_Agriculture" title="The Nabataean Agriculture"><i>Nabataean Agriculture</i></a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/One_Hundred_and_Twelve_Books" class="mw-redirect" title="One Hundred and Twelve Books">One Hundred and Twelve Books</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Seventy_Books" class="mw-redirect" title="Seventy Books">Seventy Books</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secretum_Secretorum" title="Secretum Secretorum"><i>Sirr al-asrār</i> (pseudo-Aristotle)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sirr_al-asrar_(al-Razi)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sirr al-asrar (al-Razi)"><i>Sirr al-asrār</i> (al-Rāzī)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sirr_al-khaliqa" class="mw-redirect" title="Sirr al-khaliqa"><i>Sirr al-khalīqa</i> (<i>Secret of Creation</i>)</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Turba_Philosophorum" title="Turba Philosophorum">Turba Philosophorum</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Rahman_ibn_Nasr_ibn_Abdallah_al-Shayzari" title="Abd al-Rahman ibn Nasr ibn Abdallah al-Shayzari"><i>Nihāyat al-rutba fī ṭalab al-ḥisba</i> (al-Nabarawi)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Islamic_studies" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Islamic_studies" title="Template:Islamic studies"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Islamic_studies" title="Template talk:Islamic studies"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Islamic_studies" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Islamic studies"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Islamic_studies" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_studies" title="Islamic studies">Islamic studies</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_art" title="Islamic art">Arts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabesque" title="Arabesque">Arabesque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_architecture" title="Islamic architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_calligraphy" title="Islamic calligraphy">Calligraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_garden" title="Islamic garden">Gardens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_geometric_patterns" title="Islamic geometric patterns">Geometric pattern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_literature" title="Islamic literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_music" title="Islamic music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_poetry" title="Islamic poetry">Poetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_pottery" title="Islamic pottery">Pottery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_influences_on_Western_art" title="Islamic influences on Western art">Influences on Western art</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_economics" title="Islamic economics">Economics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Islamic_economics" title="History of Islamic economics">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hawala" title="Hawala">Agency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_banking_and_finance" title="Islamic banking and finance">Banking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalism_and_Islam" title="Capitalism and Islam">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_poverty" title="Islam and poverty">Poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_socialism" title="Islamic socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waqf" title="Waqf">Trust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riba" title="Riba">Usury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bayt_al-mal" title="Bayt al-mal">Welfare</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Islam" title="History of Islam">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Islamic_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of Islamic history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_early_Islam" title="Historiography of early Islam">Historiography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_social_changes_under_Islam" title="Early social changes under Islam">Early social change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests" title="Early Muslim conquests">Early conquests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Golden Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_world_contributions_to_Medieval_Europe" title="Islamic world contributions to Medieval Europe">Contributions to Medieval Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reception_of_Islam_in_early_modern_Europe" title="Reception of Islam in early modern Europe">Reception in early modern Europe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia">Law</a> and <a href="/wiki/Political_aspects_of_Islam" title="Political aspects of Islam">politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_democracy" title="Islam and democracy">Democracy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ijma" title="Ijma">consensus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shura" title="Shura">consultation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_feminism" title="Islamic feminism">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiqh" title="Fiqh">Jurisprudence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Qiyas" title="Qiyas">use of analogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ijtihad" title="Ijtihad">decision-making</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madhhab" title="Madhhab">schools</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_in_Islamic_philosophy" title="Peace in Islamic philosophy">Peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_quietism_in_Islam" title="Political quietism in Islam">Quietism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_secularism" title="Islam and secularism">Secularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_social_changes_under_Islam" title="Early social changes under Islam">Early social change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_state" title="Islamic state">State</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Philosophy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Islamic_philosophy" title="Early Islamic philosophy">Early</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_Islamic_philosophy" title="Contemporary Islamic philosophy">Contemporary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schools_of_Islamic_theology" title="Schools of Islamic theology">Theology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kalam" title="Kalam">dialectic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_ethics" title="Islamic ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logic_in_Islamic_philosophy" title="Logic in Islamic philosophy">Logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrology_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Astrology in the medieval Islamic world">Astrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_social_changes_under_Islam" title="Early social changes under Islam">Early sociology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asabiyyah" title="Asabiyyah">solidarity</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Science_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Science in the medieval Islamic world">Medieval science</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_science_and_engineering_in_the_Muslim_world" title="Timeline of science and engineering in the Muslim world">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alchemy_and_chemistry_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Alchemy and chemistry in the medieval Islamic world">Alchemy and chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astronomy_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world">Astronomy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cosmology_in_medieval_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmology in medieval Islam">cosmology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_and_cartography_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Geography and cartography in the medieval Islamic world">Geography and cartography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_inventions_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="List of inventions in the medieval Islamic world">Inventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematics_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Mathematics in the medieval Islamic world">Mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medicine_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Medicine in the medieval Islamic world">Medicine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ophthalmology_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Ophthalmology in the medieval Islamic world">ophthalmology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physics_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Physics in the medieval Islamic world">Physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychology_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Psychology in the medieval Islamic world">Psychology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Agricultural_Revolution" title="Arab Agricultural Revolution">Arab Agricultural Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madrasa" title="Madrasa">Education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ijazah" title="Ijazah">Ijazah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuttab" title="Kuttab">elementary school</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufi_studies" title="Sufi studies">Sufi studies</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sufism" title="Sufism">mysticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufi_cosmology" title="Sufi cosmology">cosmology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufi_philosophy" title="Sufi philosophy">philosophy</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Alchemy_(general)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Alchemy" title="Template:Alchemy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Alchemy" title="Template talk:Alchemy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Alchemy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Alchemy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Alchemy_(general)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Alchemy" title="Alchemy">Alchemy (general)</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_alchemists" title="List of alchemists">Alchemists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Greco-Egyptian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agathodaemon_(alchemist)" title="Agathodaemon (alchemist)">Agathodaemon (legendary)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chymes" title="Chymes">Chymes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleopatra_the_Alchemist" title="Cleopatra the Alchemist">pseudo-Cleopatra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudo-Democritus" title="Pseudo-Democritus">pseudo-Democritus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermetica" title="Hermetica">Hermes Trismegistus (legendary)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_the_Jewess" title="Mary the Jewess">Mary the Jewess</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moses_of_Alexandria" title="Moses of Alexandria">pseudo-Moses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ostanes" title="Ostanes">Ostanes (legendary)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paphnutia_the_Virgin" title="Paphnutia the Virgin">Paphnutia the Virgin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zosimos_of_Panopolis" title="Zosimos of Panopolis">Zosimos of Panopolis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_alchemy" title="Chinese alchemy">Ancient Chinese</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fang_(alchemist)" title="Fang (alchemist)">Fang (alchemist)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ge_Hong" title="Ge Hong">Ge Hong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Master_Geng" title="Master Geng">Master Geng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wei_Boyang" title="Wei Boyang">Wei Boyang</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Byzantine</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Olympiodorus_the_Younger" title="Olympiodorus the Younger">pseudo-Olympiodorus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephanus_of_Alexandria" title="Stephanus of Alexandria">Stephanus of Alexandria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synesius" title="Synesius">Synesius</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Alchemy_and_chemistry_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Alchemy and chemistry in the medieval Islamic world">Arabic-Islamic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Bakr_al-Razi" title="Abu Bakr al-Razi">Abū Bakr al-Rāzī (Rhazes)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alphidius" title="Alphidius">Alphidius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sirr_al-khaliqa" class="mw-redirect" title="Sirr al-khaliqa">pseudo-Apollonius of Tyana (Balīnūs/Balīnās)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artephius" title="Artephius">Artephius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">pseudo-Avicenna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Arfa%27_Ra%27s" title="Ibn Arfa' Ra's">Ibn Arfaʿ Raʾs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Umayl" title="Ibn Umayl">Ibn Umayl (Senior Zadith)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Wahshiyya" title="Ibn Wahshiyya">Ibn Waḥshiyya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Simawi" title="Al-Simawi">al-ʿIrāqī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jabir_ibn_Hayyan" title="Jabir ibn Hayyan">Jābir ibn Ḥayyān (Geber)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khalid_ibn_Yazid" title="Khalid ibn Yazid">pseudo-Khālid ibn Yazīd (Calid)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Jildaki" title="Al-Jildaki">al-Jildakī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Picatrix" title="Picatrix">Maslama al-Qurṭubī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Tughrai" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Tughrai">al-Ṭughrāʾī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Zahrawi" title="Al-Zahrawi">al-Zahrāwī (Abulcasis)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Late medieval</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pseudo-Albertus" title="Pseudo-Albertus">pseudo-Albertus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arnaldus_de_Villa_Nova" title="Arnaldus de Villa Nova">(pseudo-)Arnaldus de Villa Nova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudo-Geber" title="Pseudo-Geber">pseudo-Geber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Ripley_(alchemist)" title="George Ripley (alchemist)">George Ripley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guido_di_Montanor" title="Guido di Montanor">Guido di Montanor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugh_of_Evesham" title="Hugh of Evesham">Hugh of Evesham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_of_Laz" title="Johann of Laz">Johann of Laz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dastin" title="John Dastin">John Dastin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_de_Roquetaillade" title="Jean de Roquetaillade">John of Rupescissa (Jean de Roquetaillade)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magister_Salernus" title="Magister Salernus">Magister Salernus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Scot" title="Michael Scot">pseudo-Michael Scot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ortolanus" title="Ortolanus">Ortolanus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_of_Taranto" title="Paul of Taranto">Paul of Taranto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrus_Bonus" title="Petrus Bonus">Petrus Bonus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramon_Llull" title="Ramon Llull">pseudo-Ramon Llull</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Bacon" title="Roger Bacon">(pseudo-)Roger Bacon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taddeo_Alderotti" title="Taddeo Alderotti">Taddeo Alderotti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Norton_(alchemist)" title="Thomas Norton (alchemist)">Thomas Norton</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Early modern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andreas_Libavius" title="Andreas Libavius">Andreas Libavius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basil_Valentine" title="Basil Valentine">Basil Valentine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Trevisan" title="Bernard Trevisan">pseudo-Bernard of Treviso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Starkey" title="George Starkey">George Starkey (Eirenaeus Philalethes)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerhard_Dorn" title="Gerhard Dorn">Gerhard Dorn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Mercurio_da_Correggio" title="Giovanni Mercurio da Correggio">Giovanni da Correggio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Khunrath" title="Heinrich Khunrath">Heinrich Khunrath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hennig_Brand" title="Hennig Brand">Hennig Brand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jakob_B%C3%B6hme" title="Jakob Böhme">Jakob Böhme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jan_Baptist_van_Helmont" title="Jan Baptist van Helmont">Jan Baptist van Helmont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Rudolf_Glauber" title="Johann Rudolf Glauber">Johann Rudolf Glauber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dee" title="John Dee">John Dee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Maier" title="Michael Maier">Michael Maier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Sendivogius" title="Michael Sendivogius">Michael Sendivogius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paracelsus" title="Paracelsus">Paracelsus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre-Jean_Fabre" title="Pierre-Jean Fabre">Pierre-Jean Fabre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Boyle" title="Robert Boyle">Robert Boyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Norton_(alchemist)" title="Samuel Norton (alchemist)">Samuel Norton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Vaughan_(philosopher)" title="Thomas Vaughan (philosopher)">Thomas Vaughan (Eugenius Philalethes)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Homberg" title="Wilhelm Homberg">Wilhelm Homberg</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Modern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Jung#Alchemy" title="Carl Jung">Carl Jung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eug%C3%A8ne_Canseliet" title="Eugène Canseliet">Eugène Canseliet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frater_Albertus" title="Frater Albertus">Frater Albertus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fulcanelli" title="Fulcanelli">Fulcanelli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Anne_Atwood" title="Mary Anne Atwood">Mary Anne Atwood</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Alchemical_documents" title="Category:Alchemical documents">Writings</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Major Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Atalanta_Fugiens" title="Atalanta Fugiens">Atalanta fugiens</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Aurora_consurgens" title="Aurora consurgens">Aurora consurgens</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liber_de_compositione_alchemiae" title="Liber de compositione alchemiae"><i>Liber de compositione alchemiae</i> (<i>Morienus</i>)</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Book_of_the_Silvery_Water_and_the_Starry_Earth" class="mw-redirect" title="Book of the Silvery Water and the Starry Earth">Book of the Silvery Water and the Starry Earth</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Mercy_(alchemical_treatise)" class="mw-redirect" title="Book of Mercy (alchemical treatise)">Book of Mercy</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Books_of_the_Balances" class="mw-redirect" title="Books of the Balances">Books of the Balances</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Buch_der_heiligen_Dreifaltigkeit" title="Buch der heiligen Dreifaltigkeit">Buch der heiligen Dreifaltigkeit</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cantong_qi" title="Cantong qi">Cantong Qi</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Chymical_Wedding_of_Christian_Rosenkreutz" title="Chymical Wedding of Christian Rosenkreutz">Chymical Wedding of Christian Rosenkreutz</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clavis_sapientiae" class="mw-redirect" title="Clavis sapientiae"><i>Clavis sapientiae</i> (<i>Miftāḥ al-ḥikma</i>)</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/De_consideratione_quintae_essentiae" class="mw-redirect" title="De consideratione quintae essentiae">De consideratione quintae essentiae</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emerald_Tablet" title="Emerald Tablet"><i>Emerald Tablet</i> (<i>Tabula Smaragdina</i>)</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Leyden_papyrus_X" title="Leyden papyrus X">Leyden papyrus X</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liber_Hermetis_de_alchemia" class="mw-redirect" title="Liber Hermetis de alchemia"><i>Liber Hermetis de alchemia</i> (<i>Liber dabessi</i>)</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Liber_Ignium" title="Liber Ignium">Liber ignium</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Liber_lucis" class="mw-redirect" title="Liber lucis">Liber lucis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mappae_clavicula" title="Mappae clavicula">Mappae clavicula</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Mirror_of_Alchimy" title="The Mirror of Alchimy">Mirror of Alchimy</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mutus_Liber" title="Mutus Liber">Mutus liber</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Nabataean_Agriculture" title="The Nabataean Agriculture">Nabataean Agriculture</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Norton_(alchemist)" title="Thomas Norton (alchemist)">Ordinal of Alchemy</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Papyrus_Graecus_Holmiensis" title="Papyrus Graecus Holmiensis">Papyrus Graecus Holmiensis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Physika_kai_mystika" class="mw-redirect" title="Physika kai mystika">Physika kai mystika</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rosary_of_the_Philosophers" title="Rosary of the Philosophers">Rosary of the Philosophers</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rutbat_al-hakim" class="mw-redirect" title="Rutbat al-hakim"><i>Rutbat al-ḥakīm</i> (<i>Step of the Sage</i>)</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Seventy_Books" class="mw-redirect" title="Seventy Books">Seventy Books</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sirr_al-khaliqa" class="mw-redirect" title="Sirr al-khaliqa"><i>Sirr al-khalīqa</i> (<i>Secret of Creation</i>)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secretum_Secretorum" title="Secretum Secretorum"><i>Sirr al-asrār</i> (pseudo-Aristotle)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sirr_al-asrar_(al-Razi)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sirr al-asrar (al-Razi)"><i>Sirr al-asrār</i> (al-Rāzī)</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Splendor_Solis" title="Splendor Solis">Splendor solis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Summa_perfectionis" class="mw-redirect" title="Summa perfectionis">Summa perfectionis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Suspicions_about_the_Hidden_Realities_of_the_Air" title="Suspicions about the Hidden Realities of the Air">Suspicions about the Hidden Realities of the Air</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Turba_Philosophorum" title="Turba Philosophorum">Turba philosophorum</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Twelve_Keys_of_Basil_Valentine" title="The Twelve Keys of Basil Valentine">Twelve Keys of Basil Valentine</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Compilations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Salomon_Trismosin#Aureum_Vellus" title="Salomon Trismosin">Aureum vellus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bibliotheca_Chemica_Curiosa" title="Bibliotheca Chemica Curiosa">Bibliotheca chemica curiosa</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/De_Alchemia" title="De Alchemia">De alchemia</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Deutsches_Theatrum_Chemicum" title="Deutsches Theatrum Chemicum">Deutsches Theatrum Chemicum</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Fasciculus_Chemicus" title="Fasciculus Chemicus">Fasciculus chemicus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Musaeum_Hermeticum" title="Musaeum Hermeticum">Musaeum Hermeticum</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Theatrum_Chemicum" title="Theatrum Chemicum">Theatrum chemicum</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Theatrum_Chemicum_Britannicum" title="Theatrum Chemicum Britannicum">Theatrum chemicum Britannicum</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tripus_Aureus" title="Tripus Aureus">Tripus aureus</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Various</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alembic" title="Alembic">Alembic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Athanor" title="Athanor">Athanor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azoth" title="Azoth">Azoth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chrysopoeia" title="Chrysopoeia">Chrysopoeia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_element" title="Classical element">Element</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elixir_of_life" title="Elixir of life">Elixir of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homunculus" title="Homunculus">Homunculus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iatrochemistry" title="Iatrochemistry">Iatrochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alchemy_in_art_and_entertainment" title="Alchemy in art and entertainment">In art/entertainment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnum_opus_(alchemy)" title="Magnum opus (alchemy)">Magnum opus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ouroboros" title="Ouroboros">Ouroboros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pill_of_Immortality" title="Pill of Immortality">Pill of Immortality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosopher%27s_stone" title="Philosopher's stone">Philosophers' stone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prima_materia" title="Prima materia">Prima materia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rebis" title="Rebis">Rebis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Takwin" title="Takwin">Takwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yliaster" title="Yliaster">Yliaster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Alchemical_processes" title="Category:Alchemical processes">Processes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_alchemical_substances" title="List of alchemical substances">Substances</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alchemical_symbol" title="Alchemical symbol">Symbols</a> (<a href="/wiki/Alchemical_Symbols_(Unicode_block)" title="Alchemical Symbols (Unicode block)">Unicode</a>, <a href="/wiki/Suns_in_alchemy" title="Suns in alchemy">Suns in alchemy</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" 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