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method="get" class="minerva-search-form"> <div class="search-box"><input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> <input class="search skin-minerva-search-trigger" id="searchInput" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"> </div><button id="searchIcon" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet skin-minerva-search-trigger"> Search </button> </form> <nav class="minerva-user-navigation" aria-label="User navigation"> </nav> </div> </header> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <div class="banner-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="pre-content heading-holder"> <div class="page-heading"> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Brain</h1> <div class="tagline"></div> </div> <ul id="p-associated-pages" class="minerva__tab-container"> <li class="minerva__tab selected"><a 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id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"> <script>function mfTempOpenSection(id){var block=document.getElementById("mf-section-"+id);block.className+=" open-block";block.previousSibling.className+=" open-block";}</script> <div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <section class="mf-section-0" id="mf-section-0"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style> <div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable"> This article is about the brains of all types of animals. For information specific to humans, see <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Human_brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Human brain">human brain</a>. For other uses, see <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain_(disambiguation)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-disambig" title="Brain (disambiguation)">brain (disambiguation)</a> and <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brains_(disambiguation)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Brains (disambiguation)">brains (disambiguation)</a>. </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"> <div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable"> Not to be confused with <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brian?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Brian">Brian</a>, <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Braine_(disambiguation)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Braine (disambiguation)">braine</a>, or <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brane?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Brane">brane</a>. </div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style> The brain is an <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Organ_(biology)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Organ (biology)">organ</a> that serves as the center of the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Nervous_system?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Nervous system">nervous system</a> in all <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Vertebrate?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Vertebrate">vertebrate</a> and most <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Invertebrate?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Invertebrate">invertebrate</a> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Animal?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Animal">animals</a>. It consists of <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Nervous_tissue?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Nervous tissue">nervous tissue</a> and is typically located in the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Head?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Head">head</a> (<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Cephalization?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Cephalization">cephalization</a>), usually near organs for <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Special_senses?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Special senses">special senses</a> such as <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Visual_perception?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Visual perception">vision</a>, <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Hearing?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Hearing">hearing</a> and <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Olfaction?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Olfaction">olfaction</a>. Being the most specialized organ, it is responsible for receiving <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Information?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Information">information</a> from the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Sensory_nervous_system?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Sensory nervous system">sensory nervous system</a>, processing those information (<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Thought?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Thought">thought</a>, <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Cognition?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Cognition">cognition</a>, and <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Intelligence?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Intelligence">intelligence</a>) and the coordination of <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Motor_control?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Motor control">motor control</a> (<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Muscle?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Muscle">muscle</a> activity and <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Endocrine_system?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Endocrine system">endocrine system</a>). <table class="infobox"> <tbody> <tr> <th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color:dimgray; color: white">Brain</th> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/File:Chimp_Brain_in_a_jar.jpg?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Chimp_Brain_in_a_jar.jpg/250px-Chimp_Brain_in_a_jar.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="315" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Chimp_Brain_in_a_jar.jpg/375px-Chimp_Brain_in_a_jar.jpg 1.5x,https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Chimp_Brain_in_a_jar.jpg/500px-Chimp_Brain_in_a_jar.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2540" data-file-height="3200"></a> <div class="infobox-caption"> Brain of a <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Chimpanzee?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Chimpanzee">chimpanzee</a> </div></td> </tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #efefef">Details</th> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em">Part of</th> <td class="infobox-data"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Nervous_system?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Nervous system">Nervous system</a></td> </tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #efefef">Identifiers</th> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Latin?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Latin">Latin</a></th> <td class="infobox-data">cerebrum</td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Ancient_Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Ancient Greek">Greek</a></th> <td class="infobox-data">encephalon</td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Medical_Subject_Headings?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Medical Subject Headings">MeSH</a></th> <td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui%3DD001921">D001921</a></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/NeuroNames?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="NeuroNames">NeuroNames</a></th> <td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=http://braininfo.rprc.washington.edu/centraldirectory.aspx?ID%3D21">21</a></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Terminologia_Anatomica?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Terminologia Anatomica">TA98</a></th> <td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://ifaa.unifr.ch/Public/EntryPage/TA98%2520Tree/Entity%2520TA98%2520EN/14.1.03.001%2520Entity%2520TA98%2520EN.htm">A14.1.03.001</a></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Terminologia_Anatomica?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Terminologia Anatomica">TA2</a></th> <td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://ta2viewer.openanatomy.org/?id%3D5415">5415</a></td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" class="infobox-below"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Anatomical_terminology?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Anatomical terminology">Anatomical terminology</a> <div style="text-align: right;"> [<a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1073" class="extiw" title="d:Q1073">edit on Wikidata</a>] </div></td> </tr> </tbody> </table> While invertebrate brains arise from paired <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Segmental_ganglia?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Segmental ganglia">segmental ganglia</a> (each of which is only responsible for the respective <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Segmentation_(biology)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Segmentation (biology)">body segment</a>) of the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Ventral_nerve_cord?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Ventral nerve cord">ventral nerve cord</a>, vertebrate brains develop axially from the midline <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Dorsal_nerve_cord?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Dorsal nerve cord">dorsal nerve cord</a> as a <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain_vesicle?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Brain vesicle">vesicular</a> enlargement at the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Rostral_(anatomical_term)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Rostral (anatomical term)">rostral</a> end of the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Neural_tube?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Neural tube">neural tube</a>, with <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Centralize?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Centralize">centralized</a> control over all body segments. All vertebrate brains can be embryonically divided into three parts: the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Forebrain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Forebrain">forebrain</a> (prosencephalon, subdivided into <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Telencephalon?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Telencephalon">telencephalon</a> and <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Diencephalon?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Diencephalon">diencephalon</a>), <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Midbrain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Midbrain">midbrain</a> (<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Mesencephalon?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Mesencephalon">mesencephalon</a>) and <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Hindbrain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Hindbrain">hindbrain</a> (<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Rhombencephalon?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhombencephalon">rhombencephalon</a>, subdivided into <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Metencephalon?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Metencephalon">metencephalon</a> and <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Myelencephalon?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Myelencephalon">myelencephalon</a>). The <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Spinal_cord?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Spinal cord">spinal cord</a>, which directly interacts with <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Somatic_nervous_system?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Somatic nervous system">somatic</a> functions below the head, can be considered a caudal extension of the myelencephalon enclosed inside the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Vertebral_column?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Vertebral column">vertebral column</a>. Together, the brain and spinal cord constitute the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Central_nervous_system?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Central nervous system">central nervous system</a> in all vertebrates. In <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Human?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Human">humans</a>, the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Cerebral_cortex?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Cerebral cortex">cerebral cortex</a> contains approximately 14–16 billion neurons,<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-Saladin11-1">[1]</a> and the estimated number of neurons in the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Cerebellum?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Cerebellum">cerebellum</a> is 55–70 billion.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-JCN-2">[2]</a> Each neuron is connected by <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Synapse?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Synapse">synapses</a> to several thousand other neurons, typically communicating with one another via <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Cytoplasmic_process?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Cytoplasmic process">cytoplasmic processes</a> known as <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Dendrite?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Dendrite">dendrites</a> and <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Axon?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Axon">axons</a>. Axons are usually <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Myelinated?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Myelinated">myelinated</a> and carry trains of rapid micro-electric signal pulses called <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Action_potential?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Action potential">action potentials</a> to target specific recipient cells in other areas of the brain or distant parts of the body. The <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Prefrontal_cortex?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Prefrontal cortex">prefrontal cortex</a>, which controls <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Executive_function?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Executive function">executive functions</a>, is particularly well developed in humans. <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Physiologically?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Physiologically">Physiologically</a>, brains exert centralized control over a body's other organs. They act on the rest of the body both by generating patterns of muscle activity and by driving the secretion of chemicals called <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Hormone?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Hormone">hormones</a>. This centralized control allows rapid and coordinated responses to changes in the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Natural_environment?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Natural environment">environment</a>. Some basic types of responsiveness such as <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Reflex?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Reflex">reflexes</a> can be mediated by the spinal cord or peripheral <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Ganglia?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Ganglia">ganglia</a>, but sophisticated purposeful control of behavior based on complex sensory input requires the information integrating capabilities of a centralized brain. The operations of individual brain cells are now understood in considerable detail but the way they cooperate in ensembles of millions is yet to be solved.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-3">[3]</a> Recent models in modern neuroscience treat the brain as a <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Biological_computer?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological computer">biological computer</a>, very different in mechanism from a <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Digital_computer?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital computer">digital computer</a>, but similar in the sense that it acquires information from the surrounding world, stores it, and processes it in a variety of ways. This article compares the properties of brains across the entire range of animal species, with the greatest attention to vertebrates. It deals with the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Human_brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Human brain">human brain</a> insofar as it shares the properties of other brains. The ways in which the human brain differs from other brains are covered in the human brain article. Several topics that might be covered here are instead covered there because much more can be said about them in a human context. The most important that are covered in the human brain article are <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain_disease?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Brain disease">brain disease</a> and the effects of <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain_damage?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Brain damage">brain damage</a>. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style> <div class="toclimit-3"> <div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"> <input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none"> <div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label> </div> <ul> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Structure">1 Structure</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-2"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Cellular_structure">1.1 Cellular structure</a></li> </ul></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-3"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Evolution">2 Evolution</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Generic_bilaterian_nervous_system">2.1 Generic bilaterian nervous system</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Invertebrates">2.2 Invertebrates</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Vertebrates">2.3 Vertebrates</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-7"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Reptiles">2.3.1 Reptiles</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-8"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Birds">2.3.2 Birds</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-9"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Mammals">2.3.3 Mammals</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-4 tocsection-10"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Primates">2.3.3.1 Primates</a></li> </ul></li> </ul></li> </ul></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-11"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Development">3 Development</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-12"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Physiology">4 Physiology</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-13"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Neurotransmitters_and_receptors">4.1 Neurotransmitters and receptors</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-14"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Electrical_activity">4.2 Electrical activity</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-15"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Metabolism">4.3 Metabolism</a></li> </ul></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-16"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Function">5 Function</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-17"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Perception">5.1 Perception</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-18"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Motor_control">5.2 Motor control</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-19"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Sleep">5.3 Sleep</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-20"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Homeostasis">5.4 Homeostasis</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-21"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Motivation">5.5 Motivation</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-22"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Learning_and_memory">5.6 Learning and memory</a></li> </ul></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-23"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Research">6 Research</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-24"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#History">6.1 History</a></li> </ul></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-25"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Society_and_culture">7 Society and culture</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-26"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#As_food">7.1 As food</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-27"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#In_rituals">7.2 In rituals</a></li> </ul></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-28"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#See_also">8 See also</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-29"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#References">9 References</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-30"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#External_links">10 External links</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </section> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(1)"> <h2 id="Structure">Structure</h2> </div> <section class="mf-section-1 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-1"> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/File:Section_through_olfactory_bulb_16_days_old_rat_brain.jpg?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-file-description"> <noscript> <img alt="a blob with a blue patch in the center, surrounded by a white area, surrounded by a thin strip of dark-colored material" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Section_through_olfactory_bulb_16_days_old_rat_brain.jpg/262px-Section_through_olfactory_bulb_16_days_old_rat_brain.jpg" decoding="async" width="262" height="155" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="356"> </noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 262px;height: 155px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Section_through_olfactory_bulb_16_days_old_rat_brain.jpg/262px-Section_through_olfactory_bulb_16_days_old_rat_brain.jpg" data-alt="a blob with a blue patch in the center, surrounded by a white area, surrounded by a thin strip of dark-colored material" data-width="262" data-height="155" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Section_through_olfactory_bulb_16_days_old_rat_brain.jpg/393px-Section_through_olfactory_bulb_16_days_old_rat_brain.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Section_through_olfactory_bulb_16_days_old_rat_brain.jpg/524px-Section_through_olfactory_bulb_16_days_old_rat_brain.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a> <figcaption> Cross section of the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Olfactory_bulb?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Olfactory bulb">olfactory bulb</a> of a <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Rat?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Rat">rat</a>, <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Staining?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Staining">stained</a> in two different ways at the same time: one stain shows <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Soma_(biology)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Soma (biology)">neuronal cell bodies</a>, the other shows receptors for the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Neurotransmitter?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Neurotransmitter">neurotransmitter</a> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/GABA?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="GABA">GABA</a>. </figcaption> </figure> The shape and size of the brain varies greatly between species, and identifying common features is often difficult.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-Shepherd-4">[4]</a> Nevertheless, there are a number of principles of brain architecture that apply across a wide range of species.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-Sporns2010-5">[5]</a> Some aspects of brain structure are common to almost the entire range of animal species;<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-Ba%C5%9Far2010-6">[6]</a> others distinguish "advanced" brains from more primitive ones, or distinguish vertebrates from invertebrates.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-Shepherd-4">[4]</a> The simplest way to gain information about brain anatomy is by visual inspection, but many more sophisticated techniques have been developed. Brain tissue in its natural state is too soft to work with, but it can be hardened by immersion in alcohol or other <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Fixation_(histology)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Fixation (histology)">fixatives</a>, and then sliced apart for examination of the interior. Visually, the interior of the brain consists of areas of so-called <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Grey_matter?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Grey matter">grey matter</a>, with a dark color, separated by areas of <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/White_matter?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="White matter">white matter</a>, with a lighter color. Further information can be gained by staining slices of brain tissue with a variety of chemicals that bring out areas where specific types of molecules are present in high concentrations. It is also possible to <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Histology?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Histology">examine the microstructure</a> of brain tissue using a microscope, and to trace the pattern of connections from one brain area to another.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-Singh2006-7">[7]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"> <h3 id="Cellular_structure">Cellular structure</h3> </div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/File:Chemical_synapse_schema_cropped.jpg?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-file-description"> <noscript> <img alt="drawing showing a neuron with a fiber emanating from it labeled "axon" and making contact with another cell. An inset shows an enlargement of the contact zone." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Chemical_synapse_schema_cropped.jpg/261px-Chemical_synapse_schema_cropped.jpg" decoding="async" width="261" height="326" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="544" data-file-height="678"> </noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 261px;height: 326px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Chemical_synapse_schema_cropped.jpg/261px-Chemical_synapse_schema_cropped.jpg" data-alt="drawing showing a neuron with a fiber emanating from it labeled "axon" and making contact with another cell. An inset shows an enlargement of the contact zone." data-width="261" data-height="326" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Chemical_synapse_schema_cropped.jpg/392px-Chemical_synapse_schema_cropped.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Chemical_synapse_schema_cropped.jpg/523px-Chemical_synapse_schema_cropped.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a> <figcaption> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Neuron?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Neuron">Neurons</a> generate <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Action_potential?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Action potential">electrical signals</a> that travel along their <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Axon?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Axon">axons</a>. When an electrical impulse reaches a junction called a <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Synapse?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Synapse">synapse</a>, it causes a <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Neurotransmitter?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Neurotransmitter">neurotransmitter</a> to be released, which binds to <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Receptor_(biochemistry)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Receptor (biochemistry)">receptors</a> on other cells and thereby alters their electrical activity. </figcaption> </figure> The brains of all species are composed primarily of two broad classes of <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain_cell?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Brain cell">brain cells</a>: <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Neuron?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Neuron">neurons</a> and <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Neuroglia?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Neuroglia">glial cells</a>. Glial cells (also known as glia or neuroglia) come in several types, and perform a number of critical functions, including structural support, metabolic support, insulation, and guidance of development. Neurons, however, are usually considered the most important cells in the brain.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-Kandel_2000-8">[8]</a> In humans, the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Cerebral_cortex?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Cerebral cortex">cerebral cortex</a> contains approximately 14–16 billion neurons,<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-Saladin11-1">[1]</a> and the estimated number of neurons in the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Cerebellum?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Cerebellum">cerebellum</a> is 55–70 billion.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-JCN-2">[2]</a> Each neuron is connected by <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Synapse?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Synapse">synapses</a> to several thousand other neurons. The property that makes neurons unique is their ability to send signals to specific target cells, sometimes over long distances.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-Kandel_2000-8">[8]</a> They send these signals by means of an <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Axon?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Axon">axon</a>, which is a thin protoplasmic fiber that extends from the cell body and projects, usually with numerous branches, to other areas, sometimes nearby, sometimes in distant parts of the brain or body. The length of an axon can be extraordinary: for example, if a <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Pyramidal_cell?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Pyramidal cell">pyramidal cell</a> (an excitatory neuron) of the cerebral cortex were magnified so that its cell body became the size of a human body, its axon, equally magnified, would become a cable a few centimeters in diameter, extending more than a kilometer.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-9">[9]</a> These axons transmit signals in the form of electrochemical pulses called action potentials, which last less than a thousandth of a second and travel along the axon at speeds of 1–100 meters per second. Some neurons emit action potentials constantly, at rates of 10–100 per second, usually in irregular patterns; other neurons are quiet most of the time, but occasionally emit a burst of action potentials.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-10">[10]</a> Axons transmit signals to other neurons by means of specialized junctions called <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Synapse?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Synapse">synapses</a>. A single axon may make as many as several thousand synaptic connections with other cells.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-Kandel_2000-8">[8]</a> When an action potential, traveling along an axon, arrives at a synapse, it causes a chemical called a <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Neurotransmitter?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Neurotransmitter">neurotransmitter</a> to be released. The neurotransmitter binds to <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Receptor_(biochemistry)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Receptor (biochemistry)">receptor</a> molecules in the membrane of the target cell.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-Kandel_2000-8">[8]</a> Synapses are the key functional elements of the brain.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-ShepherdSOB-11">[11]</a> The essential function of the brain is <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Cell%E2%80%93cell_interaction?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Cell–cell interaction">cell-to-cell communication</a>, and synapses are the points at which communication occurs. The human brain has been estimated to contain approximately 100 trillion synapses;<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-12">[12]</a> even the brain of a fruit fly contains several million.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-13">[13]</a> The functions of these synapses are very diverse: some are excitatory (exciting the target cell); others are inhibitory; others work by activating <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Second_messenger_system?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Second messenger system">second messenger systems</a> that change the internal <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Chemistry?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a> of their target cells in complex ways.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-ShepherdSOB-11">[11]</a> A large number of synapses are dynamically modifiable; that is, they are capable of changing strength in a way that is controlled by the patterns of signals that pass through them. It is widely believed that <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Synaptic_plasticity?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Synaptic plasticity">activity-dependent modification of synapses</a> is the brain's primary mechanism for learning and memory.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-ShepherdSOB-11">[11]</a> Most of the space in the brain is taken up by axons, which are often bundled together in what are called nerve fiber tracts. A myelinated axon is wrapped in a fatty insulating sheath of <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Myelin?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Myelin">myelin</a>, which serves to greatly increase the speed of signal propagation. (There are also unmyelinated axons). Myelin is white, making parts of the brain filled exclusively with nerve fibers appear as light-colored <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/White_matter?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="White matter">white matter</a>, in contrast to the darker-colored <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Grey_matter?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Grey matter">grey matter</a> that marks areas with high densities of neuron cell bodies.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-Kandel_2000-8">[8]</a> </section> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(2)"> <h2 id="Evolution">Evolution</h2> </div> <section class="mf-section-2 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-2"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"> <div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable"> Main article: <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Evolution_of_the_brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Evolution of the brain">Evolution of the brain</a> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"> <h3 id="Generic_bilaterian_nervous_system">Generic bilaterian nervous system</h3> </div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/File:Bilaterian-plan.svg?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-file-description"> <noscript> <img alt="A rod-shaped body contains a digestive system running from the mouth at one end to the anus at the other. Alongside the digestive system is a nerve cord with a brain at the end, near to the mouth." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Bilaterian-plan.svg/300px-Bilaterian-plan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="88" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="744" data-file-height="218"> </noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 300px;height: 88px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Bilaterian-plan.svg/300px-Bilaterian-plan.svg.png" data-alt="A rod-shaped body contains a digestive system running from the mouth at one end to the anus at the other. Alongside the digestive system is a nerve cord with a brain at the end, near to the mouth." data-width="300" data-height="88" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Bilaterian-plan.svg/450px-Bilaterian-plan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Bilaterian-plan.svg/600px-Bilaterian-plan.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a> <figcaption> Nervous system of a generic bilaterian animal, in the form of a nerve cord with segmental enlargements, and a "brain" at the front </figcaption> </figure> Except for a few primitive organisms such as <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Sponge?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Sponge">sponges</a> (which have no nervous system)<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-Jacobs-14">[14]</a> and <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Cnidaria?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Cnidaria">cnidarians</a> (which have a diffuse nervous system consisting of a <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Nerve_net?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Nerve net">nerve net</a>),<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-Jacobs-14">[14]</a> all living multicellular animals are <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Bilateria?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Bilateria">bilaterians</a>, meaning animals with a <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Bilateral_symmetry?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Bilateral symmetry">bilaterally symmetric</a> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Body_plan?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Body plan">body plan</a> (that is, left and right sides that are approximate mirror images of each other).<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-Urbilateria-15">[15]</a> All bilaterians are thought to have descended from a common ancestor that appeared late in the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Cryogenian?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Cryogenian">Cryogenian</a> period, 700–650 million years ago, and it has been hypothesized that this common ancestor had the shape of a simple tubeworm with a segmented body.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-Urbilateria-15">[15]</a> At a schematic level, that basic worm-shape continues to be reflected in the body and nervous system architecture of all modern bilaterians, including vertebrates.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-16">[16]</a> The fundamental bilateral body form is a tube with a hollow gut cavity running from the mouth to the anus, and a nerve cord with an enlargement (a <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Ganglion?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Ganglion">ganglion</a>) for each body segment, with an especially large ganglion at the front, called the brain. The brain is small and simple in some species, such as <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Nematode?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Nematode">nematode</a> worms; in other species, such as vertebrates, it is a large and very complex organ.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-Shepherd-4">[4]</a> Some types of worms, such as <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Leech?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Leech">leeches</a>, also have an enlarged ganglion at the back end of the nerve cord, known as a "tail brain".<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-17">[17]</a> There are a few types of existing bilaterians that lack a recognizable brain, including <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Echinoderm?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Echinoderm">echinoderms</a> and <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Tunicate?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Tunicate">tunicates</a>. It has not been definitively established whether the existence of these brainless species indicates that the earliest <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Bilaterians?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Bilaterians">bilaterians</a> lacked a brain, or whether their ancestors evolved in a way that led to the disappearance of a previously existing brain structure. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"> <h3 id="Invertebrates">Invertebrates</h3> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/File:Drosophila_melanogaster_-_side_(aka).jpg?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-file-description"> <noscript> <img alt="A fly resting on a reflective surface. A large, red eye faces the camera. The body appears transparent, apart from black pigment at the end of its abdomen." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Drosophila_melanogaster_-_side_%28aka%29.jpg/220px-Drosophila_melanogaster_-_side_%28aka%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="171" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="546" data-file-height="424"> </noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 171px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Drosophila_melanogaster_-_side_%28aka%29.jpg/220px-Drosophila_melanogaster_-_side_%28aka%29.jpg" data-alt="A fly resting on a reflective surface. A large, red eye faces the camera. The body appears transparent, apart from black pigment at the end of its abdomen." data-width="220" data-height="171" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Drosophila_melanogaster_-_side_%28aka%29.jpg/330px-Drosophila_melanogaster_-_side_%28aka%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Drosophila_melanogaster_-_side_%28aka%29.jpg/440px-Drosophila_melanogaster_-_side_%28aka%29.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a> <figcaption> Fruit flies (<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Drosophila?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Drosophila">Drosophila</a>) have been extensively studied to gain insight into the role of genes in brain development. </figcaption> </figure> This category includes <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Tardigrade?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Tardigrade">tardigrades</a>, <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Arthropod?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Arthropod">arthropods</a>, <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Mollusca?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Mollusca">molluscs</a>, and numerous types of worms. The diversity of invertebrate body plans is matched by an equal diversity in brain structures.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-18">[18]</a> Two groups of invertebrates have notably complex brains: arthropods (insects, <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Crustacean?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Crustacean">crustaceans</a>, <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Arachnid?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Arachnid">arachnids</a>, and others), and <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Cephalopod?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Cephalopod">cephalopods</a> (octopuses, <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Squid?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Squid">squids</a>, and similar molluscs).<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-Butler-19">[19]</a> The brains of arthropods and cephalopods arise from twin parallel nerve cords that extend through the body of the animal. Arthropods have a central brain, the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Supraesophageal_ganglion?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Supraesophageal ganglion">supraesophageal ganglion</a>, with three divisions and large <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Optic_lobe_(arthropod)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Optic lobe (arthropod)">optical lobes</a> behind each eye for visual processing.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-Butler-19">[19]</a> Cephalopods such as the octopus and squid have the largest brains of any invertebrates.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-Bulloch1995-20">[20]</a> There are several invertebrate species whose brains have been studied intensively because they have properties that make them convenient for experimental work: <ul> <li>Fruit flies (Drosophila), because of the large array of techniques available for studying their <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Genetics?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Genetics">genetics</a>, have been a natural subject for studying the role of genes in brain development.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-21">[21]</a> In spite of the large evolutionary distance between insects and mammals, many aspects of Drosophila <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Neurogenetics?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Neurogenetics">neurogenetics</a> have been shown to be relevant to humans. The first biological <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Clock_gene?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Clock gene">clock genes</a>, for example, were identified by examining Drosophila mutants that showed disrupted daily activity cycles.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-22">[22]</a> A search in the genomes of vertebrates revealed a set of analogous genes, which were found to play similar roles in the mouse biological clock—and therefore almost certainly in the human biological clock as well.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-23">[23]</a> Studies done on Drosophila, also show that most <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Neuropil?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Neuropil">neuropil</a> regions of the brain are continuously reorganized throughout life in response to specific living conditions.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-24">[24]</a></li> <li>The nematode worm <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Caenorhabditis_elegans?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Caenorhabditis elegans">Caenorhabditis elegans</a>, like Drosophila, has been studied largely because of its importance in genetics.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-25">[25]</a> In the early 1970s, <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Sydney_Brenner?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Sydney Brenner">Sydney Brenner</a> chose it as a <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Model_organism?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Model organism">model organism</a> for studying the way that genes control development. One of the advantages of working with this worm is that the body plan is very stereotyped: the nervous system of the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Hermaphrodite?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Hermaphrodite">hermaphrodite</a> contains exactly 302 neurons, always in the same places, making identical synaptic connections in every worm.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-26">[26]</a> Brenner's team sliced worms into thousands of ultrathin sections and photographed each one under an electron microscope, then visually matched fibers from section to section, to map out every neuron and synapse in the entire body.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-27">[27]</a> The complete neuronal wiring diagram of C.elegans – its <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Connectome?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Connectome">connectome</a> was achieved.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-28">[28]</a> Nothing approaching this level of detail is available for any other organism, and the information gained has enabled a multitude of studies that would otherwise have not been possible.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-29">[29]</a></li> <li>The sea slug <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Aplysia?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Aplysia">Aplysia</a> californica was chosen by Nobel Prize-winning neurophysiologist <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Eric_Kandel?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Eric Kandel">Eric Kandel</a> as a model for studying the cellular basis of <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Learning?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Learning">learning</a> and <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Memory?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Memory">memory</a>, because of the simplicity and accessibility of its nervous system, and it has been examined in hundreds of experiments.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-30">[30]</a></li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"> <h3 id="Vertebrates">Vertebrates</h3> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/File:Shark_brain.png?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-file-description"> <noscript> <img alt="A T-shaped object is made up of the cord at the bottom which feeds into a lower central mass. This is topped by a larger central mass with an arm extending from either side." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Shark_brain.png/170px-Shark_brain.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="177" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="348" data-file-height="362"> </noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 177px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Shark_brain.png/170px-Shark_brain.png" data-alt="A T-shaped object is made up of the cord at the bottom which feeds into a lower central mass. This is topped by a larger central mass with an arm extending from either side." data-width="170" data-height="177" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Shark_brain.png/255px-Shark_brain.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Shark_brain.png/340px-Shark_brain.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a> <figcaption> The brain of a <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Shark?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Shark">shark</a> </figcaption> </figure> The first <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Vertebrate?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Vertebrate">vertebrates</a> appeared over 500 million years ago (<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Mya_(unit)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Mya (unit)">Mya</a>) during the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Cambrian_period?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Cambrian period">Cambrian period</a>, and may have resembled the modern <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Jawless_fish?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Jawless fish">jawless fish</a> (<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Hagfish?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Hagfish">hagfish</a> and <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Lamprey?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Lamprey">lamprey</a>) in form.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-31">[31]</a> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Jawed_vertebrate?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Jawed vertebrate">Jawed vertebrates</a> appeared by 445 Mya, <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Tetrapod?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Tetrapod">tetrapods</a> by 350 Mya, <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Amniote?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Amniote">amniotes</a> by 310 Mya and <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Mammaliaform?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Mammaliaform">mammaliaforms</a> by 200 Mya (approximately). Each vertebrate <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Clade?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Clade">clade</a> has an equally long <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Evolution?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Evolution">evolutionary</a> history, but the brains of modern <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Fish?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Fish">fish</a>, <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Amphibian?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Amphibian">amphibians</a>, <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Reptile?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Reptile">reptiles</a>, <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Bird?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Bird">birds</a> and <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Mammal?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Mammal">mammals</a> show a gradient of size and complexity that roughly follows the evolutionary sequence. All of these brains contain the same set of basic anatomical structures, but many are rudimentary in the hagfish, whereas in mammals the foremost part (<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Forebrain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Forebrain">forebrain</a>, especially the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Telencephalon?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Telencephalon">telencephalon</a>) is greatly developed and expanded.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-32">[32]</a> Brains are most commonly compared in terms of their <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Mass?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Mass">mass</a>. The <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Encephalization_quotient?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Encephalization quotient">relationship</a> between <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain_size?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Brain size">brain size</a>, body size and other variables has been studied across a wide range of vertebrate species. As a <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Rule_of_thumb?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Rule of thumb">rule of thumb</a>, brain size increases with body size, but not in a simple linear proportion. In general, smaller animals tend to have proportionally larger brains, measured as a fraction of body size. For mammals, the relationship between brain volume and body mass essentially follows a <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Power_law?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Power law">power law</a> with an <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Exponentiation?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Exponentiation">exponent</a> of about 0.75.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-33">[33]</a> This formula describes the central tendency, but every family of mammals departs from it to some degree, in a way that reflects in part the complexity of their behavior. For example, <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Primate?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Primate">primates</a> have brains 5 to 10 times larger than the formula predicts. <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Predator?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Predator">Predators</a>, who have to implement various <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Hunting_strategies?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Hunting strategies">hunting strategies</a> against the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Evolutionary_arms_race?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Evolutionary arms race">ever changing</a> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Anti-predator_adaptation?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Anti-predator adaptation">anti-predator adaptations</a>, tend to have larger brains relative to body size than their prey.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-34">[34]</a> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/File:EmbryonicBrain.svg?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-file-description"> <noscript> <img alt="The nervous system is shown as a rod with protrusions along its length. The spinal cord at the bottom connects to the hindbrain which widens out before narrowing again. This is connected to the midbrain, which again bulges, and which finally connects to the forebrain which has two large protrusions." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/EmbryonicBrain.svg/250px-EmbryonicBrain.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="188" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="720"> </noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 250px;height: 188px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/EmbryonicBrain.svg/250px-EmbryonicBrain.svg.png" data-alt="The nervous system is shown as a rod with protrusions along its length. The spinal cord at the bottom connects to the hindbrain which widens out before narrowing again. This is connected to the midbrain, which again bulges, and which finally connects to the forebrain which has two large protrusions." data-width="250" data-height="188" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/EmbryonicBrain.svg/375px-EmbryonicBrain.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/EmbryonicBrain.svg/500px-EmbryonicBrain.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a> <figcaption> The main subdivisions of the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Embryogenesis?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Embryogenesis">embryonic</a> vertebrate brain (left), which later differentiate into structures of the adult brain (right) </figcaption> </figure> All vertebrate brains share a common underlying form, which appears most clearly during early stages of <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Embryonic_development?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Embryonic development">embryonic development</a>. In its earliest form, the brain appears as three <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain_vesicle?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Brain vesicle">vesicular swellings</a> at the front end of the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Neural_tube?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Neural tube">neural tube</a>; these swellings eventually become the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Forebrain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Forebrain">forebrain</a> (<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Prosencephalon?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Prosencephalon">prosencephalon</a>), <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Midbrain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Midbrain">midbrain</a> (<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Mesencephalon?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Mesencephalon">mesencephalon</a>) and hindbrain (<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Rhombencephalon?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhombencephalon">rhombencephalon</a>), respectively. At the earliest stages of brain development, the three areas are roughly equal in size. In many <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Aquatic_animal?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Aquatic animal">aquatic</a>/<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Semiaquatic?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Semiaquatic">semiaquatic</a> vertebrates such as fish and amphibians, the three parts remain similar in size in <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Adult?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Adult">adults</a>, but in <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Terrestrial_animal?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Terrestrial animal">terrestrial</a> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Tetrapod?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Tetrapod">tetrapods</a> such as mammals, the forebrain becomes much larger than the other parts, the hindbrain develops a bulky <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Dorsal_(anatomy)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Dorsal (anatomy)">dorsal</a> extension known as the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Cerebellum?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Cerebellum">cerebellum</a>, and the midbrain becomes very small as a result.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-Kandel_2000-8">[8]</a> The brains of vertebrates are made of very soft tissue.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-Kandel_2000-8">[8]</a> Living brain tissue is pinkish on the outside and mostly white on the inside, with subtle variations in color. Vertebrate brains are surrounded by a system of <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Connective_tissue?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Connective tissue">connective tissue</a> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Biological_membrane?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Biological membrane">membranes</a> called <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Meninges?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Meninges">meninges</a>, which separate the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Skull?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Skull">skull</a> from the brain. <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Cerebral_arteries?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Cerebral arteries">Cerebral arteries</a> pierce the outer two layers of the meninges, the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Dura_mater?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Dura mater">dura</a> and <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Arachnoid_mater?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Arachnoid mater">arachnoid mater</a>, into the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Subarachnoid_space?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Subarachnoid space">subarachnoid space</a> and <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Perfusion?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Perfusion">perfuse</a> the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain_parenchyma?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Brain parenchyma">brain parenchyma</a> via <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Arteriole?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Arteriole">arterioles</a> perforating into the innermost layer of the meninges, the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Pia_mater?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Pia mater">pia mater</a>. The <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Endothelial_cell?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Endothelial cell">endothelial cells</a> in the cerebral blood vessel walls are joined tightly to one another, forming the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Blood%E2%80%93brain_barrier?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Blood–brain barrier">blood–brain barrier</a>, which blocks the passage of many <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Toxin?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Toxin">toxins</a> and <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Pathogen?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Pathogen">pathogens</a><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-CarpenterCh1-35">[35]</a> (though at the same time blocking <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Antibody?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Antibody">antibodies</a> and some drugs, thereby presenting special challenges in treatment of diseases of the brain).<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-36">[36]</a> As a result of the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Osmotic?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Osmotic">osmotic</a> restriction by the blood-brain barrier, the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Metabolite?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Metabolite">metabolites</a> within the brain are cleared mostly by <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Bulk_flow?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Bulk flow">bulk flow</a> of the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Cerebrospinal_fluid?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Cerebrospinal fluid">cerebrospinal fluid</a> within the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Glymphatic_system?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Glymphatic system">glymphatic system</a> instead of via <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Venule?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Venule">venules</a> like other parts of the body. <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Neuroanatomy?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Neuroanatomy">Neuroanatomists</a> usually divide the vertebrate brain into six main subregions: the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Telencephalon?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Telencephalon">telencephalon</a> (the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Cerebral_hemispheres?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Cerebral hemispheres">cerebral hemispheres</a>), <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Diencephalon?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Diencephalon">diencephalon</a> (<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Thalamus?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Thalamus">thalamus</a> and <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Hypothalamus?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Hypothalamus">hypothalamus</a>), <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Mesencephalon?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Mesencephalon">mesencephalon</a> (midbrain), <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Cerebellum?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Cerebellum">cerebellum</a>, <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Pons?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Pons">pons</a> and <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Medulla_oblongata?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Medulla oblongata">medulla oblongata</a>, with the midbrain, pons and medulla often collectively called the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brainstem?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Brainstem">brainstem</a>. Each of these areas has a complex internal structure. Some parts, such as the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Cerebral_cortex?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Cerebral cortex">cerebral cortex</a> and the cerebellar cortex, are folded into convoluted <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Gyri?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Gyri">gyri</a> and <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Sulcus_(neuroanatomy)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Sulcus (neuroanatomy)">sulci</a> in order to maximize <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Surface_area?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Surface area">surface area</a> within the available <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Intracranial_space?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Intracranial space">intracranial space</a>. Other parts, such as the thalamus and hypothalamus, consist of many small clusters of nuclei known as "ganglia". Thousands of distinguishable areas can be identified within the vertebrate brain based on fine distinctions of neural structure, chemistry, and connectivity.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-Kandel_2000-8">[8]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/File:Vertebrate-brain-regions_small.png?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-file-description"> <noscript> <img alt="Corresponding regions of human and shark brain are shown. The shark brain is splayed out, while the human brain is more compact. The shark brain starts with the medulla, which is surrounded by various structures, and ends with the telencephalon. The cross-section of the human brain shows the medulla at the bottom surrounded by the same structures, with the telencephalon thickly coating the top of the brain." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Vertebrate-brain-regions_small.png/220px-Vertebrate-brain-regions_small.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="317" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="432"> </noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 317px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Vertebrate-brain-regions_small.png/220px-Vertebrate-brain-regions_small.png" data-alt="Corresponding regions of human and shark brain are shown. The shark brain is splayed out, while the human brain is more compact. The shark brain starts with the medulla, which is surrounded by various structures, and ends with the telencephalon. The cross-section of the human brain shows the medulla at the bottom surrounded by the same structures, with the telencephalon thickly coating the top of the brain." data-width="220" data-height="317" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/be/Vertebrate-brain-regions_small.png 1.5x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a> <figcaption> The main anatomical regions of the vertebrate brain, shown for shark and human. The same parts are present, but they differ greatly in size and shape. </figcaption> </figure> Although the same basic components are present in all vertebrate brains, some branches of vertebrate evolution have led to substantial distortions of brain geometry, especially in the forebrain area. The brain of a shark shows the basic components in a straightforward way, but in <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Teleostei?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Teleostei">teleost</a> fishes (the great majority of existing fish species), the forebrain has become "everted", like a sock turned inside out. In birds, there are also major changes in forebrain structure.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-37">[37]</a> These distortions can make it difficult to match brain components from one species with those of another species.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-38">[38]</a> Here is a list of some of the most important vertebrate brain components, along with a brief description of their functions as currently understood: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"> <div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable"> See also: <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/List_of_regions_in_the_human_brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="List of regions in the human brain">List of regions in the human brain</a> </div> <ul> <li>The <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Medulla_oblongata?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Medulla oblongata">medulla</a>, along with the spinal cord, contains many small nuclei involved in a wide variety of sensory and involuntary motor functions such as vomiting, heart rate and digestive processes.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-Kandel_2000-8">[8]</a></li> <li>The <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Pons?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Pons">pons</a> lies in the brainstem directly above the medulla. Among other things, it contains nuclei that control often voluntary but simple acts such as sleep, respiration, swallowing, bladder function, equilibrium, eye movement, facial expressions, and posture.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-39">[39]</a></li> <li>The <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Hypothalamus?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Hypothalamus">hypothalamus</a> is a small region at the base of the forebrain, whose complexity and importance belies its size. It is composed of numerous small nuclei, each with distinct connections and neurochemistry. The hypothalamus is engaged in additional involuntary or partially voluntary acts such as sleep and wake cycles, eating and drinking, and the release of some hormones.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-40">[40]</a></li> <li>The <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Thalamus?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Thalamus">thalamus</a> is a collection of nuclei with diverse functions: some are involved in relaying information to and from the cerebral hemispheres, while others are involved in motivation. The subthalamic area (<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Zona_incerta?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Zona incerta">zona incerta</a>) seems to contain action-generating systems for several types of "consummatory" behaviors such as eating, drinking, defecation, and copulation.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-41">[41]</a></li> <li>The <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Cerebellum?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Cerebellum">cerebellum</a> modulates the outputs of other brain systems, whether motor-related or thought related, to make them certain and precise. Removal of the cerebellum does not prevent an animal from doing anything in particular, but it makes actions hesitant and clumsy. This precision is not built-in but learned by trial and error. The muscle coordination learned while riding a bicycle is an example of a type of <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Neuroplasticity?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Neuroplasticity">neural plasticity</a> that may take place largely within the cerebellum.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-Kandel_2000-8">[8]</a> 10% of the brain's total volume consists of the cerebellum and 50% of all neurons are held within its structure.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-42">[42]</a></li> <li>The <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Superior_colliculus?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Superior colliculus">optic tectum</a> allows actions to be directed toward points in space, most commonly in response to visual input. In mammals, it is usually referred to as the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Superior_colliculus?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Superior colliculus">superior colliculus</a>, and its best-studied function is to direct eye movements. It also directs reaching movements and other object-directed actions. It receives strong visual inputs, but also inputs from other senses that are useful in directing actions, such as auditory input in owls and input from the thermosensitive <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Pit_organ?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Pit organ">pit organs</a> in snakes. In some primitive fishes, such as <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Lamprey?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Lamprey">lampreys</a>, this region is the largest part of the brain.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-43">[43]</a> The superior colliculus is part of the midbrain.</li> <li>The <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Pallium_(neuroanatomy)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Pallium (neuroanatomy)">pallium</a> is a layer of grey matter that lies on the surface of the forebrain and is the most complex and most recent evolutionary development of the brain as an organ.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-LullFerris1922-44">[44]</a> In reptiles and mammals, it is called the cerebral cortex. Multiple functions involve the pallium, including <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Olfaction?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Olfaction">smell</a> and <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Spatial_memory?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Spatial memory">spatial memory</a>. In mammals, where it becomes so large as to dominate the brain, it takes over functions from many other brain areas. In many mammals, the cerebral cortex consists of folded bulges called <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Gyrus?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Gyrus">gyri</a> that create deep furrows or fissures called <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Sulcus_(neuroanatomy)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Sulcus (neuroanatomy)">sulci</a>. The folds increase the surface area of the cortex and therefore increase the amount of gray matter and the amount of information that can be stored and processed.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-45">[45]</a></li> <li>The <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Hippocampus?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Hippocampus">hippocampus</a>, strictly speaking, is found only in mammals. However, the area it derives from, the medial pallium, has counterparts in all vertebrates. There is evidence that this part of the brain is involved in complex events such as spatial memory and navigation in fishes, birds, reptiles, and mammals.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-46">[46]</a></li> <li>The <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Basal_ganglia?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Basal ganglia">basal ganglia</a> are a group of interconnected structures in the forebrain. The primary function of the basal ganglia appears to be <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Action_selection?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Action selection">action selection</a>: they send inhibitory signals to all parts of the brain that can generate motor behaviors, and in the right circumstances can release the inhibition, so that the action-generating systems are able to execute their actions. Reward and punishment exert their most important neural effects by altering connections within the basal ganglia.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-Grillner2005-47">[47]</a></li> <li>The <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Olfactory_bulb?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Olfactory bulb">olfactory bulb</a> is a special structure that processes olfactory sensory signals and sends its output to the olfactory part of the pallium. It is a major brain component in many vertebrates, but is greatly reduced in humans and other primates (whose senses are dominated by information acquired by sight rather than smell).<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-48">[48]</a></li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"> <h4 id="Reptiles">Reptiles</h4> </div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/File:Comparative_zoology,_structural_and_systematic_-_for_use_in_schools_and_colleges_(1883)_(20482913440).jpg?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-file-description"> <noscript> <img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Comparative_zoology%2C_structural_and_systematic_-_for_use_in_schools_and_colleges_%281883%29_%2820482913440%29.jpg/394px-Comparative_zoology%2C_structural_and_systematic_-_for_use_in_schools_and_colleges_%281883%29_%2820482913440%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="394" height="248" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2042" data-file-height="1286"> </noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 394px;height: 248px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Comparative_zoology%2C_structural_and_systematic_-_for_use_in_schools_and_colleges_%281883%29_%2820482913440%29.jpg/394px-Comparative_zoology%2C_structural_and_systematic_-_for_use_in_schools_and_colleges_%281883%29_%2820482913440%29.jpg" data-width="394" data-height="248" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Comparative_zoology%2C_structural_and_systematic_-_for_use_in_schools_and_colleges_%281883%29_%2820482913440%29.jpg/591px-Comparative_zoology%2C_structural_and_systematic_-_for_use_in_schools_and_colleges_%281883%29_%2820482913440%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Comparative_zoology%2C_structural_and_systematic_-_for_use_in_schools_and_colleges_%281883%29_%2820482913440%29.jpg/788px-Comparative_zoology%2C_structural_and_systematic_-_for_use_in_schools_and_colleges_%281883%29_%2820482913440%29.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a> <figcaption> Anatomical comparison between the brain of a lizard (A and C) and the brain of a turkey (B and D). Abbreviations: Olf, olfactory lobes; Hmp, cerebral hemispheres; Pn, pineal gland ; Mb, optic lobes of the middle brain ; Cb, cerebellum; MO, medulla oblongata; ii, optic nerves; iv and vi, nerves for the muscles of the eye; Py, pituitary body. <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/File:Origin_of_Vertebrates_Fig_019.png?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-file-description"> <noscript> <img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Origin_of_Vertebrates_Fig_019.png/260px-Origin_of_Vertebrates_Fig_019.png" decoding="async" width="260" height="384" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1706" data-file-height="2516"> </noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 260px;height: 384px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Origin_of_Vertebrates_Fig_019.png/260px-Origin_of_Vertebrates_Fig_019.png" data-width="260" data-height="384" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Origin_of_Vertebrates_Fig_019.png/390px-Origin_of_Vertebrates_Fig_019.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Origin_of_Vertebrates_Fig_019.png/521px-Origin_of_Vertebrates_Fig_019.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a> <figcaption></figcaption> </figure>Comparison of Vertebrate Brains: Mammalian, Reptilian, Amphibian, Teleost, and Ammocoetes. CB., cerebellum; PT., pituitary body; PN., pineal body; C. STR., corpus striatum; G.H.R., right ganglion habenulæ. I., olfactory; II., optic nerves. </figcaption> </figure> Modern <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Reptile?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Reptile">reptiles</a> and <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Mammal?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Mammal">mammals</a> diverged from a common ancestor around 320 million years ago.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-:1-49">[49]</a> The number of extant reptiles far exceeds the number of mammalian species, with 11,733 recognized species of reptiles<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-50">[50]</a> compared to 5,884 extant mammals.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-51">[51]</a> Along with the species diversity, reptiles have diverged in terms of external morphology, from <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Slender_glass_lizard?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Slender glass lizard">limbless</a> to <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Draco_(lizard)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Draco (lizard)">tetrapod gliders</a> to <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Turtle?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Turtle">armored chelonians</a>, reflecting adaptive radiation to a diverse array of environments.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-:9-52">[52]</a><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-:0-53">[53]</a> Morphological differences are reflected in the nervous system <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Phenotype?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Phenotype">phenotype</a>, such as: absence of lateral motor column neurons in snakes, which innervate limb muscles controlling limb movements; absence of motor neurons that innervate trunk muscles in tortoises; presence of innervation from the trigeminal nerve to <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Infrared_sensing_in_snakes?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Infrared sensing in snakes">pit organs</a> responsible to infrared detection in snakes.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-:9-52">[52]</a> Variation in size, weight, and shape of the brain can be found within reptiles.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-:6-54">[54]</a> For instance, crocodilians have the largest brain volume to body weight proportion, followed by turtles, lizards, and snakes. Reptiles vary in the investment in different brain sections. Crocodilians have the largest telencephalon, while snakes have the smallest. Turtles have the largest diencephalon per body weight whereas crocodilians have the smallest. On the other hand, lizards have the largest mesencephalon.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-:6-54">[54]</a> Yet their brains share several characteristics revealed by recent anatomical, molecular, and <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Ontogeny?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Ontogeny">ontogenetic</a> studies.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-:3-55">[55]</a><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-:4-56">[56]</a><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-57">[57]</a> Vertebrates share the highest levels of similarities during <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Embryology?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Embryology">embryological</a> development, controlled by <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Conserved_sequence?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Conserved sequence">conserved</a> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Transcription_factor?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Transcription factor">transcription factors</a> and <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Developmental_signaling_center?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Developmental signaling center">signaling centers</a>, including gene expression, morphological and cell type differentiation.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-:3-55">[55]</a><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-:9-52">[52]</a><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-58">[58]</a> In fact, high levels of transcriptional factors can be found in all areas of the brain in reptiles and mammals, with shared neuronal clusters enlightening brain evolution.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-:4-56">[56]</a> Conserved transcription factors elucidate that evolution acted in different areas of the brain by either retaining similar morphology and function, or diversifying it.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-:3-55">[55]</a><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-:4-56">[56]</a> Anatomically, the reptilian brain has less subdivisions than the mammalian brain, however it has numerous conserved aspects including the organization of the spinal cord and cranial nerve, as well as elaborated brain pattern of organization.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-:5-59">[59]</a> Elaborated brains are characterized by migrated neuronal cell bodies away from the periventricular matrix, region of neuronal development, forming organized nuclear groups.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-:5-59">[59]</a> Aside from <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Reptile?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Reptile">reptiles</a> and <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Mammal?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Mammal">mammals</a>, other vertebrates with elaborated brains include <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Hagfish?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Hagfish">hagfish</a>, <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Shark?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Shark">galeomorph sharks</a>, <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Skate_(fish)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Skate (fish)">skates</a>, <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Batoidea?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Batoidea">rays</a>, <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Teleost?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Teleost">teleosts</a>, and <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Bird?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Bird">birds</a>.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-:5-59">[59]</a> Overall elaborated brains are subdivided in forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain. The hindbrain coordinates and integrates sensory and motor inputs and outputs responsible for, but not limited to, walking, swimming, or flying. It contains input and output axons interconnecting the spinal cord, midbrain and forebrain transmitting information from the external and internal environments.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-:5-59">[59]</a> The midbrain links sensory, motor, and integrative components received from the hindbrain, connecting it to the forebrain. The tectum, which includes the optic tectum and torus semicircularis, receives auditory, visual, and somatosensory inputs, forming integrated maps of the sensory and visual space around the animal.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-:5-59">[59]</a> The tegmentum receives incoming sensory information and forwards motor responses to and from the forebrain. The isthmus connects the hindbrain with midbrain. The forebrain region is particularly well developed, is further divided into diencephalon and telencephalon. Diencephalon is related to regulation of eye and body movement in response to visual stimuli, sensory information, <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Circadian_rhythm?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Circadian rhythm">circadian rhythms</a>, olfactory input, and <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Autonomic_nervous_system?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Autonomic nervous system">autonomic nervous system</a>.Telencephalon is related to control of movements, neurotransmitters and neuromodulators responsible for integrating inputs and transmitting outputs are present, sensory systems, and cognitive functions.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-:5-59">[59]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"> <h4 id="Birds">Birds</h4> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"> <div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable"> Main article: <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Avian_brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Avian brain">Avian brain</a> </div> <div class="excerpt-block"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"> <div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref"> This section is an excerpt from <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Avian_brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Avian brain">Avian brain</a>.[<a class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title%3DAvian_brain%26action%3Dedit">edit</a>] </div> <div class="excerpt"> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/File:Visual_processing_areas_of_the_brains_of_four_species_of_birds.png?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-file-description"> <noscript> <img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Visual_processing_areas_of_the_brains_of_four_species_of_birds.png/300px-Visual_processing_areas_of_the_brains_of_four_species_of_birds.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="206" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1162" data-file-height="797"> </noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 300px;height: 206px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Visual_processing_areas_of_the_brains_of_four_species_of_birds.png/300px-Visual_processing_areas_of_the_brains_of_four_species_of_birds.png" data-width="300" data-height="206" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Visual_processing_areas_of_the_brains_of_four_species_of_birds.png/450px-Visual_processing_areas_of_the_brains_of_four_species_of_birds.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Visual_processing_areas_of_the_brains_of_four_species_of_birds.png/600px-Visual_processing_areas_of_the_brains_of_four_species_of_birds.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a> <figcaption> Brains of an <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Emu?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Emu">emu</a>, a <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Kiwi_(bird)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Kiwi (bird)">kiwi</a>, a <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Barn-owl?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Barn-owl">barn owl</a>, and a <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Rock_dove?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Rock dove">pigeon</a>, with visual processing areas labelled </figcaption> </figure> The <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Avian_brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Avian brain">avian brain</a> is the central organ of the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Nervous_system?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Nervous system">nervous system</a> in birds. Birds possess large, complex brains, which <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Information_processing_(psychology)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Information processing (psychology)">process</a>, <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Information_integration?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Information integration">integrate</a>, and coordinate information received from the environment and <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Decision-making?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Decision-making">make decisions</a> on how to respond with <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Bird_anatomy?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Bird anatomy">the rest of the body.</a> Like in all <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Chordate?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Chordate">chordates</a>, the avian brain is contained within the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Skull?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Skull">skull</a> bones of the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Head?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Head">head</a>. The bird brain is divided into a number of sections, each with a different function. The <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Cerebrum?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Cerebrum">cerebrum</a> or telencephalon is divided into two <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Cerebral_hemisphere?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Cerebral hemisphere">hemispheres</a>, and controls higher functions. The telencephalon is dominated by a large <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Avian_pallium?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Avian pallium">pallium</a>, which corresponds to the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Mammal?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Mammal">mammalian</a> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Cerebral_cortex?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Cerebral cortex">cerebral cortex</a> and is responsible for the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Cognitive_skill?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Cognitive skill">cognitive functions</a> of birds. The pallium is made up of several major structures: the hyperpallium, a dorsal bulge of the pallium found only in birds, as well as the nidopallium, mesopallium, and archipallium. The bird telencephalon nuclear structure, wherein neurons are distributed in three-dimensionally arranged clusters, with no large-scale separation of <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/White_matter?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="White matter">white matter</a> and <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Grey_matter?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Grey matter">grey matter</a>, though there exist layer-like and column-like connections. Structures in the pallium are associated with <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Perception?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Perception">perception</a>, <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Learning?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Learning">learning</a>, and <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Cognition?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Cognition">cognition</a>. Beneath the pallium are the two components of the subpallium, the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Striatum?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Striatum">striatum</a> and <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Globus_pallidus?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Globus pallidus">pallidum</a>. The subpallium connects different parts of the telencephalon and plays major roles in a number of critical behaviours. To the rear of the telencephalon are the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Thalamus?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Thalamus">thalamus</a>, <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Midbrain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Midbrain">midbrain</a>, and <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Cerebellum?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Cerebellum">cerebellum</a>. The <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Hindbrain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Hindbrain">hindbrain</a> connects the rest of the brain to the spinal cord. The size and structure of the avian brain enables prominent behaviours of birds such as <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Bird_flight?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Bird flight">flight</a> and <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Bird_vocalization?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Bird vocalization">vocalization</a>. Dedicated structures and pathways integrate the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Hearing?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Hearing">auditory</a> and <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Bird_vision?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Bird vision">visual</a> senses, strong in most species of birds, as well as the typically weaker <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Sense_of_smell?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Sense of smell">olfactory</a> and <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Somatosensory_system?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Somatosensory system">tactile</a> senses. <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Social_behavior?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Social behavior">Social behaviour</a>, widespread among birds, depends on the organisation and functions of the brain. Some birds exhibit strong abilities of cognition, enabled by the unique structure and physiology of the avian brain. </div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"> <h4 id="Mammals">Mammals</h4> </div> The most obvious difference between the brains of mammals and other vertebrates is their size. On average, a mammal has a brain roughly twice as large as that of a bird of the same body size, and ten times as large as that of a reptile of the same body size.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-Northcutt2002-60">[60]</a> Size, however, is not the only difference: there are also substantial differences in shape. The hindbrain and midbrain of mammals are generally similar to those of other vertebrates, but dramatic differences appear in the forebrain, which is greatly enlarged and also altered in structure.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-Barton-61">[61]</a> The cerebral cortex is the part of the brain that most strongly distinguishes mammals. In non-mammalian vertebrates, the surface of the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Cerebrum?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Cerebrum">cerebrum</a> is lined with a comparatively simple three-layered structure called the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Pallium_(neuroanatomy)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Pallium (neuroanatomy)">pallium</a>. In mammals, the pallium evolves into a complex six-layered structure called <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Neocortex?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Neocortex">neocortex</a> or isocortex.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-Aboitiz-62">[62]</a> Several areas at the edge of the neocortex, including the hippocampus and <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Amygdala?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Amygdala">amygdala</a>, are also much more extensively developed in mammals than in other vertebrates.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-Barton-61">[61]</a> The elaboration of the cerebral cortex carries with it changes to other brain areas. The <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Superior_colliculus?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Superior colliculus">superior colliculus</a>, which plays a major role in visual control of behavior in most vertebrates, shrinks to a small size in mammals, and many of its functions are taken over by visual areas of the cerebral cortex.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-Northcutt2002-60">[60]</a> The cerebellum of mammals contains a large portion (the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Neocerebellum?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Neocerebellum">neocerebellum</a>) dedicated to supporting the cerebral cortex, which has no counterpart in other vertebrates.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-63">[63]</a> In <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Placental_mammal?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Placental mammal">placental mammals</a>, there is a wide nerve tract connecting the cerebral hemispheres called the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Corpus_callosum?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Corpus callosum">corpus callosum</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"> <h5 id="Primates">Primates</h5> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"> <div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable"> See also: <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Human_brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Human brain">Human brain</a> </div> <table class="wikitable" align="right" style="margin-left: 10px;"> <caption> Encephalization Quotient </caption> <tbody> <tr> <th>Species</th> <th>EQ<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-Roth2005-64">[64]</a></th> </tr> <tr> <td>Human</td> <td>7.4–7.8</td> </tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Common_chimpanzee?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Common chimpanzee">Common chimpanzee</a></td> <td>2.2–2.5</td> </tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Rhesus_macaque?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Rhesus macaque">Rhesus monkey</a></td> <td>2.1</td> </tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Bottlenose_dolphin?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Bottlenose dolphin">Bottlenose dolphin</a></td> <td>4.14<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-Marino-65">[65]</a></td> </tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Elephant?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Elephant">Elephant</a></td> <td>1.13–2.36<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-66">[66]</a></td> </tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Dog?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Dog">Dog</a></td> <td>1.2</td> </tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Horse?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Horse">Horse</a></td> <td>0.9</td> </tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Rat?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Rat">Rat</a></td> <td>0.4</td> </tr> </tbody> </table> The <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Human_brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Human brain">brains of humans</a> and other <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Primate?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Primate">primates</a> contain the same structures as the brains of other mammals, but are generally larger in proportion to body size.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-Finlay-67">[67]</a> The <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Encephalization_quotient?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Encephalization quotient">encephalization quotient</a> (EQ) is used to compare brain sizes across species. It takes into account the nonlinearity of the brain-to-body relationship.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-Roth2005-64">[64]</a> Humans have an average EQ in the 7-to-8 range, while most other primates have an EQ in the 2-to-3 range. Dolphins have values higher than those of primates other than humans,<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-Marino-65">[65]</a> but nearly all other mammals have EQ values that are substantially lower. Most of the enlargement of the primate brain comes from a massive expansion of the cerebral cortex, especially the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Prefrontal_cortex?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Prefrontal cortex">prefrontal cortex</a> and the parts of the cortex involved in <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Visual_perception?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Visual perception">vision</a>.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-68">[68]</a> The visual processing network of primates includes at least 30 distinguishable brain areas, with a complex web of interconnections. It has been estimated that visual processing areas occupy more than half of the total surface of the primate neocortex.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-Sereno1995-69">[69]</a> The <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Prefrontal_cortex?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Prefrontal cortex">prefrontal cortex</a> carries out functions that include <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Foresight_(psychology)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Foresight (psychology)">planning</a>, <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Working_memory?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Working memory">working memory</a>, <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Motivation?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Motivation">motivation</a>, <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Attention?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Attention">attention</a>, and <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Executive_functions?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Executive functions">executive control</a>. It takes up a much larger proportion of the brain for primates than for other species, and an especially large fraction of the human brain.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-70">[70]</a> </section> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(3)"> <h2 id="Development">Development</h2> </div> <section class="mf-section-3 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-3"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"> <div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable"> Main article: <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Neural_development?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Neural development">Neural development</a> </div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/File:6_week_embryo_brain.jpg?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-file-description"> <noscript> <img alt="Very simple drawing of the front end of a human embryo, showing each vesicle of the developing brain in a different color." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/6_week_embryo_brain.jpg/300px-6_week_embryo_brain.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="221" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="544" data-file-height="401"> </noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 300px;height: 221px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/6_week_embryo_brain.jpg/300px-6_week_embryo_brain.jpg" data-alt="Very simple drawing of the front end of a human embryo, showing each vesicle of the developing brain in a different color." data-width="300" data-height="221" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/6_week_embryo_brain.jpg/450px-6_week_embryo_brain.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c8/6_week_embryo_brain.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a> <figcaption> Brain of a human embryo in the sixth week of development </figcaption> </figure> The brain develops in an intricately orchestrated sequence of stages.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-Purves_1985-71">[71]</a> It changes in shape from a simple swelling at the front of the nerve cord in the earliest embryonic stages, to a complex array of areas and connections. Neurons are created in special zones that contain <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Stem_cell?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Stem cell">stem cells</a>, and then migrate through the tissue to reach their ultimate locations. Once neurons have positioned themselves, their axons sprout and navigate through the brain, branching and extending as they go, until the tips reach their targets and form synaptic connections. In a number of parts of the nervous system, neurons and synapses are produced in excessive numbers during the early stages, and then the unneeded ones are pruned away.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-Purves_1985-71">[71]</a> For vertebrates, the early stages of neural development are similar across all species.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-Purves_1985-71">[71]</a> As the embryo transforms from a round blob of cells into a wormlike structure, a narrow strip of <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Ectoderm?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Ectoderm">ectoderm</a> running along the midline of the back is <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Cellular_differentiation?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Cellular differentiation">induced</a> to become the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Neural_plate?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Neural plate">neural plate</a>, the precursor of the nervous system. The neural plate folds inward to form the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Neural_groove?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Neural groove">neural groove</a>, and then the lips that line the groove merge to enclose the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Neural_tube?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Neural tube">neural tube</a>, a hollow cord of cells with a fluid-filled ventricle at the center. At the front end, the ventricles and cord swell to form three vesicles that are the precursors of the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Forebrain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Forebrain">prosencephalon</a> (forebrain), <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Midbrain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Midbrain">mesencephalon</a> (midbrain), and <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Hindbrain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Hindbrain">rhombencephalon</a> (hindbrain). At the next stage, the forebrain splits into two vesicles called the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Cerebrum?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Cerebrum">telencephalon</a> (which will contain the cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, and related structures) and the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Diencephalon?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Diencephalon">diencephalon</a> (which will contain the thalamus and hypothalamus). At about the same time, the hindbrain splits into the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Metencephalon?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Metencephalon">metencephalon</a> (which will contain the cerebellum and pons) and the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Myelencephalon?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Myelencephalon">myelencephalon</a> (which will contain the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Medulla_oblongata?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Medulla oblongata">medulla oblongata</a>). Each of these areas contains proliferative zones where neurons and glial cells are generated; the resulting cells then migrate, sometimes for long distances, to their final positions.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-Purves_1985-71">[71]</a> Once a neuron is in place, it extends dendrites and an axon into the area around it. Axons, because they commonly extend a great distance from the cell body and need to reach specific targets, grow in a particularly complex way. The tip of a growing axon consists of a blob of protoplasm called a <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Growth_cone?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Growth cone">growth cone</a>, studded with chemical receptors. These receptors sense the local environment, causing the growth cone to be attracted or repelled by various cellular elements, and thus to be pulled in a particular direction at each point along its path. The result of this pathfinding process is that the growth cone navigates through the brain until it reaches its destination area, where other chemical cues cause it to begin generating synapses. Considering the entire brain, thousands of <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Gene?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Gene">genes</a> create products that influence axonal pathfinding.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-Purves_1985-71">[71]</a> The synaptic network that finally emerges is only partly determined by genes, though. In many parts of the brain, axons initially "overgrow", and then are "pruned" by mechanisms that depend on neural activity.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-Purves_1985-71">[71]</a> In the projection from the eye to the midbrain, for example, the structure in the adult contains a very precise mapping, connecting each point on the surface of the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Retina?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Retina">retina</a> to a corresponding point in a midbrain layer. In the first stages of development, each axon from the retina is guided to the right general vicinity in the midbrain by chemical cues, but then branches very profusely and makes initial contact with a wide swath of midbrain neurons. The retina, before birth, contains special mechanisms that cause it to generate waves of activity that originate spontaneously at a random point and then propagate slowly across the retinal layer. These waves are useful because they cause neighboring neurons to be active at the same time; that is, they produce a neural activity pattern that contains information about the spatial arrangement of the neurons. This information is exploited in the midbrain by a mechanism that causes synapses to weaken, and eventually vanish, if activity in an axon is not followed by activity of the target cell. The result of this sophisticated process is a gradual tuning and tightening of the map, leaving it finally in its precise adult form.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-Wong-72">[72]</a> Similar things happen in other brain areas: an initial synaptic matrix is generated as a result of genetically determined chemical guidance, but then gradually refined by activity-dependent mechanisms, partly driven by internal dynamics, partly by external sensory inputs. In some cases, as with the retina-midbrain system, activity patterns depend on mechanisms that operate only in the developing brain, and apparently exist solely to guide development.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-Wong-72">[72]</a> In humans and many other mammals, new neurons are created mainly before birth, and the infant brain contains substantially more neurons than the adult brain.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-Purves_1985-71">[71]</a> There are, however, a few areas where new neurons continue to be generated throughout life. The two areas for which adult <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Neurogenesis?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Neurogenesis">neurogenesis</a> is well established are the olfactory bulb, which is involved in the sense of smell, and the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Dentate_gyrus?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Dentate gyrus">dentate gyrus</a> of the hippocampus, where there is evidence that the new neurons play a role in storing newly acquired memories. With these exceptions, however, the set of neurons that is present in early childhood is the set that is present for life. Glial cells are different: as with most types of cells in the body, they are generated throughout the lifespan.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-73">[73]</a> There has long been debate about whether the qualities of <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Mind?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Mind">mind</a>, personality, and intelligence can be attributed to <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Nature_versus_nurture?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Nature versus nurture">heredity or to upbringing</a>.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-74">[74]</a> Although many details remain to be settled, neuroscience shows that both factors are important. Genes determine both the general form of the brain and how it reacts to experience, but experience is required to refine the matrix of synaptic connections, resulting in greatly increased complexity. The presence or absence of experience is critical at key periods of development.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-75">[75]</a> Additionally, the quantity and quality of experience are important. For example, animals raised in <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Environmental_enrichment_(neural)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental enrichment (neural)">enriched environments</a> demonstrate thick cerebral cortices, indicating a high density of synaptic connections, compared to animals with restricted levels of stimulation.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-76">[76]</a> </section> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(4)"> <h2 id="Physiology">Physiology</h2> </div> <section class="mf-section-4 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-4"> The functions of the brain depend on the ability of neurons to transmit electrochemical signals to other cells, and their ability to respond appropriately to electrochemical signals received from other cells. The <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Membrane_potential?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Membrane potential">electrical properties</a> of neurons are controlled by a wide variety of biochemical and metabolic processes, most notably the interactions between neurotransmitters and receptors that take place at synapses.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-Kandel_2000-8">[8]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"> <h3 id="Neurotransmitters_and_receptors">Neurotransmitters and receptors</h3> </div> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Neurotransmitter?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Neurotransmitter">Neurotransmitters</a> are chemicals that are released at synapses when the local membrane is depolarised and <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Calcium?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Calcium">Ca2+</a> enters into the cell, typically when an action potential arrives at the synapse – neurotransmitters attach themselves to receptor molecules on the membrane of the synapse's target cell (or cells), and thereby alter the electrical or chemical properties of the receptor molecules. With few exceptions, each neuron in the brain releases the same chemical neurotransmitter, or combination of neurotransmitters, at all the synaptic connections it makes with other neurons; this rule is known as <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Dale%27s_principle?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Dale's principle">Dale's principle</a>.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-Kandel_2000-8">[8]</a> Thus, a neuron can be characterized by the neurotransmitters that it releases. The great majority of <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Psychoactive_drug?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Psychoactive drug">psychoactive drugs</a> exert their effects by altering specific neurotransmitter systems. This applies to drugs such as <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Cannabinoids?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Cannabinoids">cannabinoids</a>, <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Nicotine?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Nicotine">nicotine</a>, <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Heroin?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Heroin">heroin</a>, <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Cocaine?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Cocaine">cocaine</a>, <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Alcohol_(drug)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Alcohol (drug)">alcohol</a>, <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Fluoxetine?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Fluoxetine">fluoxetine</a>, <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Chlorpromazine?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Chlorpromazine">chlorpromazine</a>, and many others.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-77">[77]</a> The two neurotransmitters that are most widely found in the vertebrate brain are <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Glutamic_acid?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Glutamic acid">glutamate</a>, which almost always exerts excitatory effects on target neurons, and <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Gamma-aminobutyric_acid?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Gamma-aminobutyric acid">gamma-aminobutyric acid</a> (GABA), which is almost always inhibitory. Neurons using these transmitters can be found in nearly every part of the brain.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-78">[78]</a> Because of their ubiquity, drugs that act on glutamate or GABA tend to have broad and powerful effects. Some <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/General_anaesthetic?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="General anaesthetic">general anesthetics</a> act by reducing the effects of glutamate; most tranquilizers exert their sedative effects by enhancing the effects of GABA.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-79">[79]</a> There are dozens of other chemical neurotransmitters that are used in more limited areas of the brain, often areas dedicated to a particular function. <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Serotonin?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Serotonin">Serotonin</a>, for example—the primary target of many <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Antidepressant?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Antidepressant">antidepressant drugs</a> and many dietary aids—comes exclusively from a small brainstem area called the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Raphe_nuclei?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Raphe nuclei">raphe nuclei</a>.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-80">[80]</a> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Norepinephrine?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Norepinephrine">Norepinephrine</a>, which is involved in arousal, comes exclusively from a nearby small area called the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Locus_coeruleus?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Locus coeruleus">locus coeruleus</a>.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-Mehler-81">[81]</a> Other neurotransmitters such as <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Acetylcholine?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Acetylcholine">acetylcholine</a> and <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Dopamine?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Dopamine">dopamine</a> have multiple sources in the brain but are not as ubiquitously distributed as glutamate and GABA.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-82">[82]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"> <h3 id="Electrical_activity">Electrical activity</h3> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/File:Spike-waves.png?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-file-description"> <noscript> <img alt="Graph showing 16 voltage traces going across the page from left to right, each showing a different signal. At the middle of the page all of the traces abruptly begin to show sharp jerky spikes, which continue to the end of the plot." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Spike-waves.png/220px-Spike-waves.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="230" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="478" data-file-height="500"> </noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 230px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Spike-waves.png/220px-Spike-waves.png" data-alt="Graph showing 16 voltage traces going across the page from left to right, each showing a different signal. At the middle of the page all of the traces abruptly begin to show sharp jerky spikes, which continue to the end of the plot." data-width="220" data-height="230" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Spike-waves.png/330px-Spike-waves.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Spike-waves.png/440px-Spike-waves.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a> <figcaption> Brain electrical activity recorded from a human patient during an <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Epilepsy?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Epilepsy">epileptic seizure</a> </figcaption> </figure> As a side effect of the electrochemical processes used by neurons for signaling, brain tissue generates electric fields when it is active. When large numbers of neurons show synchronized activity, the electric fields that they generate can be large enough to detect outside the skull, using <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Electroencephalography?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Electroencephalography">electroencephalography</a> (EEG)<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-Niedermeyer-83">[83]</a> or <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Magnetoencephalography?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Magnetoencephalography">magnetoencephalography</a> (MEG). EEG recordings, along with recordings made from electrodes implanted inside the brains of animals such as rats, show that the brain of a living animal is constantly active, even during sleep.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-Buzsaki-84">[84]</a> Each part of the brain shows a mixture of rhythmic and nonrhythmic activity, which may vary according to behavioral state. In mammals, the cerebral cortex tends to show large slow <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Delta_wave?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Delta wave">delta waves</a> during sleep, faster <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Alpha_wave?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Alpha wave">alpha waves</a> when the animal is awake but inattentive, and chaotic-looking irregular activity when the animal is actively engaged in a task, called <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Beta_wave?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Beta wave">beta</a> and <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Gamma_wave?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Gamma wave">gamma waves</a>. During an <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Epilepsy?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Epilepsy">epileptic seizure</a>, the brain's inhibitory control mechanisms fail to function and electrical activity rises to pathological levels, producing EEG traces that show large wave and spike patterns not seen in a healthy brain. Relating these population-level patterns to the computational functions of individual neurons is a major focus of current research in <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Neurophysiology?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Neurophysiology">neurophysiology</a>.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-Buzsaki-84">[84]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"> <h3 id="Metabolism">Metabolism</h3> </div> All vertebrates have a <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Blood%E2%80%93brain_barrier?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Blood–brain barrier">blood–brain barrier</a> that allows metabolism inside the brain to operate differently from metabolism in other parts of the body. The <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Neurovascular_unit?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Neurovascular unit">neurovascular unit</a> regulates cerebral blood flow so that activated neurons can be supplied with energy. <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Neuroglia?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Neuroglia">Glial cells</a> play a major role in brain metabolism by controlling the chemical composition of the fluid that surrounds neurons, including levels of ions and nutrients.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-Nieuwenhuys-85">[85]</a> Brain tissue consumes a large amount of energy in proportion to its volume, so large brains place severe metabolic demands on animals. The need to limit body weight in order, for example, to fly, has apparently led to selection for a reduction of brain size in some species, such as <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Bats?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Bats">bats</a>.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-86">[86]</a> Most of the brain's energy consumption goes into sustaining the electric charge (<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Membrane_potential?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Membrane potential">membrane potential</a>) of neurons.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-Nieuwenhuys-85">[85]</a> Most vertebrate species devote between 2% and 8% of basal metabolism to the brain. In primates, however, the percentage is much higher—in humans it rises to 20–25%.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-87">[87]</a> The energy consumption of the brain does not vary greatly over time, but active regions of the cerebral cortex consume somewhat more energy than inactive regions; this forms the basis for the functional brain imaging methods of <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain_positron_emission_tomography?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Brain positron emission tomography">PET</a>, <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/FMRI?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="FMRI">fMRI</a>,<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-88">[88]</a> and <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Near_infrared_spectroscopy?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Near infrared spectroscopy">NIRS</a>.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-89">[89]</a> The brain typically gets most of its energy from oxygen-dependent metabolism of <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Glucose?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Glucose">glucose</a> (i.e., blood sugar),<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-Nieuwenhuys-85">[85]</a> but <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Ketone_bodies?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Ketone bodies">ketones</a> provide a major alternative source, together with contributions from medium chain <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Fatty_acid?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Fatty acid">fatty acids</a> (<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Caprylic_acid?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Caprylic acid">caprylic</a> and <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Heptanoic_acid?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Heptanoic acid">heptanoic</a> acids),<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-Ebert_2003-90">[90]</a><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-Marin_Valencia_2013-91">[91]</a> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Lactic_acid?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Lactic acid">lactate</a>,<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-Boumezbeur_2010-92">[92]</a> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Acetate?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Acetate">acetate</a>,<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-Deelchand_2009-93">[93]</a> and possibly <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Amino_acid?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Amino acid">amino acids</a>.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-94">[94]</a> </section> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(5)"> <h2 id="Function">Function</h2> </div> <section class="mf-section-5 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-5"> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/File:Model_of_Cerebellar_Perceptron.jpg?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-file-description"> <noscript> <img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Model_of_Cerebellar_Perceptron.jpg/220px-Model_of_Cerebellar_Perceptron.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="180" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="464" data-file-height="379"> </noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 180px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Model_of_Cerebellar_Perceptron.jpg/220px-Model_of_Cerebellar_Perceptron.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="180" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Model_of_Cerebellar_Perceptron.jpg/330px-Model_of_Cerebellar_Perceptron.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Model_of_Cerebellar_Perceptron.jpg/440px-Model_of_Cerebellar_Perceptron.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a> <figcaption> Model of a neural circuit in the cerebellum, as proposed by <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/James_S._Albus?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="James S. Albus">James S. Albus</a> </figcaption> </figure> Information from the sense organs is collected in the brain. There it is used to determine what actions the organism is to take. The brain <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Multisensory_integration?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Multisensory integration">processes</a> the raw data to extract information about the structure of the environment. Next it combines the processed information with information about the current needs of the animal and with memory of past circumstances. Finally, on the basis of the results, it generates motor response patterns. These signal-processing tasks require intricate interplay between a variety of functional subsystems.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-CarewCh1-95">[95]</a> The function of the brain is to provide coherent control over the actions of an animal. A centralized brain allows groups of muscles to be co-activated in complex patterns; it also allows stimuli impinging on one part of the body to evoke responses in other parts, and it can prevent different parts of the body from acting at cross-purposes to each other.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-CarewCh1-95">[95]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"> <h3 id="Perception">Perception</h3> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/File:Hearing_mechanics_cropped.jpg?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-file-description"> <noscript> <img alt="Drawing showing the ear, inner ear, and brain areas involved in hearing. A series of light blue arrows shows the flow of signals through the system." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Hearing_mechanics_cropped.jpg/220px-Hearing_mechanics_cropped.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="187" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="574" data-file-height="489"> </noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 187px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Hearing_mechanics_cropped.jpg/220px-Hearing_mechanics_cropped.jpg" data-alt="Drawing showing the ear, inner ear, and brain areas involved in hearing. A series of light blue arrows shows the flow of signals through the system." data-width="220" data-height="187" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Hearing_mechanics_cropped.jpg/330px-Hearing_mechanics_cropped.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Hearing_mechanics_cropped.jpg/440px-Hearing_mechanics_cropped.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a> <figcaption> Diagram of signal processing in the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Auditory_system?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Auditory system">auditory system</a> </figcaption> </figure> The human brain is provided with information about light, sound, the chemical composition of the atmosphere, temperature, the position of the body in space (<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Proprioception?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Proprioception">proprioception</a>), the chemical composition of the bloodstream, and more. In other animals additional senses are present, such as the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Infrared_sensing_in_snakes?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Infrared sensing in snakes">infrared heat-sense of snakes</a>, the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Magnetoception?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Magnetoception">magnetic field sense</a> of some birds, or the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Electroreception?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Electroreception">electric field sense</a> mainly seen in aquatic animals. Each sensory system begins with specialized receptor cells,<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-Kandel_2000-8">[8]</a> such as <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Photoreceptor_cell?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Photoreceptor cell">photoreceptor cells</a> in the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Retina?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Retina">retina</a> of the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Eye?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Eye">eye</a>, or vibration-sensitive <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Hair_cell?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Hair cell">hair cells</a> in the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Cochlea?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Cochlea">cochlea</a> of the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Ear?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Ear">ear</a>. The axons of sensory receptor cells travel into the spinal cord or brain, where they transmit their signals to a <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Sensory_system?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Sensory system">first-order sensory nucleus</a> dedicated to one specific <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Stimulus_modality?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Stimulus modality">sensory modality</a>. This primary sensory nucleus sends information to higher-order sensory areas that are dedicated to the same modality. Eventually, via a way-station in the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Thalamus?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Thalamus">thalamus</a>, the signals are sent to the cerebral cortex, where they are processed to extract the relevant features, and <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Multisensory_integration?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Multisensory integration">integrated</a> with signals coming from other sensory systems.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-Kandel_2000-8">[8]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"> <h3 id="Motor_control">Motor control</h3> </div> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Motor_system?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Motor system">Motor systems</a> are areas of the brain that are involved in <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Motor_control?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Motor control">initiating body movements</a>, that is, in activating muscles. Except for the muscles that control the eye, which are driven by nuclei in the midbrain, all the voluntary muscles in the body are directly innervated by <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Motor_neuron?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Motor neuron">motor neurons</a> in the spinal cord and hindbrain.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-Kandel_2000-8">[8]</a> Spinal motor neurons are controlled both by neural circuits intrinsic to the spinal cord, and by inputs that descend from the brain. The intrinsic spinal circuits implement many <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Reflex?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Reflex">reflex</a> responses, and contain <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Central_pattern_generator?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Central pattern generator">pattern generators</a> for rhythmic movements such as <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Walking?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Walking">walking</a> or <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Aquatic_locomotion?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Aquatic locomotion">swimming</a>. The descending connections from the brain allow for more sophisticated control.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-Kandel_2000-8">[8]</a> The brain contains several motor areas that project directly to the spinal cord. At the lowest level are motor areas in the medulla and pons, which control stereotyped movements such as walking, <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Breathing?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Breathing">breathing</a>, or <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Swallowing?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Swallowing">swallowing</a>. At a higher level are areas in the midbrain, such as the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Red_nucleus?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Red nucleus">red nucleus</a>, which is responsible for coordinating movements of the arms and legs. At a higher level yet is the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Primary_motor_cortex?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Primary motor cortex">primary motor cortex</a>, a strip of tissue located at the posterior edge of the frontal lobe. The primary motor cortex sends projections to the subcortical motor areas, but also sends a massive projection directly to the spinal cord, through the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Pyramidal_tract?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Pyramidal tract">pyramidal tract</a>. This direct corticospinal projection allows for precise voluntary control of the fine details of movements. Other motor-related brain areas exert secondary effects by projecting to the primary motor areas. Among the most important secondary areas are the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Premotor_cortex?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Premotor cortex">premotor cortex</a>, <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Supplementary_motor_area?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Supplementary motor area">supplementary motor area</a>, <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Basal_ganglia?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Basal ganglia">basal ganglia</a>, and <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Cerebellum?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Cerebellum">cerebellum</a>.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-Kandel_2000-8">[8]</a> In addition to all of the above, the brain and spinal cord contain extensive circuitry to control the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Autonomic_nervous_system?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Autonomic nervous system">autonomic nervous system</a> which controls the movement of the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Smooth_muscle?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Smooth muscle">smooth muscle</a> of the body.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-Kandel_2000-8">[8]</a> <table class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"> <caption> Major areas involved in controlling movement </caption> <tbody> <tr> <th>Area</th> <th width="100">Location</th> <th>Function</th> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="text-align:left"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Anterior_horn_of_spinal_cord?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Anterior horn of spinal cord">Ventral horn</a></th> <td style="background: tan">Spinal cord</td> <td style="background:#ffdead">Contains motor neurons that directly activate muscles<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-96">[96]</a></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="text-align:left"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Oculomotor_nucleus?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Oculomotor nucleus">Oculomotor nuclei</a></th> <td style="background: tan">Midbrain</td> <td style="background:#ffdead">Contains motor neurons that directly activate the eye muscles<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-97">[97]</a></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="text-align:left"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Cerebellum?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Cerebellum">Cerebellum</a></th> <td style="background: tan">Hindbrain</td> <td style="background:#ffdead">Calibrates precision and timing of movements<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-Kandel_2000-8">[8]</a></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="text-align:left"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Basal_ganglia?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Basal ganglia">Basal ganglia</a></th> <td style="background: tan">Forebrain</td> <td style="background:#ffdead">Action selection on the basis of motivation<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-98">[98]</a></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="text-align:left"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Motor_cortex?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Motor cortex">Motor cortex</a></th> <td style="background: tan">Frontal lobe</td> <td style="background:#ffdead">Direct cortical activation of spinal motor circuits<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-99">[99]</a></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="text-align:left"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Premotor_cortex?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Premotor cortex">Premotor cortex</a></th> <td style="background: tan">Frontal lobe</td> <td style="background:#ffdead">Groups elementary movements into coordinated patterns<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-Kandel_2000-8">[8]</a></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="text-align:left"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Supplementary_motor_area?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Supplementary motor area">Supplementary motor area</a></th> <td style="background: tan">Frontal lobe</td> <td style="background:#ffdead">Sequences movements into temporal patterns<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-100">[100]</a></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="text-align:left"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Prefrontal_cortex?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Prefrontal cortex">Prefrontal cortex</a></th> <td style="background: tan">Frontal lobe</td> <td style="background:#ffdead">Planning and other <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Executive_functions?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Executive functions">executive functions</a><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-101">[101]</a></td> </tr> </tbody> </table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"> <h3 id="Sleep">Sleep</h3> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"> <div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable"> Main article: <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Sleep?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Sleep">Sleep</a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"> <div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable"> See also: <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Circadian_rhythm?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Circadian rhythm">Circadian rhythm</a> and <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Arousal?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Arousal">arousal</a> </div> Many animals alternate between sleeping and waking in a daily cycle. Arousal and alertness are also modulated on a finer time scale by a network of brain areas.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-Kandel_2000-8">[8]</a> A key component of the sleep system is the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Suprachiasmatic_nucleus?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Suprachiasmatic nucleus">suprachiasmatic nucleus</a> (SCN), a tiny part of the hypothalamus located directly above the point at which the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Optic_nerves?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Optic nerves">optic nerves</a> from the two eyes cross. The SCN contains the body's central biological clock. Neurons there show activity levels that rise and fall with a period of about 24 hours, <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Circadian_rhythm?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Circadian rhythm">circadian rhythms</a>: these activity fluctuations are driven by rhythmic changes in expression of a set of "clock genes". The SCN continues to keep time even if it is excised from the brain and placed in a dish of warm nutrient solution, but it ordinarily receives input from the optic nerves, through the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Retinohypothalamic_tract?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Retinohypothalamic tract">retinohypothalamic tract</a> (RHT), that allows daily light-dark cycles to calibrate the clock.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-102">[102]</a> The SCN projects to a set of areas in the hypothalamus, brainstem, and midbrain that are involved in implementing sleep-wake cycles. An important component of the system is the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Reticular_formation?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Reticular formation">reticular formation</a>, a group of neuron-clusters scattered diffusely through the core of the lower brain. Reticular neurons send signals to the thalamus, which in turn sends activity-level-controlling signals to every part of the cortex. Damage to the reticular formation can produce a permanent state of coma.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-Kandel_2000-8">[8]</a> Sleep involves great changes in brain activity.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-Kandel_2000-8">[8]</a> Until the 1950s it was generally believed that the brain essentially shuts off during sleep,<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-103">[103]</a> but this is now known to be far from true; activity continues, but patterns become very different. There are two types of sleep: <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Rapid_eye_movement_sleep?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Rapid eye movement sleep">REM sleep</a> (with <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Dream?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Dream">dreaming</a>) and <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Non-rapid_eye_movement_sleep?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Non-rapid eye movement sleep">NREM</a> (non-REM, usually without dreaming) sleep, which repeat in slightly varying patterns throughout a sleep episode. Three broad types of distinct brain activity patterns can be measured: REM, light NREM and deep NREM. During deep NREM sleep, also called <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Slow_wave_sleep?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Slow wave sleep">slow wave sleep</a>, activity in the cortex takes the form of large synchronized waves, whereas in the waking state it is noisy and desynchronized. Levels of the neurotransmitters <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Norepinephrine?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Norepinephrine">norepinephrine</a> and <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Serotonin?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Serotonin">serotonin</a> drop during slow wave sleep, and fall almost to zero during REM sleep; levels of <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Acetylcholine?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Acetylcholine">acetylcholine</a> show the reverse pattern.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-Kandel_2000-8">[8]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"> <h3 id="Homeostasis">Homeostasis</h3> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/File:LocationOfHypothalamus.jpg?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-file-description"> <noscript> <img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/LocationOfHypothalamus.jpg/220px-LocationOfHypothalamus.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="350" data-file-height="250"> </noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 157px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/LocationOfHypothalamus.jpg/220px-LocationOfHypothalamus.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="157" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/LocationOfHypothalamus.jpg/330px-LocationOfHypothalamus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9f/LocationOfHypothalamus.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a> <figcaption> Cross-section of a human head, showing location of the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Hypothalamus?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Hypothalamus">hypothalamus</a> </figcaption> </figure> For any animal, survival requires maintaining a variety of parameters of bodily state within a limited range of variation: these include temperature, water content, salt concentration in the bloodstream, blood glucose levels, blood oxygen level, and others.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-Dougherty-104">[104]</a> The ability of an animal to regulate the internal environment of its body—the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Milieu_int%C3%A9rieur?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Milieu intérieur">milieu intérieur</a>, as the pioneering physiologist <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Claude_Bernard?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Claude Bernard">Claude Bernard</a> called it—is known as <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Homeostasis?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Homeostasis">homeostasis</a> (<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Ancient_Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Ancient Greek">Greek</a> for "standing still").<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-105">[105]</a> Maintaining homeostasis is a crucial function of the brain. The basic principle that underlies homeostasis is <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Negative_feedback?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Negative feedback">negative feedback</a>: any time a parameter diverges from its set-point, sensors generate an error signal that evokes a response that causes the parameter to shift back toward its optimum value.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-Dougherty-104">[104]</a> (This principle is widely used in engineering, for example in the control of temperature using a <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Thermostat?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Thermostat">thermostat</a>.) In vertebrates, the part of the brain that plays the greatest role is the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Hypothalamus?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Hypothalamus">hypothalamus</a>, a small region at the base of the forebrain whose size does not reflect its complexity or the importance of its function.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-Dougherty-104">[104]</a> The hypothalamus is a collection of small nuclei, most of which are involved in basic biological functions. Some of these functions relate to arousal or to social interactions such as sexuality, aggression, or maternal behaviors; but many of them relate to homeostasis. Several hypothalamic nuclei receive input from sensors located in the lining of blood vessels, conveying information about temperature, sodium level, glucose level, blood oxygen level, and other parameters. These hypothalamic nuclei send output signals to motor areas that can generate actions to rectify deficiencies. Some of the outputs also go to the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Pituitary_gland?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Pituitary gland">pituitary gland</a>, a tiny gland attached to the brain directly underneath the hypothalamus. The pituitary gland secretes hormones into the bloodstream, where they circulate throughout the body and induce changes in cellular activity.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-106">[106]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"> <h3 id="Motivation">Motivation</h3> </div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/File:Basal_ganglia.svg?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-file-description"> <noscript> <img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Basal_ganglia.svg/350px-Basal_ganglia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="153" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="350"> </noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 350px;height: 153px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Basal_ganglia.svg/350px-Basal_ganglia.svg.png" data-width="350" data-height="153" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Basal_ganglia.svg/525px-Basal_ganglia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Basal_ganglia.svg/700px-Basal_ganglia.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a> <figcaption> Components of the basal ganglia, shown in two cross-sections of the human brain. Blue: <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Caudate_nucleus?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Caudate nucleus">caudate nucleus</a> and <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Putamen?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Putamen">putamen</a>. Green: <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Globus_pallidus?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Globus pallidus">globus pallidus</a>. Red: <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Subthalamic_nucleus?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Subthalamic nucleus">subthalamic nucleus</a>. Black: <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Substantia_nigra?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Substantia nigra">substantia nigra</a>. </figcaption> </figure> The individual animals need to express survival-promoting behaviors, such as seeking food, water, shelter, and a mate.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-107">[107]</a> The motivational system in the brain monitors the current state of satisfaction of these goals, and activates behaviors to meet any needs that arise. The motivational system works largely by a reward–punishment mechanism. When a particular behavior is followed by favorable consequences, the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Reward_system?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Reward system">reward mechanism</a> in the brain is activated, which induces structural changes inside the brain that cause the same behavior to be repeated later, whenever a similar situation arises. Conversely, when a behavior is followed by unfavorable consequences, the brain's punishment mechanism is activated, inducing structural changes that cause the behavior to be suppressed when similar situations arise in the future.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-108">[108]</a> Most organisms studied to date use a reward–punishment mechanism: for instance, worms and insects can alter their behavior to seek food sources or to avoid dangers.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-109">[109]</a> In vertebrates, the reward-punishment system is implemented by a specific set of brain structures, at the heart of which lie the basal ganglia, a set of interconnected areas at the base of the forebrain.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-Grillner2005-47">[47]</a> The basal ganglia are the central site at which decisions are made: the basal ganglia exert a sustained inhibitory control over most of the motor systems in the brain; when this inhibition is released, a motor system is permitted to execute the action it is programmed to carry out. Rewards and punishments function by altering the relationship between the inputs that the basal ganglia receive and the decision-signals that are emitted. The reward mechanism is better understood than the punishment mechanism, because its role in drug abuse has caused it to be studied very intensively. Research has shown that the neurotransmitter dopamine plays a central role: addictive drugs such as cocaine, amphetamine, and nicotine either cause dopamine levels to rise or cause the effects of dopamine inside the brain to be enhanced.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-110">[110]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"> <h3 id="Learning_and_memory">Learning and memory</h3> </div> Almost all animals are capable of modifying their behavior as a result of experience—even the most primitive types of worms. Because behavior is driven by brain activity, changes in behavior must somehow correspond to changes inside the brain. Already in the late 19th century theorists like <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Santiago_Ram%C3%B3n_y_Cajal?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Santiago Ramón y Cajal">Santiago Ramón y Cajal</a> argued that the most plausible explanation is that learning and memory are expressed as changes in the synaptic connections between neurons.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-111">[111]</a> Until 1970, however, experimental evidence to support the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Synaptic_plasticity?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Synaptic plasticity">synaptic plasticity</a> hypothesis was lacking. In 1971 <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Tim_Bliss?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Tim Bliss">Tim Bliss</a> and <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Terje_L%C3%B8mo?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Terje Lømo">Terje Lømo</a> published a paper on a phenomenon now called <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Long-term_potentiation?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Long-term potentiation">long-term potentiation</a>: the paper showed clear evidence of activity-induced synaptic changes that lasted for at least several days.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-112">[112]</a> Since then technical advances have made these sorts of experiments much easier to carry out, and thousands of studies have been made that have clarified the mechanism of synaptic change, and uncovered other types of activity-driven synaptic change in a variety of brain areas, including the cerebral cortex, hippocampus, basal ganglia, and cerebellum.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-113">[113]</a> Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/BDNF?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="BDNF">BDNF</a>) and <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Physical_activity?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Physical activity">physical activity</a> appear to play a beneficial role in the process.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-AirpollutionPhysicalactivity-114">[114]</a> Neuroscientists currently distinguish several types of learning and memory that are implemented by the brain in distinct ways: <ul> <li><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Working_memory?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Working memory">Working memory</a> is the ability of the brain to maintain a temporary representation of information about the task that an animal is currently engaged in. This sort of dynamic memory is thought to be mediated by the formation of <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Hebbian_theory?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Hebbian theory">cell assemblies</a>—groups of activated neurons that maintain their activity by constantly stimulating one another.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-115">[115]</a></li> <li><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Episodic_memory?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Episodic memory">Episodic memory</a> is the ability to remember the details of specific events. This sort of memory can last for a lifetime. Much evidence implicates the hippocampus in playing a crucial role: people with severe damage to the hippocampus sometimes show <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Amnesia?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Amnesia">amnesia</a>, that is, inability to form new long-lasting episodic memories.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-116">[116]</a></li> <li><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Semantic_memory?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Semantic memory">Semantic memory</a> is the ability to learn facts and relationships. This sort of memory is probably stored largely in the cerebral cortex, mediated by changes in connections between cells that represent specific types of information.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-117">[117]</a></li> <li><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Operant_conditioning?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Operant conditioning">Instrumental learning</a> is the ability for rewards and punishments to modify behavior. It is implemented by a network of brain areas centered on the basal ganglia.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-118">[118]</a></li> <li><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Motor_learning?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Motor learning">Motor learning</a> is the ability to refine patterns of body movement by practicing, or more generally by repetition. A number of brain areas are involved, including the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Premotor_cortex?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Premotor cortex">premotor cortex</a>, basal ganglia, and especially the cerebellum, which functions as a large memory bank for microadjustments of the parameters of movement.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-119">[119]</a></li> </ul> </section> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(6)"> <h2 id="Research">Research</h2> </div> <section class="mf-section-6 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-6"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"> <div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable"> Main article: <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Neuroscience?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Neuroscience">Neuroscience</a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"> <div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable"> "Brain research" redirects here. For the scientific journal, see <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain_Research?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Brain Research">Brain Research</a>. </div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/File:Henry_Markram_-_Visualizing_Synaptic_Maps_onto_Neocrortical_Neurons.jpg?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-file-description"> <noscript> <img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Henry_Markram_-_Visualizing_Synaptic_Maps_onto_Neocrortical_Neurons.jpg/220px-Henry_Markram_-_Visualizing_Synaptic_Maps_onto_Neocrortical_Neurons.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2322" data-file-height="1861"> </noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 176px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Henry_Markram_-_Visualizing_Synaptic_Maps_onto_Neocrortical_Neurons.jpg/220px-Henry_Markram_-_Visualizing_Synaptic_Maps_onto_Neocrortical_Neurons.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="176" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Henry_Markram_-_Visualizing_Synaptic_Maps_onto_Neocrortical_Neurons.jpg/330px-Henry_Markram_-_Visualizing_Synaptic_Maps_onto_Neocrortical_Neurons.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Henry_Markram_-_Visualizing_Synaptic_Maps_onto_Neocrortical_Neurons.jpg/440px-Henry_Markram_-_Visualizing_Synaptic_Maps_onto_Neocrortical_Neurons.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a> <figcaption> The <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Human_Brain_Project?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Human Brain Project">Human Brain Project</a> is a large scientific research project, starting in 2013, which aims to simulate the complete human brain. </figcaption> </figure> The field of neuroscience encompasses all approaches that seek to understand the brain and the rest of the nervous system.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-Kandel_2000-8">[8]</a> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Psychology?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Psychology">Psychology</a> seeks to understand mind and behavior, and <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Neurology?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Neurology">neurology</a> is the medical discipline that diagnoses and treats diseases of the nervous system. The brain is also the most important organ studied in <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Psychiatry?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Psychiatry">psychiatry</a>, the branch of medicine that works to study, prevent, and treat <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Mental_disorder?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Mental disorder">mental disorders</a>.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-Starrow_1969-120">[120]</a> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Cognitive_science?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Cognitive science">Cognitive science</a> seeks to unify neuroscience and psychology with other fields that concern themselves with the brain, such as <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Computer_science?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Computer science">computer science</a> (<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Artificial_intelligence?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Artificial intelligence">artificial intelligence</a> and similar fields) and <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Philosophy?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a>.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-121">[121]</a> The oldest method of studying the brain is <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Neuroanatomy?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Neuroanatomy">anatomical</a>, and until the middle of the 20th century, much of the progress in neuroscience came from the development of better cell stains and better microscopes. Neuroanatomists study the large-scale structure of the brain as well as the microscopic structure of neurons and their components, especially synapses. Among other tools, they employ a plethora of stains that reveal neural structure, chemistry, and connectivity. In recent years, the development of <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Immunostaining?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Immunostaining">immunostaining</a> techniques has allowed investigation of neurons that express specific sets of genes. Also, functional neuroanatomy uses <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Medical_imaging?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Medical imaging">medical imaging</a> techniques to correlate variations in human brain structure with differences in cognition or behavior.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-122">[122]</a> Neurophysiologists study the chemical, pharmacological, and electrical properties of the brain: their primary tools are drugs and recording devices. Thousands of experimentally developed drugs affect the nervous system, some in highly specific ways. Recordings of brain activity can be made using electrodes, either glued to the scalp as in <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Electroencephalography?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Electroencephalography">EEG</a> studies, or implanted inside the brains of animals for <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Extracellular?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Extracellular">extracellular</a> recordings, which can detect action potentials generated by individual neurons.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-123">[123]</a> Because the brain does not contain pain receptors, it is possible using these techniques to record brain activity from animals that are awake and behaving without causing distress. The same techniques have occasionally been used to study brain activity in human patients with intractable <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Epilepsy?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Epilepsy">epilepsy</a>, in cases where there was a medical necessity to implant electrodes to localize the brain area responsible for <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Epileptic_seizure?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Epileptic seizure">epileptic seizures</a>.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-124">[124]</a> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Functional_imaging?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Functional imaging">Functional imaging</a> techniques such as <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Functional_magnetic_resonance_imaging?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Functional magnetic resonance imaging">fMRI</a> are also used to study brain activity; these techniques have mainly been used with human subjects, because they require a conscious subject to remain motionless for long periods of time, but they have the great advantage of being noninvasive.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-125">[125]</a> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/File:Brain-computer_interface_(schematic).jpg?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-file-description"> <noscript> <img alt="Drawing showing a monkey in a restraint chair, a computer monitor, a rototic arm, and three pieces of computer equipment, with arrows between them to show the flow of information." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Brain-computer_interface_%28schematic%29.jpg/300px-Brain-computer_interface_%28schematic%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="190" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="632" data-file-height="400"> </noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 300px;height: 190px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Brain-computer_interface_%28schematic%29.jpg/300px-Brain-computer_interface_%28schematic%29.jpg" data-alt="Drawing showing a monkey in a restraint chair, a computer monitor, a rototic arm, and three pieces of computer equipment, with arrows between them to show the flow of information." data-width="300" data-height="190" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Brain-computer_interface_%28schematic%29.jpg/450px-Brain-computer_interface_%28schematic%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Brain-computer_interface_%28schematic%29.jpg/600px-Brain-computer_interface_%28schematic%29.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a> <figcaption> Design of an experiment in which brain activity from a monkey was used to control a robotic arm<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-126">[126]</a> </figcaption> </figure> Another approach to brain function is to examine the consequences of <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain_damage?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Brain damage">damage</a> to specific brain areas. Even though it is protected by the skull and <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Meninges?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Meninges">meninges</a>, surrounded by <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Cerebrospinal_fluid?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Cerebrospinal fluid">cerebrospinal fluid</a>, and isolated from the bloodstream by the blood–brain barrier, the delicate nature of the brain makes it vulnerable to numerous diseases and several types of damage. In humans, the effects of strokes and other types of brain damage have been a key source of information about brain function. Because there is no ability to experimentally control the nature of the damage, however, this information is often difficult to interpret. In animal studies, most commonly involving rats, it is possible to use electrodes or locally injected chemicals to produce precise patterns of damage and then examine the consequences for behavior.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-127">[127]</a> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Computational_neuroscience?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Computational neuroscience">Computational neuroscience</a> encompasses two approaches: first, the use of computers to study the brain; second, the study of how brains perform computation. On one hand, it is possible to write a computer program to simulate the operation of a group of neurons by making use of systems of equations that describe their electrochemical activity; such simulations are known as biologically realistic neural networks. On the other hand, it is possible to study algorithms for neural computation by simulating, or mathematically analyzing, the operations of simplified "units" that have some of the properties of neurons but abstract out much of their biological complexity. The computational functions of the brain are studied both by computer scientists and neuroscientists.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-Abbott-128">[128]</a> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Computational_neurogenetic_modeling?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Computational neurogenetic modeling">Computational neurogenetic modeling</a> is concerned with the study and development of dynamic neuronal models for modeling brain functions with respect to genes and dynamic interactions between genes. Recent years have seen increasing applications of genetic and genomic techniques to the study of the brain <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-Tonegawa-129">[129]</a> and a focus on the roles of <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Neurotrophic_factors?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Neurotrophic factors">neurotrophic factors</a> and physical activity in <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Neuroplasticity?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Neuroplasticity">neuroplasticity</a>.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-AirpollutionPhysicalactivity-114">[114]</a> The most common subjects are mice, because of the availability of technical tools. It is now possible with relative ease to "knock out" or mutate a wide variety of genes, and then examine the effects on brain function. More sophisticated approaches are also being used: for example, using <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Cre-Lox_recombination?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Cre-Lox recombination">Cre-Lox recombination</a> it is possible to activate or deactivate genes in specific parts of the brain, at specific times.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-Tonegawa-129">[129]</a> Recent years have also seen rapid advances in single-cell sequencing technologies, and these have been used to leverage the cellular heterogeneity of the brain as a means of better understanding the roles of distinct cell types in disease and biology (as well as how genomic variants influence individual cell types). In 2024, investigators studied a large integrated dataset of almost 3 million nuclei from the human prefrontal cortext from 388 individuals.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-Emani-130">[130]</a> In doing so, they annotated 28 cell types to evaluate expression and chromatin variation across gene families and drug targets. They identified about half a million cell type–specific regulatory elements and about 1.5 million single-cell expression quantitative trait loci (i.e., genomic variants with strong statistical associations with changes in gene expression within specific cell types), which were then used to build cell-type regulatory networks (the study also describes cell-to-cell communication networks). These networks were found to manifest cellular changes in aging and neuropsychiatric disorders. As part of the same investigation, a machine learning model was designed to accurately impute single-cell expression (this model prioritized ~250 disease-risk genes and drug targets with associated cell types). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"> <h3 id="History">History</h3> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"> <div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable"> See also: <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/History_of_neuroscience?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="History of neuroscience">History of neuroscience</a> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/File:Descartes-reflex.JPG?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-file-description"> <noscript> <img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Descartes-reflex.JPG/220px-Descartes-reflex.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="233" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="418" data-file-height="442"> </noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 233px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Descartes-reflex.JPG/220px-Descartes-reflex.JPG" data-width="220" data-height="233" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Descartes-reflex.JPG/330px-Descartes-reflex.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8a/Descartes-reflex.JPG 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a> <figcaption> Illustration by <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a> of how the brain implements a reflex response </figcaption> </figure> The oldest brain to have been discovered was in <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Armenia?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Armenia">Armenia</a> in the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Areni-1_cave_complex?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Areni-1 cave complex">Areni-1 cave complex</a>. The brain, estimated to be over 5,000 years old, was found in the skull of a 12 to 14-year-old girl. Although the brains were shriveled, they were well preserved due to the climate found inside the cave.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-131">[131]</a> Early philosophers were divided as to whether the seat of the soul lies in the brain or heart. <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Aristotle?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> favored the heart, and thought that the function of the brain was merely to cool the blood. <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Democritus?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Democritus">Democritus</a>, the inventor of the atomic theory of matter, argued for a three-part soul, with intellect in the head, emotion in the heart, and lust near the liver.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-Finger14-132">[132]</a> The unknown author of <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/On_the_Sacred_Disease?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="On the Sacred Disease">On the Sacred Disease</a>, a medical treatise in the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Hippocratic_Corpus?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Hippocratic Corpus">Hippocratic Corpus</a>, came down unequivocally in favor of the brain, writing: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style> <blockquote class="templatequote"> Men ought to know that from nothing else but the brain come joys, delights, laughter and sports, and sorrows, griefs, despondency, and lamentations. ... And by the same organ we become mad and delirious, and fears and terrors assail us, some by night, and some by day, and dreams and untimely wanderings, and cares that are not suitable, and ignorance of present circumstances, desuetude, and unskillfulness. All these things we endure from the brain, when it is not healthy... <div class="templatequotecite"> — <cite>On the Sacred Disease, attributed to <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Hippocrates?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Hippocrates">Hippocrates</a><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-Hippocrates-133">[133]</a></cite> </div> </blockquote> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/File:1543,_Andreas_Vesalius%27_Fabrica,_Base_Of_The_Brain.jpg?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-file-description"> <noscript> <img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/1543%2C_Andreas_Vesalius%27_Fabrica%2C_Base_Of_The_Brain.jpg/170px-1543%2C_Andreas_Vesalius%27_Fabrica%2C_Base_Of_The_Brain.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="190" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1202" data-file-height="1346"> </noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 190px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/1543%2C_Andreas_Vesalius%27_Fabrica%2C_Base_Of_The_Brain.jpg/170px-1543%2C_Andreas_Vesalius%27_Fabrica%2C_Base_Of_The_Brain.jpg" data-width="170" data-height="190" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/1543%2C_Andreas_Vesalius%27_Fabrica%2C_Base_Of_The_Brain.jpg/255px-1543%2C_Andreas_Vesalius%27_Fabrica%2C_Base_Of_The_Brain.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/1543%2C_Andreas_Vesalius%27_Fabrica%2C_Base_Of_The_Brain.jpg/340px-1543%2C_Andreas_Vesalius%27_Fabrica%2C_Base_Of_The_Brain.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a> <figcaption> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Andreas_Vesalius?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Andreas Vesalius">Andreas Vesalius</a>' Fabrica, published in 1543, showing the base of the human brain, including <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Optic_chiasm?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Optic chiasm">optic chiasma</a>, cerebellum, <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Olfactory_bulb?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Olfactory bulb">olfactory bulbs</a>, etc. </figcaption> </figure> The Roman physician <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Galen?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Galen">Galen</a> also argued for the importance of the brain, and theorized in some depth about how it might work. Galen traced out the anatomical relationships among brain, nerves, and muscles, demonstrating that all muscles in the body are connected to the brain through a branching network of nerves. He postulated that nerves activate muscles mechanically by carrying a mysterious substance he called pneumata psychikon, usually translated as "animal spirits".<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-Finger14-132">[132]</a> Galen's ideas were widely known during the Middle Ages, but not much further progress came until the Renaissance, when detailed anatomical study resumed, combined with the theoretical speculations of <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a> and those who followed him. Descartes, like Galen, thought of the nervous system in hydraulic terms. He believed that the highest cognitive functions are carried out by a non-physical res cogitans, but that the majority of behaviors of humans, and all behaviors of animals, could be explained mechanistically.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-Finger14-132">[132]</a> The first real progress toward a modern understanding of nervous function, though, came from the investigations of <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Luigi_Galvani?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Luigi Galvani">Luigi Galvani</a> (1737–1798), who discovered that a shock of static electricity applied to an exposed nerve of a dead frog could cause its leg to contract. Since that time, each major advance in understanding has followed more or less directly from the development of a new technique of investigation. Until the early years of the 20th century, the most important advances were derived from new methods for <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Staining?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Staining">staining</a> cells.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-134">[134]</a> Particularly critical was the invention of the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Golgi%27s_method?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Golgi's method">Golgi stain</a>, which (when correctly used) stains only a small fraction of neurons, but stains them in their entirety, including cell body, dendrites, and axon. Without such a stain, brain tissue under a microscope appears as an impenetrable tangle of protoplasmic fibers, in which it is impossible to determine any structure. In the hands of <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Camillo_Golgi?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Camillo Golgi">Camillo Golgi</a>, and especially of the Spanish neuroanatomist <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Santiago_Ram%C3%B3n_y_Cajal?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Santiago Ramón y Cajal">Santiago Ramón y Cajal</a>, the new stain revealed hundreds of distinct types of neurons, each with its own unique dendritic structure and pattern of connectivity.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-135">[135]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/File:PurkinjeCell.jpg?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-file-description"> <noscript> <img alt="A drawing on yellowing paper with an archiving stamp in the corner. A spidery tree branch structure connects to the top of a mass. A few narrow processes follow away from the bottom of the mass." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/PurkinjeCell.jpg/220px-PurkinjeCell.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="257" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="611" data-file-height="715"> </noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 257px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/PurkinjeCell.jpg/220px-PurkinjeCell.jpg" data-alt="A drawing on yellowing paper with an archiving stamp in the corner. A spidery tree branch structure connects to the top of a mass. A few narrow processes follow away from the bottom of the mass." data-width="220" data-height="257" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/PurkinjeCell.jpg/330px-PurkinjeCell.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/PurkinjeCell.jpg/440px-PurkinjeCell.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a> <figcaption> Drawing by <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Santiago_Ram%C3%B3n_y_Cajal?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Santiago Ramón y Cajal">Santiago Ramón y Cajal</a> of two types of Golgi-stained neurons from the cerebellum of a pigeon </figcaption> </figure> In the first half of the 20th century, advances in electronics enabled investigation of the electrical properties of nerve cells, culminating in work by <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Alan_Lloyd_Hodgkin?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Alan Lloyd Hodgkin">Alan Hodgkin</a>, <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Andrew_Huxley?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Andrew Huxley">Andrew Huxley</a>, and others on the biophysics of the action potential, and the work of <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Bernard_Katz?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Bernard Katz">Bernard Katz</a> and others on the electrochemistry of the synapse.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-136">[136]</a> These studies complemented the anatomical picture with a conception of the brain as a dynamic entity. Reflecting the new understanding, in 1942 <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Charles_Scott_Sherrington?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Charles Scott Sherrington">Charles Sherrington</a> visualized the workings of the brain waking from sleep: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"> <blockquote class="templatequote"> The great topmost sheet of the mass, that where hardly a light had twinkled or moved, becomes now a sparkling field of rhythmic flashing points with trains of traveling sparks hurrying hither and thither. The brain is waking and with it the mind is returning. It is as if the Milky Way entered upon some cosmic dance. Swiftly the head mass becomes an enchanted loom where millions of flashing shuttles weave a dissolving pattern, always a meaningful pattern though never an abiding one; a shifting harmony of subpatterns. <div class="templatequotecite"> — <cite>Sherrington, 1942, Man on his Nature<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-137">[137]</a></cite> </div> </blockquote> The invention of electronic computers in the 1940s, along with the development of mathematical <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Information_theory?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Information theory">information theory</a>, led to a realization that brains can potentially be understood as information processing systems. This concept formed the basis of the field of <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Cybernetics?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Cybernetics">cybernetics</a>, and eventually gave rise to the field now known as <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Computational_neuroscience?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Computational neuroscience">computational neuroscience</a>.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-CKS1993-138">[138]</a> The earliest attempts at cybernetics were somewhat crude in that they treated the brain as essentially a digital computer in disguise, as for example in <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/John_von_Neumann?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="John von Neumann">John von Neumann</a>'s 1958 book, <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/The_Computer_and_the_Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="The Computer and the Brain">The Computer and the Brain</a>.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-139">[139]</a> Over the years, though, accumulating information about the electrical responses of brain cells recorded from behaving animals has steadily moved theoretical concepts in the direction of increasing realism.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-CKS1993-138">[138]</a> One of the most influential early contributions was a 1959 paper titled What the frog's eye tells the frog's brain: the paper examined the visual responses of neurons in the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Retina?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Retina">retina</a> and <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Superior_colliculus?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Superior colliculus">optic tectum</a> of frogs, and came to the conclusion that some neurons in the tectum of the frog are wired to combine elementary responses in a way that makes them function as "bug perceivers".<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-140">[140]</a> A few years later <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/David_H._Hubel?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="David H. Hubel">David Hubel</a> and <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Torsten_Wiesel?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Torsten Wiesel">Torsten Wiesel</a> discovered cells in the primary visual cortex of monkeys that become active when sharp edges move across specific points in the field of view—a discovery for which they won a Nobel Prize.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-141">[141]</a> Follow-up studies in higher-order visual areas found cells that detect <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Binocular_disparity?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Binocular disparity">binocular disparity</a>, color, movement, and aspects of shape, with areas located at increasing distances from the primary visual cortex showing increasingly complex responses.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-142">[142]</a> Other investigations of brain areas unrelated to vision have revealed cells with a wide variety of response correlates, some related to memory, some to abstract types of cognition such as space.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-143">[143]</a> Theorists have worked to understand these response patterns by constructing mathematical <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Nervous_system_network_models?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Nervous system network models">models of neurons and neural networks</a>, which can be simulated using computers.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-CKS1993-138">[138]</a> Some useful models are abstract, focusing on the conceptual structure of neural algorithms rather than the details of how they are implemented in the brain; other models attempt to incorporate data about the biophysical properties of real neurons.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-144">[144]</a> No model on any level is yet considered to be a fully valid description of brain function, though. The essential difficulty is that sophisticated computation by neural networks requires distributed processing in which hundreds or thousands of neurons work cooperatively—current methods of brain activity recording are only capable of isolating action potentials from a few dozen neurons at a time.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-145">[145]</a> Furthermore, even single neurons appear to be complex and capable of performing computations.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-146">[146]</a> So, brain models that do not reflect this are too abstract to be representative of brain operation; models that do try to capture this are very computationally expensive and arguably intractable with present computational resources. However, the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Human_Brain_Project?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Human Brain Project">Human Brain Project</a> is trying to build a realistic, detailed computational model of the entire human brain. The wisdom of this approach has been publicly contested, with high-profile scientists on both sides of the argument. In the second half of the 20th century, developments in chemistry, electron microscopy, genetics, computer science, functional brain imaging, and other fields progressively opened new windows into brain structure and function. In the United States, the 1990s were officially designated as the "<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Decade_of_the_Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Decade of the Brain">Decade of the Brain</a>" to commemorate advances made in brain research, and to promote funding for such research.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-147">[147]</a> In the 21st century, these trends have continued, and several new approaches have come into prominence, including <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Multielectrode_array?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Multielectrode array">multielectrode recording</a>, which allows the activity of many brain cells to be recorded all at the same time;<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-148">[148]</a> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Genetic_engineering?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Genetic engineering">genetic engineering</a>, which allows molecular components of the brain to be altered experimentally;<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-Tonegawa-129">[129]</a> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Genomics?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Genomics">genomics</a>, which allows variations in brain structure to be correlated with variations in <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/DNA?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="DNA">DNA</a> properties and <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Neuroimaging?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Neuroimaging">neuroimaging</a>.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-149">[149]</a> </section> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(7)"> <h2 id="Society_and_culture">Society and culture</h2> </div> <section class="mf-section-7 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-7"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"> <h3 id="As_food">As food</h3> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"> <div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable"> Main article: <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain_as_food?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Brain as food">Brain as food</a> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/File:Gulai_Otak.jpg?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-file-description"> <noscript> <img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Gulai_Otak.jpg/220px-Gulai_Otak.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2268" data-file-height="1509"> </noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 146px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Gulai_Otak.jpg/220px-Gulai_Otak.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="146" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Gulai_Otak.jpg/330px-Gulai_Otak.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Gulai_Otak.jpg/440px-Gulai_Otak.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a> <figcaption> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Gulai_otak?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Gulai otak">Gulai otak</a>, <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Beef_brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Beef brain">beef brain</a> curry from Indonesia </figcaption> </figure> Animal brains are used as food in numerous cuisines. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"> <h3 id="In_rituals">In rituals</h3> </div> Some <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Archaeology?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Archaeology">archaeological</a> evidence suggests that the mourning rituals of <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Europe?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Europe">European</a> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Neanderthal?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Neanderthal">Neanderthals</a> also involved the consumption of the brain.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-150">[150]</a> The <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Fore_(people)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Fore (people)">Fore</a> people of <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Papua_New_Guinea?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Papua New Guinea">Papua New Guinea</a> are known to eat human brains. In funerary rituals, those close to the dead would eat the brain of the deceased to create a sense of <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Immortality?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Immortality">immortality</a>. A <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Prion?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Prion">prion</a> disease called <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Kuru_(disease)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Kuru (disease)">kuru</a> has been traced to this.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-151">[151]</a> </section> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(8)"> <h2 id="See_also">See also</h2> </div> <section class="mf-section-8 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-8"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style> <ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"> <noscript> <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/18px-Socrates.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="28" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="326" data-file-height="500"> </noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 18px;height: 28px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/18px-Socrates.png" data-alt="" data-width="18" data-height="28" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/27px-Socrates.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/36px-Socrates.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Portal:Philosophy?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Portal:Philosophy">Philosophy portal</a></li> </ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style> <div class="div-col" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ul> <li><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Aging_brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Aging brain">Aging brain</a></li> <li><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain%E2%80%93computer_interface?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Brain–computer interface">Brain–computer interface</a></li> <li><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain_health_and_pollution?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Brain health and pollution">Brain health and pollution</a></li> <li><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Central_nervous_system_disease?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Central nervous system disease">Central nervous system disease</a></li> <li><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/List_of_neuroscience_databases?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="List of neuroscience databases">List of neuroscience databases</a></li> <li><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Neurological_disorder?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Neurological disorder">Neurological disorder</a></li> <li><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Optogenetics?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Optogenetics">Optogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Outline_of_neuroscience?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Outline of neuroscience">Outline of neuroscience</a></li> </ul> </div> </section> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(9)"> <h2 id="References">References</h2> </div> <section class="mf-section-9 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-9"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style> <div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Saladin11-1">^ <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-Saladin11_1-0">a</a> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-Saladin11_1-1">b</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFSaladin2011" class="citation book cs1">Saladin, Kenneth (2011). 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(March 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190157/http://www.columbia.edu/cu/biology/faculty/yuste/Publications/Yuste_Church_SciAm14.pdf">"The new century of the brain"</a> (PDF). Scientific American. 310 (3): 38–45. <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014SciAm.310c..38Y">2014SciAm.310c..38Y</a>. <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Doi_(identifier)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://doi.org/10.1038%252Fscientificamerican0314-38">10.1038/scientificamerican0314-38</a>. <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/PMID_(identifier)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24660326">24660326</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=http://www.columbia.edu/cu/biology/faculty/yuste/Publications/Yuste_Church_SciAm14.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 2014-07-14.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scientific+American&rft.atitle=The+new+century+of+the+brain&rft.volume=310&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=38-45&rft.date=2014-03&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24660326&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fscientificamerican0314-38&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2014SciAm.310c..38Y&rft.aulast=Yuste&rft.aufirst=Rafael&rft.au=Church%2C+George+M.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.columbia.edu%2Fcu%2Fbiology%2Ffaculty%2Fyuste%2FPublications%2FYuste_Church_SciAm14.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"></li> <li id="cite_note-Shepherd-4">^ <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-Shepherd_4-0">a</a> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-Shepherd_4-1">b</a> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-Shepherd_4-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShepherd1994" class="citation book cs1">Shepherd, GM (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://archive.org/details/neurobiology00shep/page/3">Neurobiology</a>. Oxford University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://archive.org/details/neurobiology00shep/page/3">3</a>. <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-508843-4?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-508843-4"><bdi>978-0-19-508843-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Neurobiology&rft.pages=3&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-19-508843-4&rft.aulast=Shepherd&rft.aufirst=GM&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fneurobiology00shep%2Fpage%2F3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"></li> <li id="cite_note-Sporns2010-5"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-Sporns2010_5-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSporns2010" class="citation book cs1">Sporns, O (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://books.google.com/books?id%3Dv1DBKE7-UrYC%26pg%3DPA143">Networks of the Brain</a>. MIT Press. p. 143. <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-01469-4?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-262-01469-4"><bdi>978-0-262-01469-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Networks+of+the+Brain&rft.pages=143&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-262-01469-4&rft.aulast=Sporns&rft.aufirst=O&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dv1DBKE7-UrYC%26pg%3DPA143&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"></li> <li id="cite_note-Başar2010-6"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-Ba%C5%9Far2010_6-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaşar2010" class="citation book cs1">Başar, E (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://books.google.com/books?id%3DNAbMHo-ux58C%26pg%3DPA225">Brain-Body-Mind in the Nebulous Cartesian System: A Holistic Approach by Oscillations</a>. Springer. p. 225. <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4419-6134-1?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4419-6134-1"><bdi>978-1-4419-6134-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Brain-Body-Mind+in+the+Nebulous+Cartesian+System%3A+A+Holistic+Approach+by+Oscillations&rft.pages=225&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-4419-6134-1&rft.aulast=Ba%C5%9Far&rft.aufirst=E&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNAbMHo-ux58C%26pg%3DPA225&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"></li> <li id="cite_note-Singh2006-7"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-Singh2006_7-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSingh2006" class="citation book cs1">Singh, Inderbir (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://books.google.com/books?id%3DOzgmngAACAAJ">"A Brief Review of the Techniques Used in the Study of Neuroanatomy"</a>. 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Jaypee Brothers. p. 24. <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-8061-808-6?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-8061-808-6"><bdi>978-81-8061-808-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=A+Brief+Review+of+the+Techniques+Used+in+the+Study+of+Neuroanatomy&rft.btitle=Textbook+of+Human+Neuroanatomy&rft.pages=24&rft.edition=7th&rft.pub=Jaypee+Brothers&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-81-8061-808-6&rft.aulast=Singh&rft.aufirst=Inderbir&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOzgmngAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"></li> <li id="cite_note-Kandel_2000-8">^ <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-Kandel_2000_8-0">a</a> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-Kandel_2000_8-1">b</a> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-Kandel_2000_8-2">c</a> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-Kandel_2000_8-3">d</a> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-Kandel_2000_8-4">e</a> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-Kandel_2000_8-5">f</a> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-Kandel_2000_8-6">g</a> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-Kandel_2000_8-7">h</a> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-Kandel_2000_8-8">i</a> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-Kandel_2000_8-9">j</a> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-Kandel_2000_8-10">k</a> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-Kandel_2000_8-11">l</a> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-Kandel_2000_8-12">m</a> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-Kandel_2000_8-13">n</a> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-Kandel_2000_8-14">o</a> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-Kandel_2000_8-15">p</a> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-Kandel_2000_8-16">q</a> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-Kandel_2000_8-17">r</a> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-Kandel_2000_8-18">s</a> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-Kandel_2000_8-19">t</a> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-Kandel_2000_8-20">u</a> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-Kandel_2000_8-21">v</a> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-Kandel_2000_8-22">w</a> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-Kandel_2000_8-23">x</a> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-Kandel_2000_8-24">y</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKandelSchwartzJessell2000" class="citation book cs1">Kandel, Eric R.; Schwartz, James Harris; Jessell, Thomas M. 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New York: McGraw-Hill. <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8385-7701-1?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8385-7701-1"><bdi>978-0-8385-7701-1</bdi></a>. <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/42073108">42073108</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Principles+of+neural+science&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F42073108&rft.isbn=978-0-8385-7701-1&rft.aulast=Kandel&rft.aufirst=Eric+R.&rft.au=Schwartz%2C+James+Harris&rft.au=Jessell%2C+Thomas+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9780838577011&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"></li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-9">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDouglasMartin2004" class="citation journal cs1">Douglas, RJ; Martin, KA (2004). 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Yale University Press. pp. xi–xxii. <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-08473-3?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-08473-3"><bdi>978-0-300-08473-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Computer+and+the+Brain&rft.pages=xi-xxii&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-300-08473-3&rft.aulast=von+Neumann&rft.aufirst=J&rft.au=Churchland%2C+PM&rft.au=Churchland%2C+PS&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcomputerbrain0000vonn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"></li> <li id="cite_note-140"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Brain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-140">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLettvinMaturanaMcCullochPitts1959" class="citation journal cs1">Lettvin, JY; Maturana, HR; McCulloch, WS; Pitts, WH (1959). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928024235/http://jerome.lettvin.info/lettvin/Jerome/WhatTheFrogsEyeTellsTheFrogsBrain.pdf">"What the frog's eye tells the frog's brain"</a> (PDF). 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Journal of Clinical Neuroscience. 8 (5): 387–397. <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Doi_(identifier)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://doi.org/10.1054%252Fjocn.2001.0919">10.1054/jocn.2001.0919</a>. <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/PMID_(identifier)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11535002">11535002</a>. <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:31976428">31976428</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Clinical+Neuroscience&rft.atitle=Gerstmann-Straussler-Scheinker+syndrome%2C+fatal+familial+insomnia%2C+and+kuru%3A+a+review+of+these+less+common+human+transmissible+spongiform+encephalopathies&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=387-397&rft.date=2001&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A31976428%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11535002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1054%2Fjocn.2001.0919&rft.aulast=Collins&rft.aufirst=S&rft.au=McLean+CA&rft.au=Masters+CL&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrain" class="Z3988"></li> </ol> </div> </div> </section> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(10)"> <h2 id="External_links">External links</h2> </div> <section 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href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%25C3%25A6dia_Britannica/Brain" class="extiw" title="wikisource:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Brain">Brain</a>". </div> </div> </div> <ul> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=http://thebrain.mcgill.ca">The Brain from Top to Bottom</a>, at McGill University</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b00b54yx">"The Brain"</a>, <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/BBC_Radio_4?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="BBC Radio 4">BBC Radio 4</a> discussion with Vivian Nutton, Jonathan Sawday & Marina Wallace (<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/In_Our_Time_(radio_series)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="In Our Time (radio series)">In Our 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lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Cerebru" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-atj mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://atj.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wirtip" title="Wirtip – Atikamekw" lang="atj" hreflang="atj" data-title="Wirtip" data-language-autonym="Atikamekw" data-language-local-name="Atikamekw" class="interlanguage-link-target">Atikamekw</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apytu%2527%25C5%25A9" title="Apytu'ũ – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Apytu'ũ" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Avañe'ẽ</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-av mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://av.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D0%2593%25D3%2580%25D0%25B0%25D0%25B4%25D0%25B0%25D0%25BB%25D0%25BD%25D0%25B0%25D1%2585" title="ГӀадалнах – Avaric" lang="av" hreflang="av" data-title="ГӀадалнах" data-language-autonym="Авар" data-language-local-name="Avaric" class="interlanguage-link-target">Авар</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ay mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://ay.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lixwi" title="Lixwi – Aymara" lang="ay" hreflang="ay" data-title="Lixwi" data-language-autonym="Aymar aru" data-language-local-name="Aymara" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aymar aru</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beyin" title="Beyin – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Beyin" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D8%25A8%25D8%25A6%25DB%258C%25DB%258C%25D9%2586" title="بئیین – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="بئیین" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bm mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://bm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kunkolos%25C9%259Bm%25C9%259B" title="Kunkolosɛmɛ – Bambara" lang="bm" hreflang="bm" data-title="Kunkolosɛmɛ" data-language-autonym="Bamanankan" data-language-local-name="Bambara" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bamanankan</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25E0%25A6%25AE%25E0%25A6%25B8%25E0%25A7%258D%25E0%25A6%25A4%25E0%25A6%25BF%25E0%25A6%25B7%25E0%25A7%258D%25E0%25A6%2595" title="মস্তিষ্ক – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="মস্তিষ্ক" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%25C3%25A1u" title="Náu – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Náu" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D0%2591%25D0%25B0%25D1%2588_%25D0%25BC%25D0%25B5%25D0%25B9%25D0%25B5%25D2%25BB%25D0%25B5" title="Баш мейеһе – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Баш мейеһе" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D0%2593%25D0%25B0%25D0%25BB%25D0%25B0%25D1%259E%25D0%25BD%25D1%258B_%25D0%25BC%25D0%25BE%25D0%25B7%25D0%25B3" title="Галаўны мозг – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Галаўны мозг" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D0%2593%25D0%25B0%25D0%25BB%25D0%25B0%25D1%259E%25D0%25BD%25D1%258B_%25D0%25BC%25D0%25BE%25D0%25B7%25D0%25B0%25D0%25B3" title="Галаўны мозаг – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Галаўны мозаг" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25E0%25A4%25AE%25E0%25A4%25BE%25E0%25A4%25A5%25E0%25A4%25BE" title="माथा – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="माथा" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target">भोजपुरी</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hutok" title="Hutok – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Hutok" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bikol Central</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D0%2593%25D0%25BB%25D0%25B0%25D0%25B2%25D0%25B5%25D0%25BD_%25D0%25BC%25D0%25BE%25D0%25B7%25D1%258A%25D0%25BA" title="Главен мозък – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Главен мозък" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bo mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25E0%25BD%2580%25E0%25BE%25B3%25E0%25BD%2591%25E0%25BC%258B%25E0%25BD%2594%25E0%25BC%258B" title="ཀླད་པ་ – Tibetan" lang="bo" hreflang="bo" data-title="ཀླད་པ་" data-language-autonym="བོད་ཡིག" data-language-local-name="Tibetan" class="interlanguage-link-target">བོད་ཡིག</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mozak" title="Mozak – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Mozak" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empenn" title="Empenn – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Empenn" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D0%25A2%25D0%25B0%25D1%2580%25D1%2585%25D0%25B8" title="Тархи – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Тархи" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target">Буряад</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cervell" title="Cervell – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Cervell" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mozek" title="Mozek – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Mozek" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huropi" title="Huropi – Shona" lang="sn" hreflang="sn" data-title="Huropi" data-language-autonym="ChiShona" data-language-local-name="Shona" class="interlanguage-link-target">ChiShona</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ymennydd" title="Ymennydd – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Ymennydd" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hjerne" title="Hjerne – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Hjerne" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-se mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://se.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vuoig%25C5%258Ba%25C5%25A1at" title="Vuoigŋašat – Northern Sami" lang="se" hreflang="se" data-title="Vuoigŋašat" data-language-autonym="Davvisámegiella" data-language-local-name="Northern Sami" class="interlanguage-link-target">Davvisámegiella</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gehirn" title="Gehirn – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Gehirn" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dv mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://dv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25DE%2590%25DE%25A8%25DE%2586%25DE%25AA%25DE%2582%25DE%2591%25DE%25A8" title="ސިކުނޑި – Divehi" lang="dv" hreflang="dv" data-title="ސިކުނޑި" data-language-autonym="ދިވެހިބަސް" data-language-local-name="Divehi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ދިވެހިބަސް</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://dsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%25C3%25B3rzgi" title="Mórzgi – Lower Sorbian" lang="dsb" hreflang="dsb" data-title="Mórzgi" data-language-autonym="Dolnoserbski" data-language-local-name="Lower Sorbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dolnoserbski</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peaaju" title="Peaaju – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Peaaju" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25CE%2595%25CE%25B3%25CE%25BA%25CE%25AD%25CF%2586%25CE%25B1%25CE%25BB%25CE%25BF%25CF%2582" title="Εγκέφαλος – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Εγκέφαλος" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eml mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://eml.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zarv%25C3%25A8l" title="Zarvèl – Emiliano-Romagnolo" lang="egl" hreflang="egl" data-title="Zarvèl" data-language-autonym="Emiliàn e rumagnòl" data-language-local-name="Emiliano-Romagnolo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Emiliàn e rumagnòl</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-myv mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://myv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D0%25A3%25D0%25B4%25D0%25B5%25D0%25BC" title="Удем – Erzya" lang="myv" hreflang="myv" data-title="Удем" data-language-autonym="Эрзянь" data-language-local-name="Erzya" class="interlanguage-link-target">Эрзянь</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerebro" title="Cerebro – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Cerebro" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerbo" title="Cerbo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Cerbo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burmuin" title="Burmuin – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Burmuin" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D9%2585%25D8%25BA%25D8%25B2" title="مغز – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="مغز" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dimaag" title="Dimaag – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Dimaag" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fiji Hindi</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerveau" title="Cerveau – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Cerveau" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harsens" title="Harsens – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Harsens" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inchinn" title="Inchinn – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Inchinn" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eanchainn" title="Eanchainn – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Eanchainn" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gàidhlig</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerebro" title="Cerebro – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Cerebro" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-inh mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://inh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D0%25A5%25D1%258C%25D0%25BE%25D0%25B0" title="Хьоа – Ingush" lang="inh" hreflang="inh" data-title="Хьоа" data-language-autonym="ГӀалгӀай" data-language-local-name="Ingush" class="interlanguage-link-target">ГӀалгӀай</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25E0%25AA%25AE%25E0%25AA%2597%25E0%25AA%259C" title="મગજ – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="મગજ" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target">ગુજરાતી</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%25C3%25A8u-n%25C3%25B3" title="Thèu-nó – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Thèu-nó" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25EB%2587%258C" title="뇌 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="뇌" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kwakwalwa" title="Kwakwalwa – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Kwakwalwa" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hausa</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D4%25B3%25D5%25AC%25D5%25AD%25D5%25B8%25D6%2582%25D5%25B2%25D5%25A5%25D5%25B2" title="Գլխուղեղ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Գլխուղեղ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25E0%25A4%25AE%25E0%25A4%25B8%25E0%25A5%258D%25E0%25A4%25A4%25E0%25A4%25BF%25E0%25A4%25B7%25E0%25A5%258D%25E0%25A4%2595" title="मस्तिष्क – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="मस्तिष्क" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://hsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mozy" title="Mozy – Upper Sorbian" lang="hsb" hreflang="hsb" data-title="Mozy" data-language-autonym="Hornjoserbsce" data-language-local-name="Upper Sorbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hornjoserbsce</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mozak" title="Mozak – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Mozak" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerebro" title="Cerebro – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Cerebro" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utek" title="Utek – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Utek" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ilokano</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otak" title="Otak – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Otak" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerebro" title="Cerebro – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Cerebro" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-iu mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://iu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25E1%2596%2583%25E1%2595%2586%25E1%2591%2595%25E1%2596%2585" title="ᖃᕆᑕᖅ – Inuktitut" lang="iu" hreflang="iu" data-title="ᖃᕆᑕᖅ" data-language-autonym="ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ / inuktitut" data-language-local-name="Inuktitut" class="interlanguage-link-target">ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ / inuktitut</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ik mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://ik.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qaqisaq" title="Qaqisaq – Inupiaq" lang="ik" hreflang="ik" data-title="Qaqisaq" data-language-autonym="Iñupiatun" data-language-local-name="Inupiaq" class="interlanguage-link-target">Iñupiatun</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zu mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ubuchopho" title="Ubuchopho – Zulu" lang="zu" hreflang="zu" data-title="Ubuchopho" data-language-autonym="IsiZulu" data-language-local-name="Zulu" class="interlanguage-link-target">IsiZulu</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heili" title="Heili – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Heili" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cervello" title="Cervello – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Cervello" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D7%259E%25D7%2595%25D7%2597" title="מוח – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מוח" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utek" title="Utek – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Utek" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%25C9%25A9t%25C9%25A9y%25C9%25A9m" title="Fɩtɩyɩm – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Fɩtɩyɩm" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kabɩyɛ</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25E0%25B2%25AE%25E0%25B3%2586%25E0%25B2%25A6%25E0%25B3%2581%25E0%25B2%25B3%25E0%25B3%2581" title="ಮೆದುಳು – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಮೆದುಳು" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pam mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://pam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utak" title="Utak – Pampanga" lang="pam" hreflang="pam" data-title="Utak" data-language-autonym="Kapampangan" data-language-local-name="Pampanga" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kapampangan</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25E1%2583%2597%25E1%2583%2590%25E1%2583%2595%25E1%2583%2598%25E1%2583%25A1_%25E1%2583%25A2%25E1%2583%2595%25E1%2583%2598%25E1%2583%259C%25E1%2583%2598" title="თავის ტვინი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="თავის ტვინი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ks mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://ks.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25DA%25A9%25D9%2588%25DA%2588" title="کوڈ – Kashmiri" lang="ks" hreflang="ks" data-title="کوڈ" data-language-autonym="कॉशुर / کٲشُر" data-language-local-name="Kashmiri" class="interlanguage-link-target">कॉशुर / کٲشُر</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D0%259C%25D0%25B8" title="Ми – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Ми" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ympynnyon" title="Ympynnyon – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Ympynnyon" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kernowek</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rw mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://rw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ubwonko" title="Ubwonko – Kinyarwanda" lang="rw" hreflang="rw" data-title="Ubwonko" data-language-autonym="Ikinyarwanda" data-language-local-name="Kinyarwanda" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ikinyarwanda</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ubongo" title="Ubongo – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Ubongo" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%25C3%25A8vo" title="Sèvo – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Sèvo" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%25C3%25A8rvo" title="Sèrvo – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Sèrvo" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kriyòl gwiyannen</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mej%25C3%25AE" title="Mejî – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Mejî" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D0%259C%25D1%258D%25D1%258D" title="Мээ – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Мээ" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lbe mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://lbe.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D0%259D%25D1%258F" title="Ня – Lak" lang="lbe" hreflang="lbe" data-title="Ня" data-language-autonym="Лакку" data-language-local-name="Lak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Лакку</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25E0%25BA%25AA%25E0%25BA%25B0%25E0%25BB%259D%25E0%25BA%25AD%25E0%25BA%2587" title="ສະໝອງ – Lao" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" data-title="ສະໝອງ" data-language-autonym="ລາວ" data-language-local-name="Lao" class="interlanguage-link-target">ລາວ</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerebrum" title="Cerebrum – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Cerebrum" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smadzenes" title="Smadzenes – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Smadzenes" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gehier" title="Gehier – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Gehier" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lez mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://lez.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D0%259A%25D1%258C%25D0%25B8%25D0%25BB%25D0%25B8%25D0%25BD_%25D0%25BC%25D0%25B5%25D1%2584%25D1%2582%25D3%2580" title="Кьилин мефтӀ – Lezghian" lang="lez" hreflang="lez" data-title="Кьилин мефтӀ" data-language-autonym="Лезги" data-language-local-name="Lezghian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Лезги</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galvos_smegenys" title="Galvos smegenys – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Galvos smegenys" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herre" title="Herre – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Herre" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ln mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://ln.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%25C9%2594ng%25C9%2594%25CC%2581_(enama)" title="Bɔngɔ́ (enama) – Lingala" lang="ln" hreflang="ln" data-title="Bɔngɔ́ (enama)" data-language-autonym="Lingála" data-language-local-name="Lingala" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingála</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jbo mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://jbo.wikipedia.org/wiki/besna" title="besna – Lojban" lang="jbo" hreflang="jbo" data-title="besna" data-language-autonym="La .lojban." data-language-local-name="Lojban" class="interlanguage-link-target">La .lojban.</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cervell" title="Cervell – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Cervell" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agy" title="Agy – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Agy" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D0%259C%25D0%25BE%25D0%25B7%25D0%25BE%25D0%25BA" title="Мозок – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Мозок" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atidoha" title="Atidoha – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Atidoha" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25E0%25B4%25AE%25E0%25B4%25B8%25E0%25B5%258D%25E0%25B4%25A4%25E0%25B4%25BF%25E0%25B4%25B7%25E0%25B5%258D%25E0%25B4%2595%25E0%25B4%2582" title="മസ്തിഷ്കം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="മസ്തിഷ്കം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25E0%25A4%25AE%25E0%25A5%2587%25E0%25A4%2582%25E0%25A4%25A6%25E0%25A5%2582" title="मेंदू – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="मेंदू" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25E1%2583%2593%25E1%2583%25A3%25E1%2583%2593%25E1%2583%2598%25E1%2583%25A8_%25E1%2583%25A2%25E1%2583%2595%25E1%2583%2598%25E1%2583%259C%25E1%2583%2598" title="დუდიშ ტვინი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="დუდიშ ტვინი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D9%2585%25D8%25AE_(%25D8%25A8%25D9%258A%25D9%2588%25D9%2584%25D9%2588%25D8%25AC%25D9%258A%25D8%25A7)" title="مخ (بيولوجيا) – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="مخ (بيولوجيا)" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otak" title="Otak – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Otak" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utak" title="Utak – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Utak" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target">Minangkabau</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D0%25A2%25D0%25B0%25D1%2580%25D1%2585%25D0%25B8" title="Тархи – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Тархи" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25E1%2580%25A6%25E1%2580%25B8%25E1%2580%2594%25E1%2580%25BE%25E1%2580%25B1%25E1%2580%25AC%25E1%2580%2580%25E1%2580%25BA" title="ဦးနှောက် – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ဦးနှောက်" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nah mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://nah.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuayolotl" title="Cuayolotl – Nahuatl" lang="nah" hreflang="nah" data-title="Cuayolotl" data-language-autonym="Nāhuatl" data-language-local-name="Nahuatl" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nāhuatl</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fj mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://fj.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mona" title="Mona – Fijian" lang="fj" hreflang="fj" data-title="Mona" data-language-autonym="Na Vosa Vakaviti" data-language-local-name="Fijian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Na Vosa Vakaviti</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hersenen" title="Hersenen – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Hersenen" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25E0%25A4%25AE%25E0%25A4%25B8%25E0%25A5%258D%25E0%25A4%25A4%25E0%25A4%25BF%25E0%25A4%25B7%25E0%25A5%258D%25E0%25A4%2595" title="मस्तिष्क – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="मस्तिष्क" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25E0%25A4%25A8%25E0%25A5%258D%25E0%25A4%25B9%25E0%25A5%2587%25E0%25A4%25AA%25E0%25A5%2581" title="न्हेपु – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="न्हेपु" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाल भाषा</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25E8%2584%25B3" title="脳 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="脳" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D0%259A%25D0%25BE%25D1%258C%25D1%2580%25D1%2582%25D0%25B0%25D0%25BD_%25D1%2585%25D1%258C%25D0%25B5" title="Коьртан хье – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Коьртан хье" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Нохчийн</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hjerne" title="Hjerne – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Hjerne" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hjerne" title="Hjerne – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Hjerne" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nrm mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://nrm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%25C3%25A8rv%25C3%25A9" title="Chèrvé – Norman" lang="nrf" hreflang="nrf" data-title="Chèrvé" data-language-autonym="Nouormand" data-language-local-name="Norman" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nouormand</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerv%25C3%25A8l" title="Cervèl – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Cervèl" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mhr mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://mhr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D0%2592%25D1%2583%25D0%25B9%25D0%25B4%25D0%25BE%25D1%2580%25D1%258B%25D0%25BA" title="Вуйдорык – Eastern Mari" lang="mhr" hreflang="mhr" data-title="Вуйдорык" data-language-autonym="Олык марий" data-language-local-name="Eastern Mari" class="interlanguage-link-target">Олык марий</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25E0%25AC%25AE%25E0%25AC%25B8%25E0%25AD%258D%25E0%25AC%25A4%25E0%25AC%25BF%25E0%25AC%25B7%25E0%25AD%258D%25E0%25AC%2595" title="ମସ୍ତିଷ୍କ – Odia" lang="or" hreflang="or" data-title="ମସ୍ତିଷ୍କ" data-language-autonym="ଓଡ଼ିଆ" data-language-local-name="Odia" class="interlanguage-link-target">ଓଡ଼ିଆ</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bosh_miya" title="Bosh miya – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Bosh miya" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25E0%25A8%25A6%25E0%25A8%25BF%25E0%25A8%25AE%25E0%25A8%25BE%25E0%25A8%2597%25E0%25A8%25BC" title="ਦਿਮਾਗ਼ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਦਿਮਾਗ਼" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pag mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://pag.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utek" title="Utek – Pangasinan" lang="pag" hreflang="pag" data-title="Utek" data-language-autonym="Pangasinan" data-language-local-name="Pangasinan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Pangasinan</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D8%25AF%25D9%2585%25D8%25A7%25D8%25BA" title="دماغ – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="دماغ" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pap mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celebro" title="Celebro – Papiamento" lang="pap" hreflang="pap" data-title="Celebro" data-language-autonym="Papiamentu" data-language-local-name="Papiamento" class="interlanguage-link-target">Papiamentu</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D9%2585%25D8%25A7%25D8%25BA%25D8%25B2%25D9%2587" title="ماغزه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="ماغزه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brien" title="Brien – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Brien" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Patois</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bregen" title="Bregen – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Bregen" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%25C3%25B3zg" title="Mózg – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Mózg" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%25C3%25A9rebro" title="Cérebro – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Cérebro" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creier" title="Creier – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Creier" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25C3%2591utqu" title="Ñutqu – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Ñutqu" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Runa Simi</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D0%259C%25D0%25BE%25D0%25B7%25D0%25BE%25D2%2591" title="Мозоґ – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Мозоґ" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русиньскый</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D0%2593%25D0%25BE%25D0%25BB%25D0%25BE%25D0%25B2%25D0%25BD%25D0%25BE%25D0%25B9_%25D0%25BC%25D0%25BE%25D0%25B7%25D0%25B3" title="Головной мозг – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Головной мозг" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D0%259C%25D1%258D%25D0%25B9%25D0%25B8%25D0%25B8" title="Мэйии – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Мэйии" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target">Саха тыла</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25E0%25A4%25AE%25E0%25A4%25B8%25E0%25A5%258D%25E0%25A4%25A4%25E0%25A4%25BF%25E0%25A4%25B7%25E0%25A5%258D%25E0%25A4%2595%25E0%25A4%25AE%25E0%25A5%258D" title="मस्तिष्कम् – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="मस्तिष्कम्" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target">संस्कृतम्</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sat mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://sat.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25E1%25B1%25A6%25E1%25B1%259F%25E1%25B1%259B%25E1%25B1%259F%25E1%25B1%259D" title="ᱦᱟᱛᱟᱝ – Santali" lang="sat" hreflang="sat" data-title="ᱦᱟᱛᱟᱝ" data-language-autonym="ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ" data-language-local-name="Santali" class="interlanguage-link-target">ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cherbeddu" title="Cherbeddu – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Cherbeddu" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sardu</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harn" title="Harn – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Harn" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-stq mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://stq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brainge" title="Brainge – Saterland Frisian" lang="stq" hreflang="stq" data-title="Brainge" data-language-autonym="Seeltersk" data-language-local-name="Saterland Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Seeltersk</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truri" title="Truri – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Truri" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ciriveddu" title="Ciriveddu – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Ciriveddu" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25E0%25B6%25B8%25E0%25B7%259C%25E0%25B7%2585%25E0%25B6%25BA" title="මොළය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="මොළය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain" title="Brain – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Brain" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D8%25AF%25D9%2585%25D8%25A7%25D8%25BA" title="دماغ – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="دماغ" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">سنڌي</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mozog" title="Mozog – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Mozog" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mo%25C5%25BEgani" title="Možgani – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Možgani" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maskax" title="Maskax – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Maskax" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target">Soomaaliga</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D9%2585%25DB%258E%25D8%25B4%25DA%25A9" title="مێشک – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="مێشک" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D0%259C%25D0%25BE%25D0%25B7%25D0%25B0%25D0%25BA" title="Мозак – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Мозак" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mozak" title="Mozak – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Mozak" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uteuk" title="Uteuk – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Uteuk" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sunda</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aivot" title="Aivot – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Aivot" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hj%25C3%25A4rna" title="Hjärna – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Hjärna" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utak" title="Utak – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Utak" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25E0%25AE%25AE%25E0%25AE%25A9%25E0%25AE%25BF%25E0%25AE%25A4_%25E0%25AE%25AE%25E0%25AF%2582%25E0%25AE%25B3%25E0%25AF%2588" title="மனித மூளை – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="மனித மூளை" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D0%2591%25D0%25B0%25D1%2588_%25D0%25BC%25D0%25B8%25D0%25B5" title="Баш мие – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Баш мие" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25E0%25B0%25AE%25E0%25B1%2586%25E0%25B0%25A6%25E0%25B0%25A1%25E0%25B1%2581" title="మెదడు – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="మెదడు" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25E0%25B8%25AA%25E0%25B8%25A1%25E0%25B8%25AD%25E0%25B8%2587" title="สมอง – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="สมอง" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D0%259C%25D0%25B0%25D2%2593%25D0%25B7%25D0%25B8_%25D1%2581%25D0%25B0%25D1%2580" title="Мағзи сар – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Мағзи сар" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тоҷикӣ</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beyin" title="Beyin – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Beyin" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tk mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelle_be%25C3%25BDnisi" title="Kelle beýnisi – Turkmen" lang="tk" hreflang="tk" data-title="Kelle beýnisi" data-language-autonym="Türkmençe" data-language-local-name="Turkmen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkmençe</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kcg mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://kcg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuu_(a%25CC%25B1pyia%25CC%25B1)" title="Fuu (a̱pyia̱) – Tyap" lang="kcg" hreflang="kcg" data-title="Fuu (a̱pyia̱)" data-language-autonym="Tyap" data-language-local-name="Tyap" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tyap</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D0%2593%25D0%25BE%25D0%25BB%25D0%25BE%25D0%25B2%25D0%25BD%25D0%25B8%25D0%25B9_%25D0%25BC%25D0%25BE%25D0%25B7%25D0%25BE%25D0%25BA" title="Головний мозок – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Головний мозок" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D8%25AF%25D9%2585%25D8%25A7%25D8%25BA" title="دماغ – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="دماغ" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D9%2585%25DB%2590%25DA%25AD%25DB%2595" title="مېڭە – Uyghur" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" data-title="مېڭە" data-language-autonym="ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche" data-language-local-name="Uyghur" class="interlanguage-link-target">ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-za mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://za.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uk" title="Uk – Zhuang" lang="za" hreflang="za" data-title="Uk" data-language-autonym="Vahcuengh" data-language-local-name="Zhuang" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vahcuengh</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serve%25C5%2582o" title="Serveło – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Serveło" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vèneto</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%25C3%25A3o" title="Não – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Não" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vo mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://vo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brein" title="Brein – Volapük" lang="vo" hreflang="vo" data-title="Brein" data-language-autonym="Volapük" data-language-local-name="Volapük" class="interlanguage-link-target">Volapük</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ai" title="Ai – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Ai" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="Võro" class="interlanguage-link-target">Võro</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cervea" title="Cervea – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="Cervea" data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="Walloon" class="interlanguage-link-target">Walon</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25E8%2585%25A6" title="腦 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="腦" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">文言</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utok" title="Utok – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Utok" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25E8%2584%2591" title="脑 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="脑" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D7%259E%25D7%2595%25D7%2597" title="מוח – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="מוח" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target">ייִדיש</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25E8%2585%25A6" title="腦 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="腦" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mezg" title="Mezg – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Mezg" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Zazaki" class="interlanguage-link-target">Zazaki</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smag%25C4%2597nis" title="Smagėnis – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Smagėnis" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Žemaitėška</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25E8%2584%2591" title="脑 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="脑" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ann mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://ann.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nden%25CC%2584" title="Nden̄ – Obolo" lang="ann" hreflang="ann" data-title="Nden̄" data-language-autonym="Obolo" data-language-local-name="Obolo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Obolo</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bew mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://bew.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otak" title="Otak – Betawi" lang="bew" hreflang="bew" data-title="Otak" data-language-autonym="Betawi" data-language-local-name="Betawi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Betawi</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-btm mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://btm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utok-utok" title="Utok-utok – Batak Mandailing" lang="btm" hreflang="btm" data-title="Utok-utok" data-language-autonym="Batak Mandailing" data-language-local-name="Batak Mandailing" class="interlanguage-link-target">Batak Mandailing</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-iba mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://iba.wikipedia.org/wiki/Untak" title="Untak – Iban" lang="iba" hreflang="iba" data-title="Untak" data-language-autonym="Jaku Iban" data-language-local-name="Iban" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jaku Iban</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kge mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://kge.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utok" title="Utok – Komering" lang="kge" hreflang="kge" data-title="Utok" data-language-autonym="Kumoring" data-language-local-name="Komering" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kumoring</a></li> </ul> </section> </div> <div class="minerva-footer-logo"> <img src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" alt="Wikipedia" width="120" height="18" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> </div> <ul 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