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id="toc-Driven_foundations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Pile_foundation_systems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pile_foundation_systems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Pile foundation systems</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pile_foundation_systems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Monopile_foundation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Monopile_foundation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Monopile foundation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Monopile_foundation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Drilled_piles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Drilled_piles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Drilled piles</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Drilled_piles-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Drilled piles subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Drilled_piles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Under-reamed_piles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Under-reamed_piles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Under-reamed piles</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Under-reamed_piles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Augercast_pile" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Augercast_pile"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Augercast pile</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Augercast_pile-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pier_and_grade_beam_foundation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pier_and_grade_beam_foundation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Pier and grade beam foundation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pier_and_grade_beam_foundation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Speciality_piles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Speciality_piles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Speciality piles</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Speciality_piles-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Speciality piles subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Speciality_piles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Jet-piles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jet-piles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Jet-piles</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jet-piles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Micropiles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Micropiles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Micropiles</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Micropiles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tripod_piles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tripod_piles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Tripod piles</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tripod_piles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sheet_piles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sheet_piles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Sheet piles</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sheet_piles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Soldier_piles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Soldier_piles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Soldier piles</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Soldier_piles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Screw_piles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Screw_piles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Screw piles</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Screw_piles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Suction_piles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Suction_piles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.7</span> <span>Suction piles</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Suction_piles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Adfreeze_piles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Adfreeze_piles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.8</span> <span>Adfreeze piles</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Adfreeze_piles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vibrated_stone_columns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vibrated_stone_columns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.9</span> <span>Vibrated stone columns</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vibrated_stone_columns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hospital_piles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hospital_piles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.10</span> <span>Hospital piles</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hospital_piles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Piled_walls" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Piled_walls"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Piled walls</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Piled_walls-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Piled walls subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Piled_walls-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Secant_piled_walls" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Secant_piled_walls"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Secant piled walls</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Secant_piled_walls-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Slurry_walls" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Slurry_walls"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Slurry walls</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Slurry_walls-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Deep_mixing/mass_stabilization_techniques" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Deep_mixing/mass_stabilization_techniques"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Deep mixing/mass stabilization techniques</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Deep_mixing/mass_stabilization_techniques-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Materials" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Materials"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Materials</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Materials-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Materials subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Materials-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Timber" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Timber"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Timber</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Timber-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Iron" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Iron"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Iron</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Iron-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Steel" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Steel"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Steel</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Steel-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prestressed_concrete_piles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prestressed_concrete_piles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4</span> <span>Prestressed concrete piles</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prestressed_concrete_piles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Composite_piles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Composite_piles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.5</span> <span>Composite piles</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Composite_piles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Construction_machinery_for_driving_piles_into_the_ground" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Construction_machinery_for_driving_piles_into_the_ground"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Construction machinery for driving piles into the ground</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Construction_machinery_for_driving_piles_into_the_ground-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Construction_machinery_for_replacement_piles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Construction_machinery_for_replacement_piles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Construction machinery for replacement piles</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Construction_machinery_for_replacement_piles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> 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</div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"><span class="mw-redirectedfrom">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Pile_foundation&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Pile foundation">Pile foundation</a>)</span></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Type of foundation</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Piling" redirects here. For the medieval Chinese city of Piling (<i><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">毗陵</span></span></i>), see <a href="/wiki/Changzhou" title="Changzhou">Changzhou</a>. For the style of art, see <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Piling_paintings" title="Chinese Piling paintings">Chinese Piling paintings</a>. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Piling_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Piling (disambiguation)">Piling (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses of "pile", see <a href="/wiki/Pile_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Pile (disambiguation)">Pile (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Deep_foundation" title="Special:EditPage/Deep foundation">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Deep+foundation%22">"Deep foundation"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Deep+foundation%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Deep+foundation%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Deep+foundation%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Deep+foundation%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Deep+foundation%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">October 2022</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Deep_foundation_drilling.ogv/220px--Deep_foundation_drilling.ogv.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="165" data-durationhint="265" data-mwtitle="Deep_foundation_drilling.ogv" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Deep_foundation_drilling.ogv"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/0/01/Deep_foundation_drilling.ogv/Deep_foundation_drilling.ogv.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="320" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/0/01/Deep_foundation_drilling.ogv/Deep_foundation_drilling.ogv.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="320" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/01/Deep_foundation_drilling.ogv" type="video/ogg; codecs="theora, vorbis"" data-width="320" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/0/01/Deep_foundation_drilling.ogv/Deep_foundation_drilling.ogv.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="192" data-height="144" /></video></span><figcaption>Drilling of deep piles of diameter 150 cm in bridge 423 near Nes Ziona, Israel</figcaption></figure> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:PileDriving.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/PileDriving.jpg/220px-PileDriving.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/PileDriving.jpg/330px-PileDriving.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/PileDriving.jpg/440px-PileDriving.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption>A deep foundation installation for a bridge in <a href="/wiki/Napa,_California" title="Napa, California">Napa, California</a>, United States.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pile_Driving_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Pile_Driving_2.jpg/220px-Pile_Driving_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Pile_Driving_2.jpg/330px-Pile_Driving_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Pile_Driving_2.jpg/440px-Pile_Driving_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1910" data-file-height="1359" /></a><figcaption>Pile driving operations in the Port of <a href="/wiki/Tampa" class="mw-redirect" title="Tampa">Tampa</a>, Florida.</figcaption></figure> <p>A <b>deep foundation</b> is a type of <a href="/wiki/Foundation_(architecture)" class="mw-redirect" title="Foundation (architecture)">foundation</a> that transfers building loads to the earth farther down from the surface than a <a href="/wiki/Shallow_foundation" title="Shallow foundation">shallow foundation</a> does to a subsurface layer or a range of depths. A <b>pile</b> or <b>piling</b> is a vertical structural element of a deep foundation, driven or drilled deep into the ground at the <a href="/wiki/Building_site" class="mw-redirect" title="Building site">building site</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Torch_Under_Construction_on_18_May_2007.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/The_Torch_Under_Construction_on_18_May_2007.jpg/220px-The_Torch_Under_Construction_on_18_May_2007.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="132" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/The_Torch_Under_Construction_on_18_May_2007.jpg/330px-The_Torch_Under_Construction_on_18_May_2007.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/The_Torch_Under_Construction_on_18_May_2007.jpg/440px-The_Torch_Under_Construction_on_18_May_2007.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1210" data-file-height="728" /></a><figcaption>Deep foundations of <a href="/wiki/The_Marina_Torch" title="The Marina Torch">The Marina Torch</a>, a skyscraper in <a href="/wiki/Dubai" title="Dubai">Dubai</a></figcaption></figure> <p>There are many reasons that a <a href="/wiki/Geotechnical_engineer" class="mw-redirect" title="Geotechnical engineer">geotechnical engineer</a> would recommend a deep foundation over a shallow foundation, such as for a <a href="/wiki/Skyscraper" title="Skyscraper">skyscraper</a>. Some of the common reasons are very large design loads, a poor <a href="/wiki/Soil" title="Soil">soil</a> at shallow depth, or site constraints like <a href="/wiki/Property_line" class="mw-redirect" title="Property line">property lines</a>. There are different terms used to describe different types of deep foundations including the pile (which is analogous to a pole), the pier (which is analogous to a <a href="/wiki/Column" title="Column">column</a>), drilled shafts, and <a href="/wiki/Caisson_(engineering)" title="Caisson (engineering)">caissons</a>. Piles are generally driven into the ground <i><a href="/wiki/In_situ" title="In situ">in situ</a></i>; other deep foundations are typically put in place using excavation and drilling. The naming conventions may vary between engineering disciplines and firms. Deep foundations can be made out of <a href="/wiki/Timber" class="mw-redirect" title="Timber">timber</a>, <a href="/wiki/Steel" title="Steel">steel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reinforced_concrete" title="Reinforced concrete">reinforced concrete</a> or <a href="/wiki/Prestressed_concrete" title="Prestressed concrete">prestressed concrete</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Driven_foundations">Driven foundations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Deep_foundation&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Driven foundations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Driven_pipe_piles.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Driven_pipe_piles.jpg/220px-Driven_pipe_piles.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Driven_pipe_piles.jpg/330px-Driven_pipe_piles.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Driven_pipe_piles.jpg/440px-Driven_pipe_piles.jpg 2x" data-file-width="949" data-file-height="712" /></a><figcaption>Pipe piles being driven into the ground</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hausbuch_Wolfegg_38v_Ramme.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Hausbuch_Wolfegg_38v_Ramme.jpg/220px-Hausbuch_Wolfegg_38v_Ramme.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="343" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Hausbuch_Wolfegg_38v_Ramme.jpg/330px-Hausbuch_Wolfegg_38v_Ramme.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Hausbuch_Wolfegg_38v_Ramme.jpg/440px-Hausbuch_Wolfegg_38v_Ramme.jpg 2x" data-file-width="877" data-file-height="1369" /></a><figcaption>Illustration of a hand-operated pile driver in Germany after 1480</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Prefabricated" class="mw-redirect" title="Prefabricated">Prefabricated</a> piles are driven into the ground using a <a href="/wiki/Pile_driver" title="Pile driver">pile driver</a>. Driven piles are constructed of wood, reinforced concrete, or steel. Wooden piles are made from the trunks of tall trees. Concrete piles are available in square, octagonal, and round cross-sections (like <a href="/wiki/Franki_Piling_System" class="mw-redirect" title="Franki Piling System">Franki piles</a>). They are reinforced with <a href="/wiki/Rebar" title="Rebar">rebar</a> and are often <a href="/wiki/Prestressed_concrete" title="Prestressed concrete">prestressed</a>. Steel piles are either pipe piles or some sort of beam section (like an H-pile). Historically, wood piles used <a href="/wiki/Pile_Splice" class="mw-redirect" title="Pile Splice">splices</a> to join multiple segments end-to-end when the driven depth required was too long for a single pile; today, splicing is common with steel piles, though concrete piles can be spliced with mechanical and other means. Driving piles, as opposed to drilling shafts, is advantageous because the soil displaced by driving the piles compresses the surrounding soil, causing greater friction against the sides of the piles, thus increasing their <a href="/wiki/Structural_engineering" title="Structural engineering">load-bearing capacity</a>. Driven piles are also considered to be "tested" for weight-bearing ability because of their method of installation; thus the motto of the Pile Driving Contractors' Association is "A Driven Pile...Is a Tested Pile!".<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pile_foundation_systems">Pile foundation systems</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Deep_foundation&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Pile foundation systems"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Foundations relying on driven piles often have groups of piles connected by a <a href="/wiki/Pile_cap" title="Pile cap">pile cap</a> (a large concrete block into which the heads of the piles are embedded) to distribute loads that are greater than one pile can bear. Pile caps and isolated piles are typically connected with <a href="/wiki/Grade_beam" title="Grade beam">grade beams</a> to tie the foundation elements together; lighter structural elements bear on the grade beams, while heavier elements bear directly on the pile cap.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Monopile_foundation">Monopile foundation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Deep_foundation&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Monopile foundation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A <b>monopile foundation</b> utilizes a single, generally large-diameter, foundation structural element to support all the loads (weight, wind, etc.) of a large above-surface structure. </p><p>A large number of monopile foundations<sup id="cite_ref-own20090909_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-own20090909-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> have been utilized in recent years for economically constructing fixed-bottom <a href="/wiki/List_of_offshore_wind_farms" title="List of offshore wind farms">offshore wind farms</a> in shallow-water <a href="/wiki/Subsea" class="mw-redirect" title="Subsea">subsea</a> locations.<sup id="cite_ref-hre20100412_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hre20100412-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, the <a href="/wiki/Horns_Rev" title="Horns Rev">Horns Rev</a> <a href="/wiki/Wind_farm" title="Wind farm">wind farm</a> in the <a href="/wiki/North_Sea" title="North Sea">North Sea</a> west of <a href="/wiki/Denmark" title="Denmark">Denmark</a> utilizes 80 large monopiles of 4 metres diameter sunk 25 meters deep into the seabed,<sup id="cite_ref-mps20021015_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mps20021015-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while the <a href="/wiki/Lynn_and_Inner_Dowsing_Wind_Farm#Construction" class="mw-redirect" title="Lynn and Inner Dowsing Wind Farm">Lynn and Inner Dowsing Wind Farm</a> off the coast of England went online in 2008 with over 100 turbines, each mounted on a 4.7-metre-diameter monopile foundation in ocean depths up to 18 metres.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The typical construction process for a wind turbine subsea monopile foundation in sand includes driving a large hollow steel pile, of some 4 m in diameter with approximately 50mm thick walls, some 25 m deep into the seabed, through a 0.5 m layer of larger stone and gravel to minimize erosion around the pile. A transition piece (complete with pre-installed features such as boat-landing arrangement, <a href="/wiki/Cathodic_protection" title="Cathodic protection">cathodic protection</a>, cable ducts for sub-marine cables, turbine tower flange, etc.) is attached to the driven pile, and the sand and water are removed from the centre of the pile and replaced with <a href="/wiki/Concrete" title="Concrete">concrete</a>. An additional layer of even larger stone, up to 0.5 m diameter, is applied to the surface of the seabed for longer-term erosion protection.<sup id="cite_ref-hre20100412_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hre20100412-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Drilled_piles">Drilled piles</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Deep_foundation&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Drilled piles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:DFmachine.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/DFmachine.JPG/220px-DFmachine.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/DFmachine.JPG/330px-DFmachine.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/DFmachine.JPG/440px-DFmachine.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="1600" /></a><figcaption>A pile machine in <a href="/wiki/Amsterdam" title="Amsterdam">Amsterdam</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Also called <b>caissons</b>, <b>drilled shafts</b>, <b>drilled piers</b>, <b>cast-in-drilled-hole piles (CIDH piles)</b> or <b>cast-in-situ</b> piles, a <a href="/wiki/Borehole" title="Borehole">borehole</a> is drilled into the ground, then concrete (and often some sort of reinforcing) is placed into the borehole to form the pile. Rotary boring techniques allow larger diameter piles than any other piling method and permit pile construction through particularly dense or hard strata. Construction methods depend on the geology of the site; in particular, whether boring is to be undertaken in 'dry' ground conditions or through water-saturated strata. <a href="/wiki/Casing_(oil_well)" class="mw-redirect" title="Casing (oil well)">Casing</a> is often used when the sides of the borehole are likely to slough off before concrete is poured. </p><p>For end-bearing piles, drilling continues until the borehole has extended a sufficient depth (socketing) into a sufficiently strong layer. Depending on site geology, this can be a <a href="/wiki/Rock_layer" class="mw-redirect" title="Rock layer">rock layer</a>, or hardpan, or other dense, strong layers. Both the diameter of the pile and the depth of the pile are highly specific to the ground conditions, loading conditions, and nature of the project. Pile depths may vary substantially across a project if the bearing layer is not level. Drilled piles can be tested using a variety of methods to verify the pile integrity during installation. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Under-reamed_piles">Under-reamed piles</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Deep_foundation&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Under-reamed piles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Under-reamed piles have mechanically formed enlarged bases that are as much as 6 m in diameter.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2011)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The form is that of an inverted cone and can only be formed in stable soils or rocks. The larger base diameter allows greater bearing capacity than a straight-shaft pile. </p><p>These piles are suited for expansive soils which are often subjected to seasonal moisture variations, or for loose or soft strata. They are used in normal ground condition also where economics are favorable. <sup id="cite_ref-:0_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="A complete citation is needed. (October 2013)">full citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p><b>Under reamed piles foundation is used for the following soils:-</b> </p><p><b>1. Under reamed piles are used in black cotton soil:</b> This type of soil expands when it comes in contact with water and contraction occurs when water is removed. So that cracks appear in the construction done on such clay. An under reamed pile is used in the base to remove this defect. </p><p><b>2. Under reamed piles are used in low bearing capacity Outdated soil (filled soil)</b> </p><p><b>3.Under reamed piles are used in sandy soil when water table is high.</b> </p><p><b>4. Under reamed piles are used, Where lifting forces appear at the base of foundation.</b> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Augercast_pile">Augercast pile</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Deep_foundation&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Augercast pile"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>An augercast pile, often known as a <a href="/wiki/Continuous_flight_augering" title="Continuous flight augering">continuous flight augering</a> (CFA) pile, is formed by drilling into the ground with a hollow stemmed continuous flight <a href="/wiki/Auger_(drill)" class="mw-redirect" title="Auger (drill)">auger</a> to the required depth or degree of resistance. No casing is required. A cement <a href="/wiki/Grout" title="Grout">grout</a> mix is then pumped down the stem of the auger. While the cement grout is pumped, the auger is slowly withdrawn, conveying the soil upward along the flights. A shaft of fluid cement grout is formed to ground level. Reinforcement can be installed. Recent innovations in addition to stringent quality control allows reinforcing cages to be placed up to the full length of a pile when required.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Augercast piles cause minimal disturbance and are often used for noise-sensitive and environmentally-sensitive sites. Augercast piles are not generally suited for use in contaminated soils, because of expensive waste disposal costs. In cases such as these, a displacement pile (like <a href="/wiki/Olivier_pile" title="Olivier pile">Olivier piles</a>) may provide the cost efficiency of an augercast pile and minimal environmental impact. In ground containing obstructions or cobbles and boulders, augercast piles are less suitable as refusal above the design pile tip elevation may be encountered.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Small Sectional Flight Auger piling rigs can also be used for piled raft foundations. These produce the same type of pile as a Continuous Flight Auger rig but using smaller, more lightweight equipment. This piling method is fast, cost-effective and suitable for the majority of ground types.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pier_and_grade_beam_foundation">Pier and grade beam foundation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Deep_foundation&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Pier and grade beam foundation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In drilled pier foundations, the piers can be connected with <a href="/wiki/Grade_beam" title="Grade beam">grade beams</a> on which the structure sits, sometimes with heavy column loads bearing directly on the piers. In some residential construction, the piers are extended above the ground level, and wood beams bearing on the piers are used to support the structure. This type of foundation results in a crawl space underneath the building in which wiring and duct work can be laid during construction or re-modelling.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Speciality_piles">Speciality piles</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Deep_foundation&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Speciality piles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Jet-piles">Jet-piles</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Deep_foundation&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Jet-piles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In jet piling high pressure water is used to set piles.<sup id="cite_ref-merriam_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-merriam-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> High pressure water cuts through soil with a high-pressure jet flow and allows the pile to be fitted.<sup id="cite_ref-Applied_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Applied-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One advantage of Jet Piling: the water jet lubricates the pile and softens the ground.<sup id="cite_ref-Giken_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Giken-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The method is in use in Norway.<sup id="cite_ref-Jetgrunn_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jetgrunn-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Micropiles">Micropiles</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Deep_foundation&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Micropiles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Micropiles are small diameter, generally less than 300mm diameter, elements that are drilled and grouted in place.  They typically get their capacity from skin friction along the sides of the element, but can be end bearing in hard rock as well. Micropiles are usually heavily reinforced with steel comprising more than 40% of their cross section. They can be used as direct structural support or as ground reinforcement elements.  Due to their relatively high cost and the type of equipment used to install these elements, they are often used where access restrictions and or very difficult ground conditions (cobbles and boulders, construction debris, karst, environmental sensitivity) exists or to retrofit existing structures.  Occasionally, in difficult ground, they are used for new construction foundation elements. Typical applications include <a href="/wiki/Underpinning" title="Underpinning">underpinning</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bridge" title="Bridge">bridge</a>, <a href="/wiki/Transmission_tower" title="Transmission tower">transmission tower</a> and <a href="/wiki/Slope_stabilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Slope stabilization">slope stabilization</a> projects.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tripod_piles">Tripod piles</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Deep_foundation&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Tripod piles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The use of a tripod rig to install piles is one of the more traditional ways of forming piles. Although unit costs are generally higher than with most other forms of piling,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2010)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> it has several advantages which have ensured its continued use through to the present day. The tripod system is easy and inexpensive to bring to site, making it ideal for jobs with a small number of piles.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (May 2023)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sheet_piles">Sheet piles</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Deep_foundation&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Sheet piles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Norra_l%C3%A4nken_Hjorthagen_2009d.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Norra_l%C3%A4nken_Hjorthagen_2009d.jpg/220px-Norra_l%C3%A4nken_Hjorthagen_2009d.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Norra_l%C3%A4nken_Hjorthagen_2009d.jpg/330px-Norra_l%C3%A4nken_Hjorthagen_2009d.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Norra_l%C3%A4nken_Hjorthagen_2009d.jpg/440px-Norra_l%C3%A4nken_Hjorthagen_2009d.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2016" data-file-height="1470" /></a><figcaption>Sheet piles are used to restrain soft soil above the bedrock in this excavation</figcaption></figure> <p>Sheet piling is a form of driven piling using thin interlocking sheets of steel to obtain a continuous barrier in the ground. The main application of sheet piles is in <a href="/wiki/Retaining_wall" title="Retaining wall">retaining walls</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dam#Cofferdams" title="Dam">cofferdams</a> erected to enable permanent works to proceed. Normally, vibrating hammer, t-crane and crawle drilling are used to establish sheet piles.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2011)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Soldier_piles">Soldier piles</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Deep_foundation&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Soldier piles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:AGF00041.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/AGF00041.JPG/220px-AGF00041.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/AGF00041.JPG/330px-AGF00041.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/AGF00041.JPG/440px-AGF00041.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption>A soldier pile wall using reclaimed railway sleepers as lagging.</figcaption></figure> <p>Soldier piles, also known as king piles or Berlin walls, are constructed of <a href="/wiki/Structural_steel#Common_structural_shapes" title="Structural steel">steel H sections</a> spaced about 2 to 3 m apart and are driven or drilled prior to excavation. As the excavation proceeds, horizontal timber sheeting (lagging) is inserted behind the H pile flanges. </p><p>The horizontal earth pressures are concentrated on the soldier piles because of their relative rigidity compared to the lagging. Soil movement and <a href="/wiki/Subsidence" title="Subsidence">subsidence</a> is minimized by installing the lagging immediately after excavation to avoid soil loss.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2011)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Lagging can be constructed by timber, precast concrete, shotcrete and steel plates depending on spacing of the soldier piles and the type of soils. </p><p>Soldier piles are most suitable in conditions where well constructed walls will not result in subsidence such as over-consolidated clays, soils above the water table if they have some cohesion, and free draining soils which can be effectively dewatered, like sands.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2011)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Unsuitable soils include soft clays and weak running soils that allow large movements such as loose sands. It is also not possible to extend the wall beyond the bottom of the excavation, and dewatering is often required.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2011)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Screw_piles">Screw piles</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Deep_foundation&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Screw piles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Screw_piles" title="Screw piles">Screw piles</a>, also called <i>helical piers</i> and <i>screw foundations</i>, have been used as foundations since the mid 19th century in <a href="/wiki/Screw-pile_lighthouse" title="Screw-pile lighthouse">screw-pile lighthouses</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Screw piles are galvanized iron pipe with helical fins that are turned into the ground by machines to the required depth. The screw distributes the load to the soil and is sized accordingly. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Suction_piles">Suction piles</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Deep_foundation&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Suction piles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Suction piles are used underwater to secure floating platforms. Tubular piles are driven into the seabed (or more commonly dropped a few metres into a soft seabed) and then a pump sucks water out at the top of the tubular, pulling the pile further down. </p><p>The proportions of the pile (diameter to height) are dependent upon the soil type. Sand is difficult to penetrate but provides good holding capacity, so the height may be as short as half the diameter. Clays and muds are easy to penetrate but provide poor holding capacity, so the height may be as much as eight times the diameter. The open nature of gravel means that water would flow through the ground during installation, causing 'piping' flow (where water boils up through weaker paths through the soil). Therefore, suction piles cannot be used in gravel seabeds.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2011)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Adfreeze_piles">Adfreeze piles</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Deep_foundation&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Adfreeze piles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Frozen_Piles.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Frozen_Piles.JPG/220px-Frozen_Piles.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="177" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Frozen_Piles.JPG/330px-Frozen_Piles.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Frozen_Piles.JPG/440px-Frozen_Piles.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2277" data-file-height="1833" /></a><figcaption>Adfreeze piles supporting a building in <a href="/wiki/Utqia%C4%A1vik" class="mw-redirect" title="Utqiaġvik">Utqiaġvik</a>, Alaska</figcaption></figure> <p>In high latitudes where the ground is <a href="/wiki/Permafrost" title="Permafrost">continuously frozen</a>, adfreeze piles are used as the primary structural foundation method. </p><p>Adfreeze piles derive their strength from the bond of the frozen ground around them to the surface of the pile.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2011)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Adfreeze pile foundations are particularly sensitive in conditions which cause the permafrost to melt. If a building is constructed improperly then it can melt the ground below, resulting in a failure of the foundation system.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2011)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vibrated_stone_columns">Vibrated stone columns</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Deep_foundation&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Vibrated stone columns"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Vibro_stone_column" title="Vibro stone column">Vibrated stone columns</a> are a ground improvement technique where columns of coarse <a href="/wiki/Aggregate_(composite)" title="Aggregate (composite)">aggregate</a> are placed in soils with poor <a href="/wiki/Drainage" title="Drainage">drainage</a> or bearing capacity to improve the soils.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hospital_piles">Hospital piles</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Deep_foundation&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Hospital piles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Specific to marine structures, hospital piles (also known as gallow piles) are built to provide temporary support to marine structure components during refurbishment works. For example, when removing a river pontoon, the brow will be attached to hospital pile to support it. They are normal piles, usually with a chain or hook attachment.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Piled_walls">Piled walls</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Deep_foundation&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Piled walls"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:New_Orleans_USACE-17th_Canal-A-09-04-05_0004.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/New_Orleans_USACE-17th_Canal-A-09-04-05_0004.JPG/220px-New_Orleans_USACE-17th_Canal-A-09-04-05_0004.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/New_Orleans_USACE-17th_Canal-A-09-04-05_0004.JPG/330px-New_Orleans_USACE-17th_Canal-A-09-04-05_0004.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/New_Orleans_USACE-17th_Canal-A-09-04-05_0004.JPG/440px-New_Orleans_USACE-17th_Canal-A-09-04-05_0004.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3008" data-file-height="2000" /></a><figcaption>Sheet piling, by a bridge, was used to block a canal in <a href="/wiki/New_Orleans,_Louisiana" class="mw-redirect" title="New Orleans, Louisiana">New Orleans</a> after <a href="/wiki/Hurricane_Katrina" title="Hurricane Katrina">Hurricane Katrina</a> damaged it.</figcaption></figure> <p>Piled walls can be drivene or bored. They provide special advantages where available working space dictates and open cut excavation not feasible. Both methods offer technically effective and offer a cost efficient temporary or permanent means of retaining the sides of bulk excavations even in water bearing strata. When used in permanent works, these walls can be designed to resist vertical loads in addition lateral load from retaining soil. Construction of both methods is the same as for foundation bearing piles. Contiguous walls are constructed with small gaps between adjacent piles. The spacing of the piles can be varied to provide suitable bending stiffness. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Secant_piled_walls">Secant piled walls</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Deep_foundation&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Secant piled walls"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Secant_plane" title="Secant plane">Secant</a> pile walls are constructed such that space is left between alternate 'female' piles for the subsequent construction of 'male' piles.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (October 2019)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Construction of 'male' piles involves boring through the concrete in the 'female' piles hole in order to key 'male' piles between. The male pile is the one where steel reinforcement cages are installed, though in some cases the female piles are also reinforced.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Secant piled walls can either be true hard/hard, hard/intermediate (firm), or hard/soft, depending on design requirements. Hard refers to structural concrete and firm or soft is usually a weaker grout mix containing bentonite.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> All types of wall can be constructed as free standing <a href="/wiki/Cantilever" title="Cantilever">cantilevers</a>, or may be propped if space and sub-structure design permit. Where party wall agreements allow, <a href="/wiki/Earth_anchor" title="Earth anchor">ground anchors</a> can be used as tie backs. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Slurry_walls">Slurry walls</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Deep_foundation&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Slurry walls"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A slurry wall is a barrier built under ground using a mix of <a href="/wiki/Bentonite" title="Bentonite">bentonite</a> and water to prevent the flow of groundwater. A trench that would collapse due to the <a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_pressure" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydraulic pressure">hydraulic pressure</a> in the surrounding soil does not collapse as the slurry balances the hydraulic pressure. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Deep_mixing/mass_stabilization_techniques"><span id="Deep_mixing.2Fmass_stabilization_techniques"></span>Deep mixing/mass stabilization techniques</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Deep_foundation&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Deep mixing/mass stabilization techniques"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>These are essentially variations of <i><a href="/wiki/In_situ" title="In situ">in situ</a></i> reinforcements in the form of piles (as mentioned above), blocks or larger volumes. </p><p>Cement, lime/quick lime, flyash, sludge and/or other binders (sometimes called stabilizer) are mixed into the soil to increase bearing capacity. The result is not as solid as concrete, but should be seen as an improvement of the bearing capacity of the original soil. </p><p>The technique is most often applied on <a href="/wiki/Clay" title="Clay">clays</a> or organic <a href="/wiki/Soil" title="Soil">soils</a> like <a href="/wiki/Peat" title="Peat">peat</a>. The mixing can be carried out by pumping the binder into the soil whilst mixing it with a device normally mounted on an excavator or by excavating the masses, mixing them separately with the binders and refilling them in the desired area. The technique can also be used on lightly contaminated masses as a means of binding contaminants, as opposed to excavating them and transporting to landfill or processing. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Materials">Materials</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Deep_foundation&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Materials"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Timber">Timber</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Deep_foundation&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Timber"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Timber_pilings" title="Timber pilings">Timber pilings</a></div> <p>As the name implies, <a href="/wiki/Timber" class="mw-redirect" title="Timber">timber</a> piles are made of <a href="/wiki/Wood" title="Wood">wood</a>. </p><p>Historically, timber has been a plentiful, locally available resource in many areas. Today, timber piles are still more affordable than concrete or steel. Compared to other types of piles (steel or concrete), and depending on the source/type of timber, timber piles may not be suitable for heavier loads. </p><p>A main consideration regarding timber piles is that they should be protected from <a href="/wiki/Decomposition" title="Decomposition">rotting</a> above <a href="/wiki/Groundwater" title="Groundwater">groundwater</a> level. Timber will last for a long time below the groundwater level. For timber to rot, two elements are needed: water and oxygen. Below the groundwater level, dissolved oxygen is lacking even though there is ample water. Hence, timber tends to last for a long time below the groundwater level. In 1648, the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Palace_of_Amsterdam" title="Royal Palace of Amsterdam">Royal Palace of Amsterdam</a> was constructed on 13,659 timber piles that still survive today since they were below groundwater level. Timber that is to be used above the water table can be protected from decay and insects by numerous forms of <a href="/wiki/Wood_preservation" title="Wood preservation">wood preservation</a> using pressure treatment (<a href="/wiki/Alkaline_copper_quaternary" title="Alkaline copper quaternary">alkaline copper quaternary</a> (ACQ), <a href="/wiki/Chromated_copper_arsenate" title="Chromated copper arsenate">chromated copper arsenate</a> (CCA), <a href="/wiki/Creosote" title="Creosote">creosote</a>, etc.). </p><p>Splicing timber piles is still quite common and is the easiest of all the piling materials to splice. The normal method for splicing is by driving the leader pile first, driving a steel tube (normally 60–100 cm long, with an internal diameter no smaller than the minimum toe diameter) half its length onto the end of the leader pile. The follower pile is then simply slotted into the other end of the tube and driving continues. The steel tube is simply there to ensure that the two pieces follow each other during driving. If uplift capacity is required, the splice can incorporate bolts, coach screws, spikes or the like to give it the necessary capacity. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Iron">Iron</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Deep_foundation&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Iron"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Cast iron may be used for piling. These may be <a href="/wiki/Ductile_iron" title="Ductile iron">ductile</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Steel">Steel</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Deep_foundation&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Steel"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:BatteredPiles.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/BatteredPiles.jpg/190px-BatteredPiles.jpg" decoding="async" width="190" height="105" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/BatteredPiles.jpg/285px-BatteredPiles.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/BatteredPiles.jpg/380px-BatteredPiles.jpg 2x" data-file-width="635" data-file-height="352" /></a><figcaption>Cutaway illustration. Deep inclined (battered) pipe piles support a precast segmented skyway where upper soil layers are weak muds.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Pipe_(material)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pipe (material)">Pipe</a> piles are a type of steel driven pile foundation and are a good candidate for inclined (<a href="/wiki/Batter_(walls)" title="Batter (walls)">battered</a>) piles. </p><p>Pipe piles can be driven either open end or closed end. When driven open end, soil is allowed to enter the bottom of the pipe or tube. If an empty pipe is required, a jet of water or an auger can be used to remove the soil inside following driving. Closed end pipe piles are constructed by covering the bottom of the pile with a steel plate or cast steel shoe. </p><p>In some cases, pipe piles are filled with concrete to provide additional moment capacity or corrosion resistance. In the United Kingdom, this is generally not done in order to reduce the cost.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> In these cases corrosion protection is provided by allowing for a sacrificial thickness of steel or by adopting a higher grade of steel. If a concrete filled pipe pile is corroded, most of the load carrying capacity of the pile will remain intact due to the concrete, while it will be lost in an empty pipe pile. The structural capacity of pipe piles is primarily calculated based on steel strength and concrete strength (if filled). An allowance is made for corrosion depending on the site conditions and local building codes. Steel pipe piles can either be new steel manufactured specifically for the piling industry or reclaimed steel tubular casing previously used for other purposes such as oil and gas exploration. </p><p>H-Piles are structural beams that are driven in the ground for deep foundation application. They can be easily cut off or joined by welding or mechanical drive-fit splicers. If the pile is driven into a soil with low <a href="/wiki/PH" title="PH">pH</a> value, then there is a risk of corrosion, coal-tar epoxy or cathodic protection can be applied to slow or eliminate the corrosion process. It is common to allow for an amount of corrosion in design by simply over dimensioning the cross-sectional area of the steel pile. In this way, the corrosion process can be prolonged up to 50 years.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Prestressed_concrete_piles">Prestressed concrete piles</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Deep_foundation&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Prestressed concrete piles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Concrete piles are typically made with steel reinforcing and prestressing tendons to obtain the tensile strength required, to survive handling and driving, and to provide sufficient bending resistance. </p><p>Long piles can be difficult to handle and transport. Pile joints can be used to join two or more short piles to form one long pile. Pile joints can be used with both precast and prestressed concrete piles. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Composite_piles">Composite piles</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Deep_foundation&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Composite piles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A "composite pile" is a pile made of steel and concrete members that are fastened together, end to end, to form a single pile. It is a combination of different materials or different shaped materials such as pipe and H-beams or steel and concrete. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Courtney_Campbell_Causeway_pile_jackets_closeup.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Courtney_Campbell_Causeway_pile_jackets_closeup.jpg/220px-Courtney_Campbell_Causeway_pile_jackets_closeup.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Courtney_Campbell_Causeway_pile_jackets_closeup.jpg/330px-Courtney_Campbell_Causeway_pile_jackets_closeup.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Courtney_Campbell_Causeway_pile_jackets_closeup.jpg/440px-Courtney_Campbell_Causeway_pile_jackets_closeup.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3024" data-file-height="4032" /></a><figcaption>'Pile jackets' encasing old concrete piles in a saltwater environment to prevent corrosion and consequential weakening of the piles when cracks allow saltwater to contact the internal steel reinforcement rods</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Construction_machinery_for_driving_piles_into_the_ground">Construction machinery for driving piles into the ground</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Deep_foundation&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Construction machinery for driving piles into the ground"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Construction machinery used to drive piles into the ground:<sup id="cite_ref-:2_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Pile driver is a device for placing piles in their designed position.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diesel_pile_hammer" class="mw-redirect" title="Diesel pile hammer">Diesel pile hammer</a> is a device for hammering piles into the ground.</li> <li>Hydraulic hammer is removable working equipment of hydraulic excavators, hydroficated machines (stationary rock breakers, loaders, manipulators, pile driving hammers) used for processing strong materials (rock, soil, metal) or pile driving elements by impact of falling parts dispersed by high-pressure fluid.</li> <li>Vibratory pile driver is a machine for driving piles into sandy and clay soils.</li> <li>Press-in pile driver is a machine for sinking piles into the ground by means of static force transmission.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Universal drilling machine.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Construction_machinery_for_replacement_piles">Construction machinery for replacement piles</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Deep_foundation&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Construction machinery for replacement piles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Construction machinery used to construct replacement piles:<sup id="cite_ref-:2_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Sectional Flight Auger or Continuous Flight Auger</li> <li>Reverse circulation drilling</li> <li>Ring bit concentric drilling</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Deep_foundation&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eurocode" class="mw-redirect" title="Eurocode">Eurocode</a> <a href="/wiki/EN_1997" class="mw-redirect" title="EN 1997">EN 1997</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Society_for_Micropiles" title="International Society for Micropiles">International Society for Micropiles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post_in_ground" title="Post in ground">Post in ground</a> construction also called earthfast or <a href="/wiki/Posthole" class="mw-redirect" title="Posthole">posthole</a> construction; a historic method of building wooden structures.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stilt_house" title="Stilt house">Stilt house</a>, also known as a lake house; an ancient, historic house type built on pilings.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shallow_foundations" class="mw-redirect" title="Shallow foundations">Shallow foundations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pile_bridge" title="Pile bridge">Pile bridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Larssen_sheet_piling" title="Larssen sheet piling">Larssen sheet piling</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Deep_foundation&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://secure.piledrivers.org/">PDCA</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-own20090909-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-own20090909_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://offshorewind.net/Other_Pages/Turbine-Foundations.html">Offshore Wind Turbine Foundations</a>, 2009-09-09, accessed 2010-04-12.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-hre20100412-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-hre20100412_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-hre20100412_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hornsrev.dk/Engelsk/Opstillingen/uk-fundament.htm">Constructing a turbine foundation</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110521095525/http://www.hornsrev.dk/Engelsk/Opstillingen/uk-fundament.htm">Archived</a> 21 May 2011 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Horns Rev project, Elsam monopile foundation construction process, accessed 2010-04-12]</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-mps20021015-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-mps20021015_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.modernpowersystems.com/story.asp?storyCode=2017033">Horns Revolution</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" 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(Link needs to be removed or updated, links to inappropriate content)</li> <li><i>Fleming, W. G. K. et al., 1985, Piling Engineering, Surrey University Press; Hunt, R. E., Geotechnical Engineering Analysis and Evaluation, 1986, McGraw-Hill.</i></li> <li>Coduto, Donald P. <i>Foundation Design: Principles and Practices</i> 2nd ed., Prentice-Hall Inc., 2001.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061214192549/http://www2.ce.washington.edu/~geotech/courses/cee523/manuals/NAVFAC72.pdf">NAVFAC DM 7.02 Foundations and Earth Structures</a> U.S. Naval Facilities Engineering Command, 1986.</li> <li>Rajapakse, Ruwan., <i>Pile Design and Construction Guide</i>, 2003</li> <li>Tomlinson, P.J., <i>Pile Design and Construction Practice</i>, 1984</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ns.swedgeo.se/sd/pdf/SD-R3E.pdf">Stabilization of Organic Soils</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120222083743/http://ns.swedgeo.se/sd/pdf/SD-R3E.pdf">Archived</a> 22 February 2012 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thyssenkrupp-bautechnik.com/fileadmin/download/pdf/eng/Rammprofile/SWHB_EBOOK_ENG.pdf">Sheet piling handbook</a>, 2010</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Deep_foundation&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output 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href="/wiki/Geotechnical_engineering" title="Geotechnical engineering">Geotechnical engineering</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/Offshore_geotechnical_engineering" title="Offshore geotechnical engineering">Offshore geotechnical engineering</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geotechnical_investigation" title="Geotechnical investigation">Investigation</a> <br />and<br />instrumentation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.0em;font-weight: normal;">Field (<i>in situ</i>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 33em;"> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Core_sample.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Core_sample.svg/20px-Core_sample.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Core_sample.svg/30px-Core_sample.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Core_sample.svg/40px-Core_sample.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Core_drill" title="Core drill">Core drill</a></li></ul> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Cone_penetration_test.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Cone_penetration_test.svg/20px-Cone_penetration_test.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Cone_penetration_test.svg/30px-Cone_penetration_test.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Cone_penetration_test.svg/40px-Cone_penetration_test.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Cone_penetration_test" title="Cone penetration test">Cone penetration test</a></li></ul> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Geo-electrical_sounding.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Geo-electrical_sounding.svg/20px-Geo-electrical_sounding.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Geo-electrical_sounding.svg/30px-Geo-electrical_sounding.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Geo-electrical_sounding.svg/40px-Geo-electrical_sounding.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Geo-electrical_sounding&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Geo-electrical sounding (page does not exist)">Geo-electrical sounding</a></li></ul> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:In_situ_permeameter_test.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/In_situ_permeameter_test.svg/20px-In_situ_permeameter_test.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/In_situ_permeameter_test.svg/30px-In_situ_permeameter_test.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/In_situ_permeameter_test.svg/40px-In_situ_permeameter_test.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Permeability_(Earth_sciences)" class="mw-redirect" title="Permeability (Earth sciences)">Permeability test</a></li></ul> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Load_test.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Load_test.svg/20px-Load_test.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Load_test.svg/30px-Load_test.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Load_test.svg/40px-Load_test.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Load_test" class="mw-redirect" title="Load test">Load test</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Static_load_testing" title="Static load testing">Static</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynamic_load_testing" title="Dynamic load testing">Dynamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statnamic_load_test" title="Statnamic load test">Statnamic</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Pore_pressure_measurement.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Pore_pressure_measurement.svg/20px-Pore_pressure_measurement.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Pore_pressure_measurement.svg/30px-Pore_pressure_measurement.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Pore_pressure_measurement.svg/40px-Pore_pressure_measurement.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> Pore pressure measurement <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Piezometer" class="mw-redirect" title="Piezometer">Piezometer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Well#Classification" title="Well">Well</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Ram_sounding.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Ram_sounding.svg/20px-Ram_sounding.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Ram_sounding.svg/30px-Ram_sounding.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Ram_sounding.svg/40px-Ram_sounding.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ram_sounding&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ram sounding (page does not exist)">Ram sounding</a></li></ul> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Rock_control_drilling.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Rock_control_drilling.svg/20px-Rock_control_drilling.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Rock_control_drilling.svg/30px-Rock_control_drilling.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Rock_control_drilling.svg/40px-Rock_control_drilling.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Rock_control_drilling&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rock control drilling (page does not exist)">Rock control drilling</a></li></ul> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Rotary_pressure_sounding.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Rotary_pressure_sounding.svg/20px-Rotary_pressure_sounding.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Rotary_pressure_sounding.svg/30px-Rotary_pressure_sounding.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Rotary_pressure_sounding.svg/40px-Rotary_pressure_sounding.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Rotary-pressure_sounding" title="Rotary-pressure sounding">Rotary-pressure sounding</a></li></ul> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Rotary_weight_sounding.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Rotary_weight_sounding.svg/20px-Rotary_weight_sounding.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Rotary_weight_sounding.svg/30px-Rotary_weight_sounding.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Rotary_weight_sounding.svg/40px-Rotary_weight_sounding.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Rotary_weight_sounding&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rotary weight sounding (page does not exist)">Rotary weight sounding</a></li></ul> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Sample_series.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Sample_series.svg/20px-Sample_series.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Sample_series.svg/30px-Sample_series.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Sample_series.svg/40px-Sample_series.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Soil_test#Soil_testing" title="Soil test">Sample series</a></li></ul> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Screw_plate_test.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Screw_plate_test.svg/20px-Screw_plate_test.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Screw_plate_test.svg/30px-Screw_plate_test.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Screw_plate_test.svg/40px-Screw_plate_test.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Screw_plate_test&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Screw plate test (page does not exist)">Screw plate test</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deformation_monitoring" title="Deformation monitoring">Deformation monitoring</a> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Inclinometer.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Inclinometer.svg/20px-Inclinometer.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Inclinometer.svg/30px-Inclinometer.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Inclinometer.svg/40px-Inclinometer.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Inclinometer" title="Inclinometer">Inclinometer</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Settlement_recordings.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Settlement_recordings.svg/20px-Settlement_recordings.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Settlement_recordings.svg/30px-Settlement_recordings.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Settlement_recordings.svg/40px-Settlement_recordings.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Soil_consolidation" title="Soil consolidation">Settlement recordings</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Shear_vane_test.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Shear_vane_test.svg/20px-Shear_vane_test.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Shear_vane_test.svg/30px-Shear_vane_test.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Shear_vane_test.svg/40px-Shear_vane_test.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Shear_vane_test" title="Shear vane test">Shear vane test</a></li></ul> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Simple_sounding.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Simple_sounding.svg/20px-Simple_sounding.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Simple_sounding.svg/30px-Simple_sounding.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Simple_sounding.svg/40px-Simple_sounding.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Simple_sounding&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Simple sounding (page does not exist)">Simple sounding</a></li></ul> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Standard_penetration_test.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Standard_penetration_test.svg/20px-Standard_penetration_test.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Standard_penetration_test.svg/30px-Standard_penetration_test.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Standard_penetration_test.svg/40px-Standard_penetration_test.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Standard_penetration_test" title="Standard penetration test">Standard penetration test</a></li></ul> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Total_sounding.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Total_sounding.svg/20px-Total_sounding.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Total_sounding.svg/30px-Total_sounding.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Total_sounding.svg/40px-Total_sounding.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Total_sounding" title="Total sounding">Total sounding</a></li></ul> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Trial_pit.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Trial_pit.svg/20px-Trial_pit.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Trial_pit.svg/30px-Trial_pit.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Trial_pit.svg/40px-Trial_pit.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Trial_pit" title="Trial pit">Trial pit</a></li></ul> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Visible_rock.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Visible_rock.svg/20px-Visible_rock.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Visible_rock.svg/30px-Visible_rock.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Visible_rock.svg/40px-Visible_rock.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Bedrock" title="Bedrock">Visible bedrock</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_densometer" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear densometer">Nuclear densometer test</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Exploration_geophysics" title="Exploration geophysics">Exploration geophysics</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crosshole_sonic_logging" title="Crosshole sonic logging">Crosshole sonic logging</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pile_integrity_test" title="Pile integrity test">Pile integrity test</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wave_equation_analysis" title="Wave equation analysis">Wave equation analysis</a></li></ul></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.0em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Soil_test" title="Soil test">Laboratory <br />testing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_classification" title="Soil classification">Soil classification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atterberg_limits" title="Atterberg limits">Atterberg limits</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/California_bearing_ratio" title="California bearing ratio">California bearing ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_shear_test" title="Direct shear test">Direct shear test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrometer" title="Hydrometer">Hydrometer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proctor_compaction_test" title="Proctor compaction test">Proctor compaction test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R-value_(soils)" title="R-value (soils)">R-value</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sieve_analysis" title="Sieve analysis">Sieve analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triaxial_shear_test" title="Triaxial shear test">Triaxial shear test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oedometer_test" title="Oedometer test">Oedometer test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_conductivity#Experimental_approach" title="Hydraulic conductivity">Hydraulic conductivity tests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_content#Measurement" title="Water content">Water content tests</a></li> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Soil" title="Soil">Soil</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.0em;font-weight: normal;">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clay" title="Clay">Clay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silt" title="Silt">Silt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sand" title="Sand">Sand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravel" title="Gravel">Gravel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peat" title="Peat">Peat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loam" title="Loam">Loam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loess" title="Loess">Loess</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.0em;font-weight: normal;">Properties</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_conductivity" title="Hydraulic conductivity">Hydraulic conductivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_content" title="Water content">Water content</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Void_ratio" title="Void ratio">Void ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulk_density" title="Bulk density">Bulk density</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thixotropy" title="Thixotropy">Thixotropy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reynolds%27_dilatancy" class="mw-redirect" title="Reynolds' dilatancy">Reynolds' dilatancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angle_of_repose" title="Angle of repose">Angle of repose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friction#Angle_of_friction" title="Friction">Friction angle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cohesion_(geology)" title="Cohesion (geology)">Cohesion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porosity" title="Porosity">Porosity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permeability_(earth_sciences)" class="mw-redirect" title="Permeability (earth sciences)">Permeability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Specific_storage" title="Specific storage">Specific storage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shear_strength_(soil)" title="Shear strength (soil)">Shear strength</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_liquefaction" title="Soil liquefaction">Sensitivity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Structures <br />(<a href="/wiki/Soil-structure_interaction" title="Soil-structure interaction">Interaction</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.0em;font-weight: normal;">Natural features</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Topography" title="Topography">Topography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vegetation" title="Vegetation">Vegetation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terrain" title="Terrain">Terrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Topsoil" title="Topsoil">Topsoil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_table" title="Water table">Water table</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bedrock" title="Bedrock">Bedrock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subgrade" title="Subgrade">Subgrade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subsoil" title="Subsoil">Subsoil</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.0em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Earthworks_(engineering)" title="Earthworks (engineering)">Earthworks</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Shoring structures <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Retaining_wall" title="Retaining wall">Retaining walls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabion" title="Gabion">Gabion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ground_freezing" title="Ground freezing">Ground freezing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mechanically_stabilized_earth" title="Mechanically stabilized earth">Mechanically stabilized earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pressure_grouting" title="Pressure grouting">Pressure grouting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slurry_wall" title="Slurry wall">Slurry wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_nailing" title="Soil nailing">Soil nailing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tieback_(geotechnical)" title="Tieback (geotechnical)">Tieback</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_development" title="Land development">Land development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landfill" title="Landfill">Landfill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digging" title="Digging">Excavation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trench" title="Trench">Trench</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embankment_(earthworks)" title="Embankment (earthworks)">Embankment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cut_(earthworks)" title="Cut (earthworks)">Cut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causeway" title="Causeway">Causeway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terrace_(earthworks)" title="Terrace (earthworks)">Terracing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunnel#Cut-and-cover" title="Tunnel">Cut-and-cover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cut_and_fill" title="Cut and fill">Cut and fill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fill_dirt" title="Fill dirt">Fill dirt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grading_(engineering)" class="mw-redirect" title="Grading (engineering)">Grading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_reclamation" title="Land reclamation">Land reclamation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Track_bed" title="Track bed">Track bed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erosion_control" title="Erosion control">Erosion control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_structure" title="Earth structure">Earth structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expanded_clay_aggregate" title="Expanded clay aggregate">Expanded clay aggregate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crushed_stone" title="Crushed stone">Crushed stone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geosynthetics" title="Geosynthetics">Geosynthetics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geotextile" title="Geotextile">Geotextile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomembrane" title="Geomembrane">Geomembrane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geosynthetic_clay_liner" title="Geosynthetic clay liner">Geosynthetic clay liner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cellular_confinement" title="Cellular confinement">Cellular confinement</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infiltration_(hydrology)" title="Infiltration (hydrology)">Infiltration</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.0em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Foundation_(engineering)" title="Foundation (engineering)">Foundations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shallow_foundation" title="Shallow foundation">Shallow</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Deep</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Soil_mechanics" title="Soil mechanics">Mechanics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.0em;font-weight: normal;">Forces</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effective_stress" title="Effective stress">Effective stress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pore_water_pressure" title="Pore water pressure">Pore water pressure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lateral_earth_pressure" title="Lateral earth pressure">Lateral earth pressure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overburden_pressure" title="Overburden pressure">Overburden pressure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preconsolidation_pressure" title="Preconsolidation pressure">Preconsolidation pressure</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.0em;font-weight: normal;">Phenomena/<br />problems</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Permafrost" title="Permafrost">Permafrost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frost_heaving" title="Frost heaving">Frost heaving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consolidation_(soil)" class="mw-redirect" title="Consolidation (soil)">Consolidation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_compaction" title="Soil compaction">Compaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earthquake" title="Earthquake">Earthquake</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Response_spectrum" title="Response spectrum">Response spectrum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seismic_hazard" title="Seismic hazard">Seismic hazard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S_wave" title="S wave">Shear wave</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landslide" title="Landslide">Landslide</a> analysis <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slope_stability_analysis" title="Slope stability analysis">Stability analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landslide_mitigation" title="Landslide mitigation">Mitigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landslide_classification" title="Landslide classification">Classification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sliding_criterion_(geotechnical_engineering)" title="Sliding criterion (geotechnical engineering)">Sliding criterion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Road#Slab_stabilization" title="Road">Slab stabilisation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bearing_capacity" title="Bearing capacity">Bearing capacity</a> * <a href="/wiki/Stress_distribution_in_soil" title="Stress distribution in soil">Stress distribution in soil</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Software" title="Software">Numerical analysis <br />software</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/SEEP2D" title="SEEP2D">SEEP2D</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=STABL&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="STABL (page does not exist)">STABL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SVFlux" title="SVFlux">SVFlux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SVSlope" title="SVSlope">SVSlope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UTEXAS" title="UTEXAS">UTEXAS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plaxis" title="Plaxis">Plaxis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geoprofessions" title="Geoprofessions">Related fields</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">Geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geochemistry" title="Geochemistry">Geochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrology" title="Petrology">Petrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earthquake_engineering" title="Earthquake engineering">Earthquake engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomorphology" title="Geomorphology">Geomorphology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_science" title="Soil science">Soil science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrology" title="Hydrology">Hydrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrogeology" title="Hydrogeology">Hydrogeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_materials" title="Earth materials">Earth materials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_science" title="Agricultural science">Agricultural science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agrology" 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