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href="#Impediments_to_the_agricultural_commercialization_of_drought_tolerant_plants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Impediments to the agricultural commercialization of drought tolerant plants</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Impediments_to_the_agricultural_commercialization_of_drought_tolerant_plants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Importance_in_horticulture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Importance_in_horticulture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Importance in horticulture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Importance_in_horticulture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Drought-tolerant_plants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Drought-tolerant_plants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Drought-tolerant plants</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Drought-tolerant_plants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav 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class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Ability of a plant to withstand dry conditions</div> <p>In botany, <b>drought tolerance</b> is the ability by which a <a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">plant</a> maintains its biomass production during <a href="/wiki/Arid" class="mw-redirect" title="Arid">arid</a> or <a href="/wiki/Drought" title="Drought">drought</a> conditions.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some plants are naturally adapted to dry conditions<i>,</i> surviving with protection mechanisms such as <a href="/wiki/Desiccation_tolerance" title="Desiccation tolerance">desiccation tolerance</a>, <a href="/wiki/Detoxification" title="Detoxification">detoxification</a>, or repair of <a href="/wiki/Xylem" title="Xylem">xylem</a> embolism.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other plants, specifically crops like <a href="/wiki/Maize" title="Maize">corn</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wheat" title="Wheat">wheat</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Rice" title="Rice">rice</a>, have become increasingly tolerant to drought with new varieties created via <a href="/wiki/Genetic_engineering" title="Genetic engineering">genetic engineering</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From an evolutionary perspective, the type of mycorrhizal associations formed in the roots of plants can determine how fast plants can adapt to drought. </p><p>The plants behind drought tolerance are complex and involve many pathways which allows plants to respond to specific sets of conditions at any given time. Some of these interactions include <a href="/wiki/Stomatal_conductance" title="Stomatal conductance">stomatal conductance</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carotenoid" title="Carotenoid">carotenoid</a> degradation and <a href="/wiki/Anthocyanin" title="Anthocyanin">anthocyanin</a> accumulation, the intervention of <a href="/wiki/Osmoprotectant" title="Osmoprotectant">osmoprotectants</a> (such as <a href="/wiki/Sucrose" title="Sucrose">sucrose</a>, <a href="/wiki/Glycine" title="Glycine">glycine</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Proline" title="Proline">proline</a>), <a href="/wiki/Reactive_oxygen_species" title="Reactive oxygen species">ROS</a>-scavenging enzymes.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The molecular control of drought tolerance is also very complex and is influenced other factors such as environment and the <a href="/wiki/Plant_development" title="Plant development">developmental stage</a> of the plant.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This control consists mainly of <a href="/wiki/Transcription_factor" title="Transcription factor">transcriptional factors</a>, such as dehydration-responsive element-binding protein (DREB), <a href="/wiki/Abscisic_acid" title="Abscisic acid">abscisic acid</a> (ABA)-responsive element-binding factor (AREB), and NAM (no apical meristem).<sup id="cite_ref-:2_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Physiology_of_drought_tolerance">Physiology of drought tolerance</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Drought_tolerance&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Physiology of drought tolerance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Plants can be subjected to slowly developing water shortages (ie, taking days, weeks, or months), or they may face short-term deficits of water (ie, hours to days). In these situations, plants adapt by responding accordingly, minimizing water loss and maximizing water uptake.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Plants are more susceptible to drought stress during the reproductive stages of growth, <a href="/wiki/Flower" title="Flower">flowering</a> and <a href="/wiki/Seed_development" class="mw-redirect" title="Seed development">seed development</a>. Therefore, the combination of short-term plus long-term responses allow for plants to produce a few viable seeds.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some examples of short-term and long-term physiological responses include: </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Short-term_responses">Short-term responses</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Drought_tolerance&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Short-term responses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><b>In the leaf:</b> root-signal recognition, <a href="/wiki/Stoma" title="Stoma">stomatal</a> closure, decreased <a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">carbon</a> assimilation</li> <li><b>In the stem:</b> inhibition of growth, hydraulic changes, signal transport, assimilation of transport</li> <li><b>In the root:</b> cell-drought signalling, osmotic adjustment<sup id="cite_ref-:3_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Long-term_responses">Long-term responses</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Drought_tolerance&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Long-term responses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><b>In the above-ground portion of the plant:</b> inhibition of shoot growth, reduced transpiration area, grain abortion, senescence, metabolic acclimation, osmotic adjustment, anthocyanin accumulation, carotenoid degradation, intervention of osmoprotectants, ROS-scavenging enzymes</li> <li><b>In the below-ground portion of the plant:</b> turgor maintenance, sustained root growth, increased root/shoot, increased absorption area<sup id="cite_ref-:3_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Regulatory_network_of_drought_tolerance">Regulatory network of drought tolerance</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Drought_tolerance&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Regulatory network of drought tolerance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Transcription_factors_related_to_drought_tolerance_and_stress.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Transcription_factors_related_to_drought_tolerance_and_stress.jpg/420px-Transcription_factors_related_to_drought_tolerance_and_stress.jpg" decoding="async" width="420" height="263" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Transcription_factors_related_to_drought_tolerance_and_stress.jpg/630px-Transcription_factors_related_to_drought_tolerance_and_stress.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Transcription_factors_related_to_drought_tolerance_and_stress.jpg/840px-Transcription_factors_related_to_drought_tolerance_and_stress.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1145" data-file-height="717" /></a><figcaption>Abiotic stresses (such as drought) induce the expression of the following transcription factors. They bind to cis-elements, resulting in a change in stress response and tolerance.</figcaption></figure> <p>In response to drought conditions, there is an alteration of gene expression, induced by or activated by transcription factors (TFs). These TFs bind to specific cis-elements to induce the expression of targeted stress-inducible genes, allowing for products to be transcribed that help with stress response and tolerance.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some of these include dehydration-responsive element-binding protein (DREB), ABA-responsive element-binding factor (AREB), no apical meristem (NAM), Arabidopsis transcription activation factor (ATAF), and cup-shaped cotyledon (CUC). Much of the molecular work to understand the regulation of drought tolerance has been done in <i>Arabidopsis</i>, helping elucidate the basic processes below.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="DREB_TFs">DREB TFs</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Drought_tolerance&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: DREB TFs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="DREB1/CBF_TFs"><span id="DREB1.2FCBF_TFs"></span>DREB1/CBF TFs</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Drought_tolerance&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: DREB1/CBF TFs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>DREB1A, DREB 1B, and DREB 1C are plant specific TFs which bind to drought responsive elements (DREs) in promoters responsive to drought, high salinity and low temperature in <i>Arabidopsis.</i><sup id="cite_ref-:2_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Overexpression of these genes enhance the tolerance of drought, high salinity, and low temperature in transgenic lines from <i>Arabidopsis</i>, rice, and tobacco.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_9-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="DEAR1/DREB_and_EAR_motif_protein_1"><span id="DEAR1.2FDREB_and_EAR_motif_protein_1"></span>DEAR1/DREB and EAR motif protein 1</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Drought_tolerance&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: DEAR1/DREB and EAR motif protein 1"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238216509">.mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#b1d2ff}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}}</style><span class="vanchor"><span id="DEAR1"></span><span id="DREB_and_EAR_motif_protein_1"></span><span id="At3g50260"></span><span class="vanchor-text">DEAR1 ("DREB and EAR motif protein 1")</span></span> is a TF with an entirely different purpose nothing to do with drought stress. Tsutsui et al 2009 found Arabidopsis DEAR1 (At3g50260) to respond to <a href="/wiki/Plant_pathogen" class="mw-redirect" title="Plant pathogen">pathogen infection</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chitin" title="Chitin">chitin</a>, and oligomers of chitin.<sup id="cite_ref-VanWallendael-et-al-2019_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-VanWallendael-et-al-2019-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="DREB2_TFs">DREB2 TFs</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Drought_tolerance&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: DREB2 TFs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>DREB proteins are involved in a variety of functions related to drought tolerance. For example, DREB proteins including DREB2A cooperate with AREB/ABF proteins in gene expression, specifically in the DREB2A gene under osmotic stress conditions.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_9-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> DREB2 also induces the expression of heat-related genes, such as heat shock protein. Overexpression of DREB2Aca enhances drought and heat stress tolerance levels in <i>Arabidopsis</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_9-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="AREB/ABF_TFs"><span id="AREB.2FABF_TFs"></span>AREB/ABF TFs</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Drought_tolerance&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: AREB/ABF TFs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>AREB/ABFs are ABA-responsive <a href="/wiki/BZIP_domain" title="BZIP domain">bZIP</a>-type TFs which bind to ABA-responsive elements (ABREs) in stress-responsive <a href="/wiki/Promoter_(genetics)" title="Promoter (genetics)">promoters</a> and activate gene expression.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> AREB1, AREB2, ABF3, and ABF1 have important roles in ABA signalling in the vegetative stage, as ABA controls the expression of genes associated with drought response and tolerance. The native form of AREB1 cannot target drought stress genes like RD29B in <i>Arabidopsis</i>, so modification is necessary for transcriptional activation.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_9-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> AREB/ABFs are positively regulated by <a href="/wiki/SNRK" title="SNRK">SnRK2s</a>, controlling the activity of target proteins via phosphorylation. This regulation also functions in the control of drought tolerance in the vegetative stage as well as the seed maturation and germination.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_9-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_TFs">Other TFs</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Drought_tolerance&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Other TFs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>TFs such as NAC (composed of NAM, ATAF, and CUC), are also related to drought response in <i>Arabidopsis</i> and rice.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_9-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Overexpression in the aforementioned plants improves stress and drought tolerance. They also may be related to root growth and <a href="/wiki/Senescence" title="Senescence">senescence</a>, two physiological traits related to drought tolerance.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_9-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Natural_drought_tolerance_adaptations">Natural drought tolerance adaptations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Drought_tolerance&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Natural drought tolerance adaptations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Scarlet_globe_mallow_(Sphaeralcea_coccinea)_on_Seedskadee_National_Wildlife_Refuge_02_(14368786066).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Scarlet_globe_mallow_%28Sphaeralcea_coccinea%29_on_Seedskadee_National_Wildlife_Refuge_02_%2814368786066%29.jpg/391px-Scarlet_globe_mallow_%28Sphaeralcea_coccinea%29_on_Seedskadee_National_Wildlife_Refuge_02_%2814368786066%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="391" height="258" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Scarlet_globe_mallow_%28Sphaeralcea_coccinea%29_on_Seedskadee_National_Wildlife_Refuge_02_%2814368786066%29.jpg/587px-Scarlet_globe_mallow_%28Sphaeralcea_coccinea%29_on_Seedskadee_National_Wildlife_Refuge_02_%2814368786066%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Scarlet_globe_mallow_%28Sphaeralcea_coccinea%29_on_Seedskadee_National_Wildlife_Refuge_02_%2814368786066%29.jpg/782px-Scarlet_globe_mallow_%28Sphaeralcea_coccinea%29_on_Seedskadee_National_Wildlife_Refuge_02_%2814368786066%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2835" data-file-height="1870" /></a><figcaption>The scarlet globe mallow (<i><a href="/wiki/Sphaeralcea_coccinea" title="Sphaeralcea coccinea">Sphaeralcea coccinea</a></i>) is a drought-escaping plant with natural drought tolerance. Some of its natural adaptations include silver-gray hairs that protect against drying; a deep root system; and having seeds that only germinate when conditions are favorable.</figcaption></figure> <p>Plants in naturally arid conditions retain large amounts of biomass due to drought tolerance and can be classified into 4 categories of adaptation:<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ol><li><b>Drought-escaping plants:</b> annuals that germinate and grow only during times of sufficient times of moisture to complete their life cycle.</li> <li><b>Drought-evading plants:</b> non-succulent <a href="/wiki/Perennial_plant" class="mw-redirect" title="Perennial plant">perennials</a> which restrict their growth only to periods of moisture availability.</li> <li><b>Drought-enduring plants:</b> also known as <a href="/wiki/Xerophyte" title="Xerophyte">xerophytes</a>, these evergreen shrubs have extensive root systems along with morphological and physiological adaptations which enable them to maintain growth even in times of extreme drought conditions.</li> <li><b>Drought-resisting plants:</b> also known as <a href="/wiki/Succulent_plant" title="Succulent plant">succulent</a> perennials, they have water stored in their leaves and stems for sparing uses.</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Structural_adaptations">Structural adaptations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Drought_tolerance&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Structural adaptations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Many adaptations for dry conditions are structural, including the following:<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Adaptations of the <a href="/wiki/Stoma" title="Stoma">stomata</a> to reduce water loss, such as reduced numbers, sunken pits, waxy surfaces....</li> <li>Reduced number of leaves and their surface area.</li> <li>Water storage in <a href="/wiki/Succulent_plant" title="Succulent plant">succulent</a> above-ground parts or water-filled <a href="/wiki/Tuber" title="Tuber">tubers</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crassulacean_acid_metabolism" title="Crassulacean acid metabolism">Crassulacean acid metabolism</a> (CAM metabolism) allows plants to get carbon dioxide at night and store malic acid during the day, allowing photosynthesis to take place with minimized water loss.</li> <li>Adaptations in the <a href="/wiki/Root" title="Root">root</a> system to increase <a href="/wiki/Water_absorption" class="mw-redirect" title="Water absorption">water absorption</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trichome" title="Trichome">Trichomes</a> (small hairs) on the <a href="/wiki/Leaf" title="Leaf">leaves</a> to absorb atmospheric water.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Importance_for_agriculture">Importance for agriculture</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Drought_tolerance&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Importance for agriculture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ESTAFETA_is_sort_of_SOYBEAN.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/ESTAFETA_is_sort_of_SOYBEAN.JPG/397px-ESTAFETA_is_sort_of_SOYBEAN.JPG" decoding="async" width="397" height="264" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/ESTAFETA_is_sort_of_SOYBEAN.JPG/596px-ESTAFETA_is_sort_of_SOYBEAN.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/ESTAFETA_is_sort_of_SOYBEAN.JPG/794px-ESTAFETA_is_sort_of_SOYBEAN.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3008" data-file-height="2000" /></a><figcaption>Estafeta is a soybean with enhanced drought tolerance, developed by the Plant Production Institute of Ukraine.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>With the frequency and severity of droughts increasing in recent years, damage to crops has become more serious, lowering the crop yield, growth, and production.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:6_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, research into the molecular pathways involving stress tolerance have revealed that overexpression of such genes can enhance drought tolerance, leading to projects focused on the development of transgenic crop varieties.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_2-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Drought-tolerant plants which are developed through biotechnology enable farmers to protect their harvest and reduces losses in times of intense drought by using water more efficiently.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Collaborations_to_improve_drought_tolerance_in_crop-variety_plants">Collaborations to improve drought tolerance in crop-variety plants</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Drought_tolerance&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Collaborations to improve drought tolerance in crop-variety plants"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>International research projects to improve drought tolerance have been introduced, such as the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (<a href="/wiki/CGIAR" title="CGIAR">CGIAR</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One such project from CGIAR involves introducing genes such as DREB1 into lowland rice, upland rice, and wheat to evaluate drought tolerance in fields. This project aims to select at least 10 lines for agricultural use.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_9-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another similar project in collaboration with CGIAR, <a href="/wiki/Brazilian_Agricultural_Research_Corporation" title="Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation">Embrapa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Riken" title="Riken">RIKEN</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Tokyo" title="University of Tokyo">University of Tokyo</a> have introduced AREB and DREB stress-tolerant genes into soybeans, finding several transgenic soybean lines with drought tolerance. Both projects have found improved grain yield and will be used to help develop future varieties that can be used commercially.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_9-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other examples of collaborations to improve drought tolerance in crop-variety plants include the <a href="/wiki/International_Center_for_Agricultural_Research_in_the_Dry_Areas" title="International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas">International Center for Agricultural Research in Dry Areas</a> (ICARDA) in <a href="/wiki/Aleppo" title="Aleppo">Aleppo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a>; the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) in <a href="/wiki/Andhra_Pradesh" title="Andhra Pradesh">Andhra Pradesh</a>, <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>; <a href="/wiki/International_Rice_Research_Institute" title="International Rice Research Institute">the International Rice Research Institute</a> (IRRI) in <a href="/wiki/University_of_the_Philippines_Los_Ba%C3%B1os" title="University of the Philippines Los Baños">Los Baños</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a>.;<sup id="cite_ref-:7_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Heat_and_Drought_Wheat_Improvement_Consortium&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Heat and Drought Wheat Improvement Consortium (page does not exist)">Heat and Drought Wheat Improvement Consortium</a> (HeDWIC),<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a network that facilitates global coordination of wheat research to adapt to a future with more severe weather extremes. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Impediments_to_the_agricultural_commercialization_of_drought_tolerant_plants">Impediments to the agricultural commercialization of drought tolerant plants</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Drought_tolerance&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Impediments to the agricultural commercialization of drought tolerant plants"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The development of <a href="/wiki/Genetically_modified_crop" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetically modified crop">genetically modified crops</a> includes multiple patents for genes and promoters, such as the marker genes in a <a href="/wiki/Vector_(molecular_biology)" title="Vector (molecular biology)">vector</a>, as well as transformation techniques. Therefore, <a href="/wiki/Freedom-to-operate" class="mw-redirect" title="Freedom-to-operate">freedom-to-operate</a> (FTO) surveys should be implemented in collaborations for developing drought tolerant crops.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_9-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Large amounts of money are also needed for the development of genetically modified groups. To bring a new genetically modified crop into the commercial market, it has been estimated to cost USD 136 million over 13 years.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_9-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This poses a problem for development, as only a small number of companies can afford to develop drought-tolerant crops, and it is difficult for research institutions to sustain funding for this period of time.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_9-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Therefore, a multinational framework with more collaboration among multiple disciples is needed to sustain projects of this size. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Importance_in_horticulture">Importance in horticulture</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Drought_tolerance&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Importance in horticulture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Plant transformation has been used to develop multiple drought resistant crop varieties, but only limited varieties of <a href="/wiki/Ornamental_plant" title="Ornamental plant">ornamental plants</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This significant lag in development is due to the fact that more transgenic ornamental plants are being developed for other reasons than drought tolerance.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_16-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, abiotic stress resistance is being explored in ornamental plants by Ornamental Biosciences. Transgenic Petunias, <a href="/wiki/Poinsettia" title="Poinsettia">Poinsettias</a>, New Guinea Impatiens, and <a href="/wiki/Pelargonium" title="Pelargonium">Geraniums</a> are being evaluated for frost, drought, and disease resistance.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This will allow for a wider range of environments in which these plants can grow. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Drought-tolerant_plants">Drought-tolerant plants</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Drought_tolerance&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Drought-tolerant plants"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>This is a list of selected plant <a href="/wiki/Family_(biology)" title="Family (biology)">families</a>, species and/or genus that tolerate drought: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 22em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acacia" title="Acacia">Acacia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adenium" title="Adenium">Adenium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aeonium" title="Aeonium">Aeonium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agapanthus" title="Agapanthus">Agapanthus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agave" title="Agave">Agave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aloe" title="Aloe">Aloe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angelonia" title="Angelonia">Angelonia</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Anredera_cordifolia" title="Anredera cordifolia">Anredera cordifolia</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Araujia_sericifera" title="Araujia sericifera">Araujia sericifera</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Arctotheca_calendula" title="Arctotheca calendula">Arctotheca calendula</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asphodelus" title="Asphodelus">Asphodelus</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Asparagus_aethiopicus" title="Asparagus aethiopicus">Asparagus aethiopicus</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banksia" title="Banksia">Banksia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Begonia" title="Begonia">Begonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bougainvillea" title="Bougainvillea">Bougainvillea</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Buddleja_davidii" title="Buddleja davidii">Buddleja davidii</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulbine" title="Bulbine">Bulbine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cactus" title="Cactus">Cactus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calibrachoa" title="Calibrachoa">Calibrachoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carpobrotus" title="Carpobrotus">Carpobrotus</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cestrum_parqui" title="Cestrum parqui">Cestrum parqui</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cistus_albidus" title="Cistus albidus">Cistus albidus</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmos_(plant)" title="Cosmos (plant)">Cosmos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crassula" title="Crassula">Crassula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Curio_(plant)" title="Curio (plant)">Curio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drosanthemum" title="Drosanthemum">Drosanthemum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dudleya" title="Dudleya">Dudleya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Echeveria" title="Echeveria">Echeveria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Echinacea" title="Echinacea">Echinacea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eriogonum" title="Eriogonum">Eriogonum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eucalyptus" title="Eucalyptus">Eucalyptus</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Euphorbia_milii" title="Euphorbia milii">Euphorbia milii</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaillardia" title="Gaillardia">Gaillardia</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gazania_rigens" title="Gazania rigens">Gazania rigens</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gonialoe" title="Gonialoe">Gonialoe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graptopetalum" title="Graptopetalum">Graptopetalum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grevillea" title="Grevillea">Grevillea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haberlea" title="Haberlea">Haberlea</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Haloxylon_ammodendron" title="Haloxylon ammodendron">Haloxylon ammodendron</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haworthia" title="Haworthia">Haworthia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helianthus" title="Helianthus">Helianthus</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Impatiens_hawkeri" title="Impatiens hawkeri">Impatiens hawkeri</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ipomoea_cairica" title="Ipomoea cairica">Ipomoea cairica</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lantana_camara" title="Lantana camara">Lantana camara</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melaleuca" title="Melaleuca">Melaleuca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesembryanthemum" title="Mesembryanthemum">Mesembryanthemum</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Nandina_domestica" class="mw-redirect" title="Nandina domestica">Nandina domestica</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nerium_oleander" class="mw-redirect" title="Nerium oleander">Nerium oleander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olea_europaea" class="mw-redirect" title="Olea europaea">Olea europaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelargonium" title="Pelargonium">Pelargonium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petunia" title="Petunia">Petunia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portulaca" title="Portulaca">Portulaca</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Portulacaria_afra" title="Portulacaria afra">Portulacaria afra</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ramonda_serbica" title="Ramonda serbica">Ramonda serbica</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ricinus_communis" class="mw-redirect" title="Ricinus communis">Ricinus communis</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosemary" title="Rosemary">Rosemary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salvia" title="Salvia">Salvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santolina" title="Santolina">Santolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sedum" title="Sedum">Sedum</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Senecio_angulatus" title="Senecio angulatus">Senecio angulatus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Senecio_elegans" title="Senecio elegans">Senecio elegans</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tetradenia_riparia" title="Tetradenia riparia">Tetradenia riparia</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Thunbergia_alata" title="Thunbergia alata">Thunbergia alata</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vinca" title="Vinca">Vinca</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Vitis_vinifera" title="Vitis vinifera">Vitis vinifera</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yucca" title="Yucca">Yucca</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Drought_tolerance&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation" title="Climate change mitigation">Climate change mitigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adaptation_to_global_warming" class="mw-redirect" title="Adaptation to global warming">Adaptation to global warming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breeding_for_drought_stress_tolerance" title="Breeding for drought stress tolerance">Breeding for drought stress tolerance </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abscisic_acid" title="Abscisic acid">Abscisic acid</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Drought_tolerance&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-:7-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:7_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:7_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFAshraf2010" class="citation journal cs1">Ashraf, M. 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change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation" title="Climate change mitigation">Climate change mitigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_adaptation" title="Climate change adaptation">Climate change adaptation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Climate_change_regions" title="Template:Climate change regions">By country and region</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Causes" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_climate_change" title="Causes of climate change">Causes</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Overview</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_system" title="Climate system">Climate system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_effect" title="Greenhouse effect">Greenhouse effect</a> (<a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth%27s_atmosphere" title="Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere">Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_consensus_on_climate_change" title="Scientific consensus on climate change">Scientific consensus on climate change</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Sources</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_and_climate_change" title="Deforestation and climate change">Deforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel" title="Fossil fuel">Fossil fuel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas" title="Greenhouse gas">Greenhouse gases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions" title="Greenhouse gas emissions">Greenhouse gas emissions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_accounting" title="Carbon accounting">Carbon accounting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_footprint" title="Carbon footprint">Carbon footprint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_leakage" title="Carbon leakage">Carbon leakage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions_from_agriculture" title="Greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture">from agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions_from_wetlands" title="Greenhouse gas emissions from wetlands">from wetlands</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_energy_supply_and_consumption" title="World energy supply and consumption">World energy supply and consumption</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="History" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">History</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_climate_change_policy_and_politics" title="History of climate change policy and politics">History of climate change policy and politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_climate_change_science" title="History of climate change science">History of climate change science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Svante_Arrhenius" title="Svante Arrhenius">Svante Arrhenius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Hansen" title="James Hansen">James Hansen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_David_Keeling" title="Charles David Keeling">Charles David Keeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Climate_Change_conference" class="mw-redirect" title="United Nations Climate Change conference">United Nations Climate Change conferences</a></li> <li>Years in climate change <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2019_in_climate_change" title="2019 in climate change">2019</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020_in_climate_change" title="2020 in climate change">2020</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2021_in_climate_change" title="2021 in climate change">2021</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2022_in_climate_change" title="2022 in climate change">2022</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2023_in_climate_change" title="2023 in climate change">2023</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2024_in_climate_change" title="2024 in climate change">2024</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Effects_and_issues" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change" title="Effects of climate change">Effects and issues</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Physical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abrupt_climate_change" title="Abrupt climate change">Abrupt climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anoxic_event" title="Anoxic event">Anoxic event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_methane_emissions" title="Arctic methane emissions">Arctic methane emissions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_sea_ice_decline" title="Arctic sea ice decline">Arctic sea ice decline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_meridional_overturning_circulation" title="Atlantic meridional overturning circulation">Atlantic meridional overturning circulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drought" title="Drought">Drought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extreme_weather" title="Extreme weather">Extreme weather</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flood" title="Flood">Flood</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_flooding" title="Coastal flooding">Coastal flooding</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heat_wave" title="Heat wave">Heat wave</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marine_heatwave" title="Marine heatwave">Marine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_heat_island" title="Urban heat island">Urban heat island</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_oceans" title="Effects of climate change on oceans">Oceans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_acidification" title="Ocean acidification">acidification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_deoxygenation" title="Ocean deoxygenation">deoxygenation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_heat_content" title="Ocean heat content">heat content</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_surface_temperature" title="Sea surface temperature">sea surface temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_stratification" title="Ocean stratification">stratification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_temperature" title="Ocean temperature">temperature</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ozone_depletion" title="Ozone depletion">Ozone depletion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permafrost#Impacts_of_climate_change" title="Permafrost">Permafrost thaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retreat_of_glaciers_since_1850" title="Retreat of glaciers since 1850">Retreat of glaciers since 1850</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_level_rise" title="Sea level rise">Sea level rise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Season_creep" title="Season creep">Season creep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tipping_points_in_the_climate_system" title="Tipping points in the climate system">Tipping points in the climate system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_cyclones_and_climate_change" title="Tropical cyclones and climate change">Tropical cyclones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_the_water_cycle" title="Effects of climate change on the water cycle">Water cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_wildfires" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change and wildfires">Wildfires</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Flora and fauna</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_biomes" title="Effects of climate change on biomes">Biomes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mass_mortality_event" title="Mass mortality event">Mass mortality event</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_birds" title="Climate change and birds">Birds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change" title="Extinction risk from climate change">Extinction risk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_dieback" title="Forest dieback">Forest dieback</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_invasive_species" title="Climate change and invasive species">Invasive species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_marine_life#Climate_change" title="Human impact on marine life">Marine life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_plant_biodiversity" title="Effects of climate change on plant biodiversity">Plant biodiversity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Social and economic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_agriculture" title="Effects of climate change on agriculture">Agriculture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_livestock" title="Effects of climate change on livestock">Livestock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_agriculture_in_the_United_States" title="Climate change and agriculture in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_children" title="Climate change and children">Children</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_cities" title="Climate change and cities">Cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_civilizational_collapse" title="Climate change and civilizational collapse">Civilizational collapse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_crime" title="Climate change and crime">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_areas_depopulated_due_to_climate_change" title="List of areas depopulated due to climate change">Depopulation of settlements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_landmarks_destroyed_or_damaged_by_climate_change" title="List of landmarks destroyed or damaged by climate change">Destruction of cultural heritage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability_and_climate_change" title="Disability and climate change">Disability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_analysis_of_climate_change" title="Economic analysis of climate change">Economic impacts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_insurance_in_the_United_States" title="Climate change and insurance in the United States">U.S. insurance industry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_fisheries" title="Climate change and fisheries">Fisheries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_gender" title="Climate change and gender">Gender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_human_health" title="Effects of climate change on human health">Health</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_mental_health" title="Effects of climate change on mental health">Mental health</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_and_climate_change" title="Human rights and climate change">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_Indigenous_peoples" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change and Indigenous peoples">Indigenous peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_infectious_diseases" title="Climate change and infectious diseases">Infectious diseases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_migration" title="Climate migration">Migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_poverty" title="Climate change and poverty">Poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_impact_of_climate_change" title="Psychological impact of climate change">Psychological impacts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_security" title="Climate security">Security and conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_flooding" title="Urban flooding">Urban flooding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_scarcity" title="Water scarcity">Water scarcity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_security" title="Water security">Water security</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em"><a href="/wiki/Template:Climate_change_regions" title="Template:Climate change regions">By country and region</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Africa" title="Climate change in Africa">Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_Americas" title="Climate change in the Americas">Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Antarctica" title="Climate change in Antarctica">Antarctica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_Arctic" title="Climate change in the Arctic">Arctic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Asia" title="Climate change in Asia">Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Australia" title="Climate change in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_Caribbean" title="Climate change in the Caribbean">Caribbean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Europe" title="Climate change in Europe">Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_Middle_East_and_North_Africa" title="Climate change in the Middle East and North Africa">Middle East and North Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_small_island_countries" title="Effects of climate change on small island countries">Small island countries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Climate_change_by_country" title="Category:Climate change by country">by individual country</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Mitigation" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation" title="Climate change mitigation">Mitigation</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em"><a href="/wiki/Economic_analysis_of_climate_change" title="Economic analysis of climate change">Economics and finance</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_budget" title="Carbon budget">Carbon budget</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_emission_trading" title="Carbon emission trading">Carbon emission trading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_offsets_and_credits" title="Carbon offsets and credits">Carbon offsets and credits</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gold_Standard_(carbon_offset_standard)" title="Gold Standard (carbon offset standard)">Gold Standard (carbon offset standard)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_price" title="Carbon price">Carbon price</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_tax" title="Carbon tax">Carbon tax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_debt" title="Climate debt">Climate debt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_finance" title="Climate finance">Climate finance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_risk_insurance" title="Climate risk insurance">Climate risk insurance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Co-benefits_of_climate_change_mitigation" class="mw-redirect" title="Co-benefits of climate change mitigation">Co-benefits of climate change mitigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economics_of_climate_change_mitigation" title="Economics of climate change mitigation">Economics of climate change mitigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel_divestment" title="Fossil fuel divestment">Fossil fuel divestment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_Climate_Fund" title="Green Climate Fund">Green Climate Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low-carbon_economy" title="Low-carbon economy">Low-carbon economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Net_zero_emissions" class="mw-redirect" title="Net zero emissions">Net zero emissions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Energy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_capture_and_storage" title="Carbon capture and storage">Carbon capture and storage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_transition" title="Energy transition">Energy transition</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel_phase-out" title="Fossil fuel phase-out">Fossil fuel phase-out</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear power">Nuclear power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy" title="Renewable energy">Renewable energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_energy" title="Sustainable energy">Sustainable energy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Preserving and enhancing<br /> <a href="/wiki/Carbon_sink" title="Carbon sink">carbon sinks</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blue_carbon" title="Blue carbon">Blue carbon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_removal" title="Carbon dioxide removal">Carbon dioxide removal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_sequestration" title="Carbon sequestration">Carbon sequestration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_air_capture" title="Direct air capture">Direct air capture</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_farming" title="Carbon farming">Carbon farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate-smart_agriculture" title="Climate-smart agriculture">Climate-smart agriculture</a></li> <li>Forest management <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afforestation" title="Afforestation">afforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_sequestration#Forestry" title="Carbon sequestration">forestry for carbon sequestration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/REDD_and_REDD%2B" title="REDD and REDD+">REDD and REDD+</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reforestation" title="Reforestation">reforestation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_use,_land-use_change,_and_forestry" title="Land use, land-use change, and forestry">Land use, land-use change, and forestry</a> (LULUCF and AFOLU)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature-based_solutions" title="Nature-based solutions">Nature-based solutions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Personal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Individual_action_on_climate_change" title="Individual action on climate change">Individual action on climate change</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plant-based_diet" title="Plant-based diet">Plant-based diet</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Society_and_adaptation" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Society and <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_adaptation" title="Climate change adaptation">adaptation</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Society</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Business_action_on_climate_change" title="Business action on climate change">Business action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_action" title="Climate action">Climate action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_emergency_declaration" title="Climate emergency declaration">Climate emergency declaration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_movement" title="Climate movement">Climate movement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/School_Strike_for_Climate" class="mw-redirect" title="School Strike for Climate">School Strike for Climate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_denial" title="Climate change denial">Denial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_grief" title="Ecological grief">Ecological grief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_governance" title="Climate governance">Governance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_justice" title="Climate justice">Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_litigation" title="Climate change litigation">Litigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_climate_change" title="Politics of climate change">Politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_opinion_on_climate_change" title="Public opinion on climate change">Public opinion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_climate_change" title="Women in climate change">Women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em"><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_adaptation" title="Climate change adaptation">Adaptation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_adaptation_strategies_on_the_German_coast" title="Climate change adaptation strategies on the German coast">Adaptation strategies on the German coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adaptive_capacity" title="Adaptive capacity">Adaptive capacity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disaster_risk_reduction" title="Disaster risk reduction">Disaster risk reduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem-based_adaptation" title="Ecosystem-based adaptation">Ecosystem-based adaptation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flood_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Flood control">Flood control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loss_and_damage_(climate_change)" title="Loss and damage (climate change)">Loss and damage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Managed_retreat" title="Managed retreat">Managed retreat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature-based_solutions" title="Nature-based solutions">Nature-based solutions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_resilience" title="Climate resilience">Resilience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_risk" title="Climate risk">Risk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_vulnerability" title="Climate change vulnerability">Vulnerability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Adaptation_Fund" title="The Adaptation Fund">The Adaptation Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Adaptation_Programme_of_Action" title="National Adaptation Programme of Action">National Adaptation Programme of Action</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em"><a href="/wiki/Climate_communication" title="Climate communication">Communication</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_Change_Performance_Index" title="Climate Change Performance Index">Climate Change Performance Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_crisis" title="Climate crisis">Climate crisis (term)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_spiral" title="Climate spiral">Climate spiral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_education" title="Climate change education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_coverage_of_climate_change" title="Media coverage of climate change">Media coverage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_popular_culture" title="Climate change in popular culture">Popular culture depictions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_art" title="Climate change art">art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_fiction" title="Climate fiction">fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_climate_change_video_games" class="mw-redirect" title="List of climate change video games">video games</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warming_stripes" title="Warming stripes">Warming stripes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">International agreements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glasgow_Climate_Pact" title="Glasgow Climate Pact">Glasgow Climate Pact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyoto_Protocol" title="Kyoto Protocol">Kyoto Protocol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paris_Agreement" title="Paris Agreement">Paris Agreement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cooperative_Mechanisms_under_Article_6_of_the_Paris_Agreement" title="Cooperative Mechanisms under Article 6 of the Paris Agreement">Cooperative Mechanisms under Article 6 of the Paris Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationally_determined_contribution" title="Nationally determined contribution">Nationally determined contributions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_Development_Goal_13" title="Sustainable Development Goal 13">Sustainable Development Goal 13</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Framework_Convention_on_Climate_Change" title="United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change">United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Background_and_theory" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Background and theory</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Measurements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Global_surface_temperature" title="Global surface temperature">Global surface temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instrumental_temperature_record" class="mw-redirect" title="Instrumental temperature record">Instrumental temperature record</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proxy_(climate)" title="Proxy (climate)">Proxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satellite_temperature_measurement" title="Satellite temperature measurement">Satellite temperature measurement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Theory</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albedo" title="Albedo">Albedo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_cycle" title="Carbon cycle">Carbon cycle</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_carbon_cycle" title="Atmospheric carbon cycle">atmospheric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_pump" title="Biological pump">biologic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_carbon_cycle" title="Oceanic carbon cycle">oceanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permafrost_carbon_cycle" title="Permafrost carbon cycle">permafrost</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_sink" title="Carbon sink">Carbon sink</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_sensitivity" title="Climate sensitivity">Climate sensitivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_variability_and_change" title="Climate variability and change">Climate variability and change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cloud_feedback" title="Cloud feedback">Cloud feedback</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cloud_forcing" class="mw-redirect" title="Cloud forcing">Cloud forcing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fixed_anvil_temperature_hypothesis" title="Fixed anvil temperature hypothesis">Fixed anvil temperature hypothesis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryosphere" title="Cryosphere">Cryosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_energy_budget" title="Earth's energy budget">Earth's energy budget</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extreme_event_attribution" title="Extreme event attribution">Extreme event attribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_feedbacks" title="Climate change feedbacks">Feedbacks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_warming_potential" title="Global warming potential">Global warming potential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illustrative_model_of_greenhouse_effect_on_climate_change" title="Illustrative model of greenhouse effect on climate change">Illustrative model of greenhouse effect on climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orbital_forcing" title="Orbital forcing">Orbital forcing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiative_forcing" title="Radiative forcing">Radiative forcing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Research and modelling</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_scenario" title="Climate change scenario">Climate change scenario</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_model" title="Climate model">Climate model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coupled_Model_Intercomparison_Project" title="Coupled Model Intercomparison Project">Coupled Model Intercomparison Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intergovernmental_Panel_on_Climate_Change" title="Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change">Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/IPCC_Sixth_Assessment_Report" title="IPCC Sixth Assessment Report">IPCC Sixth Assessment Report</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleoclimatology" title="Paleoclimatology">Paleoclimatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Representative_Concentration_Pathway" title="Representative Concentration Pathway">Representative Concentration Pathway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shared_Socioeconomic_Pathways" title="Shared Socioeconomic Pathways">Shared Socioeconomic Pathways</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Climate_change_icon.png/16px-Climate_change_icon.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Climate_change_icon.png/24px-Climate_change_icon.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Climate_change_icon.png/32px-Climate_change_icon.png 2x" data-file-width="1112" data-file-height="1056" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Climate_change" title="Portal:Climate change">Climate change portal</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Climate_change" title="Category:Climate change">Category</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="List-Class article"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/16px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/23px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/31px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_climate_change" title="Glossary of climate change">Glossary</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="List-Class article"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/16px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/23px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/31px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Index_of_climate_change_articles" title="Index of climate change articles">Index</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q12142810#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q12142810#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q12142810#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at 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class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4150842-7">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Plants--Drought tolerance"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85102853">United States</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb12199910f">France</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb12199910f">BnF data</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007553332005171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    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