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<span>GIS software</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-GIS_software-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Geospatial_data_management" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Geospatial_data_management"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Geospatial data management</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Geospatial_data_management-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Geospatial data management subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Geospatial_data_management-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Aspects_of_geographic_data" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aspects_of_geographic_data"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Aspects of geographic data</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aspects_of_geographic_data-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Data_modeling" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Data_modeling"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Data modeling</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Data_modeling-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Data_acquisition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Data_acquisition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Data acquisition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Data_acquisition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Primary_data_capture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Primary_data_capture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.1</span> <span>Primary data capture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Primary_data_capture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Secondary_data_capture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Secondary_data_capture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.2</span> <span>Secondary data capture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Secondary_data_capture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Projections,_coordinate_systems,_and_registration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Projections,_coordinate_systems,_and_registration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Projections, coordinate systems, and registration</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Projections,_coordinate_systems,_and_registration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Data_quality" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Data_quality"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Data quality</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Data_quality-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Raster-to-vector_translation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Raster-to-vector_translation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Raster-to-vector translation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Raster-to-vector_translation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Spatial_ETL" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spatial_ETL"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.7</span> <span>Spatial ETL</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Spatial_ETL-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Spatial_analysis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spatial_analysis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Spatial analysis</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Spatial_analysis-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Spatial analysis subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Spatial_analysis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Terrain_analysis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Terrain_analysis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Terrain analysis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Terrain_analysis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Proximity_analysis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Proximity_analysis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Proximity analysis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Proximity_analysis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Data_analysis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Data_analysis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Data analysis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Data_analysis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Topological_modeling" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Topological_modeling"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Topological modeling</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Topological_modeling-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Geometric_networks" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Geometric_networks"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5</span> <span>Geometric networks</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Geometric_networks-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cartographic_modeling" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cartographic_modeling"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.6</span> <span>Cartographic modeling</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cartographic_modeling-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Map_overlay" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Map_overlay"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.7</span> <span>Map overlay</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Map_overlay-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Geostatistics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Geostatistics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.8</span> <span>Geostatistics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Geostatistics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Address_geocoding" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Address_geocoding"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.9</span> <span>Address geocoding</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Address_geocoding-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reverse_geocoding" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reverse_geocoding"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.10</span> <span>Reverse geocoding</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reverse_geocoding-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Multi-criteria_decision_analysis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Multi-criteria_decision_analysis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.11</span> <span>Multi-criteria decision analysis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Multi-criteria_decision_analysis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-GIS_data_mining" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#GIS_data_mining"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.12</span> <span>GIS data mining</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-GIS_data_mining-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Data_output_and_cartography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Data_output_and_cartography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Data output and cartography</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Data_output_and_cartography-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Data output and cartography subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Data_output_and_cartography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Terrain_depiction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Terrain_depiction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Terrain depiction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Terrain_depiction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Web_mapping" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Web_mapping"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Web mapping</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Web_mapping-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Applications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Applications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Applications</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Applications-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Applications subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Applications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Topics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Topics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Topics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Topics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Aquatic_science" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aquatic_science"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1.1</span> <span>Aquatic science</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aquatic_science-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Archaeology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Archaeology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1.2</span> <span>Archaeology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Archaeology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Environmental_governance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Environmental_governance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1.3</span> <span>Environmental governance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Environmental_governance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Environmental_contamination" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Environmental_contamination"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1.4</span> <span>Environmental contamination</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Environmental_contamination-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Geologic_mapping" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Geologic_mapping"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1.5</span> <span>Geologic mapping</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Geologic_mapping-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Geospatial_intelligence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Geospatial_intelligence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1.6</span> <span>Geospatial intelligence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Geospatial_intelligence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1.7</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hydrology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hydrology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1.8</span> <span>Hydrology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hydrology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Participatory_GIS" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Participatory_GIS"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1.9</span> <span>Participatory GIS</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Participatory_GIS-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Public_health" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Public_health"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1.10</span> <span>Public health</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Public_health-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Traditional_knowledge_GIS" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Traditional_knowledge_GIS"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1.11</span> <span>Traditional knowledge GIS</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Traditional_knowledge_GIS-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Open_Geospatial_Consortium_standards" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Open_Geospatial_Consortium_standards"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Open Geospatial Consortium standards</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Open_Geospatial_Consortium_standards-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Adding_the_dimension_of_time" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Adding_the_dimension_of_time"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Adding the dimension of time</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Adding_the_dimension_of_time-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Semantics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Semantics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Semantics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Semantics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Societal_implications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Societal_implications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Societal implications</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Societal_implications-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Societal implications subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Societal_implications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-In_education" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_education"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>In education</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_education-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_local_government" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_local_government"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>In local government</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_local_government-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Geographic information system</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 72 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-72" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">72 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografiese_inligtingstelsel" title="Geografiese inligtingstelsel – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Geografiese inligtingstelsel" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D8%B8%D8%A7%D9%85_%D9%85%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%88%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%AC%D8%BA%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%81%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="نظام معلومات جغرافية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="نظام معلومات جغرافية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AD%E0%A7%8C%E0%A6%97%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95_%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%A5%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF_%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A7%B1%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A5%E0%A6%BE" title="ভৌগোলিক তথ্য ব্যৱস্থা – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="ভৌগোলিক তথ্য ব্যৱস্থা" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistema_d%27informaci%C3%B3n_xeogr%C3%A1fica" title="Sistema d'información xeográfica – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Sistema d'información xeográfica" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-awa mw-list-item"><a href="https://awa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%87_%E0%A4%8F%E0%A4%B8" title="जी आइ एस – Awadhi" lang="awa" hreflang="awa" data-title="जी आइ एस" data-language-autonym="अवधी" data-language-local-name="Awadhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>अवधी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Co%C4%9Frafi_informasiya_sistemi" title="Coğrafi informasiya sistemi – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Coğrafi informasiya sistemi" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AD%E0%A7%8C%E0%A6%97%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95_%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%A5%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF_%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A5%E0%A6%BE" title="ভৌগোলিক তথ্য ব্যবস্থা – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ভৌগোলিক তথ্য ব্যবস্থা" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C4%93-l%C3%AD_chu-s%C3%ACn_h%C4%93-th%C3%B3ng" title="Tē-lí chu-sìn hē-thóng – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Tē-lí chu-sìn hē-thóng" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%B0%D1%96%D0%BD%D1%84%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%8B%D0%B9%D0%BD%D1%8B%D1%8F_%D1%81%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8D%D0%BC%D1%8B" title="Геаінфармацыйныя сістэмы – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Геаінфармацыйныя сістэмы" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%8F%E0%A4%B8" title="जीआइएस – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="जीआइएस" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>भोजपुरी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Географска информационна система – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Географска информационна система" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/GIS" title="GIS – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="GIS" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistema_d%27informaci%C3%B3_geogr%C3%A0fica" title="Sistema d'informació geogràfica – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Sistema d'informació geogràfica" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografick%C3%BD_informa%C4%8Dn%C3%AD_syst%C3%A9m" title="Geografický informační systém – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Geografický informační systém" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografisk_informationssystem" title="Geografisk informationssystem – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Geografisk informationssystem" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geoinformationssystem" title="Geoinformationssystem – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Geoinformationssystem" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geoinfos%C3%BCsteem" title="Geoinfosüsteem – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Geoinfosüsteem" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A3%CF%8D%CF%83%CF%84%CE%B7%CE%BC%CE%B1_%CE%93%CE%B5%CF%89%CE%B3%CF%81%CE%B1%CF%86%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8E%CE%BD_%CE%A0%CE%BB%CE%B7%CF%81%CE%BF%CF%86%CE%BF%CF%81%CE%B9%CF%8E%CE%BD" title="Σύστημα Γεωγραφικών Πληροφοριών – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Σύστημα Γεωγραφικών Πληροφοριών" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistema_de_informaci%C3%B3n_geogr%C3%A1fica" title="Sistema de información geográfica – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Sistema de información geográfica" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografia_informsistemo" title="Geografia informsistemo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Geografia informsistemo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/GIS" title="GIS – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="GIS" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%87_%D8%A7%D8%B7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B9%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%AC%D8%BA%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%81%DB%8C%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%8C" title="سامانه اطلاعات جغرافیایی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="سامانه اطلاعات جغرافیایی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syst%C3%A8me_d%27information_g%C3%A9ographique" title="Système d'information géographique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Système d'information géographique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistema_de_informaci%C3%B3n_xeogr%C3%A1fica" title="Sistema de información xeográfica – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Sistema de información xeográfica" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A7%80%EB%A6%AC_%EC%A0%95%EB%B3%B4_%EC%8B%9C%EC%8A%A4%ED%85%9C" title="지리 정보 시스템 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="지리 정보 시스템" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B1%D5%B7%D5%AD%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%B0%D5%A1%D5%A3%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%BF%D5%A5%D5%B2%D5%A5%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%BF%D5%BE%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%B0%D5%A1%D5%B4%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%A3" title="Աշխարհագրական տեղեկատվական համակարգ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Աշխարհագրական տեղեկատվական համակարգ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%8C%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="भौगोलिक सूचना तंत्र – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="भौगोलिक सूचना तंत्र" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografski_informacijski_sustav" title="Geografski informacijski sustav – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Geografski informacijski sustav" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistem_informasi_geografis" title="Sistem informasi geografis – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Sistem informasi geografis" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landfr%C3%A6%C3%B0ilegt_uppl%C3%BDsingakerfi" title="Landfræðilegt upplýsingakerfi – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Landfræðilegt upplýsingakerfi" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographic_information_system" title="Geographic information system – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Geographic information system" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%A2%D7%A8%D7%9B%D7%AA_%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%93%D7%A2_%D7%92%D7%90%D7%95%D7%92%D7%A8%D7%A4%D7%99" title="מערכת מידע גאוגרפי – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מערכת מידע גאוגרפי" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%92%E1%83%94%E1%83%9D%E1%83%92%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98_%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A4%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%AA%E1%83%98%E1%83%9D_%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2%E1%83%94%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90" title="გეოგრაფიული საინფორმაციო სისტემა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="გეოგრაფიული საინფორმაციო სისტემა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F%D0%BB%D1%8B%D2%9B_%D0%B0%D2%9B%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%82%D1%8B%D2%9B_%D0%B6%D2%AF%D0%B9%D0%B5" title="Географиялық ақпараттық жүйе – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Географиялық ақпараттық жүйе" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%A2eogr%C4%81fisk%C4%81_inform%C4%81cijas_sist%C4%93ma" title="Ģeogrāfiskā informācijas sistēma – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Ģeogrāfiskā informācijas sistēma" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografin%C4%97_informacin%C4%97_sistema" title="Geografinė informacinė sistema – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Geografinė informacinė sistema" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%B6ldrajzi_inform%C3%A1ci%C3%B3s_rendszer" title="Földrajzi információs rendszer – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Földrajzi információs rendszer" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC" title="Географски информациски систем – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Географски информациски систем" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AD%E0%B5%82%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%B5%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A5" title="ഭൂവിവരവ്യവസ്ഥ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ഭൂവിവരവ്യവസ്ഥ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%8C%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%80" title="भौगोलिक माहिती प्रणाली – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="भौगोलिक माहिती प्रणाली" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistem_maklumat_geografi" title="Sistem maklumat geografi – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Sistem maklumat geografi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/GIS" title="GIS – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="GIS" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografisch_informatiesysteem" title="Geografisch informatiesysteem – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Geografisch informatiesysteem" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%8C%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%80" title="भौगोलिक सूचना प्रणाली – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="भौगोलिक सूचना प्रणाली" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%9C%B0%E7%90%86%E6%83%85%E5%A0%B1%E3%82%B7%E3%82%B9%E3%83%86%E3%83%A0" title="地理情報システム – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="地理情報システム" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografisk_informasjonssystem" title="Geografisk informasjonssystem – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Geografisk informasjonssystem" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/GIS" title="GIS – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="GIS" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografik_axborot_tizimi" title="Geografik axborot tizimi – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Geografik axborot tizimi" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D8%AC%D8%BA%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%81%D9%8A%D9%88%D9%8A_%D9%85%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%88%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%88_%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%85" title="د جغرافيوي معلوماتو سيستم – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د جغرافيوي معلوماتو سيستم" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_informacji_geograficznej" title="System informacji geograficznej – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="System informacji geograficznej" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistema_de_informa%C3%A7%C3%A3o_geogr%C3%A1fica" title="Sistema de informação geográfica – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Sistema de informação geográfica" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistem_de_informa%C8%9Bii_geografice" title="Sistem de informații geografice – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Sistem de informații geografice" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Геоинформационная система – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Геоинформационная система" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/GIS" title="GIS – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="GIS" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B7%E0%B7%96%E0%B6%9C%E0%B7%9D%E0%B6%BD%E0%B7%93%E0%B6%BA_%E0%B6%AD%E0%B7%9C%E0%B6%BB%E0%B6%AD%E0%B7%94%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%94_%E0%B6%B4%E0%B6%AF%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%B0%E0%B6%AD%E0%B7%92" title="භූගෝලීය තොරතුරු පද්ධති – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="භූගෝලීය තොරතුරු පද්ධති" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/GIS" title="GIS – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="GIS" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografick%C3%BD_informa%C4%8Dn%C3%BD_syst%C3%A9m" title="Geografický informačný systém – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Geografický informačný systém" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografski_informacijski_sistem" title="Geografski informacijski sistem – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Geografski informacijski sistem" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%85%DB%8C_%D8%B2%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%DB%8C_%D8%AC%D9%88%DA%AF%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%81%DB%8C" title="سیستمی زانیاریی جوگرافی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="سیستمی زانیاریی جوگرافی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC" title="Географски информациони систем – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Географски информациони систем" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografski_informacijski_sistem" title="Geografski informacijski sistem – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Geografski informacijski sistem" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paikkatietoj%C3%A4rjestelm%C3%A4" title="Paikkatietojärjestelmä – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Paikkatietojärjestelmä" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografiskt_informationssystem" title="Geografiskt informationssystem – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Geografiskt informationssystem" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%88" title="புவியியல் தகவல் முறைமை – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="புவியியல் தகவல் முறைமை" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%99%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%A0%E0%B8%B9%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C" title="ระบบสารสนเทศภูมิศาสตร์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ระบบสารสนเทศภูมิศาสตร์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B8_%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%8A%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B8_%D2%B7%D1%83%D2%93%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%91%D3%A3" title="Сомонаи иттилоъоти ҷуғрофиёӣ – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Сомонаи иттилоъоти ҷуғрофиёӣ" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Co%C4%9Frafi_bilgi_sistemi" title="Coğrafi bilgi sistemi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Coğrafi bilgi sistemi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D1%96%D0%BD%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%96%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Геоінформаційна система – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Геоінформаційна система" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%E1%BB%87_th%E1%BB%91ng_th%C3%B4ng_tin_%C4%91%E1%BB%8Ba_l%C3%BD" title="Hệ thống thông tin địa lý – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Hệ thống thông tin địa lý" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%9C%B0%E7%90%86%E4%BF%A1%E6%81%AF%E7%B3%BB%E7%BB%9F" title="地理信息系统 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="地理信息系统" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%9C%B0%E7%90%86%E8%B3%87%E8%A8%8A%E7%B3%BB%E7%B5%B1" title="地理資訊系統 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="地理資訊系統" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%9C%B0%E7%90%86%E4%BF%A1%E6%81%AF%E7%B3%BB%E7%BB%9F" title="地理信息系统 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="地理信息系统" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div 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title="GIS applications">GIS applications</a>)</span></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">System to capture, manage, and present geographic data</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"GIS" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/GIS_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="GIS (disambiguation)">GIS (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Geographic_information_system" title="Special:EditPage/Geographic information system">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Geographic+information+system%22">"Geographic information system"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Geographic+information+system%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Geographic+information+system%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Geographic+information+system%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Geographic+information+system%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Geographic+information+system%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">March 2023</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fig_4.4.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Fig_4.4.svg/220px-Fig_4.4.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Fig_4.4.svg/330px-Fig_4.4.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Fig_4.4.svg/440px-Fig_4.4.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="878" data-file-height="575" /></a><figcaption>Basic GIS concept</figcaption></figure> <p>A <b>geographic information system</b> (<b>GIS</b>) consists of integrated computer hardware and <a href="/wiki/Geographic_information_system_software" title="Geographic information system software">software</a> that store, manage, <a href="/wiki/Spatial_analysis" title="Spatial analysis">analyze</a>, edit, output, and <a href="/wiki/Cartographic_design" title="Cartographic design">visualize</a> <a href="/wiki/Geographic_data_and_information" title="Geographic data and information">geographic data</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-DeMers1_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DeMers1-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-chang2016_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-chang2016-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Much of this often happens within a <a href="/wiki/Spatial_database" title="Spatial database">spatial database</a>; however, this is not essential to meet the definition of a GIS.<sup id="cite_ref-DeMers1_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DeMers1-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a broader sense, one may consider such a system also to include human users and support staff, procedures and workflows, the <a href="/wiki/Geographic_Information_Science_and_Technology_Body_of_Knowledge" title="Geographic Information Science and Technology Body of Knowledge">body of knowledge</a> of relevant concepts and methods, and institutional organizations. </p><p>The uncounted plural, <i>geographic information systems</i>, also abbreviated GIS, is the most common term for the industry and profession concerned with these systems. It is roughly synonymous with <a href="/wiki/Geoinformatics" title="Geoinformatics">geoinformatics</a>. The academic discipline that studies these systems and their underlying geographic principles, may also be abbreviated as GIS, but the unambiguous <a href="/wiki/GIScience" class="mw-redirect" title="GIScience">GIScience</a> is more common.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> GIScience is often considered a subdiscipline of <a href="/wiki/Geography" title="Geography">geography</a> within the branch of <a href="/wiki/Technical_geography" title="Technical geography">technical geography</a>. </p><p>Geographic information systems are utilized in multiple technologies, processes, techniques and methods. They are attached to various operations and numerous applications, that relate to: engineering, planning, management, transport/logistics, insurance, telecommunications, and business.<sup id="cite_ref-Maliene_V,_Grigonis_V,_Palevičius_V,_Griffiths_S_2011_1–6_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maliene_V,_Grigonis_V,_Palevičius_V,_Griffiths_S_2011_1–6-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For this reason, GIS and <a href="/wiki/Location_intelligence" title="Location intelligence">location intelligence</a> applications are at the foundation of location-enabled services, which rely on geographic analysis and visualization. </p><p>GIS provides the ability to relate previously unrelated information, through the use of location as the "key index variable". Locations and extents that are found in the Earth's <a href="/wiki/Spacetime" title="Spacetime">spacetime</a> are able to be recorded through the date and time of occurrence, along with x, y, and z <a href="/wiki/Coordinate" class="mw-redirect" title="Coordinate">coordinates</a>; representing, <a href="/wiki/Longitude" title="Longitude">longitude</a> (<i>x</i>), <a href="/wiki/Latitude" title="Latitude">latitude</a> (<i>y</i>), and <a href="/wiki/Elevation_(geography)" class="mw-redirect" title="Elevation (geography)">elevation</a> (<i>z</i>). All Earth-based, spatial–temporal, location and extent references should be relatable to one another, and ultimately, to a "real" physical location or extent. This key characteristic of GIS has begun to open new avenues of scientific inquiry and studies. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History_and_development">History and development</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geographic_information_system&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History and development"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>While digital GIS dates to the mid-1960s, when <a href="/wiki/Roger_Tomlinson" title="Roger Tomlinson">Roger Tomlinson</a> first coined the phrase "geographic information system",<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> many of the geographic concepts and methods that GIS automates date back decades earlier. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Snow-cholera-map.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Snow-cholera-map.jpg/300px-Snow-cholera-map.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Snow-cholera-map.jpg/450px-Snow-cholera-map.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Snow-cholera-map.jpg/600px-Snow-cholera-map.jpg 2x" data-file-width="889" data-file-height="869" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/E._W._Gilbert" class="mw-redirect" title="E. W. Gilbert">E. W. Gilbert</a>'s version (1958) of <a href="/wiki/John_Snow_(physician)" class="mw-redirect" title="John Snow (physician)">John Snow</a>'s 1855 map of the <a href="/wiki/Soho" title="Soho">Soho</a> cholera outbreak showing the clusters of cholera cases in the <a href="/wiki/1854_Broad_Street_cholera_outbreak" title="1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak">London epidemic of 1854</a></figcaption></figure> <p>One of the first known instances in which spatial analysis was used came from the field of <a href="/wiki/Epidemiology" title="Epidemiology">epidemiology</a> in the <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Rapport sur la marche et les effets du choléra dans Paris et le département de la <a href="/wiki/Seine" title="Seine">Seine</a></i></span> (1832).<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> French <a href="/wiki/Cartography" title="Cartography">cartographer</a> and geographer <a href="/w/index.php?title=Charles_Picquet&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Charles Picquet (page does not exist)">Charles Picquet</a> created a map outlining the <a href="/wiki/Arrondissements_of_Paris" title="Arrondissements of Paris">forty-eight districts in Paris</a>, using <a href="/wiki/Halftone" title="Halftone">halftone</a> color gradients, to provide a visual representation for the number of reported deaths due to <a href="/wiki/Cholera" title="Cholera">cholera</a> per every 1,000 inhabitants. </p><p>In 1854, <a href="/wiki/John_Snow" title="John Snow">John Snow</a>, an epidemiologist and physician, was able to determine the source of a <a href="/wiki/1854_Broad_Street_cholera_outbreak" title="1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak">cholera outbreak in London</a> through the use of spatial analysis. Snow achieved this through plotting the residence of each casualty on a map of the area, as well as the nearby water sources. Once these points were marked, he was able to identify the water source within the cluster that was responsible for the outbreak. This was one of the earliest successful uses of a geographic methodology in pinpointing the source of an outbreak in epidemiology. While the basic elements of <a href="/wiki/Topography" title="Topography">topography</a> and theme existed previously in <a href="/wiki/Cartography" title="Cartography">cartography</a>, Snow's map was unique due to his use of cartographic methods, not only to depict, but also to analyze clusters of geographically dependent phenomena. </p><p>The early 20th century saw the development of <a href="/wiki/Photozincography" title="Photozincography">photozincography</a>, which allowed maps to be split into layers, for example one layer for vegetation and another for water. This was particularly used for printing contours – drawing these was a labour-intensive task but having them on a separate layer meant they could be worked on without the other layers to confuse the <a href="/wiki/Drafter" title="Drafter">draughtsman</a>. This work was initially drawn on glass plates, but later <a href="/wiki/Plastic_film" title="Plastic film">plastic film</a> was introduced, with the advantages of being lighter, using less storage space and being less brittle, among others. When all the layers were finished, they were combined into one image using a large process camera. Once color printing came in, the layers idea was also used for creating separate printing plates for each color. While the use of layers much later became one of the typical features of a contemporary GIS, the photographic process just described is not considered a GIS in itself – as the maps were just images with no database to link them to. </p><p>Two additional developments are notable in the early days of GIS: <a href="/wiki/Ian_McHarg" title="Ian McHarg">Ian McHarg</a>'s publication <i>Design with Nature</i><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and its map overlay method and the introduction of a street network into the U.S. Census Bureau's DIME (<a href="/wiki/Dual_Independent_Map_Encoding" title="Dual Independent Map Encoding">Dual Independent Map Encoding</a>) system.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The first publication detailing the use of computers to facilitate cartography was written by <a href="/wiki/Waldo_Tobler" class="mw-redirect" title="Waldo Tobler">Waldo Tobler</a> in 1959.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Further <a href="/wiki/Computer_hardware" title="Computer hardware">computer hardware</a> development spurred by <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon" title="Nuclear weapon">nuclear weapon</a> research led to more widespread general-purpose computer "mapping" applications by the early 1960s.<sup id="cite_ref-map_printing_methods_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-map_printing_methods-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1963, the world's first true operational GIS was developed in <a href="/wiki/Ottawa,_Ontario" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottawa, Ontario">Ottawa, Ontario</a>, Canada, by the federal Department of Forestry and Rural Development. Developed by <a href="/wiki/Roger_Tomlinson" title="Roger Tomlinson">Roger Tomlinson</a>, it was called the <a href="/wiki/Canada_Geographic_Information_System" title="Canada Geographic Information System">Canada Geographic Information System</a> (CGIS) and was used to store, analyze, and manipulate data collected for the <a href="/wiki/Canada_Land_Inventory" title="Canada Land Inventory">Canada Land Inventory</a>, an effort to determine the land capability for rural Canada by mapping information about <a href="/wiki/Soil" title="Soil">soils</a>, agriculture, recreation, wildlife, <a href="/wiki/Waterfowl" class="mw-redirect" title="Waterfowl">waterfowl</a>, <a href="/wiki/Forestry" title="Forestry">forestry</a> and land use at a scale of 1:50,000. A rating classification factor was also added to permit analysis.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>CGIS was an improvement over "computer mapping" applications as it provided capabilities for data storage, overlay, measurement, and <a href="/wiki/Digitizing" class="mw-redirect" title="Digitizing">digitizing</a>/scanning. It supported a national coordinate system that spanned the continent, coded lines as <a href="/wiki/Directed_edge" class="mw-redirect" title="Directed edge">arcs</a> having a true embedded <a href="/wiki/Topology" title="Topology">topology</a> and it stored the attribute and locational information in separate files. As a result of this, Tomlinson has become known as the "father of GIS", particularly for his use of overlays in promoting the spatial analysis of convergent geographic data.<sup id="cite_ref-Tomlinson_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tomlinson-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> CGIS lasted into the 1990s and built a large digital land resource database in Canada. It was developed as a <a href="/wiki/Mainframe_computer" title="Mainframe computer">mainframe</a>-based system in support of federal and provincial resource planning and management. Its strength was continent-wide analysis of complex <a href="/wiki/Data_set" title="Data set">datasets</a>. The CGIS was never available commercially. </p><p>In 1964, Howard T. Fisher formed the Laboratory for Computer Graphics and Spatial Analysis at the <a href="/wiki/Harvard_Graduate_School_of_Design" title="Harvard Graduate School of Design">Harvard Graduate School of Design</a> (LCGSA 1965–1991), where a number of important theoretical concepts in spatial data handling were developed, and which by the 1970s had distributed seminal software code and systems, such as SYMAP, GRID, and ODYSSEY, to universities, research centers and corporations worldwide.<sup id="cite_ref-Fisher_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fisher-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These programs were the first examples of general-purpose GIS software that was not developed for a particular installation, and was very influential on future commercial software, such as <a href="/wiki/Esri" title="Esri">Esri</a> <a href="/wiki/ARC/INFO" class="mw-redirect" title="ARC/INFO">ARC/INFO</a>, released in 1983. </p><p>By the late 1970s two public domain GIS systems (<a href="/wiki/Map_Overlay_and_Statistical_System" title="Map Overlay and Statistical System">MOSS</a> and <a href="/wiki/GRASS_GIS" title="GRASS GIS">GRASS GIS</a>) were in development, and by the early 1980s, M&S Computing (later <a href="/wiki/Intergraph" title="Intergraph">Intergraph</a>) along with Bentley Systems Incorporated for the <a href="/wiki/Computer-aided_design" title="Computer-aided design">CAD</a> platform, Environmental Systems Research Institute (<a href="/wiki/Environmental_Systems_Research_Institute" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental Systems Research Institute">ESRI</a>), <a href="/wiki/Teledyne_CARIS" title="Teledyne CARIS">CARIS</a> (Computer Aided Resource Information System), and ERDAS (Earth Resource Data Analysis System) emerged as commercial vendors of GIS software, successfully incorporating many of the CGIS features, combining the first-generation approach to separation of spatial and attribute information with a second-generation approach to organizing attribute data into database structures.<sup id="cite_ref-wiki.osgeo.org_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wiki.osgeo.org-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1986, Mapping Display and Analysis System (MIDAS), the first desktop GIS product,<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was released for the <a href="/wiki/DOS" title="DOS">DOS</a> operating system. This was renamed in 1990 to MapInfo for Windows when it was ported to the <a href="/wiki/Microsoft_Windows" title="Microsoft Windows">Microsoft Windows</a> platform. This began the process of moving GIS from the research department into the business environment. </p><p>By the end of the 20th century, the rapid growth in various systems had been consolidated and standardized on relatively few platforms and users were beginning to explore viewing GIS data over the <a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a>, requiring data format and transfer standards. More recently, a growing number of <a href="/wiki/List_of_GIS_software#Open_source_software" class="mw-redirect" title="List of GIS software">free, open-source GIS packages</a> run on a range of operating systems and can be customized to perform specific tasks. The major trend of the 21st Century has been the integration of GIS capabilities with other <a href="/wiki/Information_technology" title="Information technology">Information technology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a> infrastructure, such as <a href="/wiki/Relational_database" title="Relational database">relational databases</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cloud_computing" title="Cloud computing">cloud computing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Software_as_a_service" title="Software as a service">software as a service</a> (SAAS), and <a href="/wiki/Mobile_computing" title="Mobile computing">mobile computing</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="GIS_software">GIS software</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geographic_information_system&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: GIS software"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Geographic_information_system_software" title="Geographic information system software">Geographic information system software</a></div> <p>The distinction must be made between a singular <i>geographic information system</i>, which is a single installation of software and data for a particular use, along with associated hardware, staff, and institutions (e.g., the GIS for a particular city government); and <i><a href="/wiki/Geographic_information_system_software" title="Geographic information system software">GIS software</a></i>, a general-purpose <a href="/wiki/Application_software" title="Application software">application program</a> that is intended to be used in many individual geographic information systems in a variety of application domains.<sup id="cite_ref-bolstad_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bolstad-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 16">: 16 </span></sup> Starting in the late 1970s, many software packages have been created specifically for GIS applications. <a href="/wiki/Esri" title="Esri">Esri's</a> <a href="/wiki/ArcGIS" title="ArcGIS">ArcGIS</a>, which includes <a href="/wiki/ArcGIS_Pro" title="ArcGIS Pro">ArcGIS Pro</a> and the legacy software <a href="/wiki/ArcMap" title="ArcMap">ArcMap</a>, currently dominates the GIS market.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers"><span title="The time period mentioned near this tag is ambiguous. (September 2024)">as of?</span></a></i>]</sup> Other examples of GIS include <a href="/wiki/Autodesk" title="Autodesk">Autodesk</a> and <a href="/wiki/MapInfo_Professional" class="mw-redirect" title="MapInfo Professional">MapInfo Professional</a> and open-source programs such as <a href="/wiki/QGIS" title="QGIS">QGIS</a>, <a href="/wiki/GRASS_GIS" title="GRASS GIS">GRASS GIS</a>, <a href="/wiki/MapGuide" class="mw-redirect" title="MapGuide">MapGuide</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Apache_Hadoop" title="Apache Hadoop">Hadoop-GIS</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These and other desktop GIS applications include a full suite of capabilities for entering, managing, analyzing, and visualizing geographic data, and are designed to be used on their own. </p><p>Starting in the late 1990s with the emergence of the <a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a>, as computer network technology progressed, GIS infrastructure and data began to move to <a href="/wiki/Server_(computing)" title="Server (computing)">servers</a>, providing another mechanism for providing GIS capabilities.<sup id="cite_ref-longley2015_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-longley2015-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 216">: 216 </span></sup> This was facilitated by standalone software installed on a server, similar to other server software such as <a href="/wiki/HTTP_server" class="mw-redirect" title="HTTP server">HTTP servers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Relational_database_management_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Relational database management system">relational database management systems</a>, enabling clients to have access to GIS data and processing tools without having to install specialized desktop software. These networks are known as <a href="/wiki/Distributed_GIS" title="Distributed GIS">distributed GIS</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Zhong1_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zhong1-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Moretz1_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moretz1-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This strategy has been extended through the Internet and development of <a href="/wiki/Cloud_computing" title="Cloud computing">cloud-based</a> GIS platforms such as ArcGIS Online and GIS-specialized <a href="/wiki/Software_as_a_service" title="Software as a service">software as a service</a> (SAAS). The use of the Internet to facilitate distributed GIS is known as <a href="/wiki/Internet_GIS" title="Internet GIS">Internet GIS</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Zhong1_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zhong1-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Moretz1_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moretz1-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An alternative approach is the integration of some or all of these capabilities into other software or <a href="/wiki/Information_technology" title="Information technology">information technology</a> architectures. One example is a <a href="/wiki/Spatial_database" title="Spatial database">spatial extension</a> to <a href="/wiki/Object-relational_database" class="mw-redirect" title="Object-relational database">Object-relational database</a> software, which defines a geometry datatype so that spatial data can be stored in relational tables, and extensions to <a href="/wiki/SQL" title="SQL">SQL</a> for spatial analysis operations such as <a href="/wiki/Vector_overlay" title="Vector overlay">overlay</a>. Another example is the proliferation of geospatial libraries and <a href="/wiki/Application_programming_interface" class="mw-redirect" title="Application programming interface">application programming interfaces</a> (e.g., <a href="/wiki/GDAL" title="GDAL">GDAL</a>, <a href="/wiki/Leaflet_(software)" title="Leaflet (software)">Leaflet</a>, <a href="/wiki/D3.js" title="D3.js">D3.js</a>) that extend programming languages to enable the incorporation of GIS data and processing into custom software, including <a href="/wiki/Web_mapping" title="Web mapping">web mapping</a> sites and <a href="/wiki/Location-based_service" title="Location-based service">location-based services</a> in <a href="/wiki/Smartphone" title="Smartphone">smartphones</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Geospatial_data_management">Geospatial data management</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geographic_information_system&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Geospatial data management"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The core of any GIS is a <a href="/wiki/Database" title="Database">database</a> that contains representations of geographic phenomena, modeling their <i>geometry</i> (location and shape) and their <i>properties</i> or <i>attributes</i>. A GIS database may be stored in a variety of forms, such as a collection of separate <a href="/wiki/GIS_file_formats" class="mw-redirect" title="GIS file formats">data files</a> or a single <a href="/wiki/Spatial_database" title="Spatial database">spatially-enabled</a> <a href="/wiki/Relational_database" title="Relational database">relational database</a>. Collecting and managing these data usually constitutes the bulk of the time and financial resources of a project, far more than other aspects such as analysis and mapping.<sup id="cite_ref-longley2015_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-longley2015-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 175">: 175 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Aspects_of_geographic_data">Aspects of geographic data</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geographic_information_system&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Aspects of geographic data"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>GIS uses spatio-temporal (<a href="/wiki/Space-time" class="mw-redirect" title="Space-time">space-time</a>) location as the key index variable for all other information. Just as a relational database containing text or numbers can relate many different tables using common key index variables, GIS can relate otherwise unrelated information by using location as the key index variable. The key is the location and/or extent in space-time. </p><p>Any variable that can be located spatially, and increasingly also temporally, can be referenced using a GIS. Locations or extents in Earth space–time may be recorded as dates/times of occurrence, and x, y, and z <a href="/wiki/Coordinate" class="mw-redirect" title="Coordinate">coordinates</a> representing, <a href="/wiki/Longitude" title="Longitude">longitude</a>, <a href="/wiki/Latitude" title="Latitude">latitude</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Elevation_(geography)" class="mw-redirect" title="Elevation (geography)">elevation</a>, respectively. These GIS coordinates may represent other quantified systems of temporo-spatial reference (for example, film frame number, stream gage station, highway mile-marker, surveyor benchmark, building address, street intersection, entrance gate, water depth sounding, <a href="/wiki/Point_of_sale" title="Point of sale">POS</a> or <a href="/wiki/Computer-aided_design" title="Computer-aided design">CAD</a> drawing origin/units). Units applied to recorded temporal-spatial data can vary widely (even when using exactly the same data, see <a href="/wiki/Map_projection" title="Map projection">map projections</a>), but all Earth-based spatial–temporal location and extent references should, ideally, be relatable to one another and ultimately to a "real" physical location or extent in space–time. </p><p>Related by accurate spatial information, an incredible variety of real-world and projected past or future data can be analyzed, interpreted and represented.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This key characteristic of GIS has begun to open new avenues of scientific inquiry into behaviors and patterns of real-world information that previously had not been systematically <a href="/wiki/Correlation" title="Correlation">correlated</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Data_modeling">Data modeling</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geographic_information_system&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Data modeling"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Data_model_(GIS)" title="Data model (GIS)">Data model (GIS)</a> and <a href="/wiki/GIS_file_formats" class="mw-redirect" title="GIS file formats">GIS file formats</a></div> <p>GIS data represents phenomena that exist in the real world, such as roads, land use, elevation, trees, waterways, and states. The most common types of phenomena that are represented in data can be divided into two conceptualizations: <a href="/wiki/Geographical_feature" title="Geographical feature">discrete objects</a> (e.g., a house, a road) and <a href="/wiki/Field_(geography)" title="Field (geography)">continuous fields</a> (e.g., rainfall amount or population density).<sup id="cite_ref-longley2015_20-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-longley2015-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Pages: 62–65">: 62–65 </span></sup> Other types of geographic phenomena, such as events (e.g., location of <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> battles), processes (e.g., extent of <a href="/wiki/Suburbanization" title="Suburbanization">suburbanization</a>), and masses (e.g., types of <a href="/wiki/Soil" title="Soil">soil</a> in an area) are represented less commonly or indirectly, or are modeled in analysis procedures rather than data. </p><p>Traditionally, there are two broad methods used to store data in a GIS for both kinds of abstractions mapping references: <a href="/wiki/Raster_images" class="mw-redirect" title="Raster images">raster images</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vector_graphics" title="Vector graphics">vector</a>. Points, lines, and polygons represent vector data of mapped location attribute references. </p><p>A new hybrid method of storing data is that of identifying point clouds, which combine three-dimensional points with <a href="/wiki/RGB" class="mw-redirect" title="RGB">RGB</a> information at each point, returning a <a href="/wiki/Anaglyph_3D" title="Anaglyph 3D">3D color image</a>. GIS thematic maps then are becoming more and more realistically visually descriptive of what they set out to show or determine. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Data_acquisition">Data acquisition</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geographic_information_system&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Data acquisition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Field-Map_birdie.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Field-Map_birdie.jpg/220px-Field-Map_birdie.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="235" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Field-Map_birdie.jpg/330px-Field-Map_birdie.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Field-Map_birdie.jpg/440px-Field-Map_birdie.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="2768" /></a><figcaption>Example of hardware for mapping (<a href="/wiki/GPS" class="mw-redirect" title="GPS">GPS</a> and <a href="/wiki/Laser_rangefinder" title="Laser rangefinder">laser rangefinder</a>) and data collection (<a href="/wiki/Rugged_computer" title="Rugged computer">rugged computer</a>). The current trend for geographical information system (GIS) is that accurate mapping and data analysis are completed while in the field. Depicted hardware (<a href="/wiki/Field-map" class="mw-redirect" title="Field-map">field-map</a> technology) is used mainly for <a href="/wiki/Forest_inventory" title="Forest inventory">forest inventories</a>, monitoring and mapping.</figcaption></figure> <p>GIS data acquisition includes several methods for gathering spatial data into a GIS database, which can be grouped into three categories: <i>primary data capture</i>, the direct measurement phenomena in the field (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Remote_sensing" title="Remote sensing">remote sensing</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Global_positioning_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Global positioning system">global positioning system</a>); <i>secondary data capture</i>, the extraction of information from existing sources that are not in a GIS form, such as paper maps, through <a href="/wiki/Digitization" title="Digitization">digitization</a>; and <i><a href="/wiki/List_of_GIS_data_sources" title="List of GIS data sources">data transfer</a></i>, the copying of existing GIS data from external sources such as government agencies and private companies. All of these methods can consume significant time, finances, and other resources.<sup id="cite_ref-longley2015_20-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-longley2015-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 173">: 173 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Primary_data_capture">Primary data capture</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geographic_information_system&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Primary data capture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Surveying" title="Surveying">Survey</a> data can be directly entered into a GIS from digital data collection systems on survey instruments using a technique called <a href="/wiki/Coordinate_geometry" class="mw-redirect" title="Coordinate geometry">coordinate geometry</a> (COGO). Positions from a global navigation satellite system (<a href="/wiki/Satellite_navigation" title="Satellite navigation">GNSS</a>) like the <a href="/wiki/Global_Positioning_System" title="Global Positioning System">Global Positioning System</a> can also be collected and then imported into a GIS. A current trend<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers"><span title="The time period mentioned near this tag is ambiguous. (September 2024)">as of?</span></a></i>]</sup> in data collection gives users the ability to utilize <a href="/wiki/Rugged_computer" title="Rugged computer">field computers</a> with the ability to edit live data using wireless connections or disconnected editing sessions.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The current trend<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers"><span title="The time period mentioned near this tag is ambiguous. (September 2024)">as of?</span></a></i>]</sup> is to utilize applications available on smartphones and <a href="/wiki/Personal_digital_assistant" title="Personal digital assistant">PDAs</a> in the form of mobile GIS.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This has been enhanced by the availability of low-cost mapping-grade GPS units with decimeter accuracy in real time. This eliminates the need to post process, import, and update the data in the office after fieldwork has been collected. This includes the ability to incorporate positions collected using a <a href="/wiki/Laser_rangefinder" title="Laser rangefinder">laser rangefinder</a>. New technologies also allow users to create maps as well as analysis directly in the field, making projects more efficient and mapping more accurate. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Remote_sensing" title="Remote sensing">Remotely sensed</a> data also plays an important role in data collection and consist of sensors attached to a platform. Sensors include cameras, digital scanners and <a href="/wiki/Lidar" title="Lidar">lidar</a>, while platforms usually consist of aircraft and <a href="/wiki/Satellite" title="Satellite">satellites</a>. In England in the mid-1990s, hybrid kite/balloons called <a href="/wiki/Allsopp_Helikite" title="Allsopp Helikite">helikites</a> first pioneered the use of compact airborne digital cameras as airborne geo-information systems. Aircraft measurement software, accurate to 0.4 mm, was used to link the photographs and measure the ground. Helikites are inexpensive and gather more accurate data than aircraft. Helikites can be used over roads, railways and towns where <a href="/wiki/Unmanned_aerial_vehicle" title="Unmanned aerial vehicle">unmanned aerial vehicles</a> (UAVs) are banned. </p><p>Recently aerial data collection has become more accessible with <a href="/wiki/Miniature_UAV" title="Miniature UAV">miniature UAVs</a> and drones. For example, the <a href="/wiki/Aeryon_Scout" class="mw-redirect" title="Aeryon Scout">Aeryon Scout</a> was used to map a 50-acre area with a <a href="/wiki/Ground_sample_distance" title="Ground sample distance">ground sample distance</a> of 1 inch (2.54 cm) in only 12 minutes.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The majority of digital data currently comes from <a href="/wiki/Photo_interpretation" class="mw-redirect" title="Photo interpretation">photo interpretation</a> of aerial photographs. Soft-copy workstations are used to digitize features directly from <a href="/wiki/Stereoscopy" title="Stereoscopy">stereo pairs</a> of digital photographs. These systems allow data to be captured in two and three dimensions, with elevations measured directly from a stereo pair using principles of <a href="/wiki/Photogrammetry" title="Photogrammetry">photogrammetry</a>. Analog aerial photos must be scanned before being entered into a soft-copy system, for high-quality digital cameras this step is skipped. </p><p>Satellite <a href="/wiki/Remote_sensing" title="Remote sensing">remote sensing</a> provides another important source of spatial data. Here satellites use different sensor packages to passively measure the reflectance from parts of the <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_spectrum" title="Electromagnetic spectrum">electromagnetic spectrum</a> or radio waves that were sent out from an active sensor such as radar. Remote sensing collects raster data that can be further processed using different bands to identify objects and classes of interest, such as land cover. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Secondary_data_capture">Secondary data capture</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geographic_information_system&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Secondary data capture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Digitizing" class="mw-redirect" title="Digitizing">Digitizing</a></div> <p>The most common method of data creation is <a href="/wiki/Digitizing" class="mw-redirect" title="Digitizing">digitization</a>, where a <a href="/wiki/Hard_copy" title="Hard copy">hard copy</a> map or survey plan is transferred into a digital medium through the use of a CAD program, and geo-referencing capabilities. With the wide availability of <a href="/wiki/Orthophoto" title="Orthophoto">ortho-rectified imagery</a> (from satellites, aircraft, Helikites and UAVs), heads-up digitizing is becoming the main avenue through which geographic data is extracted. Heads-up digitizing involves the tracing of geographic data directly on top of the aerial imagery instead of by the traditional method of tracing the geographic form on a separate <a href="/wiki/Graphics_tablet" title="Graphics tablet">digitizing tablet</a> (heads-down digitizing). Heads-down digitizing, or manual digitizing, uses a special magnetic pen, or stylus, that feeds information into a computer to create an identical, digital map. Some tablets use a mouse-like tool, called a puck, instead of a stylus.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:2_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The puck has a small window with cross-hairs which allows for greater precision and pinpointing map features. Though heads-up digitizing is more commonly used, heads-down digitizing is still useful for digitizing maps of poor quality.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Existing data printed on paper or <a href="/wiki/PET_film_(biaxially_oriented)" class="mw-redirect" title="PET film (biaxially oriented)">PET film</a> maps can be <a href="/wiki/Digitizer" class="mw-redirect" title="Digitizer">digitized</a> or scanned to produce digital data. A digitizer produces <a href="/wiki/Vector_graphics" title="Vector graphics">vector</a> data as an operator traces points, lines, and polygon boundaries from a map. <a href="/wiki/Image_scanner" title="Image scanner">Scanning</a> a map results in raster data that could be further processed to produce vector data. </p><p>When data is captured, the user should consider if the data should be captured with either a relative accuracy or absolute accuracy, since this could not only influence how information will be interpreted but also the cost of data capture. </p><p>After entering data into a GIS, the data usually requires editing, to remove errors, or further processing. For vector data it must be made "topologically correct" before it can be used for some advanced analysis. For example, in a road network, lines must connect with nodes at an intersection. Errors such as undershoots and overshoots must also be removed. For scanned maps, blemishes on the source map may need to be removed from the resulting <a href="/wiki/Raster_graphics" title="Raster graphics">raster</a>. For example, a fleck of dirt might connect two lines that should not be connected. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Projections,_coordinate_systems,_and_registration"><span id="Projections.2C_coordinate_systems.2C_and_registration"></span>Projections, coordinate systems, and registration</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geographic_information_system&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Projections, coordinate systems, and registration"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Spatial_reference_system" title="Spatial reference system">Spatial reference system</a></div> <p>The earth can be represented by various models, each of which may provide a different set of coordinates (e.g., latitude, longitude, elevation) for any given point on the Earth's surface. The simplest model is to assume the earth is a perfect sphere. As more measurements of the earth have accumulated, the models of the earth have become more sophisticated and more accurate. In fact, there are models called <a href="/wiki/Datum_(geodesy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Datum (geodesy)">datums</a> that apply to different areas of the earth to provide increased accuracy, like <a href="/wiki/NAD83" class="mw-redirect" title="NAD83">North American Datum of 1983</a> for U.S. measurements, and the <a href="/wiki/World_Geodetic_System" title="World Geodetic System">World Geodetic System</a> for worldwide measurements. </p><p>The latitude and longitude on a map made against a local datum may not be the same as one obtained from a <a href="/wiki/GPS_receiver" class="mw-redirect" title="GPS receiver">GPS receiver</a>. Converting coordinates from one datum to another requires a <a href="/wiki/Geographic_coordinate_conversion#Datum_transformations" title="Geographic coordinate conversion">datum transformation</a> such as a <a href="/wiki/Helmert_transformation" title="Helmert transformation">Helmert transformation</a>, although in certain situations a simple <a href="/wiki/Translation_(geometry)" title="Translation (geometry)">translation</a> may be sufficient.<sup id="cite_ref-Irish_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Irish-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In popular GIS software, data projected in latitude/longitude is often represented as a <a href="/wiki/Geographic_coordinate_system" title="Geographic coordinate system">Geographic coordinate system</a>. For example, data in latitude/longitude if the datum is the '<a href="/wiki/North_American_Datum" title="North American Datum">North American Datum</a> of 1983' is denoted by 'GCS North American 1983'. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Data_quality">Data quality</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geographic_information_system&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Data quality"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Data_quality" title="Data quality">Data quality</a></div> <p>While no digital model can be a perfect representation of the real world, it is important that GIS data be of a high quality. In keeping with the principle of <a href="/wiki/Homomorphism" title="Homomorphism">homomorphism</a>, the data must be close enough to reality so that the results of GIS procedures correctly correspond to the results of real world processes. This means that there is no single standard for data quality, because the necessary degree of quality depends on the scale and purpose of the tasks for which it is to be used. Several elements of data quality are important to GIS data: </p> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Accuracy_and_precision" title="Accuracy and precision">Accuracy</a></dt> <dd>The degree of similarity between a represented measurement and the actual value; conversely, <i>error</i> is the amount of difference between them.<sup id="cite_ref-bolstad_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bolstad-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 623">: 623 </span></sup> In GIS data, there is concern for accuracy in representations of location (<i>positional accuracy</i>), property (<i>attribute accuracy</i>), and time. For example, the US 2020 Census says that the population of <a href="/wiki/Houston" title="Houston">Houston</a> on April 1, 2020 was 2,304,580; if it was actually 2,310,674, this would be an error and thus a lack of attribute accuracy.</dd> <dt><a href="/wiki/Accuracy_and_precision" title="Accuracy and precision">Precision</a></dt> <dd>The degree of refinement in a represented value. In a quantitative property, this is the number of significant digits in the measured value.<sup id="cite_ref-longley2015_20-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-longley2015-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 115">: 115 </span></sup> An imprecise value is vague or ambiguous, including a range of possible values. For example, if one were to say that the population of Houston on April 1, 2020 was "about 2.3 million," this statement would be imprecise, but likely accurate because the correct value (and many incorrect values) are included. As with accuracy, representations of location, property, and time can all be more or less precise. <i><a href="/wiki/Spatial_resolution" title="Spatial resolution">Resolution</a></i> is a commonly used expression of positional precision, especially in <a href="/wiki/Raster_graphics" title="Raster graphics">raster</a> data sets. <a href="/wiki/Map_scale" class="mw-redirect" title="Map scale">Scale</a> is closely related to precision in maps, as it dictates a desirable level of spatial precision, but is problematic in GIS, where a data set can be shown at a variety of display scales (including scales that would not be appropriate for the quality of the data).</dd> <dt><a href="/wiki/Uncertainty" title="Uncertainty">Uncertainty</a></dt> <dd>A general acknowledgement of the presence of error and imprecision in geographic data.<sup id="cite_ref-longley2015_20-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-longley2015-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 99">: 99 </span></sup> That is, it is a degree of general doubt, given that it is difficult to know exactly how much error is present in a data set, although some form of estimate may be attempted (a <a href="/wiki/Confidence_interval" title="Confidence interval">confidence interval</a> being such an estimate of uncertainty). This is sometimes used as a collective term for all or most aspects of data quality.</dd> <dt><a href="/wiki/Fuzzy_concept" title="Fuzzy concept">Vagueness or fuzziness</a></dt> <dd>The degree to which an aspect (location, property, or time) of a phenomenon is inherently imprecise, rather than the imprecision being in a measured value.<sup id="cite_ref-longley2015_20-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-longley2015-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 103">: 103 </span></sup> For example, the spatial extent of the <a href="/wiki/Houston" title="Houston">Houston</a> <a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_area" title="Metropolitan area">metropolitan area</a> is vague, as there are places on the outskirts of the city that are less connected to the central city (measured by activities such as <a href="/wiki/Commuting" title="Commuting">commuting</a>) than places that are closer. Mathematical tools such as <a href="/wiki/Fuzzy_set_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Fuzzy set theory">fuzzy set theory</a> are commonly used to manage vagueness in geographic data.</dd> <dt>Completeness</dt> <dd>The degree to which a data set represents all of the actual features that it purports to include.<sup id="cite_ref-bolstad_18-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bolstad-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 623">: 623 </span></sup> For example, if a layer of "roads in <a href="/wiki/Houston" title="Houston">Houston</a>" is missing some actual streets, it is incomplete.</dd> <dt>Currency</dt> <dd>The most recent point in time at which a data set claims to be an accurate representation of reality. This is a concern for the majority of GIS applications, which attempt to represent the world "at present," in which case older data is of lower quality.</dd> <dt><a href="/wiki/Consistency" title="Consistency">Consistency</a></dt> <dd>The degree to which the representations of the many phenomena in a data set correctly correspond with each other.<sup id="cite_ref-bolstad_18-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bolstad-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 623">: 623 </span></sup> Consistency in <a href="/wiki/Geospatial_topology" title="Geospatial topology">topological relationships</a> between spatial objects is an especially important aspect of consistency.<sup id="cite_ref-jensenjensen_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jensenjensen-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 117">: 117 </span></sup> For example, if all of the lines in a street network were accidentally moved 10 meters to the East, they would be inaccurate but still consistent, because they would still properly connect at each intersection, and <a href="/wiki/Transport_network_analysis" title="Transport network analysis">network analysis</a> tools such as shortest path would still give correct results.</dd> <dt><a href="/wiki/Propagation_of_uncertainty" title="Propagation of uncertainty">Propagation of uncertainty</a></dt> <dd>The degree to which the quality of the results of <a href="/wiki/Spatial_analysis" title="Spatial analysis">Spatial analysis</a> methods and other processing tools derives from the quality of input data.<sup id="cite_ref-jensenjensen_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jensenjensen-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 118">: 118 </span></sup> For example, <a href="/wiki/Interpolation" title="Interpolation">interpolation</a> is a common operation used in many ways in GIS; because it generates estimates of values between known measurements, the results will always be more precise, but less certain (as each estimate has an unknown amount of error).</dd></dl> <p>The quality of a dataset is very dependent upon its sources, and the methods used to create it. Land surveyors have been able to provide a high level of positional accuracy utilizing high-end <a href="/wiki/GPS" class="mw-redirect" title="GPS">GPS</a> equipment, but GPS locations on the average smartphone are much less accurate.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Common datasets such as digital terrain and aerial imagery<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> are available in a wide variety of levels of quality, especially spatial precision. Paper maps, which have been digitized for many years as a data source, can also be of widely varying quality. </p><p>A quantitative analysis of maps brings accuracy issues into focus. The electronic and other equipment used to make measurements for GIS is far more precise than the machines of conventional map analysis. All geographical data are inherently inaccurate, and these inaccuracies will propagate through GIS operations in ways that are difficult to predict.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Raster-to-vector_translation">Raster-to-vector translation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geographic_information_system&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Raster-to-vector translation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Data restructuring can be performed by a GIS to convert data into different formats. For example, a GIS may be used to convert a satellite image map to a vector structure by generating lines around all cells with the same classification, while determining the cell spatial relationships, such as adjacency or inclusion. </p><p>More advanced data processing can occur with <a href="/wiki/Image_processing" class="mw-redirect" title="Image processing">image processing</a>, a technique developed in the late 1960s by <a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a> and the private sector to provide contrast enhancement, false color rendering and a variety of other techniques including use of two dimensional <a href="/wiki/Fourier_transforms" class="mw-redirect" title="Fourier transforms">Fourier transforms</a>. Since digital data is collected and stored in various ways, the two data sources may not be entirely compatible. So a GIS must be able to convert <a href="/wiki/Geographic_data" class="mw-redirect" title="Geographic data">geographic data</a> from one structure to another. In so doing, the implicit assumptions behind different ontologies and classifications require analysis.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Object ontologies have gained increasing prominence as a consequence of <a href="/wiki/Object-oriented_programming" title="Object-oriented programming">object-oriented programming</a> and sustained work by <a href="/wiki/Barry_Smith_(academic_and_ontologist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Barry Smith (academic and ontologist)">Barry Smith</a> and co-workers. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Spatial_ETL">Spatial ETL</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geographic_information_system&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Spatial ETL"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Spatial_ETL" title="Spatial ETL">Spatial ETL</a> tools provide the data processing functionality of traditional <a href="/wiki/Extract,_transform,_load" title="Extract, transform, load">extract, transform, load</a> (ETL) software, but with a primary focus on the ability to manage spatial data. They provide GIS users with the ability to translate data between different standards and proprietary formats, whilst geometrically transforming the data en route. These tools can come in the form of add-ins to existing wider-purpose software such as <a href="/wiki/Spreadsheet" title="Spreadsheet">spreadsheets</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Spatial_analysis">Spatial analysis<span class="anchor" id="Spatial_analysis"></span></h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geographic_information_system&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Spatial analysis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Spatial_analysis" title="Spatial analysis">Spatial analysis</a></div> <p>GIS spatial analysis is a rapidly changing field, and GIS packages are increasingly including analytical tools as standard built-in facilities, as optional toolsets, as add-ins or 'analysts'. In many instances these are provided by the original software suppliers (commercial vendors or collaborative non commercial development teams), while in other cases facilities have been developed and are provided by third parties. Furthermore, many products offer software development kits (SDKs), programming languages and language support, scripting facilities and/or special interfaces for developing one's own analytical tools or variants. The increased availability has created a new dimension to <a href="/wiki/Business_intelligence" title="Business intelligence">business intelligence</a> termed "<a href="/wiki/Spatial_intelligence_(business_method)" class="mw-redirect" title="Spatial intelligence (business method)">spatial intelligence</a>" which, when openly delivered via intranet, democratizes access to geographic and social network data. <a href="/wiki/Geospatial_intelligence" title="Geospatial intelligence">Geospatial intelligence</a>, based on GIS spatial analysis, has also become a key element for security. GIS as a whole can be described as conversion to a vectorial representation or to any other digitisation process. </p><p><span class="anchor" id="Geoprocessing"></span><b>Geoprocessing</b> is a GIS operation used to manipulate spatial data. A typical geoprocessing operation takes an input <a href="/wiki/Dataset" class="mw-redirect" title="Dataset">dataset</a>, performs an operation on that dataset, and returns the result of the operation as an output dataset. Common geoprocessing operations include geographic feature overlay, feature selection and analysis, <a href="/wiki/Topology" title="Topology">topology</a> processing, <a href="/wiki/Raster_graphics" title="Raster graphics">raster</a> processing, and data conversion. Geoprocessing allows for definition, management, and analysis of information used to form decisions.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Terrain_analysis">Terrain analysis</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geographic_information_system&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Terrain analysis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dem.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Dem.jpg/300px-Dem.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="206" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Dem.jpg/450px-Dem.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Dem.jpg/600px-Dem.jpg 2x" data-file-width="664" data-file-height="456" /></a><figcaption>Hillshade model derived from a <a href="/wiki/Digital_elevation_model" title="Digital elevation model">digital elevation model</a> of the Valestra area in the northern Apennines (Italy)</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Geomorphometry" title="Geomorphometry">Geomorphometry</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Surface_gradient" title="Surface gradient">Surface gradient</a></div> <p>Many geographic tasks involve the <a href="/wiki/Terrain" title="Terrain">terrain</a>, the shape of the surface of the earth, such as <a href="/wiki/Hydrology" title="Hydrology">hydrology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Earthworks_(engineering)" title="Earthworks (engineering)">earthworks</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">biogeography</a>. Thus, terrain data is often a core dataset in a GIS, usually in the form of a raster <a href="/wiki/Digital_elevation_model" title="Digital elevation model">Digital elevation model</a> (DEM) or a <a href="/wiki/Triangulated_irregular_network" title="Triangulated irregular network">Triangulated irregular network</a> (TIN). A variety of tools are available in most GIS software for analyzing terrain, often by creating derivative datasets that represent a specific aspect of the surface. Some of the most common include: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grade_(slope)" title="Grade (slope)">Slope or grade</a> is the steepness or gradient of a unit of terrain, usually measured as an angle in degrees or as a percentage.<sup id="cite_ref-Jones1998_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jones1998-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aspect_(geography)" title="Aspect (geography)">Aspect</a> can be defined as the direction in which a unit of terrain faces. Aspect is usually expressed in degrees from north.<sup id="cite_ref-Skidmore1989_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Skidmore1989-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Cut and fill is a computation of the difference between the surface before and after an <a href="/wiki/Earthworks_(engineering)" title="Earthworks (engineering)">excavation</a> project to estimate costs.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrological_model" title="Hydrological model">Hydrological modeling</a> can provide a spatial element that other hydrological models lack, with the analysis of variables such as slope, aspect and watershed or <a href="/wiki/Catchment_area_(human_geography)" class="mw-redirect" title="Catchment area (human geography)">catchment area</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Heywood_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Heywood-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Terrain analysis is fundamental to hydrology, since water always flows down a slope.<sup id="cite_ref-Heywood_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Heywood-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As basic terrain analysis of a <a href="/wiki/Digital_elevation_model" title="Digital elevation model">digital elevation model</a> (DEM) involves calculation of slope and aspect, DEMs are very useful for hydrological analysis. Slope and aspect can then be used to determine direction of <a href="/wiki/Surface_runoff" title="Surface runoff">surface runoff</a>, and hence flow accumulation for the formation of streams, rivers and lakes. Areas of divergent flow can also give a clear indication of the boundaries of a catchment. Once a flow direction and accumulation matrix has been created, queries can be performed that show contributing or dispersal areas at a certain point.<sup id="cite_ref-Heywood_38-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Heywood-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More detail can be added to the model, such as terrain roughness, vegetation types and soil types, which can influence infiltration and evapotranspiration rates, and hence influencing surface flow. One of the main uses of hydrological modeling is in <a href="/wiki/GIS_in_environmental_contamination" title="GIS in environmental contamination">environmental contamination research</a>. Other applications of hydrological modeling include <a href="/wiki/GIS_and_hydrology" title="GIS and hydrology">groundwater and surface water mapping</a>, as well as flood risk maps.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viewshed_analysis" title="Viewshed analysis">Viewshed analysis</a> predicts the impact that terrain has on the visibility between locations, which is especially important for wireless communications.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaded_relief" class="mw-redirect" title="Shaded relief">Shaded relief</a> is a depiction of the surface as if it were a three dimensional model lit from a given direction, which is very commonly used in maps.</li></ul> <p>Most of these are generated using algorithms that are discrete simplifications of <a href="/wiki/Vector_calculus" title="Vector calculus">vector calculus</a>. Slope, aspect, and surface curvature in terrain analysis are all derived from neighborhood operations using elevation values of a cell's adjacent neighbours.<sup id="cite_ref-Chang_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chang-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Each of these is strongly affected by the level of detail in the terrain data, such as the resolution of a DEM, which should be chosen carefully.<sup id="cite_ref-Longley2005_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Longley2005-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Proximity_analysis">Proximity analysis</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geographic_information_system&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Proximity analysis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Proximity_analysis" title="Proximity analysis">Proximity analysis</a></div> <p>Distance is a key part of solving many geographic tasks, usually due to the <a href="/wiki/Friction_of_distance" title="Friction of distance">friction of distance</a>. Thus, a wide variety of analysis tools have analyze distance in some form, such as <a href="/wiki/Buffer_analysis" title="Buffer analysis">buffers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Voronoi_diagram" title="Voronoi diagram">Voronoi or Thiessen polygons</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cost_distance_analysis" title="Cost distance analysis">Cost distance analysis</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Transport_network_analysis" title="Transport network analysis">network analysis</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Data_analysis">Data analysis</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geographic_information_system&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Data analysis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>It is difficult to relate <a href="/wiki/Wetlands" class="mw-redirect" title="Wetlands">wetlands</a> maps to <a href="/wiki/Rainfall" class="mw-redirect" title="Rainfall">rainfall</a> amounts recorded at different points such as airports, television stations, and schools. A GIS, however, can be used to depict two- and three-dimensional characteristics of the Earth's surface, subsurface, and atmosphere from information points. For example, a GIS can quickly generate a map with <a href="/wiki/Isopleth" class="mw-redirect" title="Isopleth">isopleth</a> or <a href="/wiki/Contour_line" title="Contour line">contour lines</a> that indicate differing amounts of rainfall. Such a map can be thought of as a rainfall contour map. Many sophisticated methods can estimate the characteristics of surfaces from a limited number of point measurements. A two-dimensional contour map created from the surface modeling of rainfall point measurements may be overlaid and analyzed with any other map in a GIS covering the same area. This GIS derived map can then provide additional information - such as the viability of <a href="/wiki/Water_power" class="mw-redirect" title="Water power">water power</a> potential as a <a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy" title="Renewable energy">renewable energy</a> source. Similarly, GIS can be used to compare other <a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy" title="Renewable energy">renewable energy</a> resources to find the best geographic potential for a region.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Additionally, from a series of three-dimensional points, or <a href="/wiki/Digital_elevation_model" title="Digital elevation model">digital elevation model</a>, isopleth lines representing elevation contours can be generated, along with slope analysis, <a href="/wiki/Shaded_relief" class="mw-redirect" title="Shaded relief">shaded relief</a>, and other elevation products. Watersheds can be easily defined for any given reach, by computing all of the areas contiguous and uphill from any given point of interest. Similarly, an expected <a href="/wiki/Thalweg" title="Thalweg">thalweg</a> of where surface water would want to travel in intermittent and permanent streams can be computed from elevation data in the GIS. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Topological_modeling">Topological modeling</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geographic_information_system&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Topological modeling"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A GIS can recognize and analyze the spatial relationships that exist within digitally stored spatial data. These <a href="/wiki/Topological" class="mw-redirect" title="Topological">topological</a> relationships allow complex spatial modelling and analysis to be performed. Topological relationships between geometric entities traditionally include adjacency (what adjoins what), containment (what encloses what), and proximity (how close something is to something else). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Geometric_networks">Geometric networks</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geographic_information_system&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Geometric networks"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Transport_network_analysis" title="Transport network analysis">Transport network analysis</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Geometric_networks" title="Geometric networks">Geometric networks</a> are linear networks of objects that can be used to represent interconnected features, and to perform special spatial analysis on them. A geometric network is composed of edges, which are connected at junction points, similar to <a href="/wiki/Graph_(discrete_mathematics)" title="Graph (discrete mathematics)">graphs</a> in mathematics and computer science. Just like graphs, networks can have weight and flow assigned to its edges, which can be used to represent various interconnected features more accurately. Geometric networks are often used to model road networks and <a href="/wiki/Public_utility" title="Public utility">public utility</a> networks, such as electric, gas, and water networks. Network modeling is also commonly employed in <a href="/wiki/Transportation_planning" title="Transportation planning">transportation planning</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hydrology" title="Hydrology">hydrology</a> modeling, and <a href="/wiki/Infrastructure" title="Infrastructure">infrastructure</a> modeling. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cartographic_modeling">Cartographic modeling</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geographic_information_system&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Cartographic modeling"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Map_algebra" title="Map algebra">Map algebra</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gislayers.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Gislayers.jpg/300px-Gislayers.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="198" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Gislayers.jpg/450px-Gislayers.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Gislayers.jpg/600px-Gislayers.jpg 2x" data-file-width="997" data-file-height="657" /></a><figcaption> An example of use of layers in a GIS application. In this example, the forest-cover layer (light green) forms the bottom layer, with the <a href="/wiki/Topography" title="Topography">topographic</a> layer (contour lines) over it. Next up is a standing water layer (pond, lake) and then a flowing water layer (stream, river), followed by the boundary layer and finally the road layer on top. The order is very important in order to properly display the final result. Note that the ponds are layered under the streams, so that a stream line can be seen overlying one of the ponds.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Dana_Tomlin" title="Dana Tomlin">Dana Tomlin</a> coined the term <i>cartographic modeling</i> in his PhD dissertation (1983); he later used it in the title of his book, <i>Geographic Information Systems and Cartographic Modeling</i> (1990).<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Cartographic_design" title="Cartographic design">Cartographic modeling</a> refers to a process where several thematic <a href="/wiki/Layer_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Layer (disambiguation)">layers</a> of the same area are produced, processed, and analyzed. Tomlin used raster layers, but the overlay method (see below) can be used more generally. Operations on map layers can be combined into algorithms, and eventually into simulation or optimization models. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Map_overlay">Map overlay</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geographic_information_system&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Map overlay"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Vector_overlay" title="Vector overlay">Vector overlay</a> and <a href="/wiki/Map_algebra" title="Map algebra">Map algebra</a></div> <p>The combination of several spatial datasets (points, lines, or <a href="/wiki/Polygons" class="mw-redirect" title="Polygons">polygons</a>) creates a new output vector dataset, visually similar to stacking several maps of the same region. These overlays are similar to mathematical <a href="/wiki/Venn_diagram" title="Venn diagram">Venn diagram</a> overlays. A <a href="/wiki/Union_(set_theory)" title="Union (set theory)">union</a> overlay combines the geographic features and attribute tables of both inputs into a single new output. An <a href="/wiki/Intersection_(set_theory)" title="Intersection (set theory)">intersect</a> overlay defines the area where both inputs overlap and retains a set of attribute fields for each. A <a href="/wiki/Symmetric_difference" title="Symmetric difference">symmetric difference</a> overlay defines an output area that includes the total area of both inputs except for the overlapping area. </p><p>Data extraction is a GIS process similar to vector overlay, though it can be used in either vector or raster data analysis. Rather than combining the properties and features of both datasets, data extraction involves using a "clip" or "mask" to extract the features of one data set that fall within the spatial extent of another dataset. </p><p>In raster data analysis, the overlay of datasets is accomplished through a process known as "local operation on multiple rasters" or "<a href="/wiki/Map_algebra" title="Map algebra">map algebra</a>", through a function that combines the values of each raster's <a href="/wiki/Matrix_(mathematics)" title="Matrix (mathematics)">matrix</a>. This function may weigh some inputs more than others through use of an "index model" that reflects the influence of various factors upon a geographic phenomenon. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Geostatistics">Geostatistics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geographic_information_system&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Geostatistics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Geostatistics" title="Geostatistics">Geostatistics</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Geostatistics" title="Geostatistics">Geostatistics</a> is a branch of statistics that deals with field data, spatial data with a continuous index. It provides methods to model spatial correlation, and predict values at arbitrary locations (interpolation). </p><p>When phenomena are measured, the observation methods dictate the accuracy of any subsequent analysis. Due to the nature of the data (e.g. traffic patterns in an urban environment; weather patterns over the <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Ocean" title="Pacific Ocean">Pacific Ocean</a>), a constant or dynamic degree of precision is always lost in the measurement. This loss of precision is determined from the scale and distribution of the data collection. </p><p>To determine the statistical relevance of the analysis, an average is determined so that points (gradients) outside of any immediate measurement can be included to determine their predicted behavior. This is due to the limitations of the applied statistic and data collection methods, and interpolation is required to predict the behavior of particles, points, and locations that are not directly measurable. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Interpolation" title="Interpolation">Interpolation</a> is the process by which a surface is created, usually a raster dataset, through the input of data collected at a number of sample points. There are several forms of interpolation, each which treats the data differently, depending on the properties of the data set. In comparing interpolation methods, the first consideration should be whether or not the source data will change (exact or approximate). Next is whether the method is subjective, a human interpretation, or objective. Then there is the nature of transitions between points: are they abrupt or gradual. Finally, there is whether a method is global (it uses the entire data set to form the model), or local where an algorithm is repeated for a small section of terrain. </p><p>Interpolation is a justified measurement because of a spatial autocorrelation principle that recognizes that data collected at any position will have a great similarity to, or influence of those locations within its immediate vicinity. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Digital_elevation_model" title="Digital elevation model">Digital elevation models</a>, <a href="/wiki/Triangulated_irregular_network" title="Triangulated irregular network">triangulated irregular networks</a>, edge-finding algorithms, <a href="/wiki/Thiessen_polygons" class="mw-redirect" title="Thiessen polygons">Thiessen polygons</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fourier_analysis" title="Fourier analysis">Fourier analysis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Weighted_moving_average" class="mw-redirect" title="Weighted moving average">(weighted) moving averages</a>, <a href="/wiki/Inverse_distance_weighting" title="Inverse distance weighting">inverse distance weighting</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kriging" title="Kriging">kriging</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spline_(mathematics)" title="Spline (mathematics)">spline</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Trend_estimation" class="mw-redirect" title="Trend estimation">trend surface analysis</a> are all mathematical methods to produce interpolative data. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Address_geocoding">Address geocoding</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geographic_information_system&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Address geocoding"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Geocoding" class="mw-redirect" title="Geocoding">Geocoding</a></div> <p>Geocoding is interpolating spatial locations (X,Y coordinates) from street addresses or any other spatially referenced data such as <a href="/wiki/ZIP_Code" title="ZIP Code">ZIP Codes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Land_lot" title="Land lot">parcel lots</a> and address locations. A reference theme is required to <a href="/wiki/Geocoding" class="mw-redirect" title="Geocoding">geocode</a> individual addresses, such as a road centerline file with address ranges. The individual address locations have historically been interpolated, or estimated, by examining address ranges along a road segment. These are usually provided in the form of a table or database. The software will then place a dot approximately where that address belongs along the segment of centerline. For example, an address point of 500 will be at the midpoint of a line segment that starts with address 1 and ends with address 1,000. Geocoding can also be applied against actual parcel data, typically from municipal tax maps. In this case, the result of the geocoding will be an actually positioned space as opposed to an interpolated point. This approach is being increasingly used to provide more precise location information. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reverse_geocoding">Reverse geocoding</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geographic_information_system&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Reverse geocoding"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Reverse_geocoding" title="Reverse geocoding">Reverse geocoding</a></div> <p>Reverse geocoding is the process of returning an estimated <a href="/wiki/Street_address" class="mw-redirect" title="Street address">street address</a> number as it relates to a given coordinate. For example, a user can click on a road centerline theme (thus providing a coordinate) and have information returned that reflects the estimated house number. This house number is interpolated from a range assigned to that road segment. If the user clicks at the <a href="/wiki/Midpoint" title="Midpoint">midpoint</a> of a segment that starts with address 1 and ends with 100, the returned value will be somewhere near 50. Note that reverse geocoding does not return actual addresses, only estimates of what should be there based on the predetermined range. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Multi-criteria_decision_analysis">Multi-criteria decision analysis</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geographic_information_system&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Multi-criteria decision analysis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Multiple-criteria_decision_analysis" title="Multiple-criteria decision analysis">Multiple-criteria decision analysis</a></div> <p>Coupled with GIS, <a href="/wiki/Multi-criteria_decision_analysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Multi-criteria decision analysis">multi-criteria decision analysis</a> methods support decision-makers in analysing a set of alternative spatial solutions, such as the most likely ecological habitat for restoration, against multiple criteria, such as vegetation cover or roads. MCDA uses decision rules to aggregate the criteria, which allows the alternative solutions to be ranked or prioritised.<sup id="cite_ref-Greene_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Greene-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> GIS MCDA may reduce costs and time involved in identifying potential restoration sites. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="GIS_data_mining">GIS data mining</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geographic_information_system&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: GIS data mining"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>GIS or spatial <a href="/wiki/Data_mining" title="Data mining">data mining</a> is the application of data mining methods to spatial data. Data mining, which is the partially automated search for hidden patterns in large databases, offers great potential benefits for applied GIS-based decision making. Typical applications include <a href="/wiki/Environmental_monitoring" title="Environmental monitoring">environmental monitoring</a>. A characteristic of such applications is that spatial correlation between data measurements require the use of specialized algorithms for more efficient data analysis.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Data_output_and_cartography">Data output and cartography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geographic_information_system&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Data output and cartography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Cartographic_design" title="Cartographic design">Cartographic design</a> and <a href="/wiki/Digital_mapping" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital mapping">Digital mapping</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Cartography" title="Cartography">Cartography</a> is the design and production of maps, or visual representations of spatial data. The vast majority of modern cartography is done with the help of computers, usually using GIS but production of quality cartography is also achieved by importing layers into a design program to refine it. Most GIS software gives the user substantial control over the appearance of the data. </p><p>Cartographic work serves two major functions: </p><p>First, it produces graphics on the screen or on paper that convey the results of analysis to the people who make decisions about resources. Wall maps and other graphics can be generated, allowing the viewer to visualize and thereby understand the results of analyses or simulations of potential events. <a href="/wiki/Web_Map_Server" class="mw-redirect" title="Web Map Server">Web Map Servers</a> facilitate distribution of generated maps through web browsers using various implementations of web-based application programming interfaces (<a href="/wiki/AJAX" class="mw-redirect" title="AJAX">AJAX</a>, <a href="/wiki/Java_programming" class="mw-redirect" title="Java programming">Java</a>, <a href="/wiki/Adobe_Flash" title="Adobe Flash">Flash</a>, etc.). </p><p>Second, other database information can be generated for further analysis or use. An example would be a list of all addresses within one mile (1.6 km) of a toxic spill. </p><p>An archeochrome is a new way of displaying spatial data. It is a thematic on a 3D map that is applied to a specific building or a part of a building. It is suited to the visual display of heat-loss data. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Terrain_depiction">Terrain depiction</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geographic_information_system&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Terrain depiction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Terrain_cartography" title="Terrain cartography">Terrain cartography</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Swisstopo_Eiger_-_Grindelwald.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Swisstopo_Eiger_-_Grindelwald.jpg/300px-Swisstopo_Eiger_-_Grindelwald.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Swisstopo_Eiger_-_Grindelwald.jpg/450px-Swisstopo_Eiger_-_Grindelwald.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Swisstopo_Eiger_-_Grindelwald.jpg/600px-Swisstopo_Eiger_-_Grindelwald.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1537" data-file-height="1025" /></a><figcaption>A traditional topographic map rendered in 3D</figcaption></figure> <p>Traditional maps are abstractions of the real world, a sampling of important elements portrayed on a sheet of paper with symbols to represent physical objects. People who use maps must interpret these symbols. <a href="/wiki/Topographic_map" title="Topographic map">Topographic maps</a> show the shape of land surface with <a href="/wiki/Contour_line" title="Contour line">contour lines</a> or with <a href="/wiki/Cartographic_relief_depiction" class="mw-redirect" title="Cartographic relief depiction">shaded relief</a>. </p><p>Today, graphic display techniques such as <a href="/wiki/Shading" title="Shading">shading</a> based on <a href="/wiki/Altitude" title="Altitude">altitude</a> in a GIS can make relationships among map elements visible, heightening one's ability to extract and analyze information. For example, two types of data were combined in a GIS to produce a perspective view of a portion of <a href="/wiki/San_Mateo_County" class="mw-redirect" title="San Mateo County">San Mateo County</a>, <a href="/wiki/California" title="California">California</a>. </p> <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Digital_elevation_model" title="Digital elevation model">digital elevation model</a>, consisting of surface elevations recorded on a 30-meter horizontal grid, shows high elevations as white and low elevation as black.</li> <li>The accompanying <a href="/wiki/Landsat" class="mw-redirect" title="Landsat">Landsat</a> Thematic Mapper image shows a false-color infrared image looking down at the same area in 30-meter pixels, or picture elements, for the same coordinate points, pixel by pixel, as the elevation information.</li></ul> <p>A GIS was used to register and combine the two images to <a href="/wiki/Rendering_(computer_graphics)" title="Rendering (computer graphics)">render</a> the three-dimensional <a href="/wiki/Perspective_view" class="mw-redirect" title="Perspective view">perspective view</a> looking down the <a href="/wiki/San_Andreas_Fault" title="San Andreas Fault">San Andreas Fault</a>, using the Thematic Mapper image pixels, but shaded using the elevation of the <a href="/wiki/Landform" title="Landform">landforms</a>. The GIS display depends on the viewing point of the <a href="/wiki/Observation" title="Observation">observer</a> and time of day of the display, to properly render the shadows created by the sun's rays at that latitude, longitude, and time of day. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Web_mapping">Web mapping</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geographic_information_system&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Web mapping"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Web_mapping" title="Web mapping">Web mapping</a></div> <p>In recent years there has been a proliferation of free-to-use and easily accessible mapping software such as the <a href="/wiki/Proprietary_software" title="Proprietary software">proprietary</a> web applications <a href="/wiki/Google_Maps" title="Google Maps">Google Maps</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bing_Maps" title="Bing Maps">Bing Maps</a>, as well as the <a href="/wiki/Free_and_open-source_software" title="Free and open-source software">free and open-source</a> alternative <a href="/wiki/OpenStreetMap" title="OpenStreetMap">OpenStreetMap</a>. These services give the public access to huge amounts of geographic data, perceived by many users to be as trustworthy and usable as professional information.<sup id="cite_ref-activities_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-activities-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, during the COVID-19 pandemic, web maps hosted on dashboards were used to rapidly disseminate case data to the general public.<sup id="cite_ref-Everts1_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Everts1-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some of them, like Google Maps and <a href="/wiki/OpenLayers" title="OpenLayers">OpenLayers</a>, expose an <a href="/wiki/Application_programming_interface" class="mw-redirect" title="Application programming interface">application programming interface</a> (API) that enable users to create custom applications. These toolkits commonly offer street maps, aerial/satellite imagery, geocoding, searches, and routing functionality. Web mapping has also uncovered the potential of <a href="/wiki/Crowdsourcing" title="Crowdsourcing">crowdsourcing</a> geodata in projects like <a href="/wiki/OpenStreetMap" title="OpenStreetMap">OpenStreetMap</a>, which is a collaborative project to create a free editable map of the world. These <a href="/wiki/Mashup_(web_application_hybrid)" title="Mashup (web application hybrid)">mashup</a> projects have been proven to provide a high level of value and benefit to end users outside that possible through traditional geographic information.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Web mapping is not without its drawbacks. Web mapping allows for the creation and distribution of maps by people without proper cartographic training.<sup id="cite_ref-Plewe1_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Plewe1-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This has led to maps that ignore cartographic conventions and are potentially misleading, with one study finding that more than half of United States state government COVID-19 dashboards did not follow these conventions.<sup id="cite_ref-Adams1_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Adams1-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Adams2_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Adams2-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Applications">Applications</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geographic_information_system&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Applications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Category:Applications_of_geographic_information_systems" title="Category:Applications of geographic information systems">Category:Applications of geographic information systems</a></div> <p>Since its origin in the 1960s, GIS has been used in an ever-increasing range of applications, corroborating the widespread importance of location and aided by the continuing reduction in the barriers to adopting geospatial technology. The perhaps hundreds of different uses of GIS can be classified in several ways: </p> <ul><li><i>Goal</i>: the purpose of an application can be broadly classified as either <i>scientific research</i> or <i><a href="/wiki/Resource_management" title="Resource management">resource management</a></i>. The purpose of <a href="/wiki/Research" title="Research">research</a>, defined as broadly as possible, is to discover new knowledge; this may be performed by someone who considers herself a scientist, but may also be done by anyone who is trying to learn why the world appears to work the way it does. A study as practical as deciphering why a business location has failed would be research in this sense. Management (sometimes called operational applications), also defined as broadly as possible, is the application of knowledge to make practical decisions on how to employ the resources one has control over to achieve one's goals. These resources could be time, capital, labor, equipment, land, mineral deposits, wildlife, and so on.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-bigbook_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bigbook-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 791">: 791 </span></sup> <ul><li><i>Decision level</i>: Management applications have been further classified as <i>strategic</i>, <i>tactical</i>, <i>operational</i>, a common classification in <a href="/wiki/Business_management" class="mw-redirect" title="Business management">business management</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-grimshaw1994_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-grimshaw1994-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Strategic tasks are long-term, visionary decisions about what goals one should have, such as whether a business should expand or not. Tactical tasks are medium-term decisions about how to achieve strategic goals, such as a national forest creating a grazing management plan. Operational decisions are concerned with the day-to-day tasks, such as a person finding the shortest route to a pizza restaurant.</li></ul></li> <li><i>Topic</i>: the domains in which GIS is applied largely fall into those concerned with <a href="/wiki/Human_geography" title="Human geography">the human world</a> (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Economic_geography" title="Economic geography">economics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Political_geography" title="Political geography">politics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Transportation_geography" class="mw-redirect" title="Transportation geography">transportation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Education" title="Education">education</a>, <a href="/wiki/Landscape_architecture" title="Landscape architecture">landscape architecture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">archaeology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Urban_planning" title="Urban planning">urban planning</a>, <a href="/wiki/Real_estate" title="Real estate">real estate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Public_health" title="Public health">public health</a>, <a href="/wiki/Crime_mapping" title="Crime mapping">crime mapping</a>, <a href="/wiki/Defense_(military)" class="mw-redirect" title="Defense (military)">national defense</a>), and those concerned with <a href="/wiki/Physical_geography" title="Physical geography">the natural world</a> (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Geological_mapping" class="mw-redirect" title="Geological mapping">geology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">biology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oceanography" title="Oceanography">oceanography</a>, <a href="/wiki/Climatology" title="Climatology">climate</a>). That said, one of the powerful capabilities of GIS and the spatial perspective of geography is their integrative ability to compare disparate topics, and many applications are concerned with multiple domains. Examples of integrated human-natural application domains include <a href="/wiki/Deep_map" title="Deep map">deep mapping</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Natural_hazard" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural hazard">Natural hazard</a> mitigation, <a href="/wiki/Wildlife_management" title="Wildlife management">wildlife management</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_development" title="Sustainable development">sustainable development</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Natural_resources" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural resources">natural resources</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a> response.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i>Institution</i>: GIS has been implemented in a variety of different kinds of institutions: <i>government</i> (at all levels from municipal to international), <i>business</i> (of all types and sizes), <i>non-profit organizations</i> (even churches), as well as <i>personal</i> uses. The latter has become increasingly prominent with the rise of location-enabled smartphones.</li> <li><i>Lifespan</i>: GIS implementations may be focused on a <i>project</i> or an <i>enterprise</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-huisman_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-huisman-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A Project GIS is focused on accomplishing a single task: data is gathered, analysis is performed, and results are produced separately from any other projects the person may perform, and the implementation is essentially transitory. An Enterprise GIS is intended to be a permanent institution, including a database that is carefully designed to be useful for a variety of projects over many years, and is likely used by many individuals across an enterprise, with some employed full-time just to maintain it.<sup id="cite_ref-longley2011_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-longley2011-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i>Integration</i>: Traditionally, most GIS applications were <i>standalone</i>, using specialized GIS software, specialized hardware, specialized data, and specialized professionals. Although these remain common to the present day, <i>integrated</i> applications have greatly increased, as geospatial technology was merged into broader enterprise applications, sharing IT infrastructure, databases, and software, often using enterprise integration platforms such as <a href="/wiki/SAP" title="SAP">SAP</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>The implementation of a GIS is often driven by jurisdictional (such as a city), purpose, or application requirements. Generally, a GIS implementation may be custom-designed for an organization. Hence, a GIS deployment developed for an application, jurisdiction, enterprise, or purpose may not be necessarily <a href="/wiki/Interoperability" title="Interoperability">interoperable</a> or compatible with a GIS that has been developed for some other application, jurisdiction, enterprise, or purpose.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>GIS is also diverging into <a href="/wiki/Location-based_service" title="Location-based service">location-based services</a>, which allows GPS-enabled mobile devices to display their location in relation to fixed objects (nearest restaurant, gas station, fire hydrant) or mobile objects (friends, children, police car), or to relay their position back to a central server for display or other processing. </p><p>GIS is also used in digital marketing and SEO for audience segmentation based on location.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Topics">Topics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geographic_information_system&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Topics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Aquatic_science">Aquatic science</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geographic_information_system&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Aquatic science"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="excerpt-block"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/GIS_and_aquatic_science" title="GIS and aquatic science">GIS and aquatic science</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like plainlinks"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=GIS_and_aquatic_science&action=edit">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt"> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Submersed_Aquatic_Veg_Model1.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Submersed_Aquatic_Veg_Model1.JPG/300px-Submersed_Aquatic_Veg_Model1.JPG" decoding="async" width="300" height="231" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Submersed_Aquatic_Veg_Model1.JPG/450px-Submersed_Aquatic_Veg_Model1.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Submersed_Aquatic_Veg_Model1.JPG/600px-Submersed_Aquatic_Veg_Model1.JPG 2x" data-file-width="760" data-file-height="585" /></a><figcaption>ArcGIS Server website depicting submersed aquatic vegetation</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Geographic_Information_Systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Geographic Information Systems">Geographic Information Systems</a> (GIS) has become an integral part of <a href="/wiki/Aquatic_science" title="Aquatic science">aquatic science</a> and <a href="/wiki/Limnology" title="Limnology">limnology</a>. Water by its very nature is dynamic. Features associated with water are thus ever-changing. To be able to keep up with these changes, technological advancements have given scientists methods to enhance all aspects of scientific investigation, from satellite tracking of wildlife to computer mapping of habitats. Agencies like the <a href="/wiki/US_Geological_Survey" class="mw-redirect" title="US Geological Survey">US Geological Survey</a>, <a href="/wiki/US_Fish_and_Wildlife_Service" class="mw-redirect" title="US Fish and Wildlife Service">US Fish and Wildlife Service</a> as well as other federal and state agencies are utilizing GIS to aid in their conservation efforts.</div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Archaeology">Archaeology</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geographic_information_system&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Archaeology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="excerpt-block"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/GIS_in_archaeology" title="GIS in archaeology">GIS in archaeology</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like plainlinks"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=GIS_in_archaeology&action=edit">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt"> GIS or Geographic Information Systems has been an important tool in <a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">archaeology</a> since the early 1990s.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Indeed, archaeologists were early adopters, users, and developers of GIS and GIScience, <a href="/wiki/Geographic_information_science" title="Geographic information science">Geographic Information Science</a>. The combination of GIS and archaeology has been considered a perfect match, since archaeology often involves the study of the spatial dimension of human behavior over time, and all archaeology carries a spatial component.</div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Environmental_governance">Environmental governance</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geographic_information_system&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Environmental governance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="excerpt-block"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/GIS_and_environmental_governance" title="GIS and environmental governance">GIS and environmental governance</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like plainlinks"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=GIS_and_environmental_governance&action=edit">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt"> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:FEMA_-_44996_-_FEMA_Administrator_W._Craig_Fugate_speaking_on_using_social_media.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/FEMA_-_44996_-_FEMA_Administrator_W._Craig_Fugate_speaking_on_using_social_media.jpg/220px-FEMA_-_44996_-_FEMA_Administrator_W._Craig_Fugate_speaking_on_using_social_media.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/FEMA_-_44996_-_FEMA_Administrator_W._Craig_Fugate_speaking_on_using_social_media.jpg/330px-FEMA_-_44996_-_FEMA_Administrator_W._Craig_Fugate_speaking_on_using_social_media.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/FEMA_-_44996_-_FEMA_Administrator_W._Craig_Fugate_speaking_on_using_social_media.jpg/440px-FEMA_-_44996_-_FEMA_Administrator_W._Craig_Fugate_speaking_on_using_social_media.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4053" data-file-height="2698" /></a><figcaption>U.S. <a href="/wiki/Federal_Emergency_Management_Agency" title="Federal Emergency Management Agency">Federal Emergency Management Agency</a> (FEMA) Administrator W. Craig Fugate speaking at a Red Cross seminar on using social media during natural disasters. GIS has an integral role to play in such agendas.</figcaption></figure> Geographic information system (GIS) is a commonly used tool for environmental management, modelling and planning. As simply defined by <a href="/wiki/Michael_Goodchild" class="mw-redirect" title="Michael Goodchild">Michael Goodchild</a>, GIS is as "a computer system for handling geographic information in a digital form".<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In recent years it has played an integral role in participatory, collaborative and <a href="/wiki/Open_data" title="Open data">open data</a> philosophies. Social and technological evolutions have elevated <i>digital</i> and <i>environmental</i> agendas to the forefront of public policy, the global media and the private sector.</div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Environmental_contamination">Environmental contamination</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geographic_information_system&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Environmental contamination"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="excerpt-block"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/GIS_in_environmental_contamination" title="GIS in environmental contamination">GIS in environmental contamination</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like plainlinks"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=GIS_in_environmental_contamination&action=edit">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt"> <a href="/wiki/GIS_in_environmental_contamination" title="GIS in environmental contamination">GIS in environmental contamination</a> is the use of <a href="/wiki/GIS" class="mw-redirect" title="GIS">GIS</a> software in mapping out the contaminants in soil and water using the <a href="/wiki/Spatial_interpolation" class="mw-redirect" title="Spatial interpolation">spatial interpolation</a> tools from GIS.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-GIS_in_environmental_contamination_:0_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GIS_in_environmental_contamination_:0-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-GIS_in_environmental_contamination_:1_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GIS_in_environmental_contamination_:1-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Spatial interpolation allows for more efficient approach to remediation and monitoring of soil and water contaminants. Soil and water contamination by metals and other contaminants have become a major environmental problem after the industrialization across many parts of the world.<sup id="cite_ref-GIS_in_environmental_contamination_:2_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GIS_in_environmental_contamination_:2-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a result, environmental agencies are placed in charge in remediating, monitoring, and mitigating the <a href="/wiki/Soil_contamination" title="Soil contamination">soil contamination</a> sites. GIS is used to monitor the sites for metal contaminants in the soil, and based on the GIS analysis, highest risk sites are identified in which majority of the remediation and monitoring takes place.</div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Geologic_mapping">Geologic mapping</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geographic_information_system&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Geologic mapping"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="excerpt-block"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Digital_geologic_mapping" title="Digital geologic mapping">Digital geologic mapping</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like plainlinks"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Digital_geologic_mapping&action=edit">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Contour_map_software_screen_snapshot_of_isopach_map_for_8500ft_deep_OIL_reservoir_with_a_Fault_line.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Contour_map_software_screen_snapshot_of_isopach_map_for_8500ft_deep_OIL_reservoir_with_a_Fault_line.jpg/220px-Contour_map_software_screen_snapshot_of_isopach_map_for_8500ft_deep_OIL_reservoir_with_a_Fault_line.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="285" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Contour_map_software_screen_snapshot_of_isopach_map_for_8500ft_deep_OIL_reservoir_with_a_Fault_line.jpg/330px-Contour_map_software_screen_snapshot_of_isopach_map_for_8500ft_deep_OIL_reservoir_with_a_Fault_line.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Contour_map_software_screen_snapshot_of_isopach_map_for_8500ft_deep_OIL_reservoir_with_a_Fault_line.jpg/440px-Contour_map_software_screen_snapshot_of_isopach_map_for_8500ft_deep_OIL_reservoir_with_a_Fault_line.jpg 2x" data-file-width="816" data-file-height="1056" /></a><figcaption>Screenshot of a structure map generated by geological mapping software for an 8500 ft deep gas and <a href="/wiki/Petroleum_reservoir" title="Petroleum reservoir">oil reservoir</a> in the Erath field, <a href="/wiki/Vermilion_Parish,_Louisiana" title="Vermilion Parish, Louisiana">Vermilion Parish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Erath,_Louisiana" title="Erath, Louisiana">Erath</a>, <a href="/wiki/Louisiana" title="Louisiana">Louisiana</a>. The left-to-right gap, near the top of the <a href="/wiki/Contour_line" title="Contour line">contour map</a> indicates a <a href="/wiki/Fault_(geology)" title="Fault (geology)">Fault line</a>. This fault line is between the blue/green contour lines and the purple/red/yellow contour lines. The thin red circular contour line in the middle of the map indicates the top of the oil reservoir. Because gas floats above oil, the thin red contour line marks the gas/oil contact zone.</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Digital_geologic_mapping" title="Digital geologic mapping">Digital geologic mapping</a> is the process by which <a href="/wiki/Geology#Whole-Earth_structure" title="Geology">geological features</a> are observed, analyzed, and recorded in the field and displayed in real-time on a computer or <a href="/wiki/Personal_digital_assistant" title="Personal digital assistant">personal digital assistant</a> (PDA). The primary function of this <a href="/wiki/Emerging_technologies" title="Emerging technologies">emerging technology</a> is to produce <a href="/wiki/Spatial_reference_system" title="Spatial reference system">spatially referenced</a> <a href="/wiki/Geologic_map" title="Geologic map">geologic maps</a> that can be utilized and updated while conducting <a href="/wiki/Field_research" title="Field research">field work</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Digital_geologic_mapping_Kramer_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Digital_geologic_mapping_Kramer-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Geospatial_intelligence">Geospatial intelligence</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geographic_information_system&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Geospatial intelligence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="excerpt-block"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/GIS_in_geospatial_intelligence" title="GIS in geospatial intelligence">GIS in geospatial intelligence</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like plainlinks"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=GIS_in_geospatial_intelligence&action=edit">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt"> Geographic information systems (GIS) play a constantly evolving role in <a href="/wiki/Geospatial_intelligence" title="Geospatial intelligence">geospatial intelligence</a> (GEOINT) and United States <a href="/wiki/National_security" title="National security">national security</a>. These technologies allow a user to efficiently manage, analyze, and produce <a href="/wiki/Geographic_data_and_information" title="Geographic data and information">geospatial</a> <a href="/wiki/Data" title="Data">data</a>, to combine GEOINT with other forms of <a href="/wiki/Intelligence_analysis" title="Intelligence analysis">intelligence</a> collection, and to perform highly developed analysis and visual production of geospatial data. Therefore, GIS produces up-to-date and more reliable GEOINT to reduce uncertainty for a decisionmaker. Since GIS programs are Web-enabled, a user can constantly work with a decision maker to solve their GEOINT and national security related problems from anywhere in the world. There are many <a href="/wiki/List_of_geographic_information_systems_software" class="mw-redirect" title="List of geographic information systems software">types of GIS software</a> used in GEOINT and national security, such as <a href="/wiki/Google_Earth" title="Google Earth">Google Earth</a>, <a href="/wiki/ERDAS_IMAGINE" class="mw-redirect" title="ERDAS IMAGINE">ERDAS IMAGINE</a>, <a href="/wiki/GeoNetwork_opensource" title="GeoNetwork opensource">GeoNetwork opensource</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Esri" title="Esri">Esri</a> <a href="/wiki/ArcGIS" title="ArcGIS">ArcGIS</a>.</div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="History">History</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geographic_information_system&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="excerpt-block"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Historical_geographic_information_system" title="Historical geographic information system">Historical geographic information system</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like plainlinks"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Historical_geographic_information_system&action=edit">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt"> A <a href="/wiki/Historical_geographic_information_system" title="Historical geographic information system">historical geographic information system</a> (also written as historical GIS or HGIS) is a geographic information system that may display, store and analyze data of past geographies and track changes in time. It can be regarded as a tool for <a href="/wiki/Historical_geography" title="Historical geography">historical geography</a>.</div></div><p>The use of digital maps generated by GIS has also influenced the development of an academic field known as spatial humanities.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Hydrology">Hydrology</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geographic_information_system&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Hydrology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="excerpt-block"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/GIS_and_hydrology" title="GIS and hydrology">GIS and hydrology</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like plainlinks"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=GIS_and_hydrology&action=edit">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt"> Geographic information systems (GISs) have become a useful and important tool in the field of <a href="/wiki/Hydrology" title="Hydrology">hydrology</a> to study and manage Earth's <a href="/wiki/Water_resources" title="Water resources">water resources</a>. Climate change and greater demands on water resources require a more knowledgeable disposition of arguably one of our most vital resources. Because water in its occurrence varies spatially and temporally throughout the <a href="/wiki/Hydrologic_cycle" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrologic cycle">hydrologic cycle</a>, its study using GIS is especially practical. Whereas previous GIS systems were mostly static in their geospatial representation of hydrologic features, GIS platforms are becoming increasingly dynamic, narrowing the gap between historical data and current hydrologic reality.</div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Participatory_GIS">Participatory GIS</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geographic_information_system&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Participatory GIS"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="excerpt-block"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Participatory_GIS" title="Participatory GIS">Participatory GIS</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like plainlinks"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Participatory_GIS&action=edit">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt"> <a href="/wiki/Participatory_GIS" title="Participatory GIS">Participatory GIS</a> (PGIS) or public participation geographic information system (PPGIS) is a <a href="/wiki/Public_participation" title="Public participation">participatory</a> approach to <a href="/wiki/Spatial_planning" title="Spatial planning">spatial planning</a> and spatial information and <a href="/wiki/Communications_management" title="Communications management">communications management</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Public_health">Public health</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geographic_information_system&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Public health"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="excerpt-block"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/GIS_and_public_health" title="GIS and public health">GIS and public health</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like plainlinks"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=GIS_and_public_health&action=edit">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt"> Geographic information systems (GISs) and <a href="/wiki/Geographic_information_science" title="Geographic information science">geographic information science</a> (GIScience) combine computer-mapping capabilities with additional <a href="/wiki/Database" title="Database">database</a> management and <a href="/wiki/Data_analysis" title="Data analysis">data analysis</a> tools. Commercial GIS systems are very powerful and have touched many applications and industries, including <a href="/wiki/Environmental_science" title="Environmental science">environmental science</a>, <a href="/wiki/Urban_planning" title="Urban planning">urban planning</a>, agricultural applications, and others.</div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Traditional_knowledge_GIS">Traditional knowledge GIS</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geographic_information_system&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Traditional knowledge GIS"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="excerpt-block"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Traditional_knowledge_GIS" title="Traditional knowledge GIS">Traditional knowledge GIS</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like plainlinks"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Traditional_knowledge_GIS&action=edit">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt"> <a href="/wiki/Traditional_knowledge_GIS" title="Traditional knowledge GIS">Traditional knowledge Geographic Information Systems</a> (GIS) is a toolset of systems that uses data, techniques, and technologies designed to document and utilize local knowledge in communities around the world. <a href="/wiki/Traditional_knowledge" title="Traditional knowledge">Traditional knowledge</a> is information that encompasses the experiences of a particular <a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">culture</a> or <a href="/wiki/Society" title="Society">society</a>. Traditional knowledge GIS differ from ordinary <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_map" title="Cognitive map">cognitive maps</a> in that they express environmental and spiritual relationships among real and conceptual entities.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This toolset focuses on cultural preservation, land rights disputes, natural resource management, and economic development.</div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Open_Geospatial_Consortium_standards">Open Geospatial Consortium standards</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geographic_information_system&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Open Geospatial Consortium standards"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Open_Geospatial_Consortium" title="Open Geospatial Consortium">Open Geospatial Consortium</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Open_Geospatial_Consortium" title="Open Geospatial Consortium">Open Geospatial Consortium</a> (OGC) is an international industry consortium of 384 companies, government agencies, universities, and individuals participating in a consensus process to develop publicly available geoprocessing specifications. Open interfaces and protocols defined by OpenGIS Specifications support interoperable solutions that "geo-enable" the Web, wireless and location-based services, and mainstream IT, and empower technology developers to make complex spatial information and services accessible and useful with all kinds of applications. Open Geospatial Consortium protocols include <a href="/wiki/Web_Map_Service" title="Web Map Service">Web Map Service</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Web_Feature_Service" title="Web Feature Service">Web Feature Service</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>GIS products are broken down by the OGC into two categories, based on how completely and accurately the software follows the OGC specifications. </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Geoservices_server_with_apps.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Geoservices_server_with_apps.png/347px-Geoservices_server_with_apps.png" decoding="async" width="347" height="285" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Geoservices_server_with_apps.png/521px-Geoservices_server_with_apps.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/25/Geoservices_server_with_apps.png 2x" data-file-width="694" data-file-height="569" /></a><figcaption>OGC standards help GIS tools communicate.</figcaption></figure> <p><i>Compliant products</i> are software products that comply to OGC's OpenGIS Specifications. When a product has been tested and certified as compliant through the OGC Testing Program, the product is automatically registered as "compliant" on this site. </p><p><i>Implementing products</i> are software products that implement OpenGIS Specifications but have not yet passed a compliance test. Compliance tests are not available for all specifications. Developers can register their products as implementing draft or approved specifications, though OGC reserves the right to review and verify each entry. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Adding_the_dimension_of_time">Adding the dimension of time</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geographic_information_system&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Adding the dimension of time"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Historical_geographic_information_system" title="Historical geographic information system">Historical geographic information system</a> and <a href="/wiki/Time_geography" title="Time geography">Time geography</a></div> <p>The condition of the Earth's surface, atmosphere, and subsurface can be examined by feeding satellite data into a GIS. GIS technology gives researchers the ability to examine the variations in Earth processes over days, months, and years through the use of cartographic visualizations.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As an example, the changes in vegetation vigor through a growing season can be animated to determine when drought was most extensive in a particular region. The resulting graphic represents a rough measure of plant health. Working with two variables over time would then allow researchers to detect regional differences in the lag between a decline in rainfall and its effect on vegetation. </p><p>GIS technology and the availability of digital data on regional and global scales enable such analyses. The satellite sensor output used to generate a vegetation graphic is produced for example by the <a href="/wiki/Advanced_very-high-resolution_radiometer" title="Advanced very-high-resolution radiometer">advanced very-high-resolution radiometer</a> (AVHRR). This sensor system detects the amounts of energy reflected from the Earth's surface across various bands of the spectrum for surface areas of about 1 km<sup>2</sup> (0.39 sq mi). The satellite sensor produces images of a particular location on the Earth twice a day. AVHRR and more recently the <a href="/wiki/Moderate-resolution_imaging_spectroradiometer" class="mw-redirect" title="Moderate-resolution imaging spectroradiometer">moderate-resolution imaging spectroradiometer</a> (MODIS) are only two of many sensor systems used for Earth surface analysis. </p><p>In addition to the integration of time in environmental studies, GIS is also being explored for its ability to track and model the progress of humans throughout their daily routines. A concrete example of progress in this area is the recent release of time-specific population data by the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Census" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Census">U.S. Census</a>. In this data set, the populations of cities are shown for daytime and evening hours highlighting the pattern of concentration and dispersion generated by North American commuting patterns. The manipulation and generation of data required to produce this data would not have been possible without GIS. </p><p>Using models to project the data held by a GIS forward in time have enabled planners to test policy decisions using <a href="/wiki/Spatial_decision_support_system" title="Spatial decision support system">spatial decision support systems</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Semantics">Semantics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geographic_information_system&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Semantics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Tools and technologies emerging from the <a href="/wiki/World_Wide_Web_Consortium" title="World Wide Web Consortium">World Wide Web Consortium</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Semantic_Web" title="Semantic Web">Semantic Web</a> are proving useful for <a href="/wiki/Data_integration" title="Data integration">data integration</a> problems in information systems. Correspondingly, such technologies have been proposed as a means to facilitate <a href="/wiki/Interoperability" title="Interoperability">interoperability</a> and data reuse among GIS applications and also to enable new analysis mechanisms.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Ontology_(computer_science)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ontology (computer science)">Ontologies</a> are a key component of this semantic approach as they allow a formal, machine-readable specification of the concepts and relationships in a given domain. This in turn allows a GIS to focus on the intended meaning of data rather than its syntax or structure. For example, <a href="/wiki/Reasoning" class="mw-redirect" title="Reasoning">reasoning</a> that a land cover type classified as <i>deciduous needleleaf trees</i> in one dataset is a specialization or subset of land cover type <i>forest</i> in another more roughly classified dataset can help a GIS automatically merge the two datasets under the more general land cover classification. Tentative ontologies have been developed in areas related to GIS applications, for example the hydrology ontology<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> developed by the <a href="/wiki/Ordnance_Survey" title="Ordnance Survey">Ordnance Survey</a> in the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> and the SWEET ontologies<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> developed by <a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Jet_Propulsion_Laboratory" title="Jet Propulsion Laboratory">Jet Propulsion Laboratory</a>. Also, simpler ontologies and semantic metadata standards are being proposed by the W3C Geo Incubator Group<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to represent geospatial data on the web. <a href="/wiki/GeoSPARQL" title="GeoSPARQL">GeoSPARQL</a> is a standard developed by the Ordnance Survey, <a href="/wiki/United_States_Geological_Survey" title="United States Geological Survey">United States Geological Survey</a>, <a href="/wiki/Natural_Resources_Canada" title="Natural Resources Canada">Natural Resources Canada</a>, Australia's <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Scientific_and_Industrial_Research_Organisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation">Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation</a> and others to support ontology creation and reasoning using well-understood OGC literals (GML, WKT), topological relationships (Simple Features, RCC8, DE-9IM), RDF and the <a href="/wiki/SPARQL" title="SPARQL">SPARQL</a> database query protocols. </p><p>Recent research results in this area can be seen in the International Conference on Geospatial Semantics<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the Terra Cognita – Directions to the Geospatial Semantic Web<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> workshop at the International Semantic Web Conference. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Societal_implications">Societal implications</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geographic_information_system&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Societal implications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Neogeography" title="Neogeography">Neogeography</a> and <a href="/wiki/Public_participation_GIS" class="mw-redirect" title="Public participation GIS">Public participation GIS</a></div> <p>With the popularization of GIS in decision making, scholars have begun to scrutinize the social and political implications of GIS.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-activities_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-activities-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> GIS can also be misused to distort reality for individual and political gain.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It has been argued that the production, distribution, utilization, and representation of geographic information are largely related with the social context and has the potential to increase citizen trust in government.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other related topics include discussion on <a href="/wiki/Copyright" title="Copyright">copyright</a>, <a href="/wiki/Privacy" title="Privacy">privacy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Censorship" title="Censorship">censorship</a>. A more optimistic social approach to GIS adoption is to use it as a tool for public participation. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_education">In education</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geographic_information_system&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: In education"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Esri_Education_User_Conference" title="Esri Education User Conference">Esri Education User Conference</a></div> <p>At the end of the 20th century, GIS began to be recognized as tools that could be used in the classroom.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The benefits of GIS in education seem focused on developing <a href="/wiki/Spatial_cognition" title="Spatial cognition">spatial cognition</a>, but there is not enough bibliography or statistical data to show the concrete scope of the use of GIS in education around the world, although the expansion has been faster in those countries where the curriculum mentions them.<sup id="cite_ref-Nieto_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nieto-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 36">: 36 </span></sup> </p><p>GIS seems to provide many advantages in teaching <a href="/wiki/Geography" title="Geography">geography</a> because it allows for analysis based on real geographic data and also helps raise research questions from teachers and students in the classroom. It also contributes to improvement in learning by developing spatial and geographical thinking and, in many cases, student motivation.<sup id="cite_ref-Nieto_95-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nieto-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 38">: 38 </span></sup> </p><p>Courses in GIS are also offered by educational institutions.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_local_government">In local government</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geographic_information_system&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: In local government"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>GIS is proven as an organization-wide, enterprise and enduring technology that continues to change how local government operates.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Government agencies have adopted GIS technology as a method to better manage the following areas of government organization: </p> <ul><li>Economic development departments use interactive GIS mapping tools, aggregated with other data (demographics, labor force, business, industry, talent) along with a database of available commercial sites and buildings in order to attract investment and support existing business. Businesses making location decisions can use the tools to choose communities and sites that best match their criteria for success.</li> <li>Public safety<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> operations such as emergency operations centers, fire prevention, police and sheriff mobile technology and dispatch, and mapping weather risks.</li> <li>Parks and recreation departments and their functions in asset inventory, land conservation, land management, and cemetery management</li> <li>Public works and utilities, tracking water and stormwater drainage, electrical assets, engineering projects, and public transportation assets and trends</li> <li>Fiber network management for interdepartmental network assets</li> <li>School analytical and demographic data, asset management, and improvement/expansion planning</li> <li>Public administration for election data, property records, and zoning/management</li></ul> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Open_data" title="Open data">open data</a> initiative is pushing local government to take advantage of technology such as GIS technology, as it encompasses the requirements to fit the open data/<a href="/wiki/Open_government" title="Open government">open government</a> model of transparency.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_98-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With open data, local government organizations can implement citizen engagement applications and online portals, allowing citizens to see land information, report potholes and signage issues, view and sort parks by assets, view real-time crime rates and utility repairs, and much more.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The push for open data within government organizations is driving the growth in local government GIS technology spending, and database management. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geographic_information_system&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 15em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/AM/FM/GIS" title="AM/FM/GIS">AM/FM/GIS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_Information_Service" title="Climate Information Service">Climate Information Service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_GIS_software" class="mw-redirect" title="Comparison of GIS software">Comparison of GIS software</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concepts_and_Techniques_in_Modern_Geography" title="Concepts and Techniques in Modern Geography">Concepts and Techniques in Modern Geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dialogue-Assisted_Visual_Environment_for_Geoinformation" title="Dialogue-Assisted Visual Environment for Geoinformation">Dialogue-Assisted Visual Environment for Geoinformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributed_GIS" title="Distributed GIS">Distributed GIS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geodatabase_(Esri)" title="Geodatabase (Esri)">Geodatabase (Esri)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomatics" title="Geomatics">Geomatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GISCorps" title="GISCorps">GISCorps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GIS_Day" title="GIS Day">GIS Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrated_Geo_Systems" title="Integrated Geo Systems">Integrated Geo Systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_GIS_data_sources" title="List of GIS data sources">List of GIS data sources</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_GIS_software" class="mw-redirect" title="List of GIS software">List of GIS software</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Map_database_management" title="Map database management">Map database management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_geography" title="Quantitative geography">Quantitative geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technical_geography" title="Technical geography">Technical geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tobler%27s_first_law_of_geography" title="Tobler's first law of geography">Tobler's first law of geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tobler%27s_second_law_of_geography" title="Tobler's second law of geography">Tobler's second law of geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtual_globe" title="Virtual globe">Virtual globe</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geographic_information_system&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-DeMers1-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-DeMers1_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-DeMers1_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFDeMers2009" class="citation book cs1">DeMers, Michael (2009). <i>Fundamentals of Geographic Information Systems</i> (4th ed.). John Wiley & Sons, inc. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-470-12906-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-470-12906-7"><bdi>978-0-470-12906-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fundamentals+of+Geographic+Information+Systems&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons%2C+inc.&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-470-12906-7&rft.aulast=DeMers&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeographic+information+system" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-chang2016-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-chang2016_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChang2016" class="citation book cs1">Chang, Kang-tsung (2016). <i>Introduction to Geographic Information Systems</i> (9th ed.). 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 October</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.esri.com&rft.atitle=GIS+for+Local+Government%7C+Open+Government&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.esri.com%2Findustries%2Flocalgov%2Fopen-government&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeographic+information+system" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFParkerMayMitchellBurrows2013" class="citation journal cs1">Parker, C.J.; May, A.; Mitchell, V.; Burrows, A. (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dspace.lboro.ac.uk/2134/11589">"Capturing Volunteered Information for Inclusive Service Design: Potential Benefits and Challenges"</a>. <i>The Design Journal</i> (Submitted manuscript). <b>16</b> (2): 197–218. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2752%2F175630613x13584367984947">10.2752/175630613x13584367984947</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:110716823">110716823</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Design+Journal&rft.atitle=Capturing+Volunteered+Information+for+Inclusive+Service+Design%3A+Potential+Benefits+and+Challenges&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=197-218&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2752%2F175630613x13584367984947&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A110716823%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Parker&rft.aufirst=C.J.&rft.au=May%2C+A.&rft.au=Mitchell%2C+V.&rft.au=Burrows%2C+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdspace.lboro.ac.uk%2F2134%2F11589&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeographic+information+system" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geographic_information_system&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Further_reading_cleanup plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/40px-Edit-clear.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/60px-Edit-clear.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/80px-Edit-clear.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This "<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Layout#Further_reading" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Layout">Further reading</a>" section <b>may need cleanup</b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please read the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Further_reading" title="Wikipedia:Further reading">editing guide</a> and help improve the section.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">January 2022</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <ul><li>Berry, J. K. (1993). <i>Beyond Mapping: Concepts, Algorithms and Issues in GIS</i>. Fort Collins, CO: GIS World Books.</li> <li>Bolstad, P. (2019). <i>GIS Fundamentals: A first text on Geographic Information Systems, Sixth Edition</i>. Ann Arbor: XanEdu, 764 pp.</li> <li>Burrough, P. A. and McDonnell, R. A. (1998). <i>Principles of geographical information systems</i>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>, Oxford, 327 pp.</li> <li>Chang, K. (2007). <i>Introduction to Geographic Information System, 4th Edition</i>. McGraw Hill, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0071267588" title="Special:BookSources/978-0071267588">978-0071267588</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_N._DeMers" class="mw-redirect" title="Michael N. DeMers">DeMers, M.</a> (2009). <i>Fundamentals of Geographic Information Systems, 4th Edition</i>. Wiley, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-470-12906-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-470-12906-7">978-0-470-12906-7</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_N._DeMers" class="mw-redirect" title="Michael N. DeMers">DeMers, M.</a> (2002). <i>GIS modeling in raster</i>. Wiley, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471-31965-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-471-31965-8">978-0-471-31965-8</a></li> <li>Fu, P., and J. Sun (2010). <i>Web GIS: Principles and Applications</i>. ESRI Press. Redlands, CA. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-58948-245-X" title="Special:BookSources/1-58948-245-X">1-58948-245-X</a>.</li> <li>Harvey, Francis (2008). <i>A Primer of GIS, Fundamental geographic and cartographic concepts.</i> The Guilford Press, 31 pp.</li> <li>Heywood, I., Cornelius, S., and Carver, S. (2006). <i>An Introduction to Geographical Information Systems</i>. Prentice Hall. 3rd edition.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Longley" title="Paul Longley">Longley, P.A.</a>, <a href="/wiki/Michael_Frank_Goodchild" title="Michael Frank Goodchild">Goodchild, M.F.</a>, Maguire, D.J. and <a href="/wiki/David_William_Rhind" title="David William Rhind">Rhind, D.W.</a> (2005). <i>Geographic Information Systems and Science</i>. Chichester: Wiley. 2nd edition.</li> <li>Maguire, D.J., Goodchild M.F., Rhind D.W. (1997). "Geographic Information Systems: principles, and applications" Longman Scientific and Technical, Harlow.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Monmonier" title="Mark Monmonier">Monmonier, M.</a> (2018). <i>How to Lie With Maps</i>. The University of Chicago Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-43592-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-43592-3">978-0-226-43592-3</a></li> <li>Ott, T. and Swiaczny, F. (2001) .<i>Time-integrative GIS. Management and analysis of Spatio-temporal data</i>, Berlin / Heidelberg / New York: Springer.</li> <li>Pickles, J., ed., (1994) <i>Ground Truth: The Social Implications of Geographic Information Systems</i>, New York and London: Guilford, 248 pp.</li> <li>Thurston, J., Poiker, T.K. and J. Patrick Moore. (2003). <i>Integrated Geospatial Technologies: A Guide to GPS, GIS, and Data Logging</i>. Hoboken, New Jersey: Wiley.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoger_Tomlinson2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Roger_Tomlinson" title="Roger Tomlinson">Roger Tomlinson</a> (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=X8XgSAJrJVUC&q=%22geographic+information+system%22"><i>Thinking about GIS: Geographic Information System Planning for Managers</i></a>. ESRI, Inc. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58948-158-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-58948-158-9"><bdi>978-1-58948-158-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Thinking+about+GIS%3A+Geographic+Information+System+Planning+for+Managers&rft.pub=ESRI%2C+Inc.&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-58948-158-9&rft.au=Roger+Tomlinson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DX8XgSAJrJVUC%26q%3D%2522geographic%2Binformation%2Bsystem%2522&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeographic+information+system" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWorboysDuckham2004" class="citation book cs1">Worboys, Michael; Duckham, Matt (2004). <i>GIS: a computing perspective</i>. Boca Raton: CRC Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0415283755" title="Special:BookSources/978-0415283755"><bdi>978-0415283755</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=GIS%3A+a+computing+perspective&rft.place=Boca+Raton&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0415283755&rft.aulast=Worboys&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft.au=Duckham%2C+Matt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeographic+information+system" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geographic_information_system&action=edit&section=51" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><span 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href="/wiki/Template:Geography_topics" title="Template:Geography topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Geography_topics" title="Template talk:Geography topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Geography_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Geography topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Geography_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Geography" title="Geography">Geography</a> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_geography" title="Outline of geography">topics</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li>Glossary</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_geography" title="History of geography">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_geography" title="Philosophy of geography">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_geography_articles" title="Index of geography articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_geography" title="Outline of geography">Outline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Branches</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human_geography" title="Human geography">Human</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_geography" title="Behavioral geography">Behavioral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_geography" title="Cognitive geography">Cognitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_geography" title="Critical geography">Critical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_geography" title="Cultural geography">Cultural</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_geographies" class="mw-redirect" title="Animal geographies">Animal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Children%27s_geographies" title="Children's geographies">Children's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_geography" title="Economic geography">Economic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_geography" title="Agricultural geography">Agricultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyber_geography" title="Cyber geography">Cyber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_geography" title="Development geography">Development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_finance" title="Geography of finance">Financial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_economic_geography" title="Historical economic geography">Histo-economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_geography" title="Labor geography">Labor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomarketing" title="Geomarketing">Marketing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retail_geography" title="Retail geography">Retail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_economic_geography" title="Theoretical economic geography">Theoretical economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_geography" title="Transport geography">Transport</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_geography" title="Language geography">Language</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geolinguistics" title="Geolinguistics">Linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_geography" title="Music geography">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vernacular_geography" title="Vernacular geography">Vernacular</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_geography" title="Moral geography">Moral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychogeography" title="Psychogeography">Psychological</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emotional_geography" title="Emotional geography">Emotional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neogeography" title="Neogeography">Neo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexuality_and_space" title="Sexuality and space">Sexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_and_geography" title="Religion and geography">Religion</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_food" title="Geography of food">Food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_geography" title="Health geography">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_geography" title="Historical geography">Historical</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Palaeogeography" title="Palaeogeography">Palaeo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imagined_geographies" title="Imagined geographies">Imagined</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_geography" title="Internet geography">Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_geography" title="Political geography">Political</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Critical_geopolitics" title="Critical geopolitics">Critical geopolitics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electoral_geography" title="Electoral geography">Electoral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geopolitics" title="Geopolitics">Geopolitics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_geography" title="Strategic geography">Strategic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_geography" title="Military geography">Military</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_geography" title="Population geography">Population</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Settlement_geography" title="Settlement geography">Settlement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Regional_geography" title="Regional geography">Regional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_geography" title="Urban geography">Urban</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Music_geography" title="Music geography">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_geography" title="Transport geography">Transport</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_geography" title="Social geography">Social</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_geography" title="Tourism geography">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_geography" title="Tropical geography">Tropical</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Physical_geography" title="Physical geography">Physical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytogeography" title="Phytogeography">Phytogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoogeography" title="Zoogeography">Zoogeography</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_geography" title="Coastal geography">Coastal geography</a> / <a href="/wiki/Oceanography" title="Oceanography">Oceanography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_science" title="Earth science">Earth science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_science" title="Atmospheric science">Atmospheric science</a> / <a href="/wiki/Meteorology" title="Meteorology">Meteorology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_science" title="Environmental science">Environmental science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climatology" title="Climatology">Climatology</a> / <a href="/wiki/Paleoclimatology" title="Paleoclimatology">Paleoclimatology</a> / <a href="/wiki/Palaeogeography" title="Palaeogeography">Palaeogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geobiology" title="Geobiology">Geobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geophysics" title="Geophysics">Geophysics</a> / <a href="/wiki/Geodesy" title="Geodesy">Geodesy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_system_science" title="Earth system science">Earth system science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomorphology" title="Geomorphology">Geomorphology</a> / <a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">Geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glaciology" title="Glaciology">Glaciology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrology" title="Hydrology">Hydrology</a> / <a href="/wiki/Limnology" title="Limnology">Limnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_science" title="Soil science">Soil science</a> (<a href="/wiki/Pedology" title="Pedology">Pedology</a>/<a href="/wiki/Edaphology" title="Edaphology">Edaphology</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quaternary_science" title="Quaternary science">Quaternary science</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Technical_geography" title="Technical geography">Technical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geodesign" title="Geodesign">Geodesign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geodesy" title="Geodesy">Geodesy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geoinformatics" title="Geoinformatics">Geoinformatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geographic_information_science" title="Geographic information science">Geographic information science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomatics" title="Geomatics">Geomatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_geography" title="Statistical geography">Statistical geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spatial_analysis" title="Spatial analysis">Spatial analysis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Integrated_geography" title="Integrated geography">Integrated</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_social_science" title="Environmental social science">Environmental social science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_studies" title="Environmental studies">Environmental studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_architecture" title="Landscape architecture">Landscape architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_ecology" title="Landscape ecology">Landscape ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time_geography" title="Time geography">Time geography</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_geography#Tasks_and_tools_of_geography" title="Outline of geography">Techniques and tools</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_geography" title="Quantitative geography">Quantitative</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cartography" title="Cartography">Cartography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computer_cartography" title="Computer cartography">Computer cartography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Web_mapping" title="Web mapping">Web mapping</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geochronology" title="Geochronology">Geochronology</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Geographic information system</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Distributed_GIS" title="Distributed GIS">Distributed GIS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_GIS" title="Internet GIS">Internet GIS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Web_GIS" title="Web GIS">Web GIS</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geologic_modelling" title="Geologic modelling">Geologic modelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomathematics" title="Geomathematics">Geomathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geostatistics" title="Geostatistics">Geostatistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geovisualization" title="Geovisualization">Geovisualization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Positioning_System" title="Global Positioning System">Global Positioning System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrography" title="Hydrography">Hydrography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Map_algebra" title="Map algebra">Map algebra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Participant_observation" title="Participant observation">Participant observation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photogrammetry" title="Photogrammetry">Photogrammetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Remote_sensing" title="Remote sensing">Remote sensing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_survey" class="mw-redirect" title="Statistical survey">Statistical survey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surveying" title="Surveying">Surveying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_change_modeling" title="Land change modeling">Land change modeling</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Qualitative_geography" title="Qualitative geography">Qualitative</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethnography" title="Ethnography">Ethnography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geopoetics" title="Geopoetics">Geopoetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interview_(research)" title="Interview (research)">Interview (research)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Survey_(human_research)" title="Survey (human research)">Survey (human research)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Institutions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Geographic_data_and_information_organizations" title="Category:Geographic data and information organizations">Geographic data and information organizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_geographical_societies" title="List of geographical societies">Geographical societies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_geoscience_organizations" title="List of geoscience organizations">Geoscience societies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_mapping_agency" title="National mapping agency">National mapping agency</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Education</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Geography_education" title="Category:Geography education">Geography education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geo-literacy" title="Geo-literacy">Geo-literacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geographers_on_Film" title="Geographers on Film">Geographers on Film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Geography_Olympiad" title="International Geography Olympiad">International Geography Olympiad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Council_for_Geographic_Education" title="National Council for Geographic Education">National Council for Geographic Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spatial_citizenship" title="Spatial citizenship">Spatial citizenship</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" 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