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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Postmodernism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Postmodernism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Descriptions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Descriptions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Descriptions</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Descriptions-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Descriptions subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Descriptions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Distinctions_in_philosophy_and_critical_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Distinctions_in_philosophy_and_critical_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Distinctions in philosophy and critical theory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Distinctions_in_philosophy_and_critical_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Postmodern_society" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Postmodern_society"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Postmodern society</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Postmodern_society-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Social_sciences" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social_sciences"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Social sciences</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Social_sciences-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Postmodernity_as_a_shift_of_epistemology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Postmodernity_as_a_shift_of_epistemology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Postmodernity as a shift of epistemology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Postmodernity_as_a_shift_of_epistemology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Criticisms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criticisms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Criticisms</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Criticisms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Works_cited" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Works_cited"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Works cited</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Works_cited-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-General_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#General_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>General sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-General_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label 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interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Posmodernid%C3%A1" title="Posmodernidá – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Posmodernidá" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82" title="Постмодерност – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Постмодерност" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postmodernitat_(per%C3%ADode)" title="Postmodernitat (període) – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Postmodernitat (període)" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postmodernitet" title="Postmodernitet – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Postmodernitet" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uusim_aeg" title="Uusim aeg – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Uusim aeg" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Posmodernidad" title="Posmodernidad – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Posmodernidad" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postmoderneco" title="Postmoderneco – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Postmoderneco" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postmodernitate" title="Postmodernitate – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Postmodernitate" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%AF%D8%B1%D9%86%DB%8C%D8%AA%D9%87" title="پسامدرنیته – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="پسامدرنیته" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postmodernit%C3%A9" title="Postmodernité – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Postmodernité" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8A%D5%B8%D5%BD%D5%BF%D5%B4%D5%B8%D5%A4%D5%A5%D5%BC%D5%B6" title="Պոստմոդեռն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Պոստմոդեռն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postmoderenitas" title="Postmoderenitas – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Postmoderenitas" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postmodernit%C3%A0" title="Postmodernità – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Postmodernità" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%96%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BA" title="Постмодернділік – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Постмодернділік" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%9D%E3%82%B9%E3%83%88%E3%83%A2%E3%83%80%E3%83%8B%E3%83%86%E3%82%A3" title="ポストモダニティ – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ポストモダニティ" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%B1_%D9%86%D9%88%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84%DB%90_%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%87" title="تر نووالې وروسته – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="تر نووالې وروسته" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spo%C5%82ecze%C5%84stwo_ponowoczesne" title="Społeczeństwo ponowoczesne – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Społeczeństwo ponowoczesne" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C3%B3s-modernidade" title="Pós-modernidade – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Pós-modernidade" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postmodernitate" title="Postmodernitate – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Postmodernitate" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD" title="Постмодерн – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Постмодерн" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postmodernite" title="Postmodernite – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Postmodernite" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD" title="Постмодерн – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Постмодерн" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%E1%BA%ADu_hi%E1%BB%87n_%C4%91%E1%BA%A1i" title="Hậu 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<li><a href="/wiki/Proto-writing" title="Proto-writing">Proto-writing</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_history" title="Ancient history">Ancient</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chalcolithic" title="Chalcolithic">Copper Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a></li></ul> </div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Axial_Age" title="Axial Age">Axial Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Classical antiquity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">Late antiquity</a></li></ul> </div> <hr /> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a 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class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Post-classical_history" title="Post-classical history">Postclassical</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Middle_Ages" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of the Middle Ages">Timeline</a></li></ul> </div> <hr /> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Africa#500_to_1800" title="History of Africa">Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_era" title="Pre-Columbian era">Americas</a></li></ul> </div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Oceania" title="History of Oceania">Oceania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_East_Asia" title="History of East Asia">East Asia</a></li></ul> </div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Middle_kingdoms_of_India" title="Middle kingdoms of India">South Asia</a></li></ul> </div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Southeast_Asia#Medieval_history" title="History of Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Middle_East#Medieval_Near_East" title="History of the Middle East">West Asia</a></li></ul> </div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Europe</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Modern_era" title="Modern era">Modern</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-bottom:0.4em;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">Early modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_history" title="Contemporary history">Contemporary</a></li></ul> </div> <hr /> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Africa#Modern" title="History of Africa">Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_North_America#Modern" title="History of North America">North America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_South_America#Modern" title="History of South America">South America</a></li></ul> </div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Oceania#Modern_age" title="History of Oceania">Oceania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_East_Asia#Modern" title="History of East Asia">East Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_South_Asian_history#Modern" title="Outline of South Asian history">South Asia</a></li></ul> </div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Southeast_Asia#Modern" title="History of Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Middle_East" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern Middle East">West Asia</a></li></ul> </div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Europe#From_revolution_to_imperialism_(1789–1914)" title="History of Europe">Europe</a></li></ul> </div> <hr /></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-weight:normal;padding-bottom:0;"> See also</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-bottom:0;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernity" title="Modernity">Modernity</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Postmodernity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Futures_studies" title="Futures studies">Futurology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_history_of_the_world" title="Political history of the world">Political history</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <span style="font-size:120%">↓</span> <a href="/wiki/Future" title="Future">Future</a> <span class="nowrap">  </span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Human_history" title="Template:Human history"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Human_history" title="Template talk:Human history"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Human_history" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Human history"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p> <b>Postmodernity</b> (<b>post-modernity</b> or the <b>postmodern condition</b>) is the economic or cultural state or condition of society which is said to exist <i>after</i> <a href="/wiki/Modernity" title="Modernity">modernity</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>nb 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some schools of thought hold that modernity ended in the late 20th century – in the 1980s or early 1990s – and that it was replaced by postmodernity, and still others would extend modernity to cover the developments denoted by postmodernity. The idea of the postmodern condition is sometimes characterized as a culture stripped of its capacity to function in any linear or autonomous state like regressive isolationism, as opposed to the progressive mind state of <a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">modernism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJameson199127_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJameson199127-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Postmodernity can mean a personal response to a postmodern society, the conditions in a society which make it postmodern or the <a href="/wiki/State_of_being" class="mw-redirect" title="State of being">state of being</a> that is associated with a postmodern society as well as a historical epoch. In most contexts it should be distinguished from <a href="/wiki/Postmodernism" title="Postmodernism">postmodernism</a>, the adoption of <a href="/wiki/Postmodern_philosophy" title="Postmodern philosophy">postmodern philosophies</a> or traits in the arts, culture and society.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERibeiro2023124–125_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERibeiro2023124–125-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In fact, today's historical perspectives on the developments of <a href="/wiki/Postmodern_art" title="Postmodern art">postmodern art</a> (postmodernism) and postmodern society (postmodernity) can be best described as two umbrella terms for processes engaged in an ongoing dialectical relationship like <a href="/wiki/Post-postmodernism" title="Post-postmodernism">post-postmodernism</a>, the result of which is the evolving culture of the <a href="/wiki/Contemporary_history" title="Contemporary history">contemporary world</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some commentators deny that modernity ended, and consider the <a href="/wiki/Aftermath_of_World_War_II" title="Aftermath of World War II">post-WWII</a> era to be a continuation of modernity, which they refer to as <a href="/wiki/Late_modernity" title="Late modernity">late modernity</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Uses_of_the_term">Uses of the term</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Postmodernity&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Uses of the term"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i>Postmodernity</i> is the state or condition of being postmodern – after or in reaction to that which is modern, as in <a href="/wiki/Postmodern_art" title="Postmodern art">postmodern art</a> (<i>see <a href="/wiki/Postmodernism" title="Postmodernism">postmodernism</a></i>). <a href="/wiki/Modernity" title="Modernity">Modernity</a> is defined as a period or condition loosely identified with the <a href="/wiki/Progressive_Era" title="Progressive Era">Progressive Era</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">the Enlightenment</a>. In philosophy and <a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">critical theory</a> <i>postmodernity</i> refers to the state or condition of society which is said to exist <i>after</i> modernity, a historical condition that marks the reasons for the end of modernity. This usage is ascribed to the philosophers <a href="/wiki/Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois_Lyotard" title="Jean-François Lyotard">Jean-François Lyotard</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jean_Baudrillard" title="Jean Baudrillard">Jean Baudrillard</a>. </p><p>One "project" of modernity is said by <a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Jürgen Habermas</a> to have been the fostering of progress by incorporating principles of <a href="/wiki/Rationality" title="Rationality">rationality</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hierarchy" title="Hierarchy">hierarchy</a> into public and artistic life. (See also <a href="/wiki/Post-industrial_society" title="Post-industrial society">post-industrial</a>, <a href="/wiki/Information_Age" title="Information Age">Information Age</a>) Lyotard understood <a href="/wiki/Modernity" title="Modernity">modernity</a> as a cultural condition characterized by constant change in the pursuit of <a href="/wiki/Progress" title="Progress">progress</a>. Postmodernity then represents the culmination of this process where constant change has become the <i>status quo</i> and the notion of progress obsolete. Following <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Ludwig Wittgenstein</a>'s critique of the possibility of absolute and total knowledge, Lyotard further argued that the various <a href="/wiki/Metanarrative" title="Metanarrative">metanarratives</a> of progress such as <a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">positivist</a> science, <a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">structuralism</a> were defunct as methods of achieving progress. </p><p>The literary critic <a href="/wiki/Fredric_Jameson" title="Fredric Jameson">Fredric Jameson</a> and the geographer <a href="/wiki/David_Harvey" title="David Harvey">David Harvey</a> have identified postmodernity with "<a href="/wiki/Late_capitalism" title="Late capitalism">late capitalism</a>"<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or "flexible accumulation", a stage of capitalism following <a href="/wiki/Finance_capitalism" title="Finance capitalism">finance capitalism</a>, characterised by highly mobile labor and capital and what Harvey called "time and space compression".<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They suggest that this coincides with the breakdown of the <a href="/wiki/Bretton_Woods_system" title="Bretton Woods system">Bretton Woods system</a> which, they believe, defined the economic order following the Second World War. (See also <a href="/wiki/Consumerism" title="Consumerism">consumerism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">critical theory</a>.) Other academics, such as the archaeologist Artur Ribeiro, also identify postmodernity with late capitalism.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERibeiro2023123_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERibeiro2023123-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Though in the case of Ribeiro, he places the start of modernity at the beginning of the Bretton Woods system.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERibeiro2023125_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERibeiro2023125-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Those who generally view modernity as obsolete or an outright failure, a flaw in humanity's evolution leading to disasters like <a href="/wiki/Auschwitz_concentration_camp" title="Auschwitz concentration camp">Auschwitz</a> and <a href="/wiki/Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">Hiroshima</a>, see postmodernity as a positive development. Other philosophers, particularly those seeing themselves as within <a href="/wiki/The_Modern_Project" title="The Modern Project">The Modern Project</a>, see the state of postmodernity as a negative consequence of holding postmodernist ideas. For example, <a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Jürgen Habermas</a> and others contend that postmodernity represents a resurgence of long running <a href="/wiki/Counter-Enlightenment" title="Counter-Enlightenment">Counter-Enlightenment</a> ideas, that the modern project is not finished and that <a href="/wiki/Universal_(metaphysics)" title="Universal (metaphysics)">universality</a> cannot be so lightly dispensed with. Postmodernity, the consequence of holding postmodern ideas, is generally a negative term in this context. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Postmodernism">Postmodernism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Postmodernity&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Postmodernism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Postmodernism" title="Postmodernism">Postmodernism</a></div> <p>Postmodernity is a condition or a state of being associated with changes to institutions and creations<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGiddens199052_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiddens199052-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and with social and political results and innovations, globally but especially in the West since the 1950s, whereas <a href="/wiki/Postmodernism" title="Postmodernism">postmodernism</a> is an aesthetic, literary, political or social philosophy, the "cultural and intellectual phenomenon", especially since the 1920s' new movements in the arts. Both of these terms are used by philosophers, social scientists and social critics to refer to aspects of contemporary culture, economics and society that are the result of features of late 20th century and early 21st century life, including the fragmentation of authority and the <a href="/wiki/Commoditization" title="Commoditization">commoditization</a> of knowledge (<i>see</i> "<a href="/wiki/Modernity" title="Modernity">Modernity</a>").<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2009)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The relationship between postmodernity and critical theory, sociology and philosophy is fiercely contested. The terms "postmodernity" and "postmodernism" are often hard to distinguish, the former being often the result of the latter. The period has had diverse political ramifications: its "anti-ideological ideas" appear to have been associated with the <a href="/wiki/Feminist_movement" title="Feminist movement">feminist movement</a>, <a href="/wiki/Racial_equality_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Racial equality movement">racial equality movements</a>, <a href="/wiki/LGBT_movements" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT movements">LGBT movements</a>, most forms of late 20th century <a href="/wiki/Anarchism#Post-WWII" title="Anarchism">anarchism</a> and even the <a href="/wiki/Peace_movement" title="Peace movement">peace movement</a> as well as various hybrids of these in the current <a href="/wiki/Anti-globalization_movement" title="Anti-globalization movement">anti-globalization movement</a>. Though none of these institutions entirely embraces all aspects of the postmodern movement in its most concentrated definition they all reflect, or borrow from, some of its core ideas.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2011)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Postmodernity&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Relevant discussion may be found on the <a href="/wiki/Talk:Postmodernity#Talk_page_section_name" title="Talk:Postmodernity">talk page</a>. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Postmodernity" title="Special:EditPage/Postmodernity">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">October 2024</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Some authors, such as Lyotard and Baudrillard, believe that modernity ended in the late 20th century and thus have defined a period subsequent to modernity, namely postmodernity,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="If they make this claim, it must be said where. (April 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> while others, such as <a href="/wiki/Zygmunt_Bauman" title="Zygmunt Bauman">Zygmunt Bauman</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anthony_Giddens" title="Anthony Giddens">Anthony Giddens</a>, would extend modernity to cover the developments denoted by postmodernity. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="These are well-known academics and proper references to their work must be given. (April 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Others still contend that modernity ended with the <a href="/wiki/Victorian_era" title="Victorian era">Victorian Age</a> at the turn of the 20th century.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Postmodernity has gone through two relatively distinct phases: the first beginning in the late 1940s and 1950s and ending with the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a> (when <a href="/wiki/Analog_media" class="mw-redirect" title="Analog media">analog media</a> with limited <a href="/wiki/Bandwidth_(signal_processing)" title="Bandwidth (signal processing)">bandwidth</a> encouraged a few, authoritative media channels), and the second beginning at the end of the Cold War (marked by the spread of cable television and "<a href="/wiki/New_media" title="New media">new media</a>" based on <a href="/wiki/Digital_data" title="Digital data">digital</a> means of information dissemination and broadcast). </p><p>The first phase of postmodernity overlaps the end of <a href="/wiki/Modernity" title="Modernity">modernity</a> and is part of the <a href="/wiki/Modern_era" title="Modern era">modern period</a> <i>(see <a href="/wiki/Lumpers_and_splitters" title="Lumpers and splitters">lumpers/splitters</a>, <a href="/wiki/Periodization" title="Periodization">periodization</a>)</i>. Television became the primary news source, manufacturing decreased in importance in the economies of Western Europe and the <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1945%E2%80%931964)" title="History of the United States (1945–1964)">United States</a> but trade volumes increased within the developed core. In 1967–1969 a crucial cultural explosion took place within the developed world as the <a href="/wiki/Baby_boomers" title="Baby boomers">baby boom generation</a>, which had grown up with postmodernity as its fundamental experience of society, demanded entrance into the political, cultural and educational power structure. A series of demonstrations and acts of rebellion – ranging from nonviolent and cultural, through violent acts of terrorism – represented the opposition of the young to the policies and perspectives of the previous age. Opposition to the <a href="/wiki/Algerian_War" title="Algerian War">Algerian War</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Opposition_to_United_States_involvement_in_the_Vietnam_War" title="Opposition to United States involvement in the Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a>, to laws allowing or encouraging racial segregation and to laws which overtly discriminated against women and restricted access to divorce, increased use of <a href="/wiki/Cannabis_(drug)" title="Cannabis (drug)">marijuana</a> and <a href="/wiki/Psychedelic_drug" title="Psychedelic drug">psychedelics</a>, the emergence of pop cultural styles of music and drama, including <a href="/wiki/Rock_and_roll" title="Rock and roll">rock music</a> and the ubiquity of stereo, television and radio helped make these changes visible in the broader cultural context. This period is associated with the work of <a href="/wiki/Marshall_McLuhan" title="Marshall McLuhan">Marshall McLuhan</a>, a philosopher who focused on the results of living in a <a href="/wiki/Media_culture" title="Media culture">media culture</a> and argued that participation in a mass media culture both overshadows actual content disseminated and is liberating because it loosens the authority of local social normative standards. </p><p>The second phase of postmodernity is "<a href="/wiki/Digitality" title="Digitality">digitality</a>" – the increasing power of personal and <a href="/wiki/Digital_data" title="Digital data">digital</a> means of communication including <a href="/wiki/Fax" title="Fax">fax machines</a>, <a href="/wiki/Modem" title="Modem">modems</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cable_television" title="Cable television">cable</a> and <a href="/wiki/Broadband" title="Broadband">high speed internet</a>, which has altered the condition of postmodernity dramatically: digital production of information allows individuals to manipulate virtually every aspect of the media environment. This has brought producers into conflict with consumers over <a href="/wiki/Intellectual_capital" title="Intellectual capital">intellectual capital</a> and intellectual property and led to the creation of a <a href="/wiki/New_economy" title="New economy">new economy</a> whose supporters argue that the dramatic fall in information costs will alter society fundamentally. </p><p>Digitality, or what <a href="/wiki/Esther_Dyson" title="Esther Dyson">Esther Dyson</a> referred to as "being digital", emerged as a separate condition from postmodernity. The ability to manipulate items of popular culture, the World Wide Web, the use of search engines to index knowledge, and telecommunications were producing a "convergence" marked by the rise of "<a href="/wiki/Participatory_culture" title="Participatory culture">participatory culture</a>" in the words of <a href="/wiki/Henry_Jenkins" title="Henry Jenkins">Henry Jenkins</a>. </p><p>One <a href="/wiki/Demarcation_problem" title="Demarcation problem">demarcation point</a> of this era is the liberalization of China in the early 1980s and the <a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Dissolution of the Soviet Union">collapse of the Soviet Union</a> in 1991. <a href="/wiki/Francis_Fukuyama" title="Francis Fukuyama">Francis Fukuyama</a> wrote "<a href="/wiki/The_End_of_History_and_the_Last_Man" title="The End of History and the Last Man">The End of History?</a>" in 1989 in anticipation of the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Berlin_Wall" title="Fall of the Berlin Wall">Fall of the Berlin Wall</a>. He predicted that the question of political philosophy had been answered, that large scale wars over fundamental values would no longer arise since "all prior contradictions are resolved and all human needs satisfied." This is a kind of 'endism' also taken up by <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Danto" title="Arthur Danto">Arthur Danto</a> who in 1964 acclaimed that <a href="/wiki/Andy_Warhol" title="Andy Warhol">Andy Warhol</a>'s Brillo boxes asked the right question of art and hence art had ended.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Descriptions">Descriptions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Postmodernity&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Descriptions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Distinctions_in_philosophy_and_critical_theory">Distinctions in philosophy and critical theory</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Postmodernity&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Distinctions in philosophy and critical theory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The debate on postmodernity has two distinct elements that are often confused; (1) the nature of contemporary society and (2) the nature of the critique of contemporary society. The first of these elements is concerned with the nature of changes that took place during the late 20th century. There are three principal analyses. Theorists such as <a href="/wiki/Alex_Callinicos" title="Alex Callinicos">Alex Callinicos</a> and <a href="/wiki/Craig_Calhoun" title="Craig Calhoun">Craig Calhoun</a> offer a conservative position on the nature of contemporary society, downplaying the significance and extent of socio-economic changes and emphasizing a continuity with the past.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Second a range of theorists have tried to analyze the present as a development of the "modern" project into a second, distinct phase that is nevertheless still "modernity": this has been termed the "second" or "risk" society by <a href="/wiki/Ulrich_Beck" title="Ulrich Beck">Ulrich Beck</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeck1992_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeck1992-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "late" or "high" modernity by Giddens,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGiddens1990163–164_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiddens1990163–164-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGiddens19913_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiddens19913-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "liquid" modernity by Bauman,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBauman2000_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBauman2000-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the "network" society by <a href="/wiki/Manuel_Castells" title="Manuel Castells">Manuel Castells</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECastells1996xviii–xix_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECastells1996xviii–xix-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Third are those who argue that contemporary society has moved into a literally post-modern phase distinct from modernity. The most prominent proponents of this position are Lyotard and Baudrillard. </p><p>Another set of issues concerns the nature of critique, often replaying debates over (what can be crudely termed) <a href="/wiki/Universality_(philosophy)" title="Universality (philosophy)">universalism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">relativism</a>, where modernism is seen to represent the former and postmodernity the latter. <a href="/wiki/Seyla_Benhabib" title="Seyla Benhabib">Seyla Benhabib</a> and <a href="/wiki/Judith_Butler" title="Judith Butler">Judith Butler</a> pursue this debate in relation to feminist politics,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBenhabib1995?_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBenhabib1995?-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEButler1995?_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEButler1995?-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Benhabib arguing that postmodern critique comprises three main elements; an <a href="/wiki/Anti-foundationalism" title="Anti-foundationalism">anti-foundationalist</a> concept of the subject and identity, the <a href="/wiki/The_End_of_History_and_the_Last_Man" title="The End of History and the Last Man">death of history</a> and of notions of <a href="/wiki/Teleology" title="Teleology">teleology</a> and progress, and the death of <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysics</a> defined as the search for objective truth. Benhabib argues forcefully against these critical positions, holding that they undermine the bases upon which feminist politics can be founded, removing the possibility of agency, the sense of self-hood and the appropriation of women's history in the name of an emancipated future. The denial of normative ideals removes the possibility for utopia, central for ethical thinking and democratic action. </p><p>Butler responds to Benhabib by arguing that her use of postmodernism is an expression of a wider paranoia over anti-foundationalist philosophy, in particular, <a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">post-structuralism</a>. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>A number of positions are ascribed to postmodernism – Discourse is all there is, as if discourse were some kind of monistic stuff out of which all things are composed; the subject is dead, I can never say "I" again; there is no reality, only representation. These characterizations are variously imputed to postmodernism or poststructuralism, which are conflated with each other and sometimes conflated with deconstruction, and understood as an indiscriminate assemblage of French feminism, deconstruction, Lacanian psychoanalysis, Foucauldian analysis, Rorty's conversationalism, and cultural studies ... In reality, these movements are opposed: Lacanian psychoanalysis in France positions itself officially against poststructuralism, that Foucauldian rarely relate to Derridideans ... Lyotard champions the term, but he cannot be made into the example of what all the rest of the purported postmodernists are doing. Lyotard’s work is, for instance, seriously at odds with that of Derrida</p></blockquote> <p>Butler uses the debate over the nature of the post-modernist critique to demonstrate how philosophy is implicated in power relationships and defends poststructuralist critique by arguing that the critique of the <a href="/wiki/Subject_and_object_(philosophy)" title="Subject and object (philosophy)">subject</a> itself is the beginning of analysis, not the end, because the first task of enquiry is the questioning of accepted "universal" and "objective" norms. </p><p>The Benhabib-Butler debate demonstrates that there is no simple definition of a postmodern theorist as the very definition of postmodernity itself is contested. <a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Michel Foucault</a> rejected the label of postmodernism explicitly in interviews yet is seen by many, such as <a href="/wiki/Seyla_Benhabib" title="Seyla Benhabib">Benhabib</a>, as advocating a form of critique that is "postmodern" in that it breaks with utopian and transcendental "modern" critiques by calling universal norms of the Enlightenment into question. Giddens rejects this characterisation of "modern critique", pointing out that a critique of Enlightenment universals was central to philosophers of the modern period, most notably <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGiddens199046–49_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiddens199046–49-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Postmodern_society">Postmodern society</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Postmodernity&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Postmodern society"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Jameson views a number of phenomena as distinguishing postmodernity from modernity. He speaks of "a new kind of <a href="/wiki/Superficiality" title="Superficiality">superficiality</a>" or "depthlessness" in which models that once explained people and things in terms of an "inside" and an "outside" (such as <a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">hermeneutics</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Dialectic" title="Dialectic">dialectic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sigmund_Freud" title="Sigmund Freud">Freudian</a> <a href="/wiki/Repression_(psychoanalysis)" title="Repression (psychoanalysis)">repression</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">existentialist</a> distinction between <a href="/wiki/Authenticity_(philosophy)" title="Authenticity (philosophy)">authenticity</a> and inauthenticity, and the <a href="/wiki/Sign_(semiotics)" title="Sign (semiotics)">semiotic</a> distinction of signifier and signified) have been rejected. </p><p>Second is a rejection of the modernist "<a href="/wiki/Utopia" title="Utopia">Utopian</a> gesture", evident in <a href="/wiki/Vincent_van_Gogh" title="Vincent van Gogh">Van Gogh</a>, of the transformation through art of misery into beauty whereas in the postmodernism movement the object world has undergone a "fundamental mutation" so that it has "now become a set of texts or <a href="/wiki/Simulacrum" title="Simulacrum">simulacra</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJameson199338_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJameson199338-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Whereas modernist art sought to redeem and sacralize the world, to give life to world (we might say, following Graff, to give the world back the enchantment that science and the decline of religion had taken away from it), postmodernist art bestows upon the world a "deathly quality… whose glacéd X-ray elegance mortifies the reified eye of the viewer in a way that would seem to have nothing to do with death or the death obsession or the death anxiety on the level of content" (ibid.). Graff sees the origins of this transformative mission of art in an attempted substitution of art for religion in giving meaning to the world that the rise of science and <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a> <a href="/wiki/Rationality" title="Rationality">rationality</a> had removed – but in the postmodern period this is seen as futile. </p><p>The third feature of the postmodern age that Jameson identifies is the "waning of affect" – not that all <a href="/wiki/Emotion" title="Emotion">emotion</a> has disappeared from the postmodern age but that it lacks a particular kind of emotion such as that found in "<a href="/wiki/Arthur_Rimbaud" title="Arthur Rimbaud">Rimbaud</a>'s magical flowers 'that look back at you'". He notes that "<a href="/wiki/Pastiche" title="Pastiche">pastiche</a> eclipses parody" as "the increasing unavailability of the personal style" leads to pastiche becoming a universal practice. </p><p>Jameson argues that distance "has been abolished" in postmodernity, that we "are submerged in its henceforth filled and suffused volumes to the point where our now postmodern bodies are bereft of spatial co-ordinates". This "new global space" constitutes postmodernity's "moment of truth". The various other features of the postmodern that he identifies "can all now be seen as themselves partial (yet constitutive) aspects of the same general spatial object". The postmodern era has seen a change in the <a href="/wiki/Structural_functionalism" title="Structural functionalism">social function</a> of culture. He identifies culture in the modern age as having had a property of "semi-autonomy", with an "existence… above the practical world of the existent" but, in the postmodern age, culture has been deprived of this autonomy, the cultural has expanded to consume the entire social realm so that all becomes "cultural". "Critical distance", the assumption that culture can be positioned outside "the massive Being of <a href="/wiki/Capital_(economics)" title="Capital (economics)">capital</a>" upon which left-wing theories of cultural politics are dependent, has become outmoded. The "prodigious new expansion of multinational capital ends up penetrating and colonizing those very pre-capitalist enclaves (Nature and the Unconscious) which offered extraterritorial and <a href="/wiki/Archimedean_property" title="Archimedean property">Archimedean</a> footholds for critical effectivity".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJameson199154_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJameson199154-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Social_sciences">Social sciences</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Postmodernity&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Social sciences"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/History_of_sociology#20th_century:_functionalism,_structuralism,_critical_theory_and_globalization" title="History of sociology">Postmodern sociology</a> can be said to focus on conditions of life which became increasingly prevalent in the late 20th century in the most industrialized nations, including the ubiquity of mass media and mass production, the rise of a global economy and a shift from manufacturing to <a href="/wiki/Service_economy" title="Service economy">service economies</a>. Jameson and Harvey described it as <a href="/wiki/Consumerism" title="Consumerism">consumerism</a>, where manufacturing, distribution and dissemination have become exceptionally inexpensive but social connectedness and community have become rarer. Other thinkers assert that postmodernity is the natural reaction to mass broadcasting in a society conditioned to mass production and mass politics. The work of <a href="/wiki/Alasdair_MacIntyre" title="Alasdair MacIntyre">Alasdair MacIntyre</a> informs the versions of postmodernism elaborated by such authors as Murphy (2003) and Bielskis (2005), for whom MacIntyre's postmodern revision of <a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</a> poses a challenge to the kind of consumerist ideology that now promotes <a href="/wiki/Capital_accumulation" title="Capital accumulation">capital accumulation</a>. </p><p>The sociological view of postmodernity ascribes it to more rapid transportation, wider communication and the ability to abandon standardization of mass production, leading to a system which values a wider range of capital than previously and allows value to be stored in a greater variety of forms. Harvey argues that postmodernity is an escape from "<a href="/wiki/Fordism" title="Fordism">Fordism</a>", a term coined by <a href="/wiki/Antonio_Gramsci" title="Antonio Gramsci">Antonio Gramsci</a> to describe the mode of industrial regulation and accumulation which prevailed during the Keynesian era of economic policy in OECD countries from the early 1930s to the 1970s. Fordism for Harvey is associated with Keynesianism in that the first concerns methods of production and capital-labor relations while the latter concerns economic policy and regulation. <a href="/wiki/Post-Fordism" title="Post-Fordism">Post-Fordism</a> is therefore one of the basic aspects of postmodernity from Harvey's point of view. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Cultural_artifact" title="Cultural artifact">Artifacts</a> of postmodernity include the dominance of television and popular culture, the wide accessibility of information and mass telecommunications. Postmodernity also exhibits a greater resistance to making sacrifices in the name of progress discernible in environmentalism and the growing importance of the <a href="/wiki/Anti-war_movement" title="Anti-war movement">anti-war movement</a>. Postmodernity in the industrialised core is marked by increasing focus on <a href="/wiki/Civil_and_political_rights" title="Civil and political rights">civil rights</a> and <a href="/wiki/Equal_opportunity" title="Equal opportunity">equal opportunity</a> as well as movements such as <a href="/wiki/Feminism" title="Feminism">feminism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Multiculturalism" title="Multiculturalism">multiculturalism</a> and the backlash against these movements. The postmodern political sphere is marked by multiple arenas and possibilities of citizenship and <a href="/wiki/Political_action" class="mw-redirect" title="Political action">political action</a> concerning various forms of struggle against oppression or alienation (in collectives defined by sex or ethnicity) while the modernist political arena remains restricted to class struggle. </p><p>Theorists such as <a href="/wiki/Michel_Maffesoli" title="Michel Maffesoli">Michel Maffesoli</a> believe that postmodernity is corroding the circumstances that provide for its subsistence and will eventually result in a decline of individualism and the birth of a new <a href="/wiki/Neotribalism" title="Neotribalism">neo-Tribal</a> era. </p><p>According to theories of postmodernity, economic and <a href="/wiki/Technology" title="Technology">technological</a> conditions of our age have given rise to a decentralized, media-dominated society in which ideas are only <a href="/wiki/Simulacrum" title="Simulacrum">simulacra</a>, inter-referential representations and copies of each other with no real, original, stable or objective source of communication and meaning. <a href="/wiki/Globalization" title="Globalization">Globalization</a>, brought on by innovations in communication, manufacturing and <a href="/wiki/Transport" title="Transport">transportation</a> is often<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2007)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> cited as one force which has driven the <a href="/wiki/Decentralization" title="Decentralization">decentralized</a> modern life, creating a culturally pluralistic and interconnected global society lacking any single dominant center of political power, communication or intellectual production. The postmodernist view is that <a href="/wiki/Intersubjectivity" title="Intersubjectivity">intersubjective</a>, not objective, knowledge will be the dominant form of <a href="/wiki/Discourse" title="Discourse">discourse</a> under such conditions and that ubiquity of dissemination fundamentally alters the relationship between reader and that which is read, between observer and the observed, between those who consume and those who produce. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Postmodernity_as_a_shift_of_epistemology">Postmodernity as a shift of epistemology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Postmodernity&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Postmodernity as a shift of epistemology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Another conception of postmodernity is as an <a href="/wiki/Paradigm_shift" title="Paradigm shift">epistemological shift</a>. This perspective suggests that the way people communicate and justify knowledge (i.e. epistemology) changes in conjunction with other societal changes, that the cultural and technological changes of the 1960s and 1970s included such a shift, and that this shift should be denoted as from modernity to postmodernity. [See French (2016),<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> French & Ehrman (2016),<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or Sørensen (2007)].<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Criticisms">Criticisms</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Postmodernity&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Criticisms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_postmodernism" title="Criticism of postmodernism">Criticism of postmodernism</a></div> <p>Criticisms of the postmodern condition can broadly be put into four categories: criticisms of postmodernity from the perspective of those who reject <a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">modernism</a> and its offshoots, criticisms from supporters of modernism who believe that postmodernity lacks crucial characteristics of the modern project, critics from within postmodernity who seek reform or change based on their understanding of <a href="/wiki/Postmodernism" title="Postmodernism">postmodernism</a>, and those who believe that postmodernity is a passing, and not a growing, phase in social organization. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Postmodernity&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 22em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Postmodern_philosophy" title="Postmodern philosophy">Postmodern philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmodernism" title="Postmodernism">Postmodernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-industrial_society" title="Post-industrial society">Post-industrial society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-materialism" class="mw-redirect" title="Post-materialism">Post-materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-Western_era" title="Post-Western era">Post-Western era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypermodernity" title="Hypermodernity">Hypermodernity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Father_complex#Postmodernism:_the_absent_father" title="Father complex">Postmodernism: The absent father</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Futurism" title="Futurism">Futurism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hauntology" title="Hauntology">Hauntology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intellectualism" title="Intellectualism">Intellectualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continuity_thesis" title="Continuity thesis">Continuity thesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_modernity" title="Late modernity">Late modernity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_modernity" title="Second modernity">Second modernity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-postmodernism" title="Post-postmodernism">Post-postmodernism</a></li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Postmodernity&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">In this context, "modern" is not used in the sense of "contemporary", but as a name for a specific period in history.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Postmodernity&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJameson199127-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJameson199127_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJameson1991">Jameson 1991</a>, p. 27.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERibeiro2023124–125-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERibeiro2023124–125_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRibeiro2023">Ribeiro 2023</a>, pp. 124–125.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFNilges2015" class="citation journal cs1">Nilges, Mathias (Spring 2015). "The Presence of Postmodernism in Contemporary American Literature". <i><a href="/wiki/American_Literary_History" title="American Literary History">American Literary History</a></i>. <b>27</b> (1): 186–197. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Falh%2Faju065">10.1093/alh/aju065</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Literary+History&rft.atitle=The+Presence+of+Postmodernism+in+Contemporary+American+Literature&rft.ssn=spring&rft.volume=27&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=186-197&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Falh%2Faju065&rft.aulast=Nilges&rft.aufirst=Mathias&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APostmodernity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarvey1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Harvey_(geographer)" class="mw-redirect" title="David Harvey (geographer)">Harvey, David</a> (1997). <i>The Condition of Postmodernity : An Enquiry into the Origins of Cultural Change</i>. <a href="/wiki/Blackwell_Publishing" class="mw-redirect" title="Blackwell Publishing">Blackwell Publishing</a>. p. 42.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Condition+of+Postmodernity+%3A+An+Enquiry+into+the+Origins+of+Cultural+Change&rft.pages=42&rft.pub=Blackwell+Publishing&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=Harvey&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APostmodernity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHassan2020" class="citation book cs1">Hassan, Robert (2020). "1989: David Harvey's Postmodernity: The Space Economy of Late Capitalism". <i>The Condition of Digitality: A Post-Modern Marxism for the Practice of Digital Life</i>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Westminster_Press" title="University of Westminster Press">University of Westminster Press</a>. pp. 13–34.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=1989%3A+David+Harvey%27s+Postmodernity%3A+The+Space+Economy+of+Late+Capitalism&rft.btitle=The+Condition+of+Digitality%3A+A+Post-Modern+Marxism+for+the+Practice+of+Digital+Life&rft.pages=13-34&rft.pub=University+of+Westminster+Press&rft.date=2020&rft.aulast=Hassan&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APostmodernity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERibeiro2023123-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERibeiro2023123_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRibeiro2023">Ribeiro 2023</a>, p. 123.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERibeiro2023125-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERibeiro2023125_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRibeiro2023">Ribeiro 2023</a>, p. 125.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiddens199052-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGiddens199052_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGiddens1990">Giddens 1990</a>, p. 52.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWright1997" class="citation book cs1">Wright, William D. 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(1 January 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F2158244016628588">"Deconstructing The End of Leadership"</a>. <i>SAGE Open</i>. <b>6</b> (1): 2158244016628588. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F2158244016628588">10.1177/2158244016628588</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2158-2440">2158-2440</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=SAGE+Open&rft.atitle=Deconstructing+The+End+of+Leadership&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=2158244016628588&rft.date=2016-01-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F2158244016628588&rft.issn=2158-2440&rft.aulast=French&rft.aufirst=Robert+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1177%252F2158244016628588&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APostmodernity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrench_IIEhrman2016" class="citation journal cs1">French II, Robert P.; Ehrman, James E. (1 January 2016). "Postmodernity as an Epistemological Shift: Kony 2012 as a Case Study for the Global Influence of Postmodernity". <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Journal_of_World_Christianity&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Journal of World Christianity (page does not exist)">Journal of World Christianity</a></i>. <b>6</b> (2): 237–249. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5325%2Fjworlchri.6.2.0237">10.5325/jworlchri.6.2.0237</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5325/jworlchri.6.2.0237">10.5325/jworlchri.6.2.0237</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+World+Christianity&rft.atitle=Postmodernity+as+an+Epistemological+Shift%3A+Kony+2012+as+a+Case+Study+for+the+Global+Influence+of+Postmodernity&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=237-249&rft.date=2016-01-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5325%2Fjworlchri.6.2.0237&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F10.5325%2Fjworlchri.6.2.0237%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=French+II&rft.aufirst=Robert+P.&rft.au=Ehrman%2C+James+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APostmodernity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSorensen2007" class="citation book cs1">Sorensen, Jorgen Skov (2 January 2007). <i>Missiological Mutilations - Prospective Paralogies: Language and Power in Contemporary Mission Theory</i> (1 ed.). <a href="/wiki/Peter_Lang_(publisher)" title="Peter Lang (publisher)">Peter Lang</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780820487045" title="Special:BookSources/9780820487045"><bdi>9780820487045</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Missiological+Mutilations+-+Prospective+Paralogies%3A+Language+and+Power+in+Contemporary+Mission+Theory&rft.edition=1&rft.pub=Peter+Lang&rft.date=2007-01-02&rft.isbn=9780820487045&rft.aulast=Sorensen&rft.aufirst=Jorgen+Skov&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APostmodernity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Works_cited">Works cited</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Postmodernity&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Works cited"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBauman2000" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Zygmunt_Bauman" title="Zygmunt Bauman">Bauman, Zygmunt</a> (2000). <i>Liquid Modernity</i>. Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Polity_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Polity Press">Polity Press</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Liquid+Modernity&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Polity+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Bauman&rft.aufirst=Zygmunt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APostmodernity" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeck1992" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ulrich_Beck" title="Ulrich Beck">Beck, Ulrich</a> (1992). <i>Risk Society: Towards a New Modernity</i>. Translated by Ritter, Mark. London: <a href="/wiki/SAGE_Publications" class="mw-redirect" title="SAGE Publications">SAGE Publications</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8039-8346-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8039-8346-5"><bdi>978-0-8039-8346-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Risk+Society%3A+Towards+a+New+Modernity&rft.place=London&rft.pub=SAGE+Publications&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-8039-8346-5&rft.aulast=Beck&rft.aufirst=Ulrich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APostmodernity" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBenhabib1995" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Seyla_Benhabib" title="Seyla Benhabib">Benhabib, Seyla</a> (1995). "Feminism and Postmodernism". In <a href="/wiki/Seyla_Benhabib" title="Seyla Benhabib">Benhabib, Seyla</a>; <a href="/wiki/Judith_Butler" title="Judith Butler">Butler, Judith</a>; <a href="/wiki/Drucilla_Cornell" title="Drucilla Cornell">Cornell, Drucilla</a>; <a href="/wiki/Nancy_Fraser" title="Nancy Fraser">Fraser, Nancy</a> (eds.). <i>Feminist Contentions: A Philosophical Exchange</i>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Feminism+and+Postmodernism&rft.btitle=Feminist+Contentions%3A+A+Philosophical+Exchange&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Benhabib&rft.aufirst=Seyla&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APostmodernity" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFButler1995" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Judith_Butler" title="Judith Butler">Butler, Judith</a> (1995). "Contingent Foundations". In <a href="/wiki/Seyla_Benhabib" title="Seyla Benhabib">Benhabib, Seyla</a>; <a href="/wiki/Judith_Butler" title="Judith Butler">Butler, Judith</a>; <a href="/wiki/Drucilla_Cornell" title="Drucilla Cornell">Cornell, Drucilla</a>; <a href="/wiki/Nancy_Fraser" title="Nancy Fraser">Fraser, Nancy</a> (eds.). <i>Feminist Contentions: A Philosophical Exchange</i>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Contingent+Foundations&rft.btitle=Feminist+Contentions%3A+A+Philosophical+Exchange&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Butler&rft.aufirst=Judith&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APostmodernity" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCastells1996" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Manuel_Castells" title="Manuel Castells">Castells, Manuel</a> (1996). <i>The Rise of the Network Society</i> (2nd ed.). <a href="/wiki/Wiley-Blackwell" title="Wiley-Blackwell">Wiley-Blackwell</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rise+of+the+Network+Society&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Wiley-Blackwell&rft.date=1996&rft.aulast=Castells&rft.aufirst=Manuel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APostmodernity" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGiddens1990" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Giddens" title="Anthony Giddens">Giddens, Anthony</a> (1990). <i>The Consequences of Modernity</i>. Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Polity_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Polity Press">Polity Press</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Consequences+of+Modernity&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Polity+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.aulast=Giddens&rft.aufirst=Anthony&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APostmodernity" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGiddens1991" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Giddens" title="Anthony Giddens">Giddens, Anthony</a> (1991). <i>Modernity and Self Identity</i>. Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Polity_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Polity Press">Polity Press</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Modernity+and+Self+Identity&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Polity+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.aulast=Giddens&rft.aufirst=Anthony&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APostmodernity" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJameson1991" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Fredric_Jameson" title="Fredric Jameson">Jameson, Fredric</a> (1991). <a href="/wiki/Postmodernism,_or,_the_Cultural_Logic_of_Late_Capitalism" title="Postmodernism, or, the Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism"><i>Postmodernism, or, The Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism</i></a>. London: <a href="/wiki/Duke_University_Press" title="Duke University Press">Duke University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2F9780822378419">10.1515/9780822378419</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8223-7841-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8223-7841-9"><bdi>978-0-8223-7841-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Postmodernism%2C+or%2C+The+Cultural+Logic+of+Late+Capitalism&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Duke+University+Press&rft.date=1991&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2F9780822378419&rft.isbn=978-0-8223-7841-9&rft.aulast=Jameson&rft.aufirst=Fredric&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APostmodernity" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRibeiro2023" class="citation journal cs1">Ribeiro, Artur (2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00293652.2023.2204873">"Archaeology in Late Capitalist Times"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Norwegian_Archaeological_Review" title="Norwegian Archaeological Review">Norwegian Archaeological Review</a></i>. <b>56</b> (2): 123–139. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00293652.2023.2204873">10.1080/00293652.2023.2204873</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Norwegian+Archaeological+Review&rft.atitle=Archaeology+in+Late+Capitalist+Times&rft.volume=56&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=123-139&rft.date=2023&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00293652.2023.2204873&rft.aulast=Ribeiro&rft.aufirst=Artur&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1080%252F00293652.2023.2204873&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APostmodernity" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="General_sources">General sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Postmodernity&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: General sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Perry_Anderson" title="Perry Anderson">Anderson, Perry</a> (1998). <i>The Origins of Postmodernity</i>. London: Verso.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Deely" title="John Deely">Deely, John</a> (2001). <i>Four Ages of Understanding: The First Postmodern Survey of Philosophy from ancient Times to the Turn of the Twenty-first Century</i>. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Gu%C3%A9non" title="René Guénon">Guénon, René</a> (1927). <i>The Crisis of the Modern World</i>. Hillsdale: Sophia Perennis.</li> <li>Guénon, René (1945). <i>The Reign of Quantity & the Signs of the Times</i>. Hillsdale: Sophia Perennis.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Harvey" title="David Harvey">Harvey, David</a> (1990). <i>The Condition of Postmodernity. An enquiry into the origins of cultural change</i>. Oxford: Blackwell.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ihab_Hassan" title="Ihab Hassan">Ihab Hassan</a> (2000), <i>From Postmodernism to Postmodernity: the Local/Global Context</i>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120308174739/http://www.ihabhassan.com/postmodernism_to_postmodernity.htm">text online.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois_Lyotard" title="Jean-François Lyotard">Jean-François Lyotard</a> (1924–1998) was a French philosopher and literary theorist well known for his embracing of postmodernism after the late 1970s. He published "La Condition postmoderne: Rapport sur le savoir" (The Postmodern Condition: A Report on Knowledge) (1979)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Arthur_Willard" title="Charles Arthur Willard">Charles Arthur Willard</a>. <i>Liberalism and the Problem of Knowledge: A New Rhetoric for Modern Democracy.</i> University of Chicago Press. (1996).</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Postmodernity&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlbrow1996" class="citation book cs1">Albrow, Martin (1996). <i>the Global Age: State and Society Beyond Modernity</i>. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8047-2870-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-8047-2870-4"><bdi>0-8047-2870-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=the+Global+Age%3A+State+and+Society+Beyond+Modernity&rft.place=Stanford%2C+CA&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=0-8047-2870-4&rft.aulast=Albrow&rft.aufirst=Martin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APostmodernity" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jes%C3%BAs_Ballesteros" title="Jesús Ballesteros">Ballesteros, Jesús</a>, 1992. <i>Postmodernity: Decadence or Resistance</i>, Pamplona, Emise.</li> <li>Baudrillard, J. 1984. <i>Simulations</i>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Semiotext(e)" title="Semiotext(e)">Semiotext(e)</a>.</li> <li>Berman, Marshall. 1982. <i>All That is Solid Melts into Air. The Experience of Modernity</i>. London: Verso.</li> <li>Bielskis, Andrius. 2005. <i>Towards a Postmodern Understanding of the Political</i>. Houndmills, New York: Palgrave Macmillan.</li> <li>Chan, Evans. 2001. "Against Postmodernism, etcetera – A Conversation with Susan Sontag" in <i>Postmodern Culture</i>, vol. 12 no. 1, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.</li> <li>Docherty, Thomas. 1993. (ed.), <i>Postmodernism: A Reader</i>, New York: Harvester Wheatsheat.</li> <li>Docker, John. 1994. <i>Postmodernism and Popular Culture: A Cultural History.</i> Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</li> <li>Eagleton, Terry. "Capitalism, Modernism and Postmodernism". <i>Against the Grain: Essays 1975–1985</i>. London: Verso, 1986. pp. 131–47.</li> <li>Foster, H. 1983. <i>The Anti-Aesthetic</i>. USA: Bay Press.</li> <li>Fuery, Patrick and Mansfield, Nick. 2001. <i>Cultural Studies and Critical Theory</i>. Melbourne: Oxford University Press.</li> <li>Graff, Gerald. 1973. "The Myth of the Postmodernist Breakthrough" in <i>Triquarterly</i>, no. 26, Winter 1973, pp. 383–417.</li> <li>Grebowicz, Margret. 2007. <i>Gender After Lyotard</i>. NY: Suny Press.</li> <li>Grenz, Stanley J. 1996. <i>A Primer on Postmodernism.</i> Grand Rapids: Eerdmans</li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Habermas, Jürgen</a> "Modernity – An Incomplete Project" (in Docherty ibid)</li> <li>Habermas, Jürgen. 1981. trans. by Seyla Ben-Habib. "Modernity versus Postmodernity". in V Taylor & C Winquist; originally published in <i>New German Critique</i>, no. 22, Winter 1981, pp. 3–14.</li> <li>Jencks, Charles. 1986. <i>What is Postmodernism?</i> New York: St. Martin's Press, and London: Academy Editions.</li> <li>Joyce, James. 1964. <i>Ulysses</i>. London: Bodley Head.</li> <li>Lipovetsky, Gilles. 2005. <i>Hypermodern Times</i>. Cornwall: Polity Press.</li> <li>Lyotard, J. 1984. <a href="/wiki/The_Postmodern_Condition" title="The Postmodern Condition"><i>The Postmodern Condition: A report on knowledge</i></a>. Manchester: Manchester University Press</li> <li>Mansfield, N. 2000. <i>Subjectivity: Theories of the self from Freud to Harroway</i>. Sydney: Allen & Unwin.</li> <li>McHale, Brian. 1990. "Constructing (post) modernism: The case of Ulysses" in <i>Style</i>, vol. 24 no. 1, pp. 1–21, DeKalb, Illinois: Northern Illinois University English Department.</li> <li>Murphy, Mark C. (ed.) 2003. <i>Alasdair MacIntyre</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</li> <li>Palmeri, Frank. 2001. "Other than Postmodern? – Foucault, Pynchon, Hybridity, Ethics" in <i>Postmodern Culture</i>, vol. 12 no. 1, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.</li> <li>Pinkney, Tony. 1989. "Modernism and Cultural Theory", editor's introduction to Williams, Raymond. <i>The Politics of Modernism: Against the New Conformists</i>. London: Verso.</li> <li>Taylor, V & Winquist, (ed). 1998. <i>Postmodernism:</i> <i>Critical concepts</i> (vol. 1–2). London: Routledge.</li> <li>Wheale, N. 1995. <i>The Postmodern Arts: An introductory reader</i>. New York: Routledge.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Postmodernity&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/postmodernity" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Special:Search/postmodernity">postmodernity</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070506150218/http://www.georgetown.edu/faculty/irvinem/technoculture/pomo.html">Martin Irvine on Postmodernism and Postmodernity in contrast to Modernism and Modernity</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110109104452/http://www.spiked-online.com/Articles/0000000CA554.htm">Postmodern warfare</a>, by <a href="/wiki/Philip_Hammond" title="Philip Hammond">Philip Hammond</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121028060421/http://www.focusing.org/apm_papers/epstein.html">Mikhail Epstein on "postmodernism's position in postmodernity"</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080120221109/http://users.california.com/~rathbone/names.htm">Extensive list of names related to postmodernism and postmodernity</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120308174739/http://www.ihabhassan.com/postmodernism_to_postmodernity.htm">On the distinction of postmodernity from postmodernism</a>, by Egypt-American critic <a href="/wiki/Ihab_Hassan" title="Ihab Hassan">Ihab Hassan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Harvey_(geographer)" class="mw-redirect" title="David Harvey (geographer)">David Harvey</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070519060945/http://webpages.ursinus.edu/rrichter/harvey.html">The Condition of postmodernity</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081211053434/http://decadeology.wetpaint.com/page/Postmodern">Decadeology Wiki, Postmodern article</a></li></ul>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; 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