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href="#Culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Culture </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cacicazgo/society" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cacicazgo/society"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Cacicazgo/society </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cacicazgo/society-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Food_and_agriculture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Food_and_agriculture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Food and agriculture </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Food_and_agriculture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Spirituality" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spirituality"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Spirituality </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Spirituality-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Spanish_and_Taíno" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spanish_and_Taíno"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Spanish and Taíno </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Spanish_and_Taíno-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Women" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Women"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Women </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Women-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Genocide_and_depopulation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Genocide_and_depopulation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Genocide and depopulation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Genocide_and_depopulation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Taíno_culture_today" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Taíno_culture_today"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Taíno culture today </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Taíno_culture_today-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Taíno culture today subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Taíno_culture_today-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Cuba" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cuba"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.1 Cuba </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cuba-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dominican_Republic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dominican_Republic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.2 Dominican Republic </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dominican_Republic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Jamaica" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jamaica"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.3 Jamaica </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jamaica-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_States,_Puerto_Rico_and_the_U.S._Virgin_Islands" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States,_Puerto_Rico_and_the_U.S._Virgin_Islands"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.4 United States, Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States,_Puerto_Rico_and_the_U.S._Virgin_Islands-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Taíno_revivalist_communities" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Taíno_revivalist_communities"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.5 Taíno revivalist communities </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Taíno_revivalist_communities-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-DNA_of_Taíno_descendants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#DNA_of_Taíno_descendants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.6 DNA of Taíno descendants </div> </a> <ul id="toc-DNA_of_Taíno_descendants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Cited_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cited_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.1 Cited sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cited_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Taíno</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 51 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-51" aria-hidden="true" > 51 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%88" title="تاينو – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تاينو" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8B" title="তাইনো – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="তাইনো" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B0%D1%96%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Таіна – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Таіна" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B0%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BE" title="Таино – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Таино" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taino" title="Taino – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Taino" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ta%C3%AFnos" title="Taïnos – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Taïnos" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ta%C3%ADnov%C3%A9" title="Taínové – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Taínové" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ta%C3%ADnoerne" title="Taínoerne – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Taínoerne" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ta%C3%ADno" title="Taíno – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Taíno" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tainod" title="Tainod – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Tainod" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ta%C3%ADno" title="Taíno – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Taíno" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tainoj" title="Tainoj – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Tainoj" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ta%C3%ADno" title="Taíno – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Taíno" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%A6%DB%8C%D9%86%D9%88" title="تائینو – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="تائینو" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ta%C3%AFnos" title="Taïnos – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Taïnos" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pobo_ta%C3%ADno" title="Pobo taíno – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Pobo taíno" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%83%80%EC%9D%B4%EB%85%B8%EC%9D%B8" title="타이노인 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="타이노인" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ta%C3%ADno" title="Taíno – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Taíno" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ta%C3%ADno" title="Taíno – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Taíno" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ta%C3%ADn%C3%B3ar" title="Taínóar – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Taínóar" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taino_(popolo)" title="Taino (popolo) – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Taino (popolo)" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%98%D7%90%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%95" title="טאינו – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="טאינו" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A2%E1%83%90%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%AE%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%AE%E1%83%98" title="ტაინოს ხალხი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ტაინოს ხალხი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tayino_(p%C3%A8p)" title="Tayino (pèp) – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Tayino (pèp)" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taino" title="Taino – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Taino" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tainai" title="Tainai – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Tainai" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%88" title="تاينو – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="تاينو" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orang_Ta%C3%ADno" title="Orang Taíno – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Orang Taíno" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ta%C3%ADno_(volk)" title="Taíno (volk) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Taíno (volk)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%BF%E3%82%A4%E3%83%8E%E6%97%8F" title="タイノ族 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="タイノ族" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ta%C3%ADno" title="Taíno – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Taíno" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nordfriisk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taino" title="Taino – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Taino" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tainoar" title="Tainoar – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Tainoar" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pap mw-list-item"><a href="https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taino" title="Taino – Papiamento" lang="pap" hreflang="pap" data-title="Taino" data-language-autonym="Papiamentu" data-language-local-name="Papiamento" class="interlanguage-link-target">Papiamentu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taino" title="Taino – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Taino" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Patois</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tainowie" title="Tainowie – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Tainowie" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ta%C3%ADnos" title="Taínos – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Taínos" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taino" title="Taino – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Taino" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B0%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BE_(%D0%B3%D1%80%D1%83%D0%BF%D0%BF%D0%B0_%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%B2)" title="Таино (группа народов) – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Таино (группа народов)" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ta%C3%ADno" title="Taíno – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Taíno" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tainovia" title="Tainovia – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Tainovia" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tainska_civilizacija" title="Tainska civilizacija – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Tainska civilizacija" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B0%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BE" title="Таино – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Таино" 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id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Indigenous people of the Caribbean</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the Taíno people. For the language, see <a href="/wiki/Ta%C3%ADno_language" title="Taíno language">Taíno language</a>. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Ta%C3%ADno_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Taíno (disambiguation)">Taíno (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Ethnic group</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vcard"><caption class="infobox-title fn org">Taíno</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Estatua_de_Ag%C3%BCeyban%C3%A1_II,_El_Bravo,_en_el_Parque_Monumento_a_Ag%C3%BCeyban%C3%A1_II,_El_Bravo,_en_Ponce,_Puerto_Rico_(DSC02672C).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Estatua_de_Ag%C3%BCeyban%C3%A1_II%2C_El_Bravo%2C_en_el_Parque_Monumento_a_Ag%C3%BCeyban%C3%A1_II%2C_El_Bravo%2C_en_Ponce%2C_Puerto_Rico_%28DSC02672C%29.jpg/220px-Estatua_de_Ag%C3%BCeyban%C3%A1_II%2C_El_Bravo%2C_en_el_Parque_Monumento_a_Ag%C3%BCeyban%C3%A1_II%2C_El_Bravo%2C_en_Ponce%2C_Puerto_Rico_%28DSC02672C%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="438" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Estatua_de_Ag%C3%BCeyban%C3%A1_II%2C_El_Bravo%2C_en_el_Parque_Monumento_a_Ag%C3%BCeyban%C3%A1_II%2C_El_Bravo%2C_en_Ponce%2C_Puerto_Rico_%28DSC02672C%29.jpg/330px-Estatua_de_Ag%C3%BCeyban%C3%A1_II%2C_El_Bravo%2C_en_el_Parque_Monumento_a_Ag%C3%BCeyban%C3%A1_II%2C_El_Bravo%2C_en_Ponce%2C_Puerto_Rico_%28DSC02672C%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Estatua_de_Ag%C3%BCeyban%C3%A1_II%2C_El_Bravo%2C_en_el_Parque_Monumento_a_Ag%C3%BCeyban%C3%A1_II%2C_El_Bravo%2C_en_Ponce%2C_Puerto_Rico_%28DSC02672C%29.jpg/440px-Estatua_de_Ag%C3%BCeyban%C3%A1_II%2C_El_Bravo%2C_en_el_Parque_Monumento_a_Ag%C3%BCeyban%C3%A1_II%2C_El_Bravo%2C_en_Ponce%2C_Puerto_Rico_%28DSC02672C%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1028" data-file-height="2048" /></a><div class="infobox-caption"><a href="/wiki/Ag%C3%BCeyban%C3%A1_El_Bravo_(statue)" title="Agüeybaná El Bravo (statue)">Statue of Agüeybaná II, "El Bravo"</a> in <a href="/wiki/Ponce,_Puerto_Rico" title="Ponce, Puerto Rico">Ponce, Puerto Rico</a><a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a></div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#b0c4de; color:inherit;">Regions with significant populations</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/Cuba" title="Cuba">Cuba</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dominican_Republic" title="Dominican Republic">Dominican Republic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Haiti" title="Haiti">Haiti</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jamaica" title="Jamaica">Jamaica</a>, <a href="/wiki/Puerto_Rico" title="Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bahamas" class="mw-redirect" title="Bahamas">Bahamas</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#b0c4de; color:inherit;">Languages</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/Caribbean_English" title="Caribbean English">English</a>, <a href="/wiki/Caribbean_Spanish" title="Caribbean Spanish">Spanish</a>, <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dutch_language" title="Dutch language">Dutch</a>, <a href="/wiki/Creole_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Creole languages">Creole languages</a> <a href="/wiki/Ta%C3%ADno_language" title="Taíno language">Taíno</a> (historically)</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#b0c4de; color:inherit;">Religion</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/Ta%C3%ADno_mythology" title="Taíno mythology">Taíno</a> (historically)</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#b0c4de; color:inherit;">Related ethnic groups</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/Lokono" title="Lokono">Lokono</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kalinago" title="Kalinago">Kalinago</a>, <a href="/wiki/Garifuna" title="Garifuna">Garifuna</a>, <a href="/wiki/Igneri" title="Igneri">Igneri</a>, <a href="/wiki/Guanahatabey" title="Guanahatabey">Guanahatabey</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arawak" title="Arawak">Arawak</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> Taíno is a term referring to a historic <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Caribbean" title="Indigenous peoples of the Caribbean">Indigenous people of the Caribbean</a>, whose culture has been continued today by their descendants and Taíno revivalist communities.<a href="#cite_note-Oliver2009-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERouse1992161-4">[4]</a> At the time of European contact in the late 15th century, they were the principal inhabitants of most of what is now <a href="/wiki/Cuba" title="Cuba">Cuba</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Dominican_Republic" title="Dominican Republic">Dominican Republic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jamaica" title="Jamaica">Jamaica</a>, <a href="/wiki/Haiti" title="Haiti">Haiti</a>, <a href="/wiki/Puerto_Rico" title="Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Bahamas" title="The Bahamas">the Bahamas</a>, and the northern <a href="/wiki/Lesser_Antilles" title="Lesser Antilles">Lesser Antilles</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Lucayan_people" title="Lucayan people">Lucayan</a> branch of the Taíno were the first <a href="/wiki/New_World" title="New World">New World</a> peoples encountered by <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Columbus" title="Christopher Columbus">Christopher Columbus</a>, in the <a href="/wiki/Lucayan_Archipelago" title="Lucayan Archipelago">Bahama Archipelago</a> on October 12, 1492. The Taíno historically spoke an <a href="/wiki/Arawakan_languages" title="Arawakan languages">Arawakan language</a>. Granberry and Vescelius (2004) recognized two varieties of the Taino language, "Classical Taino", spoken in Puerto Rico and most of Hispaniola, and "Ciboney Taino", spoken in the Bahamas, most of Cuba, western Hispaniola, and Jamaica.<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> They lived in agricultural societies ruled by <a href="/wiki/Cacique" title="Cacique">caciques</a> with fixed settlements and a <a href="/wiki/Matrilineality" title="Matrilineality">matrilineal</a> system of kinship and inheritance. Taíno religion centered on the worship of <a href="/wiki/Zemis" class="mw-redirect" title="Zemis">zemis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERouse199213–15-6">[6]</a> The Indigenous peoples of the Greater Antilles are sometimes also referred to as Island Arawaks. Indigenous people in the Greater Antilles did not refer to themselves as Taínos, as the term was coined by the anthropologist <a href="/wiki/Constantine_Samuel_Rafinesque" title="Constantine Samuel Rafinesque">Constantine Samuel Rafinesque</a> in 1836.<a href="#cite_note-Oliver2009-2">[2]</a> Some anthropologists and historians have argued that the Taíno were no longer extant centuries ago,<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-History_2019-9">[9]</a> or that they gradually merged into a common identity with African and Hispanic cultures.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERouse1992161–164-10">[10]</a> However, many people today identify as Taíno or have Taíno descent, most notably in subsections of the <a href="/wiki/Puerto_Ricans" title="Puerto Ricans">Puerto Rican</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cubans" title="Cubans">Cuban</a>, and <a href="/wiki/People_of_the_Dominican_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="People of the Dominican Republic">Dominican</a> nationalities.<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-Newsweek_tooth-12">[12]</a> Many Puerto Ricans, Cubans, and Dominicans have Caribbean-Indigenous <a href="/wiki/Mitochondrial_DNA" title="Mitochondrial DNA">mitochondrial DNA</a>, suggesting Taíno descent through the direct female line.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-poole-14">[14]</a> While some communities describe an unbroken cultural heritage passed down from the old Taíno peoples, often in secret, others are revivalist communities who seek to incorporate Taíno culture into their lives.<a href="#cite_note-History_2019-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-:2-15">[15]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Terminology">Terminology</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Reconstruction_of_Taino_village,_Cuba.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Reconstruction_of_Taino_village%2C_Cuba.JPG/220px-Reconstruction_of_Taino_village%2C_Cuba.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Reconstruction_of_Taino_village%2C_Cuba.JPG/330px-Reconstruction_of_Taino_village%2C_Cuba.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Reconstruction_of_Taino_village%2C_Cuba.JPG/440px-Reconstruction_of_Taino_village%2C_Cuba.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2272" data-file-height="1704" /></a><figcaption>Reconstruction of a Taíno village in <a href="/wiki/El_Chorro_de_Maita" title="El Chorro de Maita">El Chorro de Maíta</a>, Cuba</figcaption></figure> Scholars have faced difficulties researching the native inhabitants of the Caribbean islands to which Columbus voyaged in 1492, since European accounts cannot be read as objective evidence of a native Caribbean <a href="/wiki/Social_reality" title="Social reality">social reality</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Hulme1993-16">[16]</a> The people who inhabited most of the <a href="/wiki/Greater_Antilles" title="Greater Antilles">Greater Antilles</a> when Europeans arrived have been called Taínos, a term coined by <a href="/wiki/Constantine_Samuel_Rafinesque" title="Constantine Samuel Rafinesque">Constantine Samuel Rafinesque</a> in 1836.<a href="#cite_note-Oliver2009-2">[2]</a> Taíno is not a universally accepted denomination—it was not the name this people called themselves originally, and there is still uncertainty about their attributes and the boundaries of the territory they occupied.<a href="#cite_note-Hulme1993,199-17">[17]</a> The term nitaino or nitayno, from which Taíno derived, referred to an elite social class, not to an ethnic group. No 16th-century Spanish documents use this word to refer to the tribal affiliation or ethnicity of the natives of the Greater Antilles. The word tayno or taíno, with the meaning "good" or "prudent", was mentioned twice in an account of Columbus's second voyage by his physician, <a href="/wiki/Diego_%C3%81lvarez_Chanca" title="Diego Álvarez Chanca">Diego Álvarez Chanca</a>, while in <a href="/wiki/Guadeloupe" title="Guadeloupe">Guadeloupe</a>. José R. Oliver writes that the Natives of Borinquén, who had been captured by the <a href="/wiki/Kalinago" title="Kalinago">Caribs of Guadeloupe</a> and who wanted to escape on Spanish ships to return home to Puerto Rico, used the term to indicate that they were the "good men", as opposed to the Caribs.<a href="#cite_note-Oliver2009-2">[2]</a> According to Peter Hulme, most translators appear to agree that the word taíno was used by Columbus's sailors, not by the islanders who greeted them, although there is room for interpretation. The sailors may have been saying the only word they knew in a native Caribbean tongue, or perhaps they were indicating to the "commoners" on the shore that they were taíno, i.e., important people, from elsewhere and thus entitled to deference. If taíno was being used here to denote ethnicity, then it was used by the Spanish sailors to indicate that they were "not Carib", and gives no evidence of self-identification by the native people.<a href="#cite_note-Hulme1993,199-17">[17]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Barreiro" title="José Barreiro">José Barreiro</a>, a direct translation of the word Taíno signified "men of the good".<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> The Taíno people, or Taíno culture, have been classified by some authorities as belonging to the <a href="/wiki/Arawak" title="Arawak">Arawak</a> peoples. Their language is considered to have belonged to the <a href="/wiki/Arawak_language_family" class="mw-redirect" title="Arawak language family">Arawak language family</a>, the languages of which were historically present throughout the Caribbean, and much of Central and South America. In 1871, early ethnohistorian <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Garrison_Brinton" title="Daniel Garrison Brinton">Daniel Garrison Brinton</a> referred to the Taíno people as the Island Arawak, expressing their connection to the continental peoples.<a href="#cite_note-DGB1871-19">[19]</a> Since then, numerous scholars and writers have referred to the Indigenous group as Arawaks or Island Arawaks. However, contemporary scholars (such as <a href="/wiki/Irving_Rouse" title="Irving Rouse">Irving Rouse</a> and Basil Reid) concluded that the Taíno developed a distinct language and culture from the Arawak of South America.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERouse1992-20">[20]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>]<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> Taíno and Arawak have been used with numerous and contradictory meanings by writers, travelers, historians, linguists, and anthropologists. Often they were used interchangeably: Taíno was applied to the Greater Antillean natives only, but could include the Bahamian or the <a href="/wiki/Leeward_Islands" title="Leeward Islands">Leeward Islands</a> natives, excluding the Puerto Rican and Leeward nations. Similarly, Island Taíno has been used to refer only to those living in the <a href="/wiki/Windward_Islands" title="Windward Islands">Windward Islands</a>, or to the northern Caribbean inhabitants, as well as to the Indigenous population of all the Caribbean islands. Many modern historians, linguists, and anthropologists now hold that the term Taíno should refer to all the Taíno/Arawak nations except the <a href="/wiki/Island_Caribs" class="mw-redirect" title="Island Caribs">Caribs</a>, who are not seen as belonging to the same people. Linguists continue to debate whether the Carib language was an Arawakan <a href="/wiki/Dialect" title="Dialect">dialect</a> or a <a href="/wiki/Creole_language" title="Creole language">Creole language</a>. They also speculate that it was an independent language isolate, with an Arawakan <a href="/wiki/Pidgin" title="Pidgin">pidgin</a> used for communication purposes with other peoples, as in trading. Rouse classifies all inhabitants of the Greater Antilles as Taíno (except the western tip of Cuba and small pockets of Hispaniola), as well as those of the <a href="/wiki/Lucayan_Archipelago" title="Lucayan Archipelago">Lucayan Archipelago</a> and the northern <a href="/wiki/Lesser_Antilles" title="Lesser Antilles">Lesser Antilles</a>. He subdivides the Taíno into three main groups: Classic Taíno, from most of Hispaniola and all of Puerto Rico; Western Taíno, or sub-Taíno, from Jamaica, most of Cuba, and the Lucayan archipelago; and Eastern Taíno, from the <a href="/wiki/Virgin_Islands" title="Virgin Islands">Virgin Islands</a> to <a href="/wiki/Montserrat" title="Montserrat">Montserrat</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERouse19927-22">[22]</a> Modern groups with Caribbean-Indigenous heritage have reclaimed the exonym Taíno as a self-descriptor, although terms such as Neo-Taino or Indio are also used.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-poole-14">[14]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Origins">Origins</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ta%C3%ADnos.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Ta%C3%ADnos.svg/220px-Ta%C3%ADnos.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Ta%C3%ADnos.svg/330px-Ta%C3%ADnos.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Ta%C3%ADnos.svg/440px-Ta%C3%ADnos.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="863" data-file-height="616" /></a><figcaption>The Guanahatabey region in relation to Taíno and <a href="/wiki/Island_Carib" class="mw-redirect" title="Island Carib">Island Carib</a> groups</figcaption></figure> Two schools of thought have emerged regarding the origin of the Indigenous Caribbean people. <ul><li>One group of scholars contends that the Taíno's ancestors were <a href="/wiki/Arawak_language" title="Arawak language">Arawak</a> speakers from the center of the <a href="/wiki/Amazon_Basin" class="mw-redirect" title="Amazon Basin">Amazon Basin</a>, as indicated by linguistic, cultural, and ceramic evidence. They migrated to the <a href="/wiki/Orinoco" title="Orinoco">Orinoco</a> Valley on the north coast, before reaching the Caribbean by way of what is now <a href="/wiki/Venezuela" title="Venezuela">Venezuela</a> into <a href="/wiki/Trinidad" title="Trinidad">Trinidad</a>, migrating along the Lesser Antilles to Cuba and the Bahamas. Evidence that supports the theory includes the tracing of the ancestral cultures of these people to the Orinoco Valley and their languages to the Amazon Basin.<a href="#cite_note-Origins-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-native-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-Madrigal-26">[26]</a></li> <li>The alternate theory, known as the circum-Caribbean theory, contends that the Taíno's ancestors diffused from the <a href="/wiki/Andean_Region_of_Colombia" class="mw-redirect" title="Andean Region of Colombia">Colombian Andes</a>. <a href="/wiki/Julian_H._Steward" class="mw-redirect" title="Julian H. Steward">Julian H. Steward</a>, who originated this concept, suggests a migration from the Andes to the Caribbean and a parallel migration into <a href="/wiki/Central_America" title="Central America">Central America</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Guianas" class="mw-redirect" title="Guianas">Guianas</a>, Venezuela, and the Amazon Basin of South America.<a href="#cite_note-Origins-24">[24]</a></li></ul> Taíno culture as documented is believed to have developed in the Caribbean. The Taíno creation story says they emerged from caves in a sacred mountain on present-day Hispaniola.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> In Puerto Rico, 21st-century studies have shown that a high proportion of people have <a href="/wiki/Amerindian" class="mw-redirect" title="Amerindian">Amerindian</a> <a href="/wiki/MtDNA" class="mw-redirect" title="MtDNA">mtDNA</a>. Of the two major <a href="/wiki/Haplotypes" class="mw-redirect" title="Haplotypes">haplotypes</a> found, one does not exist in the Taíno ancestral group, so other Native people are also among the genetic ancestors.<a href="#cite_note-native-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-Young_2011_Nature-28">[28]</a> <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a> studies changed some of the traditional beliefs about pre-Columbian Indigenous history. According to <a href="/wiki/National_Geographic" title="National Geographic">National Geographic</a>, "studies confirm that a wave of pottery-making farmers—known as Ceramic Age people—set out in canoes from the north-eastern coast of South America starting some 2,500 years ago and island-hopped across the Caribbean. They were not, however, the first colonizers. On many islands, they encountered foraging people who arrived some 6,000 or 7,000 years ago...The ceramicists, who are related to today's Arawak-speaking peoples, supplanted the earlier foraging inhabitants—presumably through disease or violence—as they settled new islands."<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Culture">Culture</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ta%C3%ADno_women_preparing_cassava_bread.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Ta%C3%ADno_women_preparing_cassava_bread.png/220px-Ta%C3%ADno_women_preparing_cassava_bread.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="203" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Ta%C3%ADno_women_preparing_cassava_bread.png/330px-Ta%C3%ADno_women_preparing_cassava_bread.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Ta%C3%ADno_women_preparing_cassava_bread.png/440px-Ta%C3%ADno_women_preparing_cassava_bread.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="739" /></a><figcaption>Some Taíno women are preparing <a href="/wiki/Tapioca" title="Tapioca">cassava bread</a> in 1565: grating yuca roots into paste, shaping the bread, and cooking it on a fire-heated burén</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Duho.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Duho.jpg/220px-Duho.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="105" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Duho.jpg/330px-Duho.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Duho.jpg/440px-Duho.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="491" /></a><figcaption>Dujo, a wooden ceremonial chair crafted by Taínos</figcaption></figure> Taíno society was divided into two classes: naborias (commoners) and nitaínos (nobles). They were governed by male and female chiefs known as <a href="/wiki/Cacique" title="Cacique">caciques</a>, who inherited their position through their mother's noble line. (This was a matrilineal kinship system, with social status passed through the female lines.) The nitaínos functioned as sub-caciques in villages, overseeing the work of naborias. Caciques were advised by priests/healers known as bohíques. Caciques enjoyed the privilege of wearing golden pendants called guanín, living in square bohíos, instead of the round ones of ordinary villagers, and sitting on wooden stools to be above the guests they received.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> Bohíques were extolled for their healing powers and ability to speak with deities. They were consulted and granted the Taíno permission to engage in important tasks.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The Taíno had a <a href="/wiki/Matrilineal" class="mw-redirect" title="Matrilineal">matrilineal</a> system of <a href="/wiki/Kinship" title="Kinship">kinship</a>, descent, and inheritance. Spanish accounts of the rules of succession for a chief are not consistent, and the rules of succession may have changed as a result of the disruptions to Taíno society that followed the Spanish intrusion. Two early chroniclers, <a href="/wiki/Bartolom%C3%A9_de_las_Casas" title="Bartolomé de las Casas">Bartolomé de las Casas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Peter_Martyr_d%27Anghiera" title="Peter Martyr d'Anghiera">Peter Martyr d'Anghiera</a>, reported that a chief was succeeded by a son of a sister. Las Casas was not specific as to which son of a sister would succeed, but d'Anghiera stated that the order of succession was the oldest son of the oldest sister, then the oldest son of the next oldest sister.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> Post-marital residence was <a href="/wiki/Avunculism" class="mw-redirect" title="Avunculism">avunculocal</a>, meaning a newly married couple lived in the household of the maternal uncle. He was more important in the lives of his niece's children than their biological father; the uncle introduced the boys to men's societies in his sister and his family's clan. Some Taíno practiced <a href="/wiki/Polygamy" title="Polygamy">polygamy</a>. Men might have multiple wives. Ramón Pané, a Catholic friar who traveled with Columbus on his second voyage and was tasked with learning the Indigenous people's language and customs, wrote in the 16th century that caciques tended to have two or three spouses and the principal ones had as many as 10, 15, or 20.<a href="#cite_note-Friar_Pané-32">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-Bourne-33">[33]</a> The Taíno women were skilled in agriculture, which the people depended on. The men also fished and hunted, making fishing nets and ropes from <a href="/wiki/Cotton" title="Cotton">cotton</a> and <a href="/wiki/Palm_tree" class="mw-redirect" title="Palm tree">palm</a>. Their dugout <a href="/wiki/Canoe" title="Canoe">canoes</a> (kanoa) were of various sizes and could hold from 2 to 150 people; an average-sized canoe would hold 15–20. They used bows and arrows for hunting and developed the use of poisons on their arrowheads.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Taíno women commonly wore their hair with bangs in front and longer in the back, and they occasionally wore gold jewelry, paint, and/or shells. Taíno men and unmarried women usually went naked. After marriage, women wore a small cotton apron, called a nagua.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> The Taíno lived in settlements called yucayeques, which varied in size depending on the location. Those in Puerto Rico and Hispaniola were the largest and those in the Bahamas were the smallest. In the center of a typical village was a central plaza, used for various social activities, such as games, festivals, religious <a href="/wiki/Ritual" title="Ritual">rituals</a>, and public ceremonies. These plazas had many shapes, including oval, rectangular, narrow, and elongated. Ceremonies where the deeds of the ancestors were celebrated, called areitos, were performed here.<a href="#cite_note-Rouse15-35">[35]</a> Often, the general population lived in large circular buildings (bohios), constructed with wooden poles, woven straw, and palm leaves. These houses, built surrounding the central plaza, could hold 10–15 families each.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">full citation needed</a>] The cacique and their family lived in rectangular buildings (caney) of similar construction, with wooden porches. Taíno home furnishings included cotton hammocks (hamaca), sleeping and sitting mats made of palms, wooden chairs (dujo or duho) with woven seats and platforms, and cradles for children. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Parco_Cerimoniale_Indigeno_di_Caguana.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Parco_Cerimoniale_Indigeno_di_Caguana.jpg/220px-Parco_Cerimoniale_Indigeno_di_Caguana.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Parco_Cerimoniale_Indigeno_di_Caguana.jpg/330px-Parco_Cerimoniale_Indigeno_di_Caguana.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Parco_Cerimoniale_Indigeno_di_Caguana.jpg/440px-Parco_Cerimoniale_Indigeno_di_Caguana.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Caguana Ceremonial ball court (batey) in Puerto Rico, outlined with stones</figcaption></figure> The Taíno played a ceremonial ball game called <a href="/wiki/Batey_(game)" title="Batey (game)">batey</a>. Opposing teams had 10 to 30 players per team and used a solid <a href="/wiki/Rubber" class="mw-redirect" title="Rubber">rubber</a> ball. Normally, the teams were composed of men, but occasionally women played the game as well.<a href="#cite_note-Alegría1951p348-37">[37]</a> The Classic Taíno played in the village's center plaza or on especially designed rectangular ball courts called batey. Games on the batey are believed to have been used for conflict resolution between communities. The most elaborate ball courts are found at chiefdom boundaries.<a href="#cite_note-Rouse15-35">[35]</a> Often, chiefs made wagers on the possible outcome of a game.<a href="#cite_note-Alegría1951p348-37">[37]</a> Taíno spoke an <a href="/wiki/Arawakan_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arawakan language">Arawakan language</a> and used an early form of <a href="/wiki/Proto-writing" title="Proto-writing">proto-writing</a> in the form of <a href="/wiki/Petroglyph" title="Petroglyph">petroglyph</a>,<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> as found in <a href="/wiki/Taino_archaeology" class="mw-redirect" title="Taino archaeology">Taíno archeological sites</a> in the <a href="/wiki/West_Indies" title="West Indies">West Indies</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Int'l_congress-39">[39]</a> Some words they used, such as barbacoa ("barbecue"), hamaca ("hammock"), kanoa ("canoe"), tabaco ("tobacco"), sabana (savanna), and <a href="/wiki/Jurac%C3%A1n" class="mw-redirect" title="Juracán">juracán</a> ("hurricane"), have been incorporated into other languages.<a href="#cite_note-Powhatan_Auld-40">[40]</a> For warfare, the men made wooden war clubs, which they called <a href="/wiki/Macana" title="Macana">macanas</a>. It was about one inch thick and was similar to the coco macaque. The Taínos decorated and applied <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/war_paint" class="extiw" title="wikt:war paint">war paint</a> to their face to appear fierce toward their enemies. They ingested substances at religious ceremonies and invoked zemis.<a href="#cite_note-Issuu_1912-41">[41]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cacicazgo/society">Cacicazgo/society</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Smithsonian_1901_map_of_Puerto_Rico_caciques.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Smithsonian_1901_map_of_Puerto_Rico_caciques.png/280px-Smithsonian_1901_map_of_Puerto_Rico_caciques.png" decoding="async" width="280" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Smithsonian_1901_map_of_Puerto_Rico_caciques.png/420px-Smithsonian_1901_map_of_Puerto_Rico_caciques.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/48/Smithsonian_1901_map_of_Puerto_Rico_caciques.png 2x" data-file-width="523" data-file-height="410" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Cayetano_Coll_y_Toste" title="Cayetano Coll y Toste">Cayetano Coll y Toste</a>'s 1901 map of Puerto Rico caciques<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a></figcaption></figure> The Taíno were the most culturally advanced of the <a href="/wiki/Arawak" title="Arawak">Arawak</a> group to settle in what is now <a href="/wiki/Puerto_Rico" title="Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Wagenheim12-43">[43]</a> Individuals and <a href="/wiki/Kinship" title="Kinship">kinship</a> groups that previously had some prestige and rank in the <a href="/wiki/Tribe" title="Tribe">tribe</a> began to occupy the hierarchical position that would give way to the <a href="/wiki/Cacicazgo" title="Cacicazgo">cacicazgo</a>.<a href="#cite_note-enciclopediapr-44">[44]</a> The Taíno founded <a href="/wiki/Human_settlement" title="Human settlement">settlements</a> around <a href="/wiki/Village" title="Village">villages</a> and organized their chiefdoms, or cacicazgos, into a confederation.<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> The Taíno society, as described by the Spanish chroniclers, was composed of four social classes: the <a href="/wiki/Cacique" title="Cacique">cacique</a>, the nitaínos, the bohíques, and the naborias.<a href="#cite_note-enciclopediapr-44">[44]</a> According to archeological evidence, the Taíno islands were able to support a high number of people for approximately 1,500 years.<a href="#cite_note-Rethinking-46">[46]</a> Every individual living in the Taíno society had a task to do. The Taíno believed that everyone living on their islands should eat properly.<a href="#cite_note-Rethinking-46">[46]</a> They followed a very efficient nature harvesting and agricultural production system.<a href="#cite_note-Rethinking-46">[46]</a> Either people were hunting, searching for food, or doing other productive tasks.<a href="#cite_note-Rethinking-46">[46]</a> Tribal groups settled in villages under a <a href="/wiki/Tribal_chief" title="Tribal chief">chieftain</a>, known as cacique, or cacica if the ruler was a woman. Many women whom the <a href="/wiki/Spaniards" title="Spaniards">Spaniards</a> called cacicas were not always rulers in their own right, but were mistakenly acknowledged as such because they were the <a href="/wiki/Wife" title="Wife">wives</a> of caciques.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Chiefs were chosen from the nitaínos and generally obtained power from their <a href="/wiki/Matrilineality" title="Matrilineality">maternal</a> line. A male ruler was more likely to be succeeded by his sister's children than his own unless their mother's lineage allowed them to succeed in their own right.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> The chiefs had both temporal and spiritual functions. They were expected to ensure the welfare of the tribe and to protect it from harm from both natural and supernatural forces.<a href="#cite_note-Wagenheim13-48">[48]</a> They were also expected to direct and manage the food production process. The cacique's power came from the number of villages he controlled and was based on a network of alliances related to <a href="/wiki/Family" title="Family">family</a>, matrimonial, and ceremonial ties. According to an early 20th-century Smithsonian study, these alliances showed the unity of the <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Indigenous</a> communities in a territory;<a href="#cite_note-Smithsonian_1901-49">[49]</a> they would band together as a defensive strategy to face external threats, such as the attacks by the <a href="/wiki/Island_Caribs" class="mw-redirect" title="Island Caribs">Caribs</a> on communities in Puerto Rico.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> The practice of <a href="/wiki/Polygamy" title="Polygamy">polygamy</a> enabled the cacique to have women and create family alliances in different localities, thus extending his power. As a symbol of his <a href="/wiki/Social_status" title="Social status">status</a>, the cacique carried a <a href="/wiki/Guan%C3%ADn" title="Guanín">guanín</a> of South American origin, made of an alloy of gold and copper. This symbolized the first Taíno mythical cacique Anacacuya, whose name means "star of the center", or "central spirit". In addition to the guanín, the cacique used other artifacts and adornments to serve to identify his role. Some examples are tunics of <a href="/wiki/Cotton" title="Cotton">cotton</a> and rare <a href="/wiki/Feather" title="Feather">feathers</a>, crowns, and masks or "guaizas" of cotton with feathers; colored stones, shells, or gold; cotton woven belts; and necklaces of snail beads or stones, with small masks of gold or other material.<a href="#cite_note-enciclopediapr-44">[44]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Copia_de_Cacicazgos_de_la_Hispaniola.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Copia_de_Cacicazgos_de_la_Hispaniola.png/300px-Copia_de_Cacicazgos_de_la_Hispaniola.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Copia_de_Cacicazgos_de_la_Hispaniola.png/450px-Copia_de_Cacicazgos_de_la_Hispaniola.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Copia_de_Cacicazgos_de_la_Hispaniola.png/600px-Copia_de_Cacicazgos_de_la_Hispaniola.png 2x" data-file-width="2341" data-file-height="1171" /></a><figcaption>Cacicazgos of Hispaniola</figcaption></figure> Under the cacique, social organization was composed of two tiers: The nitaínos at the top and the naborias at the bottom.<a href="#cite_note-Wagenheim12-43">[43]</a> The nitaínos were considered the <a href="/wiki/Nobility" title="Nobility">nobles</a> of the tribes. They were made up of <a href="/wiki/Warrior" title="Warrior">warriors</a> and the family of the cacique.<a href="#cite_note-proyectosalonhogar-51">[51]</a> Advisors who assisted in operational matters such as assigning and supervising communal work, planting and <a href="/wiki/Harvest" title="Harvest">harvesting</a> crops, and keeping peace among the village's inhabitants, were selected from among the nitaínos.<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> The naborias were the more numerous working peasants of the lower class.<a href="#cite_note-proyectosalonhogar-51">[51]</a> The bohíques were <a href="/wiki/Priest" title="Priest">priests</a> who represented religious beliefs.<a href="#cite_note-proyectosalonhogar-51">[51]</a> Bohíques dealt with negotiating with angry or indifferent gods as the accepted lords of the spiritual world. The bohíques were expected to communicate with the <a href="/wiki/Deity" title="Deity">gods</a>, soothe them when they were angry, and intercede on the tribe's behalf. It was their duty to cure the sick, heal the wounded, and interpret the will of the gods in ways that would satisfy the expectations of the tribe. Before carrying out these functions, the bohíques performed certain cleansing and purifying <a href="/wiki/Ritual" title="Ritual">rituals</a>, such as fasting for several days and inhaling sacred tobacco snuff.<a href="#cite_note-Wagenheim13-48">[48]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Food_and_agriculture">Food and agriculture</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Manihot_esculenta_dsc07325.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Manihot_esculenta_dsc07325.jpg/220px-Manihot_esculenta_dsc07325.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Manihot_esculenta_dsc07325.jpg/330px-Manihot_esculenta_dsc07325.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Manihot_esculenta_dsc07325.jpg/440px-Manihot_esculenta_dsc07325.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1944" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Cassava" title="Cassava">Cassava</a>, starchy (yuca) roots, the Taínos' main crop</figcaption></figure> Taíno staples included vegetables, fruit, meat, and fish. Though there were no large animals native to the Caribbean, they captured and ate small animals such as <a href="/wiki/Hutia" title="Hutia">hutias</a>, other mammals, <a href="/wiki/Earthworms" class="mw-redirect" title="Earthworms">earthworms</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lizards" class="mw-redirect" title="Lizards">lizards</a>, <a href="/wiki/Turtles" class="mw-redirect" title="Turtles">turtles</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Birds" class="mw-redirect" title="Birds">birds</a>. <a href="/wiki/Manatee" title="Manatee">Manatees</a> were speared and fish were caught in nets, speared, trapped in <a href="/wiki/Weir" title="Weir">weirs</a>, or caught with hook and line. Wild <a href="/wiki/Parrots" class="mw-redirect" title="Parrots">parrots</a> were decoyed with domesticated birds, and <a href="/wiki/Iguanas" class="mw-redirect" title="Iguanas">iguanas</a> were taken from trees and other <a href="/wiki/Vegetation" title="Vegetation">vegetation</a>. The Taíno stored live animals until they were ready to be consumed: fish and turtles were stored in weirs, hutias and dogs were stored in corrals.<a href="#cite_note-Rouse,_p.13-53">[53]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Piedra_Escrita_in_Jayuya,_Puerto_Rico.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Piedra_Escrita_in_Jayuya%2C_Puerto_Rico.jpg/220px-Piedra_Escrita_in_Jayuya%2C_Puerto_Rico.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Piedra_Escrita_in_Jayuya%2C_Puerto_Rico.jpg/330px-Piedra_Escrita_in_Jayuya%2C_Puerto_Rico.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Piedra_Escrita_in_Jayuya%2C_Puerto_Rico.jpg/440px-Piedra_Escrita_in_Jayuya%2C_Puerto_Rico.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3648" data-file-height="2736" /></a><figcaption>Piedra Escrita on <a href="/wiki/R%C3%ADo_Saliente" class="mw-redirect" title="Río Saliente">River Saliente</a> in Jayuya, Puerto Rico</figcaption></figure> The Taíno people became very skilled <a href="/wiki/Fishermen" class="mw-redirect" title="Fishermen">fishermen</a>. One method used was to hook a <a href="/wiki/Remora" title="Remora">remora</a>, also known as a suckerfish, to a line secured to a canoe and wait for the fish to attach itself to a larger fish or even a sea turtle. Once this happened, someone would dive into the water to retrieve the catch. Another method used by the Taínos involved shredding the stems and roots of poisonous <a href="/wiki/Senna_(plant)" title="Senna (plant)">senna</a> plants and throwing them into nearby streams or rivers. After eating the bait, the fish would be stunned and ready for collection. These practices did not render fish inedible. The Taíno also collected <a href="/wiki/Mussel" title="Mussel">mussels</a> and <a href="/wiki/Oyster" title="Oyster">oysters</a> in exposed <a href="/wiki/Mangrove" title="Mangrove">mangrove roots</a> found in shallow waters.<a href="#cite_note-Jacobs1992-54">[54]</a> Some young boys hunted waterfowl from flocks that "darkened the sun", according to Christopher Columbus.<a href="#cite_note-Rethinking-46">[46]</a> Taíno groups located on islands that had experienced relatively high development, such as Puerto Rico, Hispaniola, and Jamaica, relied more on agriculture (farming and other jobs) than did groups living elsewhere. Fields for important <a href="/wiki/Root_crops" class="mw-redirect" title="Root crops">root crops</a>, such as the staple crop <a href="/wiki/Cassava" title="Cassava">yuca</a>, were prepared by heaping up mounds of soil, called conucos. This improved soil drainage and fertility as well as delayed erosion while allowing for the longer storage of crops in the ground. Less important crops such as corn were cultivated in clearings made using the <a href="/wiki/Slash-and-burn" title="Slash-and-burn">slash-and-burn</a> technique. Typically, conucos were three feet high, nine feet in circumference, and were arranged in rows.<a href="#cite_note-Rouse,_p.12-55">[55]</a> The primary root crop was yuca or <a href="/wiki/Cassava" title="Cassava">cassava</a>, a woody <a href="/wiki/Shrub" title="Shrub">shrub</a> cultivated for its edible and <a href="/wiki/Starch" title="Starch">starchy</a> <a href="/wiki/Tuber" title="Tuber">tuberous root</a>. It was planted using a coa, a kind of <a href="/wiki/Hoe_(tool)" title="Hoe (tool)">hoe</a> made completely from wood. Women processed the poisonous variety of cassava by squeezing it to extract its toxic juices. Roots were then ground into flour for bread. Batata (<a href="/wiki/Sweet_potato" title="Sweet potato">sweet potato</a>) was the next most important root crop.<a href="#cite_note-Rouse,_p.12-55">[55]</a> Tobacco was grown by pre-Columbian peoples in the Americas for centuries before 1492. <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Columbus" title="Christopher Columbus">Christopher Columbus</a> in his journal described how Indigenous people used tobacco by lighting dried herbs wrapped in a leaf and inhaling the smoke.<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> Tobacco, derived from the Taino word "tabaco", was used in medicine and in religious rituals. The Taino people utilized dried tobacco leaves, which they smoked using pipes and cigars. Alternatively, they finely crushed the leaves and inhaled them through a hollow tube. The natives employed uncomplicated yet efficient tools for planting and caring for their crops. Their primary tool was a planting stick, referred to as a "coa" among the Taino, which measured around five feet in length and featured a sharp point that had been hardened through fire.<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> Contrary to mainland practices, corn was not ground into flour and baked into bread, but was cooked and eaten off the cob. Corn bread becomes moldy faster than cassava bread in the high humidity of the Caribbean. Corn also was used to make an alcoholic beverage known as <a href="/wiki/Chicha" title="Chicha">chicha</a>.<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> The Taíno grew <a href="/wiki/Squash_(fruit)" class="mw-redirect" title="Squash (fruit)">squash</a>, <a href="/wiki/Beans" class="mw-redirect" title="Beans">beans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Capsicum" title="Capsicum">peppers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peanut" title="Peanut">peanuts</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Pineapple" title="Pineapple">pineapples</a>. <a href="/wiki/Tobacco" title="Tobacco">Tobacco</a>, <a href="/wiki/Calabash" title="Calabash">calabashes</a> (bottle gourds), and <a href="/wiki/Cotton" title="Cotton">cotton</a> were grown around the houses. Other fruits and vegetables, such as <a href="/wiki/Arecaceae" title="Arecaceae">palm nuts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Guava" title="Guava">guavas</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Zamia" title="Zamia">Zamia</a> roots, were collected from the wild.<a href="#cite_note-Rouse,_p.12-55">[55]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Spirituality">Spirituality</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Taino_-_Zemi_-_Walters_20056_-_Left_Side.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Taino_-_Zemi_-_Walters_20056_-_Left_Side.jpg/220px-Taino_-_Zemi_-_Walters_20056_-_Left_Side.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Taino_-_Zemi_-_Walters_20056_-_Left_Side.jpg/330px-Taino_-_Zemi_-_Walters_20056_-_Left_Side.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Taino_-_Zemi_-_Walters_20056_-_Left_Side.jpg/440px-Taino_-_Zemi_-_Walters_20056_-_Left_Side.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1552" data-file-height="1800" /></a><figcaption>Taíno zemí sculpture <a href="/wiki/Walters_Art_Museum" title="Walters Art Museum">Walters Art Museum</a></figcaption></figure> Taíno spirituality centered on the worship of <a href="/wiki/Zemi" title="Zemi">zemis</a> (spirits or ancestors). Major Taíno zemis included <a href="/wiki/Atabey_(goddess)" title="Atabey (goddess)">Atabey</a> and her son, <a href="/wiki/Y%C3%BAcahu" title="Yúcahu">Yúcahu</a>. Atabey was thought to be the zemi of the <a href="/wiki/Moon" title="Moon">moon</a>, fresh waters, and fertility. Other names for her included Atabei, Atabeyra, Atabex, and Guimazoa.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The Taínos of <a href="/wiki/Kiskeya" class="mw-redirect" title="Kiskeya">Kiskeya</a> (Hispaniola) called her son, "Yúcahu|Yucahú Bagua Maorocotí", which meant "White Yuca, great and powerful as the sea and the mountains". He was considered the spirit of cassava, the zemi of cassava – the Taínos' main crop – and the sea.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Guabancex was the non-nurturing aspect of the zemi Atabey who was believed to have control over natural disasters. She is identified as the goddess of hurricanes or as the zemi of storms. Guabancex had twin sons: Guataubá, a messenger who created hurricane winds, and Coatrisquie, who created <a href="/wiki/Flood" title="Flood">floodwaters</a>.<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> Iguanaboína was the goddess of good weather. She also had twin sons: Boinayel, the messenger of rain, and Marohu, the spirit of clear skies.<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> Minor Taíno zemis are related to the growing of cassava, the process of life, creation, and death. Baibrama was a minor zemi worshiped for his assistance in growing cassava and curing people of its poisonous juice. Boinayel and his twin brother Márohu were the zemis of rain and fair weather, respectively.<a href="#cite_note-Rouse,_p.119-62">[62]</a> Maquetaurie Guayaba or Maketaori Guayaba was the zemi of Coaybay or Coabey, the land of the dead. Opiyelguabirán', a dog-shaped zemi, watched over the dead. Deminán Caracaracol, a male cultural hero from whom the Taíno believed themselves to be descended, was worshipped as a zemí.<a href="#cite_note-Rouse,_p.119-62">[62]</a> Macocael was a cultural hero worshipped as a zemi, who had failed to guard the mountain from which <a href="/wiki/Human_beings" class="mw-redirect" title="Human beings">human beings</a> arose. He was punished by being turned into stone, or a bird, a <a href="/wiki/Frog" title="Frog">frog</a>, or a reptile, depending on the interpretation of the <a href="/wiki/Myth" title="Myth">myth</a>.<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lombards_Museum_053.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Lombards_Museum_053.JPG/170px-Lombards_Museum_053.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="336" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Lombards_Museum_053.JPG/255px-Lombards_Museum_053.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Lombards_Museum_053.JPG/340px-Lombards_Museum_053.JPG 2x" data-file-width="776" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>Zemí, a physical object housing a zemi, spirit or ancestor Lombards Museum</figcaption></figure> Zemí was also the name the people gave to physical representations of Zemis, which could be objects or drawings. They took many forms and were made of many materials and were found in a variety of settings. The majority of zemís were crafted from wood, but stone, <a href="/wiki/Bone" title="Bone">bone</a>, <a href="/wiki/Seashell" title="Seashell">shell</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pottery" title="Pottery">pottery</a>, and cotton were used as well.<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> Zemí <a href="/wiki/Petroglyph" title="Petroglyph">petroglyphs</a> were carved on rocks in streams, ball courts, and <a href="/wiki/Stalagmite" title="Stalagmite">stalagmites</a> in caves, such as the zemi carved into a stalagmite in a cave in La Patana, Cuba.<a href="#cite_note-Barreiro-65">[65]</a> Cemí <a href="/wiki/Pictograph" class="mw-redirect" title="Pictograph">pictographs</a> were found on secular objects such as pottery, and <a href="/wiki/Tattoos" class="mw-redirect" title="Tattoos">tattoos</a>. Yucahú, the zemi of cassava, was represented with a three-pointed zemí, which could be found in conucos to increase the yield of cassava. Wood and stone zemís have been found in <a href="/wiki/Caves" class="mw-redirect" title="Caves">caves</a> in Hispaniola and Jamaica.<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> Cemís are sometimes represented by <a href="/wiki/Toads" class="mw-redirect" title="Toads">toads</a>, turtles, fish, <a href="/wiki/Snakes" class="mw-redirect" title="Snakes">snakes</a>, and various abstract and human-like faces.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Taino._Cohoba_Spoon,_1200-1500.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Taino._Cohoba_Spoon%2C_1200-1500.jpg/170px-Taino._Cohoba_Spoon%2C_1200-1500.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="392" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Taino._Cohoba_Spoon%2C_1200-1500.jpg/255px-Taino._Cohoba_Spoon%2C_1200-1500.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Taino._Cohoba_Spoon%2C_1200-1500.jpg/340px-Taino._Cohoba_Spoon%2C_1200-1500.jpg 2x" data-file-width="666" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>Cohoba Spoon, 1200–1500 <a href="/wiki/Brooklyn_Museum" title="Brooklyn Museum">Brooklyn Museum</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Petroglyph_at_Caguana.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/16/Petroglyph_at_Caguana.jpg/170px-Petroglyph_at_Caguana.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="246" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/1/16/Petroglyph_at_Caguana.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="260" /></a><figcaption>Rock <a href="/wiki/Petroglyph" title="Petroglyph">petroglyph</a> overlaid with chalk in the Caguana Indigenous Ceremonial Center in Utuado, Puerto Rico</figcaption></figure> Some zemís were accompanied by small tables or trays, which are believed to be a receptacle for <a href="/wiki/Hallucinogen" title="Hallucinogen">hallucinogenic</a> <a href="/wiki/Herbal_smokeless_tobacco" title="Herbal smokeless tobacco">snuff</a> called <a href="/wiki/Cohoba" title="Cohoba">cohoba</a>, prepared from the beans of a species of <a href="/wiki/Piptadenia" title="Piptadenia">Piptadenia</a> tree. These trays have been found with ornately carved snuff tubes. Before certain ceremonies, Taínos would purify themselves, either by inducing vomiting (with a swallowing stick) or by <a href="/wiki/Fasting" title="Fasting">fasting</a>.<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> After communal bread was served, first to the zemí, then to the cacique, and then to the common people, the people would sing the village epic to the accompaniment of <a href="/wiki/Maraca" title="Maraca">maraca</a> and other instruments.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] One Taíno <a href="/wiki/Oral_tradition" title="Oral tradition">oral tradition</a> explains that the Sun and Moon came out of caves. Another story tells of the first people, who once lived in caves and only came out at night because it was believed that the Sun would transform them; a sentry became a giant stone at the mouth of the cave, and others became birds or trees. The Taíno believed they were descended from the union of the cultural hero Deminán Caracaracol and a female turtle (who was born of the former's back after being afflicted with a blister).[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The origin of the oceans is described in the story of a huge flood that occurred when the great spirit Yaya murdered his son Yayael (who was about to murder his father). The father put his son's bones into a <a href="/wiki/Gourd" title="Gourd">gourd</a> or <a href="/wiki/Calabash" title="Calabash">calabash</a>. When the bones turned into fish, the gourd broke, an accident caused by Deminán Caracaracol, and all the water of the world came pouring out.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Taínos believed that Jupias, the souls of the dead, would go to Coaybay, the underworld, and there they rest by day. At night they would assume the form of bats and eat the <a href="/wiki/Guava" title="Guava">guava</a> fruit.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Spanish_and_Taíno">Spanish and Taíno</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cristobal_Col%C3%B3n,_1893_%22La_gran_batalla_que_tuvo_el_almirante_con_el_Rey_Guarionex_y_cien_mil_indios_en_la_Vega_Real%22._(4383849255).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Cristobal_Col%C3%B3n%2C_1893_%22La_gran_batalla_que_tuvo_el_almirante_con_el_Rey_Guarionex_y_cien_mil_indios_en_la_Vega_Real%22._%284383849255%29.jpg/170px-Cristobal_Col%C3%B3n%2C_1893_%22La_gran_batalla_que_tuvo_el_almirante_con_el_Rey_Guarionex_y_cien_mil_indios_en_la_Vega_Real%22._%284383849255%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="230" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Cristobal_Col%C3%B3n%2C_1893_%22La_gran_batalla_que_tuvo_el_almirante_con_el_Rey_Guarionex_y_cien_mil_indios_en_la_Vega_Real%22._%284383849255%29.jpg/255px-Cristobal_Col%C3%B3n%2C_1893_%22La_gran_batalla_que_tuvo_el_almirante_con_el_Rey_Guarionex_y_cien_mil_indios_en_la_Vega_Real%22._%284383849255%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Cristobal_Col%C3%B3n%2C_1893_%22La_gran_batalla_que_tuvo_el_almirante_con_el_Rey_Guarionex_y_cien_mil_indios_en_la_Vega_Real%22._%284383849255%29.jpg/340px-Cristobal_Col%C3%B3n%2C_1893_%22La_gran_batalla_que_tuvo_el_almirante_con_el_Rey_Guarionex_y_cien_mil_indios_en_la_Vega_Real%22._%284383849255%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2294" data-file-height="3107" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Vega_Real" title="Battle of Vega Real">Battle of Vega Real</a></figcaption></figure> Columbus and the crew of his ship were the first <a href="/wiki/European_ethnic_groups" class="mw-redirect" title="European ethnic groups">Europeans</a> to encounter the Taíno people, as they landed in The Bahamas on October 12, 1492. After their first interaction, Columbus described the Taínos as a physically tall, well-proportioned people, with noble and kind personalities. In <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Columbus%27s_journal" title="Christopher Columbus's journal">his diary</a>, Columbus wrote: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">They traded with us and gave us everything they had, with good will ... they took great delight in pleasing us ... They are very gentle and without knowledge of what is evil; nor do they murder or steal...Your highness may believe that in all the world there can be no better people ... They love their neighbors as themselves, and they have the sweetest talk in the world, and are gentle and always laughing.<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a></blockquote> At this time, the neighbors of the Taíno were the <a href="/wiki/Guanahatabey" title="Guanahatabey">Guanahatabeys</a> in the western tip of Cuba, the Island-Caribs in the Lesser Antilles from <a href="/wiki/Guadeloupe" title="Guadeloupe">Guadeloupe</a> to <a href="/wiki/Grenada" title="Grenada">Grenada</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Calusa" title="Calusa">Calusa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ais_(tribe)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ais (tribe)">Ais</a> nations of <a href="/wiki/Florida" title="Florida">Florida</a>. Guanahaní was the Taíno name for the island that Columbus renamed San Salvador (Spanish for "Holy Savior"). Columbus erroneously called the Taíno "Indians", a reference that has grown to encompass all the Indigenous peoples of the <a href="/wiki/Western_Hemisphere" title="Western Hemisphere">Western Hemisphere</a>. A group of about 24 Taíno people were abducted and forced to accompany Columbus on his 1494 return voyage to Spain.<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> On Columbus' second voyage in 1493, he began to demand tribute from the Taíno in Hispaniola. According to <a href="/wiki/Kirkpatrick_Sale" title="Kirkpatrick Sale">Kirkpatrick Sale</a>, each adult over 14 years of age was expected to deliver a hawks bell full of gold every three months, or when this was lacking, twenty-five pounds of spun cotton. If this tribute was not brought, the Spanish cut off the hands of the Taíno and left them to bleed to death<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> These savage, cruel practices inspired many revolts by the Taíno and campaigns against the Spanish—some being successful, some not. In 1511, <a href="/wiki/Antonio_de_Montesinos" title="Antonio de Montesinos">Antonio de Montesinos</a>, a Dominican missionary in Hispaniola, became the first European to publicly denounce the abduction and enslavement of the Indigenous peoples of the island and the <a href="/wiki/Encomienda" title="Encomienda">Encomienda system</a>.<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> In 1511, several caciques in Puerto Rico, such as <a href="/wiki/Ag%C3%BCeyban%C3%A1_II" title="Agüeybaná II">Agüeybaná II</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arasibo" title="Arasibo">Arasibo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hayuya" title="Hayuya">Hayuya</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jumacao" title="Jumacao">Jumacao</a>, <a href="/wiki/Urayo%C3%A1n" title="Urayoán">Urayoán</a>, <a href="/wiki/Guarionex" title="Guarionex">Guarionex</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Orocobix" title="Orocobix">Orocobix</a>, allied with the Carib and tried to oust the Spaniards. The revolt was suppressed by the Indio-Spanish forces of Governor <a href="/wiki/Juan_Ponce_de_Le%C3%B3n" title="Juan Ponce de León">Juan Ponce de León</a>.<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> <a href="/wiki/Hatuey" title="Hatuey">Hatuey</a>, a Taíno chieftain who had fled from Hispaniola to Cuba with 400 natives to unite the Cuban natives, was <a href="/wiki/Death_by_burning" title="Death by burning">burned at the stake</a> on February 2, 1512. In Hispaniola, a Taíno chieftain named <a href="/wiki/Enriquillo" title="Enriquillo">Enriquillo</a> mobilized more than 3,000 Taíno in a successful rebellion in the 1520s. These Taíno were accorded land and a charter from the royal administration. Despite the small Spanish military presence in the region, they often used diplomatic divisions and, with help from powerful native allies, controlled most of the region.<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a><a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> In "exchange" for a seasonal salary, and religious and language education, the Taíno were forced to work for Spanish and erroneously-labeled "Indian" landowners. This system of labor was part of the <a href="/wiki/Encomienda" title="Encomienda">encomienda</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Medina_2017-75">[75]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Women">Women</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Anacaona.tiff" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Anacaona.tiff/lossy-page1-110px-Anacaona.tiff.jpg" decoding="async" width="110" height="282" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Anacaona.tiff/lossy-page1-165px-Anacaona.tiff.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Anacaona.tiff/lossy-page1-220px-Anacaona.tiff.jpg 2x" data-file-width="632" data-file-height="1622" /></a><figcaption>Cacique (Chief) Taína, Indigenous of the island of Hispaniola</figcaption></figure> Taíno society was based on a <a href="/wiki/Matrilineality" title="Matrilineality">matrilineal</a> system and descent was traced through the mother. Women lived in village groups containing their children. The men lived separately. As a result, Taíno women had extensive control over their lives and their fellow villagers.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> The Taínos told Columbus that another Indigenous tribe, <a href="/wiki/Kalinago" title="Kalinago">Caribs</a>, were fierce warriors, who made frequent raids on the Taínos, often capturing the women.<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a><a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> Taíno women played an important role in intercultural interaction between <a href="/wiki/Spaniards" title="Spaniards">Spaniards</a> and the Taíno people. When Taíno men were away fighting against intervention from other groups, women assumed the roles of primary food producers or ritual specialists.<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> Women appeared to have participated in all levels of the Taíno political <a href="/wiki/Hierarchy" title="Hierarchy">hierarchy</a>, occupying roles as high up as being <a href="/wiki/Cacique" title="Cacique">cazicas</a>.<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> Potentially, this meant Taíno women could make important choices for the village and could assign tasks to tribe members.<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a> There is evidence that suggests that the women who were the wealthiest among the tribe collected crafted goods that they would then use for trade or as gifts.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] In contrast to the significant autonomy granted to women in Taíno society, Taíno women were taken by Spaniards as hostages to be used during negotiations. Some sources report that Taíno women became so-called commodities for Spaniards to trade, seen by some as the beginning of a period of more regular Spanish abduction and systemic rape of Taíno women.<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Genocide_and_depopulation">Genocide and depopulation</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ta%C3%ADno_genocide" title="Taíno genocide">Taíno genocide</a></div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Paper_genocide#Taíno_and_indigenous_peoples_of_the_Caribbean" title="Paper genocide">Paper genocide § Taíno and indigenous peoples of the Caribbean</a></div> Early population estimates of Hispaniola, thought to have likely been the most populous island inhabited by Taínos, range from 10,000 to 1,000,000 people.<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> The maximum estimates for Jamaica and Puerto Rico are 600,000 people.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERouse19927-22">[22]</a> A 2020 genetic analysis estimated the population to be no more than a few tens of thousands of people.<a href="#cite_note-Reich-84">[84]</a><a href="#cite_note-Fernandes_1–8-85">[85]</a> Spanish priest and defender of the Taíno, <a href="/wiki/Bartolom%C3%A9_de_las_Casas" title="Bartolomé de las Casas">Bartolomé de las Casas</a> (who had lived in <a href="/wiki/Santo_Domingo" title="Santo Domingo">Santo Domingo</a>), wrote in his 1561 multi-volume History of the Indies:<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">There were 60,000 people living on this island [when I arrived in 1508], including the Indians; so that from 1494 to 1508, over three million people had perished from war, <a href="/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">slavery</a> and the mines. Who in future generations will believe this?</blockquote> Researchers today doubt Las Casas' figures for the pre-contact levels of the Taíno population, considering them an exaggeration.<a href="#cite_note-:3-87">[87]</a> For example, Karen Anderson Córdova estimates a maximum of 500,000 people inhabiting the island.<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Encomienda" title="Encomienda">encomienda</a> system forced many Taíno to work in the fields and mines in so-called exchange for Spanish <a href="/wiki/Civil_disorder" title="Civil disorder">protection</a>,<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a> <a href="/wiki/Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">education</a>, and a seasonal salary.<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> Under the pretense of searching for gold and other materials,<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> many Spaniards took advantage of the regions now under the control of the <a href="/wiki/Indian_auxiliaries" title="Indian auxiliaries">anaborios</a> and Spanish encomenderos to exploit the native population by seizing their <a href="/wiki/Land" title="Land">land</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wealth" title="Wealth">wealth</a>. Historian <a href="/wiki/David_Stannard" title="David Stannard">David Stannard</a> characterizes the encomienda as a genocidal system that "had driven many millions of native peoples in Central and South America to early and agonizing deaths."<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a> It would take some time before the Taíno revolted against their oppressors—both Native and Spanish alike—and many military campaigns before <a href="/wiki/Charles_V,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor">Emperor Charles V</a> eradicated the encomienda system as a form of enslavement.<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a><a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> Disease played a significant role in the destruction of the Indigenous population, but forced labor was also one of the chief reasons behind the depopulation of the Taíno.<a href="#cite_note-Diaz_Soler-95">[95]</a> The first man to introduce this forced labor among the Taínos was the leader of the European colonization of Puerto Rico, Ponce de León.<a href="#cite_note-Diaz_Soler-95">[95]</a> Such forced labor eventually led to the Taíno rebellions, to which the Spaniards responded with violent military expeditions known as cabalgadas.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The purpose of the military expeditions was to capture the Indigenous people.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] This violence by the Spaniards was a reason why there was a decline in the Taíno population since it forced many of them to emigrate to other islands and the mainland.<a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a> In thirty years, between 80% and 90% of the Taíno population died.<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a><a href="#cite_note-Diaz_Soler-95">[95]</a> Because of the increased number of people (Spanish) on the island, there was a higher demand for food. Taíno cultivation was converted to Spanish methods. In hopes of frustrating the Spanish, some Taínos refused to plant or harvest their crops. The supply of food became so low in 1495 and 1496 that some 50,000 died from famine.<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> Historians have determined that the massive decline was due more to infectious disease outbreaks than any warfare or direct attacks.<a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a><a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> By 1507, their numbers had shrunk to 60,000. Scholars believe that <a href="/wiki/Pandemic" title="Pandemic">epidemic</a> disease (<a href="/wiki/Smallpox" title="Smallpox">smallpox</a>, <a href="/wiki/Influenza" title="Influenza">influenza</a>, <a href="/wiki/Measles" title="Measles">measles</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Typhus" title="Typhus">typhus</a>) was an overwhelming cause of the population decline of the Indigenous people,<a href="#cite_note-Watts-101">[101]</a> and also attributed a "large number of Taíno deaths...to the continuing bondage systems" that existed.<a href="#cite_note-Schimmer-102">[102]</a><a href="#cite_note-Raudzens-103">[103]</a> Academics, such as historian <a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9s_Res%C3%A9ndez" title="Andrés Reséndez">Andrés Reséndez</a> of the <a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_Davis" title="University of California, Davis">University of California, Davis</a>, assert that disease alone does not explain the destruction of Indigenous populations of Hispaniola. While the populations of Europe rebounded following the devastating population decline associated with the <a href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">Black Death</a>, there was no such rebound for the Indigenous populations of the Caribbean. He concludes that, even though the Spanish were aware of deadly diseases such as smallpox, there is no mention of them in the New World until 1519, meaning perhaps they did not spread as fast as initially believed, and that, unlike Europeans, the Indigenous populations were subjected to enslavement, exploitation, and forced labor in gold and silver mines on an enormous scale.<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a> Reséndez says that "slavery has emerged as a major killer" of the Indigenous people of the Caribbean.<a href="#cite_note-Reséndez-105">[105]</a> Anthropologist <a href="/wiki/Jason_Hickel" title="Jason Hickel">Jason Hickel</a> estimates that the lethal forced labor in these mines killed a third of the Indigenous people there every six months.<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Taíno_culture_today">Taíno culture today</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1919_Native_woman_and_child_in_Baracoa,_Cuba.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/1919_Native_woman_and_child_in_Baracoa%2C_Cuba.jpg/170px-1919_Native_woman_and_child_in_Baracoa%2C_Cuba.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="223" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/1919_Native_woman_and_child_in_Baracoa%2C_Cuba.jpg/255px-1919_Native_woman_and_child_in_Baracoa%2C_Cuba.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/1919_Native_woman_and_child_in_Baracoa%2C_Cuba.jpg/340px-1919_Native_woman_and_child_in_Baracoa%2C_Cuba.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2176" data-file-height="2860" /></a><figcaption>Native woman (probably Luisa Gainsa) with a girl in <a href="/wiki/Baracoa" title="Baracoa">Baracoa</a>, Cuba, in <a href="/wiki/1919" title="1919">1919</a></figcaption></figure>Histories of the Caribbean traditionally describe the Taíno as extinct, due to being killed off by disease, slavery, and war with the Spaniards. Contemporary scholarship is more ambivalent, accepting that some degree of Taíno cultural heritage survives in the Caribbean, though many disagree on the extent and meaning of this.<a href="#cite_note-:4-107">[107]</a><a href="#cite_note-:0-108">[108]</a><a href="#cite_note-:5-109">[109]</a> Many Caribbean people also have a degree of Indigenous descent, usually on the maternal side.<a href="#cite_note-Reich-84">[84]</a><a href="#cite_note-:3-87">[87]</a><a href="#cite_note-:6-110">[110]</a> Present-day peoples with Caribbean Indigenous heritage may identify as Taíno, Taíno descendants, or other localised terms, and often come from rural <a href="/wiki/Mestizo" title="Mestizo">mestizo</a> communities such as the <a href="/wiki/J%C3%ADbaro_(Puerto_Rico)" title="Jíbaro (Puerto Rico)">jíbaro</a>.<a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a><a href="#cite_note-:7-112">[112]</a> Although Taíno was originally an exonym, contemporary descendants of the Taínos have begun to reclaim the name and publicly assert a shared Taíno Caribbean-Indigenous identity.<a href="#cite_note-:12-113">[113]</a><a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a><a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a> They typically describe traditions that have been passed on in secret to evade enslavement or persecution.<a href="#cite_note-:7-112">[112]</a> Groups advocating this point of view are sometimes known as Neo-Taínos—though this is not usually a term they use to describe themselves—and are also established in the Puerto Rican communities located in New Jersey and New York. A few Taíno groups are pushing not only for recognition but respect for their cultural assets.<a href="#cite_note-:22-116">[116]</a> Scholars who remain sceptical that Taíno culture survived in recognizable form point to the process of mestizaje or <a href="/wiki/Creolization" title="Creolization">creolisation</a> as evidence of the modern Taíno's actual origins. Most Taíno descendants argue that this is evidence for their continued survival, rather than evidence against it, since creolization allowed their culture and identity to persist while evolving and adapting.<a href="#cite_note-:22-116">[116]</a> According to Antonio Curet, this part of the modern Taíno argument is frequently ignored by sceptical scholars, even though, as he believes, creolization itself "does not disprove the claims of indigenous survival". Curet suggests, however, that modern Taíno views about creolization may downplay the contribution of European and especially African heritage, and that this may be seen as <a href="/wiki/Anti-African_sentiment" title="Anti-African sentiment">anti-African sentiment</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:22-116">[116]</a> Other scholars, such as Pedro Ferbel-Azcarate, dispute this, suggesting that Taíno identities are part of an ongoing process of resisting a <a href="/wiki/Eurocentric" class="mw-redirect" title="Eurocentric">Eurocentric</a> mestizo identity which already ignores both African and Indigenous heritage.<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a> Despite the recorded extinction of the Taíno across the Caribbean, historian Ranald Woodaman says the survival of the Taíno is supported by "the enduring (though not unchanged) presence of Native genes, culture, knowledge and identity among the descendants of the Taíno peoples of the region". He also notes the Indigenous and African heritage of communities such as the <a href="/wiki/Maroons" title="Maroons">Maroons</a>, and how these remained distinct from the larger populations while honouring their Taíno predecessors.<a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a> Taíno-derived customs and identities can be found especially among marginalised rural populations on the Caribbean islands such of <a href="/wiki/Cuba" title="Cuba">Cuba</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Dominican_Republic" title="Dominican Republic">Dominican Republic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jamaica" title="Jamaica">Jamaica</a> and <a href="/wiki/Puerto_Rico" title="Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a>.<a href="#cite_note-BBC-119">[119]</a><a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a><a href="#cite_note-:1-121">[121]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cuba">Cuba</h3></div> In isolated parts of eastern Cuba (including areas near <a href="/wiki/El_Caney" title="El Caney">El Caney</a>,<a href="#cite_note-:10-122">[122]</a> <a href="/wiki/Yateras" title="Yateras">Yateras</a> and <a href="/wiki/Baracoa" title="Baracoa">Baracoa</a>), there are Indigenous communities who have maintained their Taíno identities and cultural practices into the 21st century.<a href="#cite_note-BBC-119">[119]</a><a href="#cite_note-SurvivalInt-123">[123]</a><a href="#cite_note-:5-109">[109]</a> Reports of Indigenous communities surviving in the east of Cuba date at least as far back as the 19th century, from sources as varied as anthropologists, missionaries, military officials and tourists.<a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a> Abolitionist and British consul to Cuba <a href="/wiki/David_Turnbull_(abolitionist)" title="David Turnbull (abolitionist)">David Turnbull</a>, who visited the island in the 1830s, said the inhabitants of <a href="/wiki/Guanabacoa" title="Guanabacoa">Guanabacoa</a>, El Caney and <a href="/wiki/Jiguan%C3%AD" title="Jiguaní">Jiguaní</a> had Indigenous heritage, and recorded Spanish stories of Taíno who had migrated to "the Yucatan and the Floridas".<a href="#cite_note-:10-122">[122]</a> In the 1840s, <a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_de_la_Torre" class="mw-redirect" title="José de la Torre">José de la Torre</a> reportedly saw 50 "pure blooded" Taíno dancing at El Caney and researcher Miguel Rodríguez Ferrer reportedly found various Taíno families living in the footholds of the Sierra Maestra mountains. In the 1880s, author Maturin M. Ballou, a sceptic of Taíno survival, said there were reports of an Arawak-Taíno village living near the copper mines "northwest of Santiago de Cuba",<a href="#cite_note-:10-122">[122]</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Nicolas_Fort_y_Roldan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nicolas Fort y Roldan (page does not exist)">Nicolas Fort y Roldan</a> described encountering the "almost extinct race lucaya", and their settlements in El Caney and Yateras. In the 1890s, author and photographer José de Olivares documented nomadic Indigenous Cubans whom he identified as "the last remnants of that interesting and sorely persecuted race".<a href="#cite_note-Yaremko_2009-125">[125]</a> Most famously, Cuban national icon and poet <a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Mart%C3%AD" title="José Martí">José Martí</a> reported the aid of "los Indios de Garrido" during the 1895 war of independence.<a href="#cite_note-Yaremko_2009-125">[125]</a> In the early 20th century, scientist B. E. Fernow reported "twenty-eight families" of mixed Indigenous people still living in isolated settlements in the foothills of the Sierra Maestro mountains,<a href="#cite_note-Yaremko_2009-125">[125]</a> and archaeologist Stewart Culin noted the presence of "full-blooded" Indians near Yateras and Baracoa. The former group had apparently migrated from Santo Domingo; the latter group comprised 800 local Indigenous people, largely from three families: Gainsa, Azahares, and Rojas. Culin also met a Taíno man named José Almenares Argüello, or "Almenares", who said the town of El Caney had once been reserved only for Indians. In 1908 and 1909, explorer <a href="/wiki/Harry_Johnston" title="Harry Johnston">Sir Harry Johnston</a> shared reports of "pure-blood" Taínos and recounted seeing mestizos who were "almost as pure breeds" in eastern Cuba, some of whom lived on former "reservations". He distinguished these from the general populace of 1.2 million Spanish Cubans who had various degrees of mixed "Amerindian-Arawak" heritage. Others such as Jesse W. Fewkes and Mark Raymond Harrington reported similar findings, including an additional settlement near <a href="/wiki/Jaruco" title="Jaruco">Jaruco</a>. Later, between the 1910s and 1920s, archaeologist J. A. Cosculluela discovered Indigenous families in the <a href="/wiki/Zapata_Swamp" title="Zapata Swamp">Zapata swamps</a>, and apparently corroborated their lineage by visiting the local cemetery. In the 1940s, archaeologist <a href="/wiki/Irving_Rouse" title="Irving Rouse">Irving Rouse</a> reported the existence of "pure blooded" Taíno or "Indios de las orillas" at <a href="/wiki/Camag%C3%BCey" title="Camagüey">Camagüey</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Yaremko_2009-125">[125]</a> Historian Pichardo Moya, in his address to the Cuban Academy of History in 1945, criticized "the widely accepted opinion" that the Indigenous Cubans were "practically exterminated". He blamed this viewpoint on nationalistic histories that overlooked evidence of "Indian" heritage. Anthropologist and geneticist Reginald Ruggles Gates also reported many "Indian descent people" and people who were "pure Indians", especially women, noting Indigenous families with the surnames Gainsa, Ramírez and Rojas. When anthropologists Manuel Rivero de la Calle and Milan Pospisil analysed Cuba's Indigenous communities, they suggested those in the east were likely of Taíno heritage, rather than from the newer Yucatecan Mayan community living in the west.<a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a> There are also Indigenous communities who migrated to Cuba from Florida and other parts of the mainland, who in some cases intermarried with local Taíno communities.<a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a> Jason M. Yaremko says there are many organised communities of Amerindians currently living in Cuba, many of whom have an Arawak-Taíno identity, and that a number of these are even "pure bloods". He suggests that Euro-American views from the 18th century onward, which saw race and Indigeneity in terms of <a href="/wiki/Essentialism" title="Essentialism">essentialism</a> and "primordiality", insisted on "narratives of disappearance" for Indigenous peoples and imposed upon them alternate identities as "white, black, or mulatto". In his view, Eurocentric perspectives saw the decline of the Indigenous peoples—whether through extinction or dilution—as the inevitable conclusion of the "heroic saga of civilization". Subsequent attempts to promote a singular Cuban national identity which transcended race and ethnicity, he says, may have "suffocated" more complex identities for the sake of "national unity", impacting both Afro-Cubans and Amerindian Cubans. But he says this Amerindian identity has nevertheless persisted in Cuba, "whether as 'Indios' in pueblos indios, as individuals in cities and towns, or together in vibrant, if 'invisible' (until recently), rural communities like Yateras". He also suggests that, although the oral histories are "compelling", to address controversies over modern Cuban Taíno identities, this heritage could be "corroborated and reinforced by fieldwork conducted, to begin with, in documentary records contained in Cuba’s former 'Indian towns' and parishes, among other repositories in the country".<a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dominican_Republic">Dominican Republic</h3></div> <a href="/wiki/Frank_Moya_Pons" title="Frank Moya Pons">Frank Moya Pons</a>, a Dominican historian, documented that Spanish colonists intermarried with Taíno women. Over time, some of their mixed-race descendants intermarried with Africans, creating a tripartite <a href="/wiki/Creole_peoples" title="Creole peoples">Creole</a> culture. Census records from the year 1514 reveal that 40% of Spanish men on the island of Hispaniola had Taíno wives.<a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a> Nevertheless, Spanish documents declared the Taíno to be extinct in the 16th century, as early as 1550.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuitar2000-130">[130]</a> Despite this, scholars note that contemporary rural Dominicans retain elements of Taíno culture including linguistic features, agricultural practices, food ways, <a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">medicine</a>, fishing practices, <a href="/wiki/Technology" title="Technology">technology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Architecture" title="Architecture">architecture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oral_history" title="Oral history">oral history</a>, and religious views, even though such cultural traits may be considered backward in the cities.<a href="#cite_note-:0-108">[108]</a> Among these rural communities, some families and individuals also identify as Taíno.<a href="#cite_note-History_2019-9">[9]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Jamaica">Jamaica</h3></div> Evidence suggests that some Taíno women and African men intermarried and lived in relatively isolated <a href="/wiki/Maroon_(people)" class="mw-redirect" title="Maroon (people)">Maroon</a> communities in the interior of the islands, where they developed into a mixed-race population who were relatively independent of Spanish authorities.<a href="#cite_note-Ago-131">[131]</a> For instance, when the <a href="/wiki/Colony_of_Jamaica" title="Colony of Jamaica">colony of Jamaica</a> was under the rule of Spain (known then as the <a href="/wiki/Colony_of_Santiago" title="Colony of Santiago">colony of Santiago</a>), both Taíno men and women fled to the Bastidas Mountains (currently known as the <a href="/wiki/Blue_Mountains_(Jamaica)" title="Blue Mountains (Jamaica)">Blue Mountains</a>), where they intermingled with escaped <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">enslaved Africans</a>. They were among the ancestors of the <a href="/wiki/Jamaican_Maroons" title="Jamaican Maroons">Jamaican Maroons</a> of the east, including those communities led by <a href="/wiki/Juan_de_Bolas" title="Juan de Bolas">Juan de Bolas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Juan_de_Serras" title="Juan de Serras">Juan de Serras</a>. The Maroons of <a href="/wiki/Moore_Town" class="mw-redirect" title="Moore Town">Moore Town</a> claim descent from the Taíno.<a href="#cite_note-Ago-131">[131]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_States,_Puerto_Rico_and_the_U.S._Virgin_Islands">United States, Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands</h3></div> Indigenous peoples are recorded later in Puerto Rico than on many other Caribbean islands. The Puerto Rican census of 1777 listed 1,756 indios, while the 1787 census listed 2,032. It is not clear, however, exactly which groups were counted as indios at the time and how accurate the census data was—some indios may have remained hidden or lived in isolated and remote communities to avoid enslavement or worse.<a href="#cite_note-:726-132">[132]</a> Puerto Rican historian Loida Figueroa has suggested that all native Puerto Ricans were considered Indian until the beginning of the 19th century, when they were subsequently labelled <a href="/wiki/Pardo" title="Pardo">pardos</a> by Governor don Toribio Montes, who struggled to fit the multiethnic non-whites into American racial categories. Oral histories collected by Juan Manuel Delgado in 1977 also support the idea that "Indians" were widespread until the 19th century.<a href="#cite_note-:72-133">[133]</a> By the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Puerto Rico was subjected to various attempts at Americanization, including through educational institutions.<a href="#cite_note-:8-134">[134]</a><a href="#cite_note-:9-135">[135]</a> This often included learning English and Spanish, and being required to wear Anglo-American clothing.<a href="#cite_note-:722-136">[136]</a> Some Puerto Rican children were sent to the <a href="/wiki/Carlisle_Indian_Industrial_School" title="Carlisle Indian Industrial School">Carlisle Indian Industrial School</a>, the flagship among <a href="/wiki/American_Indian_boarding_schools" title="American Indian boarding schools">American Indian boarding schools</a>,<a href="#cite_note-:8-134">[134]</a><a href="#cite_note-137">[137]</a><a href="#cite_note-:9-135">[135]</a> including children with Taíno heritage.<a href="#cite_note-:4-107">[107]</a> Despite this, there is widespread recognition that Taíno customs and culture have survived in some form in Puerto Rico, where these customs are celebrated as a part of Puerto Rico's creole identity.<a href="#cite_note-:723-138">[138]</a><a href="#cite_note-139">[139]</a> At the <a href="/wiki/2010_United_States_census" title="2010 United States census">2010 U.S. census</a>, 1,098 people in Puerto Rico identified as "Puerto Rican Indian", 1,410 identified as "Spanish American Indian", and 9,399 identified as "Taíno". In total, 35,856 Puerto Ricans identified as Indigenous.<a href="#cite_note-140">[140]</a> A consistent explanation given by modern Taíno/Boricuas for their survival is that their families lived, at least for a time, close to the mountainous interior of the island, which they call Las Indieras ("the place of the Indians"). Anthropologist Sherina Feliciano-Santos says these areas typically have an increased prevalence of Indigenous foods, customs and vocabulary than elsewhere.<a href="#cite_note-:724-141">[141]</a> People with Indigenous heritage in Puerto Rico may call themselves Boricua, after the Indigenous word for the island, as well as or instead of Taíno. Local Taíno/Boricua groups have also begun attempts to reconstruct a distinct Taíno language, called Taíney, often extrapolating from other <a href="/wiki/Arawakan_languages" title="Arawakan languages">Arawakan languages</a> and using a modified version of the Latin alphabet.<a href="#cite_note-142">[142]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Guain%C3%ADa_Ta%C3%ADno_Tribe" title="Guainía Taíno Tribe">Guainía Taíno Tribe</a> has been recognized as a tribe by the <a href="/wiki/Governor_of_the_US_Virgin_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Governor of the US Virgin Islands">governor of the US Virgin Islands</a>.<a href="#cite_note-143">[143]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Taíno_revivalist_communities">Taíno revivalist communities</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Pedro_Guanikeyu_Torres" title="Pedro Guanikeyu Torres">Pedro Guanikeyu Torres</a></div> As of 2006, there were a couple of dozen activist Taíno descendant organizations from Florida to Puerto Rico and California to New York with growing memberships numbering in the thousands. These efforts are known as the Taíno restoration, a revival movement for Taíno culture that seeks to revive and reclaim Taíno heritage, as well as official recognition of the survival of the Taíno people.<a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a><a href="#cite_note-Forte2006-145">[145]</a> Historian Ranald Woodaman describes the modern Taíno movement as "a declaration of Native survival through mestizaje (genetic and cultural mixing over time), reclamation and revival".<a href="#cite_note-146">[146]</a> In Puerto Rico, the history of the Taíno is being taught in schools, where children learn about the Taíno culture and identity through dance, costumes, and crafts. Martínez Cruzado, a geneticist at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Puerto_Rico_at_Mayag%C3%BCez" title="University of Puerto Rico at Mayagüez">University of Puerto Rico at Mayagüez</a> said celebrating and learning about their Taíno roots is helping Puerto Ricans feel connected.<a href="#cite_note-147">[147]</a> Scholar Yolanda Martínez-San Miguel sees the development of a Neo-Taíno movement in Puerto Rico as a useful counter to the domination of the island by the United States and the Spanish legacies of island society. She also notes that "what could be seen as a useless anachronistic reinvention of a 'Boricua coqui' identity can also be conceived as a productive example of Spivak's 'strategic essentialism'".<a href="#cite_note-:0-108">[108]</a> Scholar Gabriel Haslip-Viera suggests that the Taíno revival movements which emerged among marginalised Puerto Rican communities, especially from the 1980s and 1990s, are a response to US racism and <a href="/wiki/Reaganism" class="mw-redirect" title="Reaganism">Reaganism</a>, which produced hostile political and socioeconomic conditions in the Caribbean.<a href="#cite_note-148">[148]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="DNA_of_Taíno_descendants">DNA of Taíno descendants</h3></div> In 2018, a <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a> study mapped the <a href="/wiki/Genome" title="Genome">genome</a> of a tooth belonging to an 8th- to 10th–century "ancient Taíno" woman from <a href="/wiki/The_Bahamas" title="The Bahamas">the Bahamas</a>.<a href="#cite_note-study18-149">[149]</a> The research team compared the genome to 104 Puerto Ricans who participated in the <a href="/wiki/1000_Genomes_Project" title="1000 Genomes Project">1000 Genomes Project</a> (2008), who had 10 to 15 percent <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Indigenous American</a> ancestry. The results suggested they were more "closely related to the ancient Bahamian genome" than to any other Indigenous American group.<a href="#cite_note-study18-149">[149]</a><a href="#cite_note-:6-110">[110]</a> Although most do not identify as such, DNA evidence suggests that a large proportion of the current populations of the <a href="/wiki/Greater_Antilles" title="Greater Antilles">Greater Antilles</a> have Taíno ancestry, with 61% of Puerto Ricans, up to 30% of Dominicans, and 33% of Cubans having <a href="/wiki/Mitochondrial_DNA" title="Mitochondrial DNA">mitochondrial DNA</a> of Indigenous origin. Some groups have, however, reportedly maintained Taíno or indio customs to some degree.<a href="#cite_note-History_2019-9">[9]</a> Sixteen <a href="/wiki/Autosomal_DNA" class="mw-redirect" title="Autosomal DNA">autosomal</a> studies of peoples in the Spanish-speaking Caribbean and its diaspora (mostly Puerto Ricans) have shown that between 10% and 20% of their DNA is Indigenous. Some individuals have slightly higher scores, and others have lower scores or no indigenous DNA at all.<a href="#cite_note-150">[150]</a> A recent study of a population in eastern Puerto Rico, where the majority of persons tested claimed Taíno ancestry and pedigree, showed that they had 61% <a href="/wiki/MtDNA" class="mw-redirect" title="MtDNA">mtDNA</a> (distant maternal ancestry) from Indigenous peoples and 0% <a href="/wiki/Y-chromosome_DNA" class="mw-redirect" title="Y-chromosome DNA">Y-chromosome DNA</a> (distant paternal ancestry) from the Indigenous people. This suggests part of the Creole population descends from unions between Taíno women and European or African men.<a href="#cite_note-151">[151]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/MAYA-g-log-cal-D10-Ok.svg/30px-MAYA-g-log-cal-D10-Ok.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/MAYA-g-log-cal-D10-Ok.svg/45px-MAYA-g-log-cal-D10-Ok.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/MAYA-g-log-cal-D10-Ok.svg/60px-MAYA-g-log-cal-D10-Ok.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="319" data-file-height="299" /><a href="/wiki/Portal:Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Portal:Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Indigenous peoples of the Americas portal</a></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><img alt="map" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Relief_Map_of_Caribbean.png/32px-Relief_Map_of_Caribbean.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Relief_Map_of_Caribbean.png/48px-Relief_Map_of_Caribbean.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Relief_Map_of_Caribbean.png/64px-Relief_Map_of_Caribbean.png 2x" data-file-width="891" data-file-height="561" /><a href="/wiki/Portal:Caribbean" title="Portal:Caribbean">Caribbean portal</a></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 23em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ciboney" title="Ciboney">Ciboney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garifuna" title="Garifuna">Garifuna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hupia" title="Hupia">Hupia</a>, spirit of the dead</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenismo" title="Indigenismo">Indigenismo</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indigenismo_in_Mexico" title="Indigenismo in Mexico">Indigenismo in Mexico</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Amerindian_genetics" class="mw-redirect" title="Indigenous Amerindian genetics">Indigenous Amerindian genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Ta%C3%ADnos" title="List of Taínos">List of Taínos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palapa_(structure)" title="Palapa (structure)">Palapa (structure)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomier_Caves" title="Pomier Caves">Pomier Caves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibes_Indigenous_Ceremonial_Center" title="Tibes Indigenous Ceremonial Center">Tibes Indigenous Ceremonial Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yamaye" class="mw-redirect" title="Yamaye">Yamaye</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> Eli D. 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Retrieved 11 April 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Christopher+Columbus+Encyclopedia&rft.pages=346&rft.edition=ebook&rft.pub=Palgrave+MacMillan&rft.date=1002&rft.isbn=978-1-349-12573-9&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgmmMCwAAQBAJ%26q%3DTa%25C3%25ADno%2Bsometimes%2Bwore%2Bnothing%257Cnaked%26pg%3DPA346&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATa%C3%ADno" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rouse15-35">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rouse15_35-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rouse15_35-1">b</a> Rouse, p. 15. </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> Alegría, "Tainos" p. 346. </li> <li id="cite_note-Alegría1951p348-37">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Alegría1951p348_37-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Alegría1951p348_37-1">b</a> Alegría (1951), p. 348. </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tainoage.com/meaning.html">"Taino Symbol Meanings"</a>. Tainoage.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180705233343/http://www.tainoage.com/meaning.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2018-07-05. Retrieved 19 May 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Tainoage.com&rft.atitle=Taino+Symbol+Meanings&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.tainoage.com%2Fmeaning.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATa%C3%ADno" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Int'l_congress-39"><a href="#cite_ref-Int'l_congress_39-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dloc.com/AA00061961/00844/citation">"Caribbean Archaeology And Taino Survival"</a>. ufdc.ufl.edu. Retrieved 2020-11-17.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ufdc.ufl.edu&rft.atitle=Caribbean+Archaeology+And+Taino+Survival&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdloc.com%2FAA00061961%2F00844%2Fcitation&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATa%C3%ADno" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Powhatan_Auld-40"><a href="#cite_ref-Powhatan_Auld_40-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220808141722/http://www.powhatanmuseum.com/Taino_Culture.html">"Taino Culture"</a>. Powhatan Museum's Home Page. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.powhatanmuseum.com/Taino_Culture.html">the original</a> on August 8, 2022. Retrieved August 8, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Powhatan+Museum%27s+Home+Page&rft.atitle=Taino+Culture&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.powhatanmuseum.com%2FTaino_Culture.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATa%C3%ADno" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Issuu_1912-41"><a href="#cite_ref-Issuu_1912_41-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://issuu.com/popularenlinea/docs/ta_nos_arte_y_sociedad">"TAÍNOS: ARTE Y SOCIEDAD"</a>. Issuu (in Spanish). May 15, 1912. Retrieved November 20, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Issuu&rft.atitle=TA%C3%8DNOS%3A+ARTE+Y+SOCIEDAD&rft.date=1912-05-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fissuu.com%2Fpopularenlinea%2Fdocs%2Fta_nos_arte_y_sociedad&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATa%C3%ADno" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> Cayetano Coll y Toste (author). Prehistoria de Puerto Rico. San Juan, Puerto Rico: Tipografía Boletín Mercantil. 1907. p.298. (Reprinted by Editorial El Nuevo Mundo. San Juan, Puerto Rico. 2011. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781463539283" title="Special:BookSources/9781463539283">9781463539283</a>. The Puerto Rico caciques map illustration was also reprinted by the United States Government Printing Office, Washington, DC, in 1948, in the Handbook of South American Indians: The Circum-Caribbean Tribes, Julian H. Steward, ed., volume 4, for the Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of American Ethnology, for their Bulletin 143.) </li> <li id="cite_note-Wagenheim12-43">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Wagenheim12_43-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wagenheim12_43-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJimenez_de_Wagenheim,_Olga1998" class="citation book cs1">Jimenez de Wagenheim, Olga (1998). Puerto Rico: an interpretive history from pre-columbian times to 1900. Markus Wiener Publishers. p. 12. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1558761225" title="Special:BookSources/1558761225"><bdi>1558761225</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1025952187">1025952187</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Puerto+Rico%3A+an+interpretive+history+from+pre-columbian+times+to+1900&rft.pages=12&rft.pub=Markus+Wiener+Publishers&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1025952187&rft.isbn=1558761225&rft.au=Jimenez+de+Wagenheim%2C+Olga&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATa%C3%ADno" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-enciclopediapr-44">^ <a href="#cite_ref-enciclopediapr_44-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-enciclopediapr_44-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-enciclopediapr_44-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://enciclopediapr.org/encyclopedia/el-desarrollo-del-cacicazgo-en-las-sociedades-tardias-de-puerto-rico/">"El desarrollo del cacicazgo en las sociedades tardías de Puerto Rico -"</a>. enciclopediapr.org. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190527232443/https://enciclopediapr.org/encyclopedia/el-desarrollo-del-cacicazgo-en-las-sociedades-tardias-de-puerto-rico/">Archived</a> from the original on 2019-05-27. Retrieved 2019-05-10.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=enciclopediapr.org&rft.atitle=El+desarrollo+del+cacicazgo+en+las+sociedades+tard%C3%ADas+de+Puerto+Rico+-&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fenciclopediapr.org%2Fencyclopedia%2Fel-desarrollo-del-cacicazgo-en-las-sociedades-tardias-de-puerto-rico%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATa%C3%ADno" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWagenheim,_Olga_Jiménez_de1998" class="citation book cs1">Wagenheim, Olga Jiménez de (1998). Puerto Rico : an interpretive history from pre-Columbian times to 1900. Princeton, N.J.: Markus Wiener Publishers. p. 12. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1558761217" title="Special:BookSources/1558761217"><bdi>1558761217</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/37457914">37457914</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Puerto+Rico+%3A+an+interpretive+history+from+pre-Columbian+times+to+1900&rft.place=Princeton%2C+N.J.&rft.pages=12&rft.pub=Markus+Wiener+Publishers&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F37457914&rft.isbn=1558761217&rft.au=Wagenheim%2C+Olga+Jim%C3%A9nez+de&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATa%C3%ADno" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rethinking-46">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rethinking_46-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rethinking_46-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rethinking_46-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rethinking_46-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rethinking_46-4">e</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBigelowPeterson1998" class="citation book cs1">Bigelow, Bill; Peterson, Bob (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=H7FMDztgSfkC">Rethinking Columbus: The Next 500 Years</a>. Rethinking Schools. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780942961201" title="Special:BookSources/9780942961201"><bdi>9780942961201</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rethinking+Columbus%3A+The+Next+500+Years&rft.pub=Rethinking+Schools&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=9780942961201&rft.aulast=Bigelow&rft.aufirst=Bill&rft.au=Peterson%2C+Bob&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DH7FMDztgSfkC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATa%C3%ADno" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJimenez_de_Wagenheim,_Olga1998" class="citation book cs1">Jimenez de Wagenheim, Olga (1998). Puerto Rico: an interpretive history from pre-Columbian times to 1900. Markus Wiener Publishers. pp. 12–13. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1558761225" title="Special:BookSources/1558761225"><bdi>1558761225</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1025952187">1025952187</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Puerto+Rico%3A+an+interpretive+history+from+pre-Columbian+times+to+1900&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E12-%3C%2Fspan%3E13&rft.pub=Markus+Wiener+Publishers&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1025952187&rft.isbn=1558761225&rft.au=Jimenez+de+Wagenheim%2C+Olga&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATa%C3%ADno" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wagenheim13-48">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Wagenheim13_48-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wagenheim13_48-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJimenez_de_Wagenheim,_Olga1998" class="citation book cs1">Jimenez de Wagenheim, Olga (1998). Puerto Rico: an interpretive history from pre-columbian times to 1900. Markus Wiener Publishers. p. 13. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1558761225" title="Special:BookSources/1558761225"><bdi>1558761225</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1025952187">1025952187</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Puerto+Rico%3A+an+interpretive+history+from+pre-columbian+times+to+1900&rft.pages=13&rft.pub=Markus+Wiener+Publishers&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1025952187&rft.isbn=1558761225&rft.au=Jimenez+de+Wagenheim%2C+Olga&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATa%C3%ADno" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Smithsonian_1901-49"><a href="#cite_ref-Smithsonian_1901_49-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bulletin14341948smit">"Bulletin : Smithsonian Institution. Bureau of American Ethnology"</a>. Internet Archive. 23 October 1901. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160518212909/https://archive.org/details/bulletin14341948smit">Archived</a> from the original on 18 May 2016. Retrieved 7 November 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Internet+Archive&rft.atitle=Bulletin+%3A+Smithsonian+Institution.+Bureau+of+American+Ethnology&rft.date=1901-10-23&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbulletin14341948smit&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATa%C3%ADno" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRodríguez_Ramos2019" class="citation cs2">Rodríguez Ramos, Reniel (2019-02-25), "Current Perspectives in the Precolonial Archaeology of Puerto Rico", Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Latin American History, Oxford University Press, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facrefore%2F9780199366439.013.620">10.1093/acrefore/9780199366439.013.620</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199366439" title="Special:BookSources/9780199366439"><bdi>9780199366439</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Current+Perspectives+in+the+Precolonial+Archaeology+of+Puerto+Rico&rft.btitle=Oxford+Research+Encyclopedia+of+Latin+American+History&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2019-02-25&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Facrefore%2F9780199366439.013.620&rft.isbn=9780199366439&rft.aulast=Rodr%C3%ADguez+Ramos&rft.aufirst=Reniel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATa%C3%ADno" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-proyectosalonhogar-51">^ <a href="#cite_ref-proyectosalonhogar_51-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-proyectosalonhogar_51-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-proyectosalonhogar_51-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.proyectosalonhogar.com/enciclopedia_ilustrada/indios_tainos.htm">"Indios Tainos"</a>. www.proyectosalonhogar.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160114051729/http://www.proyectosalonhogar.com/enciclopedia_ilustrada/indios_Tainos.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 2016-01-14. Retrieved 2019-05-10.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.proyectosalonhogar.com&rft.atitle=Indios+Tainos&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.proyectosalonhogar.com%2Fenciclopedia_ilustrada%2Findios_tainos.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATa%C3%ADno" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJimenez_de_Wagenheim,_Olga1998" class="citation book cs1">Jimenez de Wagenheim, Olga (1998). Puerto Rico: an interpretive history from pre-columbian times to 1900. Markus Wiener Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1558761225" title="Special:BookSources/1558761225"><bdi>1558761225</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1025952187">1025952187</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Puerto+Rico%3A+an+interpretive+history+from+pre-columbian+times+to+1900&rft.pub=Markus+Wiener+Publishers&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1025952187&rft.isbn=1558761225&rft.au=Jimenez+de+Wagenheim%2C+Olga&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATa%C3%ADno" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rouse,_p.13-53"><a href="#cite_ref-Rouse,_p.13_53-0">^</a> Rouse, p. 13. </li> <li id="cite_note-Jacobs1992-54"><a href="#cite_ref-Jacobs1992_54-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrancine_Jacobs1992" class="citation book cs1">Francine Jacobs (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/tainospeoplewhow00jaco">The Tainos: The People who Welcomed Columbus</a>. G.P. 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Yale University. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110908234849/http://www.yale.edu/gsp/colonial/puerto-rico/index.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2011-09-08. 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Brill. p. 41. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-391-04206-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-391-04206-3"><bdi>978-0-391-04206-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160202055608/https://books.google.com/books?id=_PFSc4kCyxcC&pg=PA41">Archived</a> from the original on 2016-02-02. 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The New York Times.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Puerto+Rico+pageant+celebrates+a+vanished+native+culture&rft.date=2008-12-02&rft.aulast=Cave&rft.aufirst=Damien&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2008%2F12%2F02%2Fworld%2Famericas%2F02iht-puerto.4.18336408.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATa%C3%ADno" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-148"><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaslip-Viera2017" class="citation cs2">Haslip-Viera, Gabriel (2017-08-18), Flores, Juan; Rosaldo, Renato (eds.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781405177603.ch37">"The Taíno Identity Movement Among Caribbean Latinas/os in the United States"</a>, A Companion to Latina/o Studies (1 ed.), Wiley, pp. 417–426, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F9781405177603.ch37">10.1002/9781405177603.ch37</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-2622-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-2622-9"><bdi>978-1-4051-2622-9</bdi></a>, retrieved 2024-10-25</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=A+Companion+to+Latina%2Fo+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Ta%C3%ADno+Identity+Movement+Among+Caribbean+Latinas%2Fos+in+the+United+States&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E417-%3C%2Fspan%3E426&rft.date=2017-08-18&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2F9781405177603.ch37&rft.isbn=978-1-4051-2622-9&rft.aulast=Haslip-Viera&rft.aufirst=Gabriel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fonlinelibrary.wiley.com%2Fdoi%2F10.1002%2F9781405177603.ch37&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATa%C3%ADno" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-study18-149">^ <a href="#cite_ref-study18_149-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-study18_149-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKirk2018" class="citation web cs1">Kirk, Tom (19 February 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.eurekalert.org/news-releases/606691">"Study identifies traces of indigenous 'Taíno' in present-day Caribbean populations"</a>. EurekaAlert!. American Association for the Advancement of Science. Retrieved 4 August 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=EurekaAlert%21&rft.atitle=Study+identifies+traces+of+indigenous+%27Ta%C3%ADno%27+in+present-day+Caribbean+populations&rft.date=2018-02-19&rft.aulast=Kirk&rft.aufirst=Tom&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.eurekalert.org%2Fnews-releases%2F606691&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATa%C3%ADno" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-150"><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaslip-Viera2014" class="citation book cs1">Haslip-Viera, Gabriel (2014). Race, Identity and Indigenous Politics: Puerto Rican Neo-Taínos in the Diaspora and the Island. Latino Studies Press. pp. 111–117.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Race%2C+Identity+and+Indigenous+Politics%3A+Puerto+Rican+Neo-Ta%C3%ADnos+in+the+Diaspora+and+the+Island&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E111-%3C%2Fspan%3E117&rft.pub=Latino+Studies+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.aulast=Haslip-Viera&rft.aufirst=Gabriel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATa%C3%ADno" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-151"><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVilar2014" class="citation journal cs1">Vilar, Miguel G.; et al. (July 2014). "Genetic diversity in Puerto Rico and its implications for the peopling of the island and the Caribbean". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 155 (3): 352–68. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fajpa.22569">10.1002/ajpa.22569</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25043798">25043798</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Physical+Anthropology&rft.atitle=Genetic+diversity+in+Puerto+Rico+and+its+implications+for+the+peopling+of+the+island+and+the+Caribbean&rft.volume=155&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E352-%3C%2Fspan%3E68&rft.date=2014-07&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fajpa.22569&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F25043798&rft.aulast=Vilar&rft.aufirst=Miguel+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATa%C3%ADno" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cited_sources">Cited sources</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 40em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGuitar2000" class="citation journal cs1">Guitar, Lynne (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/KacikeJournal_34/LynneGuitar_djvu.txt">"Criollos: The Birth of a Dynamic New Indo-Afro-European People and Culture on Hispaniola"</a>. Kacike. 1 (1). Caribbean Amerindian Centrelink: 1–17.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Kacike&rft.atitle=Criollos%3A+The+Birth+of+a+Dynamic+New+Indo-Afro-European+People+and+Culture+on+Hispaniola&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E17&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Guitar&rft.aufirst=Lynne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2FKacikeJournal_34%2FLynneGuitar_djvu.txt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATa%C3%ADno" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRouse1992" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Irving_Rouse" title="Irving Rouse">Rouse, Irving</a> (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/tainosrisedeclin00rous">The Tainos: Rise and Decline of the People Who Greeted Columbus</a>. Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-300-05696-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-300-05696-6"><bdi>0-300-05696-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Tainos%3A+Rise+and+Decline+of+the+People+Who+Greeted+Columbus&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=0-300-05696-6&rft.aulast=Rouse&rft.aufirst=Irving&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ftainosrisedeclin00rous&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATa%C3%ADno" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 40em"> <ul><li>Nieves-Rivera, Ángel M., José Muñoz-Vázquez, and Carlos Betancourt-López, "Hallucinogens used by Taíno Indians in the West Indies." Atenea 15.1-2 (1995): 125–139.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarrington1921" class="citation book cs1">Harrington, Mark Raymond (1921). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EV3zAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA448">Cuba Before Columbus</a>. Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation. Retrieved August 9, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cuba+Before+Columbus&rft.pub=Museum+of+the+American+Indian%2C+Heye+Foundation&rft.date=1921&rft.aulast=Harrington&rft.aufirst=Mark+Raymond&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEV3zAAAAMAAJ%26pg%3DPA448&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATa%C3%ADno" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbbot2010" class="citation book cs1">Abbot, Elizabeth (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=aaxc1WdKmwEC">Sugar: A Bitterweet History</a>. Penguin. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59020-772-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59020-772-7"><bdi>978-1-59020-772-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sugar%3A+A+Bitterweet+History&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-59020-772-7&rft.aulast=Abbot&rft.aufirst=Elizabeth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Daaxc1WdKmwEC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATa%C3%ADno" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChrisp2006" class="citation book cs1">Chrisp, P. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=twyVezztw_UC&pg=PA34">DK Discoveries: Christopher Columbus</a>. Penguin. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7566-8616-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7566-8616-1"><bdi>978-0-7566-8616-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=DK+Discoveries%3A+Christopher+Columbus&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-7566-8616-1&rft.aulast=Chrisp&rft.aufirst=P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DtwyVezztw_UC%26pg%3DPA34&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATa%C3%ADno" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRicardo_Alegría1951" class="citation journal cs1">Ricardo Alegría (April 1951). "The Ball Game Played by the Aborigines of the Antilles". American Antiquity. 16 (4): 348–352. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F276984">10.2307/276984</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/276984">276984</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:164059254">164059254</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Antiquity&rft.atitle=The+Ball+Game+Played+by+the+Aborigines+of+the+Antilles&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E348-%3C%2Fspan%3E352&rft.date=1951-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A164059254%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F276984%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F276984&rft.au=Ricardo+Alegr%C3%ADa&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATa%C3%ADno" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAccilien_et_al.2003" class="citation book cs1">Accilien, Cécile; Adams, Jessica; Méléance, Elmide (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=O-p7qRKl_G0C&pg=PA1">Revolutionary Freedoms: A History of Survival, Strength and Imagination in Haiti</a>. Paintings by Ulrick Jean-Pierre. Educa Vision. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58432-293-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-58432-293-1"><bdi>978-1-58432-293-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Revolutionary+Freedoms%3A+A+History+of+Survival%2C+Strength+and+Imagination+in+Haiti&rft.pub=Educa+Vision&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-1-58432-293-1&rft.aulast=Accilien&rft.aufirst=C%C3%A9cile&rft.au=Adams%2C+Jessica&rft.au=M%C3%A9l%C3%A9ance%2C+Elmide&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DO-p7qRKl_G0C%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATa%C3%ADno" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLéger1907" class="citation book cs1">Léger, Jacques Nicolas (1907). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cu31924079570762">Haiti, Her History and Her Detractors</a>. Neale Publishing Company.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Haiti%2C+Her+History+and+Her+Detractors&rft.pub=Neale+Publishing+Company&rft.date=1907&rft.aulast=L%C3%A9ger&rft.aufirst=Jacques+Nicolas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcu31924079570762&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATa%C3%ADno" class="Z3988"> <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Haiti:_Her_History_and_Her_Detractors" class="extiw" title="s:Haiti: Her History and Her Detractors">wikisource</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGuitarFerbel-AzcarateEstevez2006" class="citation book cs1">Guitar, Lynne; Ferbel-Azcarate, Pedro; Estevez, Jorge (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.openanthropology.org/resurgence/abstracts.htm">"Ocama-Daca Taíno (Hear Me, I Am Taíno): Taíno Survival on Hispaniola, Focusing on the Dominican Republic"</a>. In Forte, Maximilian C. (ed.). Indigenous Resurgence in the Contemporary Caribbean: Amerindian Survival and Revival. New York: Peter Lang Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0820474885" title="Special:BookSources/978-0820474885"><bdi>978-0820474885</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ocama-Daca+Ta%C3%ADno+%28Hear+Me%2C+I+Am+Ta%C3%ADno%29%3A+Ta%C3%ADno+Survival+on+Hispaniola%2C+Focusing+on+the+Dominican+Republic&rft.btitle=Indigenous+Resurgence+in+the+Contemporary+Caribbean%3A+Amerindian+Survival+and+Revival&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Peter+Lang+Publishing&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0820474885&rft.aulast=Guitar&rft.aufirst=Lynne&rft.au=Ferbel-Azcarate%2C+Pedro&rft.au=Estevez%2C+Jorge&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.openanthropology.org%2Fresurgence%2Fabstracts.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATa%C3%ADno" class="Z3988"></li> <li>DeRLAS. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.udel.edu/LASP/Vol1-2MartinezC.html">"Some important research contributions of Genetics to the study of Population History and Anthropology in Puerto Rico"</a>. Newark, Delaware: Delaware Review of Latin American Studies. August 15, 2000.</li> <li>"The Role of Cohoba in Taíno Shamanism", <a href="/wiki/Constantino_Manuel_Torres" title="Constantino Manuel Torres">Constantino M. Torres</a> in Eleusis No. 1 (1998)</li> <li>"Shamanic Inebriants in South American Archaeology: Recent Investigations" <a href="/wiki/Constantino_Manuel_Torres" title="Constantino Manuel Torres">Constantino M. Torres</a> in Eleusis No. 5 (2001)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTinkerFreeland2008" class="citation journal cs1">Tinker, Tink; Freeland, Mark (2008). "Thief, Slave Trader, Murderer: Christopher Columbus and Caribbean Population Decline". Wíčazo Ša Review. 23 (1): 25–50. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fwic.2008.0002">10.1353/wic.2008.0002</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:159481939">159481939</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=W%C3%AD%C4%8Dazo+%C5%A0a+Review&rft.atitle=Thief%2C+Slave+Trader%2C+Murderer%3A+Christopher+Columbus+and+Caribbean+Population+Decline&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E25-%3C%2Fspan%3E50&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fwic.2008.0002&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A159481939%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Tinker&rft.aufirst=Tink&rft.au=Freeland%2C+Mark&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATa%C3%ADno" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGuitar" class="citation journal cs1">Guitar, Lynne. "Documenting the Myth of Taíno Extinction". Kacike.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Kacike&rft.atitle=Documenting+the+Myth+of+Ta%C3%ADno+Extinction&rft.aulast=Guitar&rft.aufirst=Lynne&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATa%C3%ADno" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://libmma.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/ref/collection/p15324coll10/id/211362">The art heritage of Puerto Rico, pre-Columbian to present</a>. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art and El Museo del Barrio. 1973.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+art+heritage+of+Puerto+Rico%2C+pre-Columbian+to+present&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=The+Metropolitan+Museum+of+Art+and+El+Museo+del+Barrio&rft.date=1973&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flibmma.contentdm.oclc.org%2Fcdm%2Fref%2Fcollection%2Fp15324coll10%2Fid%2F211362&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATa%C3%ADno" class="Z3988"> (Chapter 1: "The Art of the Taino Indians of Puerto Rico")</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDutchen2020" class="citation web cs1">Dutchen, Stephanie (December 23, 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2020/12/ancient-dna-shines-light-on-caribbean-history-prehistory/">"Island investigations"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Harvard_Gazette" class="mw-redirect" title="The Harvard Gazette">The Harvard Gazette</a>. Harvard University.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Harvard+Gazette&rft.atitle=Island+investigations&rft.date=2020-12-23&rft.aulast=Dutchen&rft.aufirst=Stephanie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnews.harvard.edu%2Fgazette%2Fstory%2F2020%2F12%2Fancient-dna-shines-light-on-caribbean-history-prehistory%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATa%C3%ADno" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Ta%C3%ADno" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Taíno">Taíno</a>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.uctp.org/">United Confederation of Taíno People (UCTP) / Confederación Unida de el Pueblo Taíno (CUPT)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071013032642/http://www.taino-tribe.org/terms1.htm">Taíno Diccionary</a>, A dictionary of words of the Indigenous peoples of Caribbean from the encyclopedia "Clásicos de Puerto Rico, second edition, publisher, Ediciones Latinoamericanas. S.A., 1972" compiled by Puerto Rican historian Dr. Cayetano Coll y Toste of the "Real Academia de la Historia".</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/travel/what-became-of-the-taino-73824867/">2011 Smithsonian article on Taíno culture remnant in the Dominican Republic</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://stthomassource.com/content/2022/04/06/usvi-taino-chief-seeks-members/">USVI Taino Chief Seeks Members.</a> Amy H. Roberts. The St. Thomas Source. St. Thomas, U.S. Virgin Islands. 6 April 2022. Accessed 5 May 2022. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220506013636/https://stthomassource.com/content/2022/04/06/usvi-taino-chief-seeks-members/">Archived.</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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#FEEFD6;width:10em"><a href="/wiki/Mesoamerica" title="Mesoamerica">Mesoamerica</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_chronology" title="Mesoamerican chronology">Mesoamerican chronology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acolhua" title="Acolhua">Acolhua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Altepetl" title="Altepetl">Altepetl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chiefdom_of_Ameca" title="Chiefdom of Ameca">Ameca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azcapotzalco_(altepetl)" title="Azcapotzalco (altepetl)">Azcapotzalco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calixtlahuaca" title="Calixtlahuaca">Calixtlahuaca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capacha" title="Capacha">Capacha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chalcatzingo" title="Chalcatzingo">Chalcatzingo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chichimeca" title="Chichimeca">Chichimeca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cholula_(Mesoamerican_site)" title="Cholula (Mesoamerican site)">Cholula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chup%C3%ADcuaro" title="Chupícuaro">Chupícuaro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gran_Cocl%C3%A9" title="Gran Coclé">Coclé</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cocoll%C3%A1n" title="Cocollán">Cocollán</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuicuilco" title="Cuicuilco">Cuicuilco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diquis" title="Diquis">Diquis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epi-Olmec_culture" title="Epi-Olmec culture">Epi-Olmec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huastec_civilization" title="Huastec civilization">Huastec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Izapa" title="Izapa">Izapa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mezcala_culture" title="Mezcala culture">Mezcala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixtec_culture" title="Mixtec culture">Mixtec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Nicoya" title="Kingdom of Nicoya">Nicoya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olmecs" title="Olmecs">Olmecs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pipil_people" title="Pipil people">Pipil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pur%C3%A9pecha_Empire" title="Purépecha Empire">Purépecha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quelepa" title="Quelepa">Quelepa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Mexico_shaft_tomb_tradition" title="Western Mexico shaft tomb tradition">Shaft tomb tradition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teotenango" title="Teotenango">Teotenango</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teotihuacan" title="Teotihuacan">Teotihuacan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tepanec" title="Tepanec">Tepanec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teuchitl%C3%A1n_culture" title="Teuchitlán culture">Teuchitlán</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tlatilco_culture" title="Tlatilco culture">Tlatilco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tlaxcaltec" title="Tlaxcaltec">Tlaxcaltec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toltec" title="Toltec">Toltec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Totonac_culture" title="Totonac culture">Totonac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classic_Veracruz_culture" title="Classic Veracruz culture">Veracruz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veraguas_culture" title="Veraguas culture">Veraguas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xaltocan" title="Xaltocan">Xaltocan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xochipala" title="Xochipala">Xochipala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zapotec_civilization" title="Zapotec civilization">Zapotec</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FEEFD6;width:10em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_South_America" title="History of South America">South America</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andean_civilizations" title="Andean civilizations">Andean civilizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indigenous_peoples_of_South_America" title="List of Indigenous peoples of South America">Indigenous peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Cabraline_history_of_Brazil" title="Pre-Cabraline history of Brazil">Cultures of Pre-Cabraline Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_Bolivia" title="Pre-Columbian Bolivia">Cultures of Pre-Columbian Bolivia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehispanic_history_of_Chile" title="Prehispanic history of Chile">Cultures of Pre-Columbian Chile</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_archaeological_sites_in_Chile" title="List of archaeological sites in Chile">Archaeological sites in Chile</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_cultures_of_Colombia" title="Pre-Columbian cultures of Colombia">Cultures of Pre-Columbian Colombia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_archaeological_sites_in_Colombia" title="List of archaeological sites in Colombia">Archaeological sites in Colombia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_Ecuador" title="Pre-Columbian Ecuador">Cultures of Pre-Columbian Ecuador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Periodization_of_pre-Columbian_Peru" title="Periodization of pre-Columbian Peru">Cultural periods of Peru</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_archaeological_sites_in_Peru" title="List of archaeological sites in Peru">Archaeological sites in Peru</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_period_in_Venezuela" title="Pre-Columbian period in Venezuela">Cultures of Pre-Columbian Venezuela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/El_Abra" title="El Abra">El Abra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amotape_complex" title="Amotape complex">Amotape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arawak" title="Arawak">Arawak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atacama_people" title="Atacama people">Atacameño</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aymara_kingdoms" class="mw-redirect" title="Aymara kingdoms">Aymara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calima_culture" title="Calima culture">Calima</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ca%C3%B1ari" title="Cañari">Cañaris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capul%C3%AD_culture" title="Capulí culture">Capulí</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caral%E2%80%93Supe_civilization" title="Caral–Supe civilization">Caral–Supe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casma%E2%80%93Sechin_culture" title="Casma–Sechin culture">Casma–Sechin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chachapoya_culture" title="Chachapoya culture">Chachapoya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chancay_culture" title="Chancay culture">Chancay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chango_people" title="Chango people">Chango</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chav%C3%ADn_culture" title="Chavín culture">Chavín</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chimor" title="Chimor">Chimú</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinchorro_culture" title="Chinchorro culture">Chinchorro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chiripa_culture" title="Chiripa culture">Chiripa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chorrera_culture" title="Chorrera culture">Chorrera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cupisnique" title="Cupisnique">Cupisnique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diaguita" title="Diaguita">Diaguita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gran_Chaco_people" title="Gran Chaco people">Gran Chaco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huetar_people" title="Huetar people">Huetar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalina_people" title="Kalina people">Kalina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuhikugu" title="Kuhikugu">Kuhikugu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tumaco-La_Tolita_culture" title="Tumaco-La Tolita culture">La Tolita (Tumaco)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Las_Vegas_culture_(archaeology)" title="Las Vegas culture (archaeology)">Las Vegas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lauricocha_culture" title="Lauricocha culture">Lauricocha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Llanos_de_Moxos_(archaeology)" title="Llanos de Moxos (archaeology)">Llanos de Moxos (Bolivia)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lima_culture" title="Lima culture">Lima</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lokono" title="Lokono">Lokono</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lupaca" title="Lupaca">Lupaca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luzia_Woman" title="Luzia Woman">Luzia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mante%C3%B1o-Huancavilca_culture" title="Manteño-Huancavilca culture">Manteño-Huancavilca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mapuche_history" title="Mapuche history">Mapuche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marajoara_culture" title="Marajoara culture">Marajoara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moche_culture" title="Moche culture">Moche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mollo_culture" title="Mollo culture">Mollo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monte_Verde" title="Monte Verde">Monte Verde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazca_culture" title="Nazca culture">Nazca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omagua_people" title="Omagua people">Omagua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paij%C3%A1n_culture" title="Paiján culture">Paiján</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piaroa_people" title="Piaroa people">Piaroa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pukara_culture" title="Pukara culture">Pucará</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pucar%C3%A1_de_Tilcara" title="Pucará de Tilcara">Pucará de Tilcara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quebrada_de_Humahuaca" title="Quebrada de Humahuaca">Quebrada de Humahuaca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quimbaya" title="Quimbaya">Quimbaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saladoid" title="Saladoid">Saladoid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/San_Agust%C3%ADn_culture" title="San Agustín culture">San Agustín</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shuar" title="Shuar">Shuar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sican_culture" title="Sican culture">Sican</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Taíno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tairona" title="Tairona">Tairona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tierradentro" title="Tierradentro">Tierradentro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timoto%E2%80%93Cuica_people" title="Timoto–Cuica people">Timoto–Cuica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiwanaku_Empire" title="Tiwanaku Empire">Tiwanaku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toyop%C3%A1n" title="Toyopán">Toyopán</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuncahu%C3%A1n" title="Tuncahuán">Tuncahuán</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upano_Valley_sites" title="Upano Valley sites">Upano Valley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valdivia_culture" title="Valdivia culture">Valdivia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wankarani_culture" title="Wankarani culture">Wankarani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wari_culture" title="Wari culture">Wari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zen%C3%BA" title="Zenú">Zenú</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background: #FEEFD6;padding:0; background:transparent;"><div><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><th scope="col" class="navbox-list navbox-even navbox-group" style="background: #FEEFD6;;background: #FEEFD6; width:10em; border-bottom:1px #fff solid;"></th><th scope="col" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="background: #FEEFD6;"><a href="/wiki/Aztec_Empire" title="Aztec Empire">Aztec</a></th><th scope="col" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="background: #FEEFD6;"><a href="/wiki/Maya_civilization" title="Maya civilization">Maya</a></th><th scope="col" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="background: #FEEFD6;"><a href="/wiki/Muisca_Confederation" title="Muisca Confederation">Muisca</a></th><th scope="col" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="background: #FEEFD6;"><a href="/wiki/Inca_Empire" title="Inca Empire">Inca</a></th></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><th scope="row" class="navbox-list navbox-odd navbox-group" style="background: #FEEFD6; width:10em; border-bottom:1px #fff solid;"> Capital</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"> <a href="/wiki/Tenochtitlan" title="Tenochtitlan">Tenochtitlan</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"> <a href="/wiki/Mayan_cities" title="Mayan cities">Multiple</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"> <a href="/wiki/Tunja" title="Tunja">Hunza</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bacat%C3%A1" title="Bacatá">Bacatá</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"> <a href="/wiki/Cusco" title="Cusco">Cusco</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><th scope="row" class="navbox-list navbox-even navbox-group" style="background: #FEEFD6; width:10em; border-bottom:1px #fff solid;"> Language</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even"> <a href="/wiki/Nahuatl" title="Nahuatl">Nahuatl</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-even"> <a href="/wiki/Mayan_languages" title="Mayan languages">Mayan Languages</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-even"> <a href="/wiki/Chibcha_language" title="Chibcha language">Muysc Cubun</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-even"> <a href="/wiki/Quechuan_languages" title="Quechuan languages">Quechua</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><th scope="row" class="navbox-list navbox-odd navbox-group" style="background: #FEEFD6; width:10em; border-bottom:1px #fff solid;"> Writing</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"> <a href="/wiki/Aztec_script" title="Aztec script">Script</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"> <a href="/wiki/Maya_script" title="Maya script">Script</a> (<a href="/wiki/Maya_numerals" title="Maya numerals">Numerals</a>)</td><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"> <a href="/wiki/Muisca_numerals" title="Muisca numerals">Numerals</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"> <a href="/wiki/Quipu" title="Quipu">Quipu</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><th scope="row" class="navbox-list navbox-even navbox-group" style="background: #FEEFD6; width:10em; border-bottom:1px #fff solid;"> Religion</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even"> <a href="/wiki/Aztec_religion" title="Aztec religion">Religion</a> (<a href="/wiki/Human_sacrifice_in_Aztec_culture" title="Human sacrifice in Aztec culture">Human Sacrifice</a>)</td><td class="navbox-list navbox-even"> <a href="/wiki/Maya_religion" title="Maya religion">Religion</a> (<a href="/wiki/Human_sacrifice_in_Maya_culture" title="Human sacrifice in Maya culture">Human Sacrifice</a>)</td><td class="navbox-list navbox-even"> <a href="/wiki/Muisca_religion" title="Muisca religion">Religion</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-even"> <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Inca_Empire" title="Religion in the Inca Empire">Religion</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><th scope="row" class="navbox-list navbox-odd navbox-group" style="background: #FEEFD6; width:10em; border-bottom:1px #fff solid;"> Mythology</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"> <a href="/wiki/Aztec_mythology" title="Aztec mythology">Mythology</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"> <a href="/wiki/Maya_mythology" title="Maya mythology">Mythology</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"> <a href="/wiki/Muisca_mythology" title="Muisca mythology">Mythology</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"> <a href="/wiki/Inca_mythology" title="Inca mythology">Mythology</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><th scope="row" class="navbox-list navbox-even navbox-group" style="background: #FEEFD6; width:10em; border-bottom:1px #fff solid;"> Calendar</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even"> <a href="/wiki/Aztec_calendar" title="Aztec calendar">Calendar</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-even"> <a href="/wiki/Maya_calendar" title="Maya calendar">Calendar</a> (<a href="/wiki/Maya_astronomy" title="Maya astronomy">Astronomy</a>)</td><td class="navbox-list navbox-even"> <a href="/wiki/Muisca_calendar" title="Muisca calendar">Calendar</a> (<a href="/wiki/Muisca_astronomy" title="Muisca astronomy">Astronomy</a>)</td><td class="navbox-list navbox-even"> <a href="/wiki/Mathematics_of_the_Incas" title="Mathematics of the Incas">Mathematics</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><th scope="row" class="navbox-list navbox-odd navbox-group" style="background: #FEEFD6; width:10em; border-bottom:1px #fff solid;"> Society</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"> <a href="/wiki/Aztec_society" title="Aztec society">Society</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"> <a href="/wiki/Maya_society" title="Maya society">Society</a> (<a href="/wiki/Trade_in_Maya_civilization" title="Trade in Maya civilization">Trade</a>)</td><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"> <a href="/wiki/Muisca_economy" title="Muisca economy">Economy</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"> <a href="/wiki/Inca_society" title="Inca society">Society</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><th scope="row" class="navbox-list navbox-even navbox-group" style="background: #FEEFD6; width:10em; border-bottom:1px #fff solid;"> Warfare</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even"> <a href="/wiki/Aztec_warfare" title="Aztec warfare">Warfare</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-even"> <a href="/wiki/Maya_warfare" title="Maya warfare">Warfare</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-even"> <a href="/wiki/Muisca_warfare" title="Muisca warfare">Warfare</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-even"> <a href="/wiki/Inca_army" title="Inca army">Army</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><th scope="row" class="navbox-list navbox-odd navbox-group" style="background: #FEEFD6; width:10em; border-bottom:1px #fff solid;"> Women</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"> <a href="/wiki/Women_in_Aztec_civilization" title="Women in Aztec civilization">Women</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"> <a href="/wiki/Women_in_Maya_society" title="Women in Maya society">Women</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"> <a href="/wiki/Women_in_Muisca_society" title="Women in Muisca society">Women</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"> <a href="/wiki/Inca_Empire#Gender_roles" title="Inca Empire">Gender Roles</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><th scope="row" class="navbox-list navbox-even navbox-group" style="background: #FEEFD6; width:10em; border-bottom:1px #fff solid;"> Architecture</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even"> <a href="/wiki/Aztec_architecture" title="Aztec architecture">Architecture</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-even"> <a href="/wiki/Maya_architecture" title="Maya architecture">Architecture</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-even"> <a href="/wiki/Muisca_architecture" title="Muisca architecture">Architecture</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-even"> <a href="/wiki/Inca_architecture" title="Inca architecture">Architecture</a> (<a href="/wiki/Inca_road_system" title="Inca road system">Road System</a>)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><th scope="row" class="navbox-list navbox-odd navbox-group" style="background: #FEEFD6; width:10em; border-bottom:1px #fff solid;"> Art</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"> <a href="/wiki/Aztecs#Art_and_cultural_production" title="Aztecs">Art</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"> <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Maya_art" title="Ancient Maya art">Art</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"> <a href="/wiki/Muisca_art" title="Muisca art">Art</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"> <a href="/wiki/Inca_Empire#Arts_and_technology" title="Inca Empire">Art</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><th scope="row" class="navbox-list navbox-even navbox-group" style="background: #FEEFD6; width:10em; border-bottom:1px #fff solid;"> Music</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even"> <a href="/wiki/Aztecs#Music_and_song" title="Aztecs">Music</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-even"> <a href="/wiki/Maya_music" title="Maya music">Music</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-even"> <a href="/wiki/Muisca_music" title="Muisca music">Music</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-even"> <a href="/wiki/Andean_music" title="Andean music">Andean Music</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><th scope="row" class="navbox-list navbox-odd navbox-group" style="background: #FEEFD6; width:10em; border-bottom:1px #fff solid;"> Agriculture</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"> <a href="/wiki/Chinampa" title="Chinampa">Chinampas</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"> <a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Mesoamerica" title="Agriculture in Mesoamerica">Agriculture</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"> <a href="/wiki/Muisca_agriculture" title="Muisca agriculture">Agriculture</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"> <a href="/wiki/Inca_agriculture" title="Inca agriculture">Agriculture</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><th scope="row" class="navbox-list navbox-even navbox-group" style="background: #FEEFD6; width:10em; border-bottom:1px #fff solid;"> Cuisine</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even"> <a href="/wiki/Aztec_cuisine" title="Aztec cuisine">Cuisine</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-even"> <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Maya_cuisine" title="Ancient Maya cuisine">Cuisine</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-even"> <a href="/wiki/Muisca_cuisine" title="Muisca cuisine">Cuisine</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-even"> <a href="/wiki/Inca_cuisine" title="Inca cuisine">Cuisine</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><th scope="row" class="navbox-list navbox-odd navbox-group" style="background: #FEEFD6; width:10em; border-bottom:1px #fff solid;"> History</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"> <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Aztecs" title="History of the Aztecs">History</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"> <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Maya_civilization" title="History of the Maya civilization">History</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"> <a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_the_Muisca" title="Template:History of the Muisca">History</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"> <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Incas" title="History of the Incas">Inca history</a> <a href="/wiki/Neo-Inca_State" title="Neo-Inca State">Neo-Inca State</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><th scope="row" class="navbox-list navbox-even navbox-group" style="background: #FEEFD6; width:10em; border-bottom:1px #fff solid;"> Peoples</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even"> <a href="/wiki/Aztecs" title="Aztecs">Aztecs</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-even"> <a href="/wiki/Maya_peoples" title="Maya peoples">Mayans</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-even"> <a href="/wiki/Muisca" title="Muisca">Muisca</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-even"> <a href="/wiki/Inca_Empire" title="Inca Empire">Incas</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><th scope="row" class="navbox-list navbox-odd navbox-group" style="background: #FEEFD6; width:10em; border-bottom:1px #fff solid;"> Notable Rulers</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"> <a href="/wiki/Moctezuma_I" title="Moctezuma I">Moctezuma I</a> <a href="/wiki/Moctezuma_II" title="Moctezuma II">Moctezuma II</a> <a href="/wiki/Cuitl%C3%A1huac" title="Cuitláhuac">Cuitláhuac</a> <a href="/wiki/Cuauht%C3%A9moc" title="Cuauhtémoc">Cuauhtémoc</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"> <a href="/wiki/K%CA%BCinich_Janaab%CA%BC_Pakal" title="Kʼinich Janaabʼ Pakal">Kʼinich Janaabʼ Pakal</a> <a href="/wiki/Uaxaclajuun_Ub%CA%BCaah_K%CA%BCawiil" title="Uaxaclajuun Ubʼaah Kʼawiil">Uaxaclajuun Ubʼaah Kʼawiil</a> <a href="/wiki/Jasaw_Chan_K%CA%BCawiil_I" title="Jasaw Chan Kʼawiil I">Jasaw Chan Kʼawiil I</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"> <a href="/wiki/Nemequene" title="Nemequene">Nemequene</a> <a href="/wiki/Quemuenchatocha" title="Quemuenchatocha">Quemuenchatocha</a> <a href="/wiki/Tisquesusa" title="Tisquesusa">Tisquesusa</a> <a href="/wiki/Tundama" title="Tundama">Tundama</a> <a href="/wiki/Zoratama" title="Zoratama">Zoratama</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"> <a href="/wiki/Manco_C%C3%A1pac" title="Manco Cápac">Manco Cápac</a> <a href="/wiki/Pachacuti" title="Pachacuti">Pachacuti</a> <a href="/wiki/Atahualpa" title="Atahualpa">Atahualpa</a> <a href="/wiki/Manco_Inca_Yupanqui" title="Manco Inca Yupanqui">Manco Inca Yupanqui</a> <a href="/wiki/T%C3%BApac_Amaru" title="Túpac Amaru">Túpac Amaru</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><th scope="row" class="navbox-list navbox-even navbox-group" style="background: #FEEFD6; width:10em; border-bottom:1px #fff solid;"> Conquest</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even"> <a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Aztec_Empire" title="Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire">Spanish Conquest</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hern%C3%A1n_Cort%C3%A9s" title="Hernán Cortés">Hernán Cortés</a>)</td><td class="navbox-list navbox-even"> <a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Maya" title="Spanish conquest of the Maya">Spanish Conquest</a> <a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Yucat%C3%A1n" title="Spanish conquest of Yucatán">Spanish Conquest of Yucatán</a> (<a href="/wiki/Francisco_de_Montejo" title="Francisco de Montejo">Francisco de Montejo</a>) <a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Guatemala" title="Spanish conquest of Guatemala">Spanish Conquest of Guatemala</a> (<a href="/wiki/Pedro_de_Alvarado" title="Pedro de Alvarado">Pedro de Alvarado</a>)</td><td class="navbox-list navbox-even"> <a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Muisca" title="Spanish conquest of the Muisca">Spanish Conquest</a> (<a href="/wiki/Gonzalo_Jim%C3%A9nez_de_Quesada" title="Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada">Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada</a>) (<a href="/wiki/Hern%C3%A1n_P%C3%A9rez_de_Quesada" title="Hernán Pérez de Quesada">Hernán Pérez de Quesada</a>) (<a href="/wiki/List_of_conquistadors_in_Colombia" title="List of conquistadors in Colombia">List of Conquistadors</a>)</td><td class="navbox-list navbox-even"> <a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Inca_Empire" title="Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire">Spanish Conquest</a> (<a href="/wiki/Francisco_Pizarro" title="Francisco Pizarro">Francisco Pizarro</a>)</td></tr></tbody></table></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background: #FEEFD6;"><div id="See_also235">See also</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Archaeological_sites_in_the_Americas" title="Category:Archaeological sites in the Americas">Category: Archaeological sites in the Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Portal:Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Portal:Indigenous peoples of the Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Mesoamerica" title="Portal:Mesoamerica">Portal:Mesoamerica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceramics_of_Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Ceramics of Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Ceramics of Indigenous peoples of the Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columbian_exchange" title="Columbian exchange">Columbian exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_cuisine_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous cuisine of the Americas">Indigenous cuisine of the Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_writing_systems" title="Mesoamerican writing systems">Mesoamerican writing systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Painting_in_the_Americas_before_European_colonization" title="Painting in the Americas before European colonization">Painting in the Americas before European colonization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_history_of_the_Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Population history of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Population history of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_art" title="Pre-Columbian art">Pre-Columbian art</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background: #FEEFD6;"><div><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Lascar_Avenue_of_the_Dead_and_the_Pyramid_of_the_Sun_in_the_background_%284566574277%29.jpg/32px-Lascar_Avenue_of_the_Dead_and_the_Pyramid_of_the_Sun_in_the_background_%284566574277%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="32" height="24" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Lascar_Avenue_of_the_Dead_and_the_Pyramid_of_the_Sun_in_the_background_%284566574277%29.jpg/48px-Lascar_Avenue_of_the_Dead_and_the_Pyramid_of_the_Sun_in_the_background_%284566574277%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Lascar_Avenue_of_the_Dead_and_the_Pyramid_of_the_Sun_in_the_background_%284566574277%29.jpg/64px-Lascar_Avenue_of_the_Dead_and_the_Pyramid_of_the_Sun_in_the_background_%284566574277%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Civilizations" title="Portal:Civilizations">Civilizations portal</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Indigenous_peoples_of_the_world_by_continent134" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:khaki; padding-top:0.1em;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Indigenous_peoples_by_continent" title="Template:Indigenous peoples by continent"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Indigenous_peoples_by_continent" title="Template talk:Indigenous peoples by continent"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Indigenous_peoples_by_continent" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Indigenous peoples by continent"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Indigenous_peoples_of_the_world_by_continent134" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples" title="Indigenous peoples">Indigenous peoples</a> of the <a href="/wiki/World" title="World">world</a> by <a href="/wiki/Continent" title="Continent">continent</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td class="navbox-list" style="padding:0px;text-align:center;width:17%;"><div> <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_Africa" title="Location of Africa"><img alt="Location of Africa" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Africa_in_the_world_%28red%29_%28W3%29.svg/80px-Africa_in_the_world_%28red%29_%28W3%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="49" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Africa_in_the_world_%28red%29_%28W3%29.svg/120px-Africa_in_the_world_%28red%29_%28W3%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Africa_in_the_world_%28red%29_%28W3%29.svg/160px-Africa_in_the_world_%28red%29_%28W3%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="3188" data-file-height="1948" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_Africa" title="Indigenous peoples of Africa">Africa</a> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;text-align:center;width:17%;"><div> <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_Eurasia" title="Location of Eurasia"><img alt="Location of Eurasia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Eurasia_in_the_world_%28red%29_%28W3%29.svg/80px-Eurasia_in_the_world_%28red%29_%28W3%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="49" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Eurasia_in_the_world_%28red%29_%28W3%29.svg/120px-Eurasia_in_the_world_%28red%29_%28W3%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Eurasia_in_the_world_%28red%29_%28W3%29.svg/160px-Eurasia_in_the_world_%28red%29_%28W3%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="3188" data-file-height="1948" /></a> <a href="/wiki/List_of_indigenous_peoples#Eurasia" class="mw-redirect" title="List of indigenous peoples">Eurasia</a> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;text-align:center;width:17%;"><div> <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_North_America" title="Location of North America"><img alt="Location of North America" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/North_America_in_the_world_%28red%29_%28W3%29.svg/80px-North_America_in_the_world_%28red%29_%28W3%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="49" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/North_America_in_the_world_%28red%29_%28W3%29.svg/120px-North_America_in_the_world_%28red%29_%28W3%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/North_America_in_the_world_%28red%29_%28W3%29.svg/160px-North_America_in_the_world_%28red%29_%28W3%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="3188" data-file-height="1948" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas#North_America" title="Indigenous peoples of the Americas">North America</a> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;text-align:center;width:17%;"><div> <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_Oceania" title="Location of Oceania"><img alt="Location of Oceania" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Oceania_in_the_world_%28red%29_%28W3%29.svg/80px-Oceania_in_the_world_%28red%29_%28W3%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="49" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Oceania_in_the_world_%28red%29_%28W3%29.svg/120px-Oceania_in_the_world_%28red%29_%28W3%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Oceania_in_the_world_%28red%29_%28W3%29.svg/160px-Oceania_in_the_world_%28red%29_%28W3%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="3188" data-file-height="1948" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_Oceania" title="Indigenous peoples of Oceania">Oceania</a> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;text-align:center;width:17%;"><div> <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_South_America" title="Location of South America"><img alt="Location of South America" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/South_America_in_the_world_%28red%29_%28W3%29.svg/80px-South_America_in_the_world_%28red%29_%28W3%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="49" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/South_America_in_the_world_%28red%29_%28W3%29.svg/120px-South_America_in_the_world_%28red%29_%28W3%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/South_America_in_the_world_%28red%29_%28W3%29.svg/160px-South_America_in_the_world_%28red%29_%28W3%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="3188" data-file-height="1948" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_South_America" title="Indigenous peoples of South America">South America</a> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background:khaki;"><div> <a href="/wiki/List_of_indigenous_peoples" class="mw-redirect" title="List of indigenous peoples">Indigenous peoples by geographic regions</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Caribbean_articles451" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Caribbean_topics" title="Template:Caribbean topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Caribbean_topics" title="Template talk:Caribbean topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Caribbean_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Caribbean topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Caribbean_articles451" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Caribbean" title="Caribbean">Caribbean</a> articles</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Caribbean" title="History of the Caribbean">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.5em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Timeline</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_West_Indies" title="Spanish West Indies">Spanish Caribbean (1492–1898)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piracy_in_the_Caribbean" title="Piracy in the Caribbean">Piracy</a> (1500s–1830)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Netherlands_Antilles" title="Netherlands Antilles">Dutch Caribbean (1554–1863)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_British_West_Indies" title="History of the British West Indies">British Caribbean (1586–1834)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_West_Indies" title="French West Indies">French Caribbean (1625–1817)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Curonian_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Curonian colonization of the Americas">Baltic-German Caribbean (1654–1689)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_West_Indies" title="Danish West Indies">Danish Caribbean (1672–1917)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Thomas_(Brandenburg_colony)" title="Saint Thomas (Brandenburg colony)">German Caribbean (1685–1693)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_colony_of_Saint_Barth%C3%A9lemy" title="Swedish colony of Saint Barthélemy">Swedish Caribbean (1784–1878)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.5em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">By topic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afro-Caribbean_history" title="Afro-Caribbean history">Afro-Caribbean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caribbean_Court_of_Justice" title="Caribbean Court of Justice">Caribbean Court of Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Caribbean" title="Indigenous peoples of the Caribbean">Indigenous people</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Taíno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arawak" title="Arawak">Arawak</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impact_of_hurricanes_on_Caribbean_history" title="Impact of hurricanes on Caribbean history">Hurricanes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Influx_of_disease_in_the_Caribbean" title="Influx of disease in the Caribbean">Influx of diseases</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Malaria_and_the_Caribbean" class="mw-redirect" title="Malaria and the Caribbean">Malaria</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Territorial_evolution_of_the_Caribbean" title="Territorial evolution of the Caribbean">Territorial evolution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Caribbean#Geography_and_geology" title="Caribbean">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.5em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Regions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antilles" title="Antilles">Antilles</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Antilles" title="Greater Antilles">Greater Antilles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lesser_Antilles" title="Lesser Antilles">Lesser Antilles</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Leeward_Islands" title="Leeward Islands">Leeward Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leeward_Antilles" title="Leeward Antilles">Leeward Antilles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Windward_Islands" title="Windward Islands">Windward Islands</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caribbean_Lowlands" title="Caribbean Lowlands">Caribbean Lowlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caribbean_Plate" class="mw-redirect" title="Caribbean Plate">Caribbean Plate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caribbean_Sea" title="Caribbean Sea">Caribbean Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caribbean_South_America" title="Caribbean South America">Caribbean South America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_America_and_the_Caribbean" title="Latin America and the Caribbean">Latin America and the Caribbean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Caribbean" title="Southern Caribbean">Southern Caribbean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Caribbean_zone" title="Western Caribbean zone">Western Caribbean zone</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.5em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">By topic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Caribbean_bioregion" title="Caribbean bioregion">Bioregion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_earthquakes_in_the_Caribbean" title="List of earthquakes in the Caribbean">Earthquakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extreme_points_of_the_Caribbean" title="Extreme points of the Caribbean">Extreme points</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Caribbean_islands" title="List of Caribbean islands">Islands</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_Caribbean_islands_by_area" title="List of Caribbean islands by area">by area</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mammals_of_the_Caribbean" title="Mammals of the Caribbean">Mammals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cetaceans_of_the_Caribbean" title="Cetaceans of the Caribbean">Cetaceans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_metropolitan_areas_in_the_West_Indies" class="mw-redirect" title="List of metropolitan areas in the West Indies">Metropolitan areas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mountain_peaks_of_the_Caribbean" title="List of mountain peaks of the Caribbean">Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_populated_places_in_the_Caribbean" title="List of populated places in the Caribbean">Populated places</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_Central_America_and_the_Caribbean" title="List of rivers of Central America and the Caribbean">Rivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_trees_of_the_Caribbean" title="List of trees of the Caribbean">Trees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Ultras_of_the_Caribbean" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Ultras of the Caribbean">Ultras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_sovereign_states_and_dependent_territories_in_the_West_Indies#Sovereign_states" class="mw-redirect" title="List of sovereign states and dependent territories in the West Indies">Sovereign states</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_sovereign_states_and_dependent_territories_in_the_West_Indies#Dependent_territories" class="mw-redirect" title="List of sovereign states and dependent territories in the West Indies">Dependent territories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_Heritage_Sites_in_the_Caribbean" title="List of World Heritage Sites in the Caribbean">World Heritage Sites</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Caribbean#Politics" title="Caribbean">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_Latin_America_and_the_Caribbean" title="Democracy in Latin America and the Caribbean">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afro-Caribbean_leftism" title="Afro-Caribbean leftism">Afro-Caribbean leftism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Association_of_Caribbean_States" title="Association of Caribbean States">Association of Caribbean States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caribbean_Community" title="Caribbean Community">Caribbean Community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CARIFORUM" title="CARIFORUM">CARIFORUM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organisation_of_Eastern_Caribbean_States" title="Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States">Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_Caribbean" title="Economy of the Caribbean">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_airlines_in_Central_America_and_the_Caribbean" title="List of largest airlines in Central America and the Caribbean">Airlines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_airports_in_the_Caribbean" title="List of airports in the Caribbean">Airports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caribbean_Basin_Trade_and_Partnership_Act" title="Caribbean Basin Trade and Partnership Act">Caribbean Basin Trade and Partnership Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caribbean_Development_Bank" title="Caribbean Development Bank">Caribbean Development Bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_banks_and_currencies_of_the_Caribbean" title="Central banks and currencies of the Caribbean">Central banks and currencies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Citrus_industry_in_the_Caribbean" title="Citrus industry in the Caribbean">Citrus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Caribbean_companies" title="List of Caribbean companies">Companies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fishing_industry_in_the_Caribbean" title="Fishing industry in the Caribbean">Fishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_hotels_in_the_Caribbean" title="List of hotels in the Caribbean">Hotels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_stock_exchanges_in_the_Americas" title="List of stock exchanges in the Americas">Stock exchanges</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Caribbean_Securities_Exchange" title="Eastern Caribbean Securities Exchange">Eastern Caribbean Securities Exchange</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sugar_plantations_in_the_Caribbean" title="Sugar plantations in the Caribbean">Sugar</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cuban_sugar_economy" class="mw-redirect" title="Cuban sugar economy">in Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sugar_production_in_the_Danish_West_Indies" title="Sugar production in the Danish West Indies">in the Danish West Indies</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_the_Caribbean" class="mw-redirect" title="Tourism in the Caribbean">Tourism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_the_Caribbean" title="Culture of the Caribbean">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Caribbean_art" title="Caribbean art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beer_in_the_Caribbean" title="Beer in the Caribbean">Beer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caribbean_people" title="Caribbean people">Caribbean people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Caribbean_carnivals_around_the_world#Local_Caribbean_Carnivals" title="List of Caribbean carnivals around the world">Carnivals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caribbean_cuisine" title="Caribbean cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caribbean_literature" title="Caribbean literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Caribbean_music_genres" title="List of Caribbean music genres">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caribbean_poetry" title="Caribbean poetry">Poetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Radio_stations_in_the_Caribbean_by_country" title="Category:Radio stations in the Caribbean by country">Radio stations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sport_in_the_Caribbean" class="mw-redirect" title="Sport in the Caribbean">Sport</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_American_and_Caribbean_Games" title="Central American and Caribbean Games">Central American and Caribbean Games</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_stadiums_in_Central_America_and_the_Caribbean" title="List of stadiums in Central America and the Caribbean">Stadiums</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_television_stations_in_the_Caribbean" title="List of television stations in the Caribbean">Television stations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_the_Caribbean" class="mw-redirect" title="Demographics of the Caribbean">Demographics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_the_Caribbean" title="Languages of the Caribbean">Languages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Arawakan_languages_of_the_Greater_Antilles" title="Pre-Arawakan languages of the Greater Antilles">Pre-Arawakan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Caribbean_countries_by_population" title="List of Caribbean countries by population">Population</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Religion_in_the_Caribbean" title="Category:Religion in the Caribbean">Religions</a></li></ul> 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