CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>Second Sino-Japanese War - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy", "wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"47946e2f-726d-4ffb-88bd-c16d853f7916","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"Second_Sino-Japanese_War","wgTitle":"Second Sino-Japanese War","wgCurRevisionId":1259840655,"wgRevisionId":1259840655,"wgArticleId":69980,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["CS1 uses Chinese-language script (zh)","CS1 Chinese-language sources (zh)","Webarchive template wayback links","CS1 Japanese-language sources (ja)","All articles with dead external links","Articles with dead external links from January 2016","Articles with dead external links from December 2021","Articles with permanently dead external links","CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list","CS1: long volume value","Articles with dead external links from August 2018", "Articles with short description","Short description is different from Wikidata","Use dmy dates from October 2020","Pages using multiple image with auto scaled images","Articles containing Chinese-language text","Articles using infobox templates with no data rows","Articles containing Japanese-language text","Articles containing simplified Chinese-language text","Articles containing traditional Chinese-language text","Wikipedia articles needing factual verification from January 2022","All articles with unsourced statements","Articles with unsourced statements from November 2018","Articles with excerpts","Articles needing additional references from October 2023","All articles needing additional references","Articles with unsourced statements from October 2023","Articles with unsourced statements from May 2024","Articles with unsourced statements from December 2020","Articles with unsourced statements from October 2019","Articles with unsourced statements from November 2015", "Articles with unsourced statements from November 2019","CS1 French-language sources (fr)","Commons category link from Wikidata","Articles containing video clips","Second Sino-Japanese War","Wars involving Japan","Wars involving the Republic of China","Anti-Chinese violence in Asia","Anti-Japanese sentiment in China","China–Japan military relations","Invasions by Japan","Military history of China during World War II","Military history of the Republic of China (1912–1949)","Pacific War","Tunnel warfare","1930s in China","1940s in China","Invasions of China","1930s in Japan","1940s in Japan","1940s in Vietnam","1930s conflicts","1940s conflicts","Campaigns of World War II","Interwar period","China–Japan relations","Sino-Japanese Wars"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"Second_Sino-Japanese_War","wgRelevantArticleId":69980,"wgIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRestrictionEdit" :[],"wgRestrictionMove":[],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":200000,"wgRelatedArticlesCompat":[],"wgCentralAuthMobileDomain":false,"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q170314","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false, "wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","ext.tmh.player.styles":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["ext.cite.ux-enhancements","mediawiki.page.media","ext.tmh.player","ext.scribunto.logs","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar", "ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions","wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.quicksurveys.init","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession","wikibase.sidebar.tracking"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.tmh.player.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.4"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/39/Japanese_Special_Naval_Landing_Forces_in_Battle_of_Shanghai_1937.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="1200"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="955"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Japanese_Special_Naval_Landing_Forces_in_Battle_of_Shanghai_1937.jpg/800px-Japanese_Special_Naval_Landing_Forces_in_Battle_of_Shanghai_1937.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="800"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="637"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Japanese_Special_Naval_Landing_Forces_in_Battle_of_Shanghai_1937.jpg/640px-Japanese_Special_Naval_Landing_Forces_in_Battle_of_Shanghai_1937.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="640"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="509"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="Second Sino-Japanese War - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/x-wiki" title="Edit this page" href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Sino-Japanese_War&action=edit"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject mw-editable page-Second_Sino-Japanese_War rootpage-Second_Sino-Japanese_War skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Main menu </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z">Main page</a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia">Contents</a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events">Current events</a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x">Random article</a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works">About Wikipedia</a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia">Contact us</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia">Help</a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia">Learn to edit</a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors">Community portal</a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r">Recent changes</a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia">Upload file</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"> Search </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Appearance </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class="">Donate</a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Second+Sino-Japanese+War" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class="">Create account</a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Second+Sino-Japanese+War" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class="">Log in</a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Personal tools </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en">Donate</a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Second+Sino-Japanese+War" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"> Create account</a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Second+Sino-Japanese+War" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"> Log in</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing">learn more</a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y">Contributions</a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n">Talk</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Names" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Names"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1 Names </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Names-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Names subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Names-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Other_names" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_names"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.1 Other names </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_names-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Background" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Background"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Background </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Background-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Background subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Background-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Previous_war" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Previous_war"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Previous war </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Previous_war-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Warlords_in_the_Republic_of_China" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Warlords_in_the_Republic_of_China"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Warlords in the Republic of China </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Warlords_in_the_Republic_of_China-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Twenty-One_Demands" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Twenty-One_Demands"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Twenty-One Demands </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Twenty-One_Demands-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Jinan_incident" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jinan_incident"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 Jinan incident </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jinan_incident-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reunification_of_China_(1928)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reunification_of_China_(1928)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5 Reunification of China (1928) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reunification_of_China_(1928)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1929_Sino-Soviet_war" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1929_Sino-Soviet_war"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.6 1929 Sino-Soviet war </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1929_Sino-Soviet_war-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chinese_Communist_Party" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chinese_Communist_Party"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.7 Chinese Communist Party </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chinese_Communist_Party-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prelude:_invasion_of_Manchuria_and_Northern_China" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prelude:_invasion_of_Manchuria_and_Northern_China"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Prelude: invasion of Manchuria and Northern China </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prelude:_invasion_of_Manchuria_and_Northern_China-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1937:_Full-scale_invasion_of_China" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1937:_Full-scale_invasion_of_China"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 1937: Full-scale invasion of China </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-1937:_Full-scale_invasion_of_China-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle 1937: Full-scale invasion of China subsection </button> <ul id="toc-1937:_Full-scale_invasion_of_China-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Battle_of_Beiping–Tianjin" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Battle_of_Beiping–Tianjin"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Battle of Beiping–Tianjin </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Battle_of_Beiping–Tianjin-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Battle_of_Shanghai" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Battle_of_Shanghai"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Battle of Shanghai </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Battle_of_Shanghai-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Battle_of_Nanjing_and_massacre" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Battle_of_Nanjing_and_massacre"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Battle of Nanjing and massacre </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Battle_of_Nanjing_and_massacre-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1938" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1938"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 1938 </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-1938-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle 1938 subsection </button> <ul id="toc-1938-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Battles_of_Xuzhou_and_Taierzhuang" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Battles_of_Xuzhou_and_Taierzhuang"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Battles of Xuzhou and Taierzhuang </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Battles_of_Xuzhou_and_Taierzhuang-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Battle_of_Wuhan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Battle_of_Wuhan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Battle of Wuhan </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Battle_of_Wuhan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Communist_resistance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Communist_resistance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Communist resistance </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Communist_resistance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Yellow_River_flood" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Yellow_River_flood"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4 Yellow River flood </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Yellow_River_flood-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1939–1940:_Chinese_counterattack_and_stalemate" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1939–1940:_Chinese_counterattack_and_stalemate"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 1939–1940: Chinese counterattack and stalemate </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-1939–1940:_Chinese_counterattack_and_stalemate-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle 1939–1940: Chinese counterattack and stalemate subsection </button> <ul id="toc-1939–1940:_Chinese_counterattack_and_stalemate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Japanese_expansion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Japanese_expansion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Japanese expansion </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Japanese_expansion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chinese_resistance_strategy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chinese_resistance_strategy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Chinese resistance strategy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chinese_resistance_strategy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Second_phase:_October_1938_–_December_1941" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Second_phase:_October_1938_–_December_1941"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 Second phase: October 1938 – December 1941 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Second_phase:_October_1938_–_December_1941-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Relationship_between_the_Nationalists_and_the_Communists" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Relationship_between_the_Nationalists_and_the_Communists"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4 Relationship between the Nationalists and the Communists </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Relationship_between_the_Nationalists_and_the_Communists-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Entrance_of_the_Western_Allies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Entrance_of_the_Western_Allies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.5 Entrance of the Western Allies </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Entrance_of_the_Western_Allies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Operation_Ichi-Go" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Operation_Ichi-Go"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.6 Operation Ichi-Go </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Operation_Ichi-Go-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chinese_industrial_base_and_the_CIC" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chinese_industrial_base_and_the_CIC"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Chinese industrial base and the CIC </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chinese_industrial_base_and_the_CIC-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Foreign_aid" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Foreign_aid"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Foreign aid </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Foreign_aid-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Foreign aid subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Foreign_aid-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Overseas_Chinese" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Overseas_Chinese"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Overseas Chinese </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Overseas_Chinese-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-German" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#German"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2 German </div> </a> <ul id="toc-German-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Soviet" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Soviet"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.3 Soviet </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Soviet-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Western_allies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Western_allies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.4 Western allies </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Western_allies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.4.1 United States </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_Kingdom" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_Kingdom"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.4.2 United Kingdom </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_Kingdom-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-French_Indochina" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#French_Indochina"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 French Indochina </div> </a> <ul id="toc-French_Indochina-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Central_Asian_rebellions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Central_Asian_rebellions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Central Asian rebellions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Central_Asian_rebellions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ethnic_minorities" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ethnic_minorities"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Ethnic minorities </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Ethnic_minorities-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Ethnic minorities subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Ethnic_minorities-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Hui_Muslims" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hui_Muslims"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.1 Hui Muslims </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hui_Muslims-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conclusion_and_aftermath" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conclusion_and_aftermath"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 Conclusion and aftermath </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Conclusion_and_aftermath-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Conclusion and aftermath subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Conclusion_and_aftermath-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-End_of_the_Pacific_War_and_the_surrender_of_Japanese_troops_in_China" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#End_of_the_Pacific_War_and_the_surrender_of_Japanese_troops_in_China"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.1 End of the Pacific War and the surrender of Japanese troops in China </div> </a> <ul id="toc-End_of_the_Pacific_War_and_the_surrender_of_Japanese_troops_in_China-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Post-war_struggle_and_resumption_of_the_civil_war" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Post-war_struggle_and_resumption_of_the_civil_war"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.2 Post-war struggle and resumption of the civil war </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Post-war_struggle_and_resumption_of_the_civil_war-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aftermath" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aftermath"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.3 Aftermath </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aftermath-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 Legacy </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Legacy subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-China-Japan_relations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#China-Japan_relations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13.1 China-Japan relations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-China-Japan_relations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Taiwan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Taiwan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13.2 Taiwan </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Taiwan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Japanese_women_left_in_China" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Japanese_women_left_in_China"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13.3 Japanese women left in China </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Japanese_women_left_in_China-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Korean_women_left_in_China" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Korean_women_left_in_China"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13.4 Korean women left in China </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Korean_women_left_in_China-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Commemorations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Commemorations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13.5 Commemorations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Commemorations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Casualties" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Casualties"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 Casualties </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Casualties-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Casualties subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Casualties-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Chinese" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chinese"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14.1 Chinese </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chinese-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Japanese" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Japanese"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14.2 Japanese </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Japanese-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Use_of_chemical_and_biological_weapons" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Use_of_chemical_and_biological_weapons"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14.3 Use of chemical and biological weapons </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Use_of_chemical_and_biological_weapons-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Use_of_suicide_attacks" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Use_of_suicide_attacks"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14.4 Use of suicide attacks </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Use_of_suicide_attacks-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Combatants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Combatants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15 Combatants </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Combatants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 16 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 17 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 18 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 18.1 Citations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 18.2 Bibliography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 19 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Second Sino-Japanese War</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 77 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-77" aria-hidden="true" > 77 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tweede_Chinees-Japannese_Oorlog" title="Tweede Chinees-Japannese Oorlog – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Tweede Chinees-Japannese Oorlog" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%B1%D8%A8_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B5%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AB%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="الحرب اليابانية الصينية الثانية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="الحرب اليابانية الصينية الثانية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Segunda_guerra_sino-xaponesa" title="Segunda guerra sino-xaponesa – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Segunda guerra sino-xaponesa" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0kinci_%C3%87in%E2%80%93Yaponiya_m%C3%BCharib%C9%99si" title="İkinci Çin–Yaponiya müharibəsi – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="İkinci Çin–Yaponiya müharibəsi" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%86%DB%8C%D9%86-%DA%98%D8%A7%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%86_%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B4%DB%8C_(%DB%B1%DB%B9%DB%B3%DB%B7%E2%80%94%DB%B1%DB%B9%DB%B4%DB%B5)" title="چین-ژاپون ساواشی (۱۹۳۷—۱۹۴۵) – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="چین-ژاپون ساواشی (۱۹۳۷—۱۹۴۵)" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC_%E0%A6%9A%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%A8-%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8_%E0%A6%AF%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A7" title="দ্বিতীয় চীন-জাপান যুদ্ধ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="দ্বিতীয় চীন-জাপান যুদ্ধ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiong-Ji%CC%8Dt_Chi%C3%A0n-cheng" title="Tiong-Ji̍t Chiàn-cheng – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Tiong-Ji̍t Chiàn-cheng" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%8F%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0-%D0%BA%D1%96%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0_(1937%E2%80%941945)" title="Другая япона-кітайская вайна (1937—1945) – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Другая япона-кітайская вайна (1937—1945)" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B0_%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE-%D1%8F%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Втора китайско-японска война – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Втора китайско-японска война" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drugi_japansko-kineski_rat" title="Drugi japansko-kineski rat – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Drugi japansko-kineski rat" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brezel_Sina_ha_Japan_(1937-1945)" title="Brezel Sina ha Japan (1937-1945) – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Brezel Sina ha Japan (1937-1945)" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Segona_Guerra_sino-japonesa" title="Segona Guerra sino-japonesa – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Segona Guerra sino-japonesa" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Druh%C3%A1_%C4%8D%C3%ADnsko-japonsk%C3%A1_v%C3%A1lka" title="Druhá čínsko-japonská válka – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Druhá čínsko-japonská válka" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/2._kinesisk-japanske_krig" title="2. kinesisk-japanske krig – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="2. kinesisk-japanske krig" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zweiter_Japanisch-Chinesischer_Krieg" title="Zweiter Japanisch-Chinesischer Krieg – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Zweiter Japanisch-Chinesischer Krieg" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teine_Hiina-Jaapani_s%C3%B5da" title="Teine Hiina-Jaapani sõda – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Teine Hiina-Jaapani sõda" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%92%CE%84_%CE%A3%CE%B9%CE%BD%CE%BF%CF%8A%CE%B1%CF%80%CF%89%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C%CF%82_%CE%A0%CF%8C%CE%BB%CE%B5%CE%BC%CE%BF%CF%82" title="Β΄ Σινοϊαπωνικός Πόλεμος – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Β΄ Σινοϊαπωνικός Πόλεμος" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Segunda_guerra_sino-japonesa" title="Segunda guerra sino-japonesa – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Segunda guerra sino-japonesa" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dua_japana-%C4%89ina_milito" title="Dua japana-ĉina milito – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Dua japana-ĉina milito" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bigarren_Txina-Japonia_Gerra" title="Bigarren Txina-Japonia Gerra – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Bigarren Txina-Japonia Gerra" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%86%DA%AF_%D8%AF%D9%88%D9%85_%DA%86%DB%8C%D9%86_%D9%88_%DA%98%D8%A7%D9%BE%D9%86" title="جنگ دوم چین و ژاپن – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="جنگ دوم چین و ژاپن" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seconde_guerre_sino-japonaise" title="Seconde guerre sino-japonaise – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Seconde guerre sino-japonaise" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan mw-list-item"><a href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E5%9C%8B%E6%8A%97%E6%97%A5%E6%88%B0%E7%88%AD" title="中國抗日戰爭 – Gan" lang="gan" hreflang="gan" data-title="中國抗日戰爭" data-language-autonym="贛語" data-language-local-name="Gan" class="interlanguage-link-target">贛語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%C3%BBng-koet_Khong-ngit_Chan-ch%C3%AAn" title="Chûng-koet Khong-ngit Chan-chên – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Chûng-koet Khong-ngit Chan-chên" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A4%91%EC%9D%BC_%EC%A0%84%EC%9F%81" title="중일 전쟁 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="중일 전쟁" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF_%E0%A4%9A%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A8-%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7" title="द्वितीय चीन-जापान युद्ध – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="द्वितीय चीन-जापान युद्ध" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drugi_kinesko-japanski_rat" title="Drugi kinesko-japanski rat – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Drugi kinesko-japanski rat" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duesma_milito_Chiniana-Japoniana" title="Duesma milito Chiniana-Japoniana – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Duesma milito Chiniana-Japoniana" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perang_Tiongkok%E2%80%93Jepang_Kedua" title="Perang Tiongkok–Jepang Kedua – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Perang Tiongkok–Jepang Kedua" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seinna_str%C3%AD%C3%B0_K%C3%ADna_og_Japans" title="Seinna stríð Kína og Japans – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Seinna stríð Kína og Japans" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seconda_guerra_sino-giapponese" title="Seconda guerra sino-giapponese – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Seconda guerra sino-giapponese" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%9C%D7%97%D7%9E%D7%AA_%D7%A1%D7%99%D7%9F%E2%80%93%D7%99%D7%A4%D7%9F_%D7%94%D7%A9%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%99%D7%94" title="מלחמת סין–יפן השנייה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מלחמת סין–יפן השנייה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perang_Tiongkok-Jepang_Kapindho" title="Perang Tiongkok-Jepang Kapindho – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Perang Tiongkok-Jepang Kapindho" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%98%E1%83%90%E1%83%9E%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%90-%E1%83%A9%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94%E1%83%97%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%9B%E1%83%94%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94_%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98" title="იაპონია-ჩინეთის მეორე ომი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="იაპონია-ჩინეთის მეორე ომი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secundum_Bellum_Sino-Iaponense" title="Secundum Bellum Sino-Iaponense – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Secundum Bellum Sino-Iaponense" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otrais_%C4%B6%C4%ABnas%E2%80%94Jap%C4%81nas_kar%C5%A1" title="Otrais Ķīnas—Japānas karš – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Otrais Ķīnas—Japānas karš" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antrasis_Kinijos%E2%80%93Japonijos_karas" title="Antrasis Kinijos–Japonijos karas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Antrasis Kinijos–Japonijos karas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A1sodik_k%C3%ADnai%E2%80%93jap%C3%A1n_h%C3%A1bor%C3%BA" title="Második kínai–japán háború – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Második kínai–japán háború" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B0_%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE-%D1%98%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%98%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Втора кинеско-јапонска војна – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Втора кинеско-јапонска војна" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%A3%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%9F%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%82_%E0%B4%9A%E0%B5%80%E0%B4%A8-%E0%B4%9C%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AA%E0%B4%BE%E0%B5%BB_%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%A6%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A7%E0%B4%82" title="രണ്ടാം ചീന-ജപ്പാൻ യുദ്ധം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="രണ്ടാം ചീന-ജപ്പാൻ യുദ്ധം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%87_%E0%A4%9A%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A8-%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7" title="दुसरे चीन-जपान युद्ध – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="दुसरे चीन-जपान युद्ध" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%98%E1%83%90%E1%83%9E%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%90-%E1%83%A9%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94%E1%83%97%E1%83%98%E1%83%A8_%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%9F%E1%83%98%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90_%E1%83%9A%E1%83%B7%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90" title="იაპონია-ჩინეთიშ მაჟირა ლჷმა – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="იაპონია-ჩინეთიშ მაჟირა ლჷმა" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perang_China-Jepun_Kedua" title="Perang China-Jepun Kedua – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Perang China-Jepun Kedua" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%E1%B9%B3%CC%86ng-gu%C3%B3k_K%C3%A1ung-n%C4%ADk_Ci%C3%A9ng-c%C4%95ng" title="Dṳ̆ng-guók Káung-nĭk Ciéng-cĕng – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Dṳ̆ng-guók Káung-nĭk Ciéng-cĕng" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B4-%D0%AF%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%8B_%D1%85%D0%BE%D1%91%D1%80%D0%B4%D1%83%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%B0%D1%80_%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BD" title="Хятад-Японы хоёрдугаар дайн – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Хятад-Японы хоёрдугаар дайн" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%92%E1%80%AF%E1%80%90%E1%80%AD%E1%80%9A_%E1%80%90%E1%80%9B%E1%80%AF%E1%80%90%E1%80%BA-%E1%80%82%E1%80%BB%E1%80%95%E1%80%94%E1%80%BA%E1%80%85%E1%80%85%E1%80%BA%E1%80%95%E1%80%BD%E1%80%B2" title="ဒုတိယ တရုတ်-ဂျပန်စစ်ပွဲ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ဒုတိယ တရုတ်-ဂျပန်စစ်ပွဲ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tweede_Chinees-Japanse_Oorlog" title="Tweede Chinees-Japanse Oorlog – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Tweede Chinees-Japanse Oorlog" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8B_%E0%A4%9A%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A8-%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7" title="दोस्रो चीन-जापानी युद्ध – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="दोस्रो चीन-जापानी युद्ध" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%97%A5%E4%B8%AD%E6%88%A6%E4%BA%89" title="日中戦争 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="日中戦争" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andre_kinesisk-japanske_krig" title="Andre kinesisk-japanske krig – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Andre kinesisk-japanske krig" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%A6%E0%A9%82%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%BE_%E0%A8%9A%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%A8-%E0%A8%9C%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%AA%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%A8_%E0%A8%AF%E0%A9%81%E0%A9%B1%E0%A8%A7" title="ਦੂਸਰਾ ਚੀਨ-ਜਾਪਾਨ ਯੁੱਧ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਦੂਸਰਾ ਚੀਨ-ਜਾਪਾਨ ਯੁੱਧ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%B3%D8%B1%DB%8C_%DA%86%DB%8C%D9%86_%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%BE%D8%A7%D9%86_%D9%84%DA%91%D8%A7%D8%A6%DB%8C" title="دوسری چین جاپان لڑائی – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="دوسری چین جاپان لڑائی" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%DA%86%DB%8C%D9%86-%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%BE%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%AF%D9%88%DB%8C%D9%85%D9%87_%D8%AC%DA%AB%DA%93%D9%87" title="د چین-جاپان دویمه جګړه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د چین-جاپان دویمه جګړه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wojna_chi%C5%84sko-japo%C5%84ska_(1937%E2%80%931945)" title="Wojna chińsko-japońska (1937–1945) – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Wojna chińsko-japońska (1937–1945)" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Segunda_Guerra_Sino-Japonesa" title="Segunda Guerra Sino-Japonesa – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Segunda Guerra Sino-Japonesa" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al_Doilea_R%C4%83zboi_Sino-Japonez" title="Al Doilea Război Sino-Japonez – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Al Doilea Război Sino-Japonez" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AF%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE-%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0_(1937%E2%80%941945)" title="Японо-китайская война (1937—1945) – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Японо-китайская война (1937—1945)" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BA%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%81_%D0%9A%D1%8B%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B9-%D0%94%D1%8C%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D1%81%D1%8D%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%8D" title="Иккис Кытай-Дьоппуон сэриитэ – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Иккис Кытай-Дьоппуон сэриитэ" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target">Саха тыла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Second Sino-Japanese War – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Second Sino-Japanese War" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Druh%C3%A1_%C4%8D%C3%ADnsko-japonsk%C3%A1_vojna" title="Druhá čínsko-japonská vojna – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Druhá čínsko-japonská vojna" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Druga_kitajsko-japonska_vojna" title="Druga kitajsko-japonska vojna – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Druga kitajsko-japonska vojna" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dagaalki_Jabaan_iyo_Shiniha" title="Dagaalki Jabaan iyo Shiniha – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Dagaalki Jabaan iyo Shiniha" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target">Soomaaliga</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B3%D0%B8_%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE-%D1%98%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82" title="Други кинеско-јапански рат – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Други кинеско-јапански рат" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drugi_kinesko-japanski_rat" title="Drugi kinesko-japanski rat – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Drugi kinesko-japanski rat" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiinan%E2%80%93Japanin_sota_(1937%E2%80%931945)" title="Kiinan–Japanin sota (1937–1945) – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Kiinan–Japanin sota (1937–1945)" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andra_kinesisk-japanska_kriget" title="Andra kinesisk-japanska kriget – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Andra kinesisk-japanska kriget" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ikalawang_Digmaang_Sino-Hapones" title="Ikalawang Digmaang Sino-Hapones – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Ikalawang Digmaang Sino-Hapones" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%87%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%80%E0%AE%A9-%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%A9%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8B%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D" title="இரண்டாம் சீன-சப்பானியப் போர் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="இரண்டாம் சீன-சப்பானியப் போர்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%88%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%99%E2%80%93%E0%B8%8D%E0%B8%B5%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%B8%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B1%E0%B9%89%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%B5%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%87" title="สงครามจีน–ญี่ปุ่นครั้งที่สอง – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="สงครามจีน–ญี่ปุ่นครั้งที่สอง" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0kinci_%C3%87in-Japon_Sava%C5%9F%C4%B1" title="İkinci Çin-Japon Savaşı – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="İkinci Çin-Japon Savaşı" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AF%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%BE-%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B9%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B2%D1%96%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0_(1937%E2%80%941945)" title="Японсько-китайська війна (1937—1945) – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Японсько-китайська війна (1937—1945)" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%B3%D8%B1%DB%8C_%DA%86%DB%8C%D9%86-%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%BE%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C_%D8%AC%D9%86%DA%AF" title="دوسری چین-جاپانی جنگ – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="دوسری چین-جاپانی جنگ" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chi%E1%BA%BFn_tranh_Trung_%E2%80%93_Nh%E1%BA%ADt" title="Chiến tranh Trung – Nhật – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Chiến tranh Trung – Nhật" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%8A%97%E6%88%B0" title="抗戰 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="抗戰" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">文言</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E6%8A%97%E6%97%A5%E6%88%98%E4%BA%89" title="中国抗日战争 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="中国抗日战争" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%8A%97%E6%97%A5%E6%88%B0%E7%88%AD" title="抗日戰爭 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="抗日戰爭" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E6%8A%97%E6%97%A5%E6%88%98%E4%BA%89" title="中国抗日战争 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="中国抗日战争" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q170314#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c">Article</a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Second_Sino-Japanese_War" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t">Talk</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" >English </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War">Read</a></li><li id="ca-edit" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Sino-Japanese_War&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e">Edit</a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Sino-Japanese_War&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h">View history</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" >Tools </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War">Read</a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Sino-Japanese_War&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e">Edit</a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Sino-Japanese_War&action=history">View history</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j">What links here</a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Second_Sino-Japanese_War" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k">Related changes</a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u">Upload file</a></li><li id="t-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages" title="A list of all special pages [q]" accesskey="q">Special pages</a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Sino-Japanese_War&oldid=1259840655" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page">Permanent link</a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Sino-Japanese_War&action=info" title="More information about this page">Page information</a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=Second_Sino-Japanese_War&id=1259840655&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page">Cite this page</a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FSecond_Sino-Japanese_War">Get shortened URL</a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FSecond_Sino-Japanese_War">Download QR code</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=Second_Sino-Japanese_War&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file">Download as PDF</a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Sino-Japanese_War&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p">Printable version</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-commons mw-list-item"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War" hreflang="en">Wikimedia Commons</a></li><li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikivoyage mw-list-item"><a href="https://en.wikivoyage.org/wiki/World_War_II_in_China" hreflang="en">Wikivoyage</a></li><li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q170314" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g">Wikidata item</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">1937–1945 wars between China and Japan</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r963460841">@media all and (min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .desktop-float-right{box-sizing:border-box;float:right;clear:right}}.mw-parser-output .infobox.vevent .status>p:first-child{margin:0}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1034237262">.mw-parser-output .stack{box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .stack>div{margin:1px;overflow:hidden}@media all and (min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .stack-clear-left{float:left;clear:left}.mw-parser-output .stack-clear-right{float:right;clear:right}.mw-parser-output .stack-left{float:left}.mw-parser-output .stack-right{float:right}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-clear-left{float:left;clear:left;margin-right:1em}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-clear-right{float:right;clear:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-left{float:left;margin-right:1em}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-right{float:right;margin-left:1em}}</style><div class="stack mw-stack stack-clear-right"><div><table class="infobox vevent" style="width:25.5em;border-spacing:2px;"><tbody><tr><th class="summary" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Second Sino-Japanese War</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;">Part of the <a href="/wiki/Interwar_period" title="Interwar period">interwar period</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Pacific_War" title="Pacific War">Pacific theatre</a> of <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="text-align:center;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;line-height:1.5em;"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tnone center"><div class="multiimageinner" style="width:292px;max-width:292px;border:none"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:128px;max-width:128px"><div style="height:100px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Japanese_Special_Naval_Landing_Forces_in_Battle_of_Shanghai_1937.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Japanese_Special_Naval_Landing_Forces_in_Battle_of_Shanghai_1937.jpg/126px-Japanese_Special_Naval_Landing_Forces_in_Battle_of_Shanghai_1937.jpg" decoding="async" width="126" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Japanese_Special_Naval_Landing_Forces_in_Battle_of_Shanghai_1937.jpg/189px-Japanese_Special_Naval_Landing_Forces_in_Battle_of_Shanghai_1937.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Japanese_Special_Naval_Landing_Forces_in_Battle_of_Shanghai_1937.jpg/252px-Japanese_Special_Naval_Landing_Forces_in_Battle_of_Shanghai_1937.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="955" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:160px;max-width:160px"><div style="height:100px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Eighth_Route_Army_fighting_on_Futuyu_Great_Wall,_1938.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Eighth_Route_Army_fighting_on_Futuyu_Great_Wall%2C_1938.jpg/158px-Eighth_Route_Army_fighting_on_Futuyu_Great_Wall%2C_1938.jpg" decoding="async" width="158" height="101" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Eighth_Route_Army_fighting_on_Futuyu_Great_Wall%2C_1938.jpg/237px-Eighth_Route_Army_fighting_on_Futuyu_Great_Wall%2C_1938.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Eighth_Route_Army_fighting_on_Futuyu_Great_Wall%2C_1938.jpg/316px-Eighth_Route_Army_fighting_on_Futuyu_Great_Wall%2C_1938.jpg 2x" data-file-width="910" data-file-height="580" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:145px;max-width:145px"><div style="height:98px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:US_equipped_Chinese_Army_in_India_marching.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/US_equipped_Chinese_Army_in_India_marching.jpg/143px-US_equipped_Chinese_Army_in_India_marching.jpg" decoding="async" width="143" height="98" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/US_equipped_Chinese_Army_in_India_marching.jpg/215px-US_equipped_Chinese_Army_in_India_marching.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/US_equipped_Chinese_Army_in_India_marching.jpg/286px-US_equipped_Chinese_Army_in_India_marching.jpg 2x" data-file-width="333" data-file-height="228" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:143px;max-width:143px"><div style="height:98px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Nanking_bodies_1937.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Nanking_bodies_1937.jpg/141px-Nanking_bodies_1937.jpg" decoding="async" width="141" height="99" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Nanking_bodies_1937.jpg/212px-Nanking_bodies_1937.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Nanking_bodies_1937.jpg/282px-Nanking_bodies_1937.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="559" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:128px;max-width:128px"><div style="height:99px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:%E8%BD%9F%E7%82%B8%E9%87%8D%E6%85%B6.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/%E8%BD%9F%E7%82%B8%E9%87%8D%E6%85%B6.jpg/126px-%E8%BD%9F%E7%82%B8%E9%87%8D%E6%85%B6.jpg" decoding="async" width="126" height="99" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/%E8%BD%9F%E7%82%B8%E9%87%8D%E6%85%B6.jpg/189px-%E8%BD%9F%E7%82%B8%E9%87%8D%E6%85%B6.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/%E8%BD%9F%E7%82%B8%E9%87%8D%E6%85%B6.jpg/252px-%E8%BD%9F%E7%82%B8%E9%87%8D%E6%85%B6.jpg 2x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="355" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:160px;max-width:160px"><div style="height:99px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Wuhan_1938.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Wuhan_1938.jpg/158px-Wuhan_1938.jpg" decoding="async" width="158" height="99" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Wuhan_1938.jpg/237px-Wuhan_1938.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Wuhan_1938.jpg/316px-Wuhan_1938.jpg 2x" data-file-width="592" data-file-height="371" /></a></div></div></div></div></div>Clockwise from top left: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Navy" title="Imperial Japanese Navy">Imperial Japanese Navy</a> landing force in <a href="/wiki/Military_gas_mask" class="mw-redirect" title="Military gas mask">military gas masks</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Shanghai" title="Battle of Shanghai">Battle of Shanghai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Revolutionary_Army" title="National Revolutionary Army">National Revolutionary Army</a> fighting in <a href="/wiki/Great_Wall" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Wall">Great Wall</a></li> <li>Victims of the <a href="/wiki/Nanjing_Massacre" title="Nanjing Massacre">Nanjing Massacre</a> on the shore of the <a href="/wiki/Qinhuai_River" title="Qinhuai River">Qinhuai River</a></li> <li>Chinese machine gun nest in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Wuhan" title="Battle of Wuhan">Battle of Wuhan</a></li> <li>Japanese <a href="/wiki/Mitsubishi_Ki-21" title="Mitsubishi Ki-21">Mitsubishi Ki-21</a> bomber during the <a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Chongqing" title="Bombing of Chongqing">bombing of Chongqing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Expeditionary_Force" title="Chinese Expeditionary Force">Chinese Expeditionary Force</a> marching in <a href="/wiki/British_Raj" title="British Raj">India</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><table style="width:100%;margin:0;padding:0;border:0;display:inline-table"><tbody><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Date</th><td>7 July 1937 – 2 September 1945</td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Location</th><td><div class="location"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mainland_China" title="Mainland China">Mainland China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Indochina" title="French Indochina">Indochina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_rule_in_Burma" title="British rule in Burma">Burma</a></li></ul> </div></div></td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Result</th><td class="status"> Chinese victory</td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Territorial changes</th><td> <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Republic of China (1912–1949)">China</a> recovers all territories lost to <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Japan</a> since the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Shimonoseki" title="Treaty of Shimonoseki">Treaty of Shimonoseki</a></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Belligerents</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <a href="/wiki/Nationalist_government" title="Nationalist government"><img alt="Nationalist government" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Nationalist_government" title="Nationalist government">China</a> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/23px-Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/35px-Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/45px-Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Kuomintang" title="Kuomintang">Kuomintang</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Flag_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party_%28Pre-1996%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party_%28Pre-1996%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Flag_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party_%28Pre-1996%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party_%28Pre-1996%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Flag_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party_%28Pre-1996%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party_%28Pre-1996%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Chinese Communist Party">Chinese Communist Party</a></li></ul></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg/22px-Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg/33px-Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg/43px-Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="700" /> <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Japan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Manchukuo" title="Manchukuo"><img alt="Manchukuo" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Flag_of_Manchukuo.svg/23px-Flag_of_Manchukuo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Flag_of_Manchukuo.svg/35px-Flag_of_Manchukuo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Flag_of_Manchukuo.svg/45px-Flag_of_Manchukuo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Manchukuo" title="Manchukuo">Manchukuo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mengjiang" title="Mengjiang"><img alt="Mengjiang" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Flag_of_the_Mengjiang.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Mengjiang.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Flag_of_the_Mengjiang.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Mengjiang.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Flag_of_the_Mengjiang.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Mengjiang.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="300" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Mengjiang" title="Mengjiang">Mengjiang</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Wang_Jingwei_regime" title="Wang Jingwei regime">Wang Jingwei regime</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Commanders and leaders</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/25px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/38px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/50px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Chiang_Kai-shek" title="Chiang Kai-shek">Chiang Kai-shek</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Flag_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party_%28Pre-1996%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party_%28Pre-1996%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Flag_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party_%28Pre-1996%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party_%28Pre-1996%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Flag_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party_%28Pre-1996%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party_%28Pre-1996%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao Zedong</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China_Army.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China_Army.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China_Army.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China_Army.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China_Army.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China_Army.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/21px-Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/32px-Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/42px-Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/He_Yingqin" title="He Yingqin">He Yingqin</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China_Army.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China_Army.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China_Army.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China_Army.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China_Army.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China_Army.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/21px-Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/32px-Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/42px-Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Chen_Cheng" title="Chen Cheng">Chen Cheng</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China_Army.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China_Army.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China_Army.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China_Army.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China_Army.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China_Army.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/21px-Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/32px-Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/42px-Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Cheng_Qian" title="Cheng Qian">Cheng Qian</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China_Army.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China_Army.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China_Army.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China_Army.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China_Army.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China_Army.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/21px-Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/32px-Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/42px-Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Bai_Chongxi" title="Bai Chongxi">Bai Chongxi</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China_Army.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China_Army.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China_Army.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China_Army.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China_Army.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China_Army.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/21px-Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/32px-Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/42px-Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Xu_Yongchang" title="Xu Yongchang">Xu Yongchang</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China_Army.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China_Army.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China_Army.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China_Army.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China_Army.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China_Army.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/21px-Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/32px-Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/42px-Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Li_Zongren" title="Li Zongren">Li Zongren</a></li></ul> </div></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Flag_of_the_Japanese_Emperor.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Japanese_Emperor.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Flag_of_the_Japanese_Emperor.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Japanese_Emperor.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Flag_of_the_Japanese_Emperor.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Japanese_Emperor.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Hirohito" title="Hirohito">Hirohito</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/War_flag_of_the_Imperial_Japanese_Army_%281868%E2%80%931945%29.svg/23px-War_flag_of_the_Imperial_Japanese_Army_%281868%E2%80%931945%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/War_flag_of_the_Imperial_Japanese_Army_%281868%E2%80%931945%29.svg/35px-War_flag_of_the_Imperial_Japanese_Army_%281868%E2%80%931945%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/War_flag_of_the_Imperial_Japanese_Army_%281868%E2%80%931945%29.svg/45px-War_flag_of_the_Imperial_Japanese_Army_%281868%E2%80%931945%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Hideki_T%C5%8Dj%C5%8D" class="mw-redirect" title="Hideki Tōjō">Hideki Tōjō</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/War_flag_of_the_Imperial_Japanese_Army_%281868%E2%80%931945%29.svg/23px-War_flag_of_the_Imperial_Japanese_Army_%281868%E2%80%931945%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/War_flag_of_the_Imperial_Japanese_Army_%281868%E2%80%931945%29.svg/35px-War_flag_of_the_Imperial_Japanese_Army_%281868%E2%80%931945%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/War_flag_of_the_Imperial_Japanese_Army_%281868%E2%80%931945%29.svg/45px-War_flag_of_the_Imperial_Japanese_Army_%281868%E2%80%931945%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Shunroku_Hata" title="Shunroku Hata">Shunroku Hata</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/War_flag_of_the_Imperial_Japanese_Army_%281868%E2%80%931945%29.svg/23px-War_flag_of_the_Imperial_Japanese_Army_%281868%E2%80%931945%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/War_flag_of_the_Imperial_Japanese_Army_%281868%E2%80%931945%29.svg/35px-War_flag_of_the_Imperial_Japanese_Army_%281868%E2%80%931945%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/War_flag_of_the_Imperial_Japanese_Army_%281868%E2%80%931945%29.svg/45px-War_flag_of_the_Imperial_Japanese_Army_%281868%E2%80%931945%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Yasuji_Okamura" title="Yasuji Okamura">Yasuji Okamura</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/War_flag_of_the_Imperial_Japanese_Army_%281868%E2%80%931945%29.svg/23px-War_flag_of_the_Imperial_Japanese_Army_%281868%E2%80%931945%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/War_flag_of_the_Imperial_Japanese_Army_%281868%E2%80%931945%29.svg/35px-War_flag_of_the_Imperial_Japanese_Army_%281868%E2%80%931945%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/War_flag_of_the_Imperial_Japanese_Army_%281868%E2%80%931945%29.svg/45px-War_flag_of_the_Imperial_Japanese_Army_%281868%E2%80%931945%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Prince_Kan%27in_Kotohito" title="Prince Kan'in Kotohito">Prince Kotohito</a> <a href="/wiki/Death_by_natural_causes" class="mw-redirect" title="Death by natural causes">#</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/War_flag_of_the_Imperial_Japanese_Army_%281868%E2%80%931945%29.svg/23px-War_flag_of_the_Imperial_Japanese_Army_%281868%E2%80%931945%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/War_flag_of_the_Imperial_Japanese_Army_%281868%E2%80%931945%29.svg/35px-War_flag_of_the_Imperial_Japanese_Army_%281868%E2%80%931945%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/War_flag_of_the_Imperial_Japanese_Army_%281868%E2%80%931945%29.svg/45px-War_flag_of_the_Imperial_Japanese_Army_%281868%E2%80%931945%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Otoz%C5%8D_Yamada" title="Otozō Yamada">Otozō Yamada</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/War_flag_of_the_Imperial_Japanese_Army_%281868%E2%80%931945%29.svg/23px-War_flag_of_the_Imperial_Japanese_Army_%281868%E2%80%931945%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/War_flag_of_the_Imperial_Japanese_Army_%281868%E2%80%931945%29.svg/35px-War_flag_of_the_Imperial_Japanese_Army_%281868%E2%80%931945%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/War_flag_of_the_Imperial_Japanese_Army_%281868%E2%80%931945%29.svg/45px-War_flag_of_the_Imperial_Japanese_Army_%281868%E2%80%931945%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Hajime_Sugiyama" title="Hajime Sugiyama">Hajime Sugiyama</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Strength</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/25px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/38px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/50px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> 14,000,000 total <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/23px-Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/35px-Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/45px-Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> Chinese Nationalists: (including <a href="/wiki/Warlord_era" class="mw-redirect" title="Warlord era">regional warlords</a>): <ul><li>1,700,000 (1937)</li> <li>2,600,000 (1939)<a href="#cite_note-Hsiung_171-1">[1]</a></li> <li>5,700,000 (1945)<a href="#cite_note-Horner2003-2">[2]</a></li></ul></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Flag_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party_%28Pre-1996%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party_%28Pre-1996%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Flag_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party_%28Pre-1996%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party_%28Pre-1996%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Flag_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party_%28Pre-1996%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party_%28Pre-1996%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> Chinese Communists: <ul><li>640,000 (1937)<a href="#cite_note-China's_Bitter_Victory-3">[3]</a></li> <li>166,700 (1938)<a href="#cite_note-八路军·表册-4">[4]</a></li> <li>488,744 (1940)<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a></li> <li>1,200,000 (1945)<a href="#cite_note-Hsiung-6">[6]</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg/25px-Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="18" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg/38px-Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg/50px-Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="700" /> 4,100,000 total<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHsu535-7">[7]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/War_flag_of_the_Imperial_Japanese_Army_%281868%E2%80%931945%29.svg/23px-War_flag_of_the_Imperial_Japanese_Army_%281868%E2%80%931945%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/War_flag_of_the_Imperial_Japanese_Army_%281868%E2%80%931945%29.svg/35px-War_flag_of_the_Imperial_Japanese_Army_%281868%E2%80%931945%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/War_flag_of_the_Imperial_Japanese_Army_%281868%E2%80%931945%29.svg/45px-War_flag_of_the_Imperial_Japanese_Army_%281868%E2%80%931945%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> Japanese: <ul><li>600,000 (1937)<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a></li> <li>1,015,000 (1939)<a href="#cite_note-RKKA_General_Staff-9">[9]</a></li> <li>1,124,900 (1945)<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> (excluding Manchuria and <a href="/wiki/Burma_campaign" title="Burma campaign">Burma campaign</a>)</li></ul></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Flag_of_Manchukuo.svg/23px-Flag_of_Manchukuo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Flag_of_Manchukuo.svg/35px-Flag_of_Manchukuo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Flag_of_Manchukuo.svg/45px-Flag_of_Manchukuo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Flag_of_the_Mengjiang.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Mengjiang.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Flag_of_the_Mengjiang.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Mengjiang.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Flag_of_the_Mengjiang.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Mengjiang.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="300" /><a href="/wiki/Wang_Jingwei_regime" title="Wang Jingwei regime"><img alt="Wang Jingwei regime" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Collaboration_with_Imperial_Japan" title="Collaboration with Imperial Japan">Puppet states and collaborators</a>: 900,000–1,006,086 (1945)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJowett72-11">[11]</a></li></ul> </div><a href="#cite_note-統計-12">[12]</a>: 314 </td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Casualties and losses</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/23px-Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/35px-Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/45px-Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> Chinese Nationalists: <ul><li>Official ROC data: <ul><li>1,319,958 killed</li> <li>1,761,335 wounded</li> <li>130,116 missing</li> <li>Total: 3,211,409<a href="#cite_note-Hsu-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-Clodfelter-14">[14]</a></li></ul></li> <li>Other estimates: <ul><li>3,000,000–4,000,000+ military dead and missing</li> <li>500,000 captured<a href="#cite_note-Rummel,_Table_6A-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-16">[16]</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li>Total: 3,211,000–10,000,000+ military casualties<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-Rummel,_Table_5A-17">[17]</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Flag_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party_%28Pre-1996%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party_%28Pre-1996%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Flag_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party_%28Pre-1996%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party_%28Pre-1996%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Flag_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party_%28Pre-1996%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party_%28Pre-1996%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> Chinese Communists: <ul><li>Official PRC data: <ul><li>160,603 military dead</li> <li>290,467 wounded</li> <li>87,208 missing</li> <li>45,989 POWs</li> <li>Total: 584,267 military casualties<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a></li></ul></li> <li>Other estimates: <ul><li>446,740 total<a href="#cite_note-Rummel,_Table_5A-17">[17]</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li>Total: <ul><li>3,800,000–10,600,000+ military casualties after July 1937 (excluding Manchuria and <a href="/wiki/Burma_campaign" title="Burma campaign">Burma campaign</a>)</li> <li>1,000,000+ captured<a href="#cite_note-Rummel,_Table_6A-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-16">[16]</a></li> <li>266,800–1,000,000 POWs dead<a href="#cite_note-Rummel,_Table_6A-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-16">[16]</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/War_flag_of_the_Imperial_Japanese_Army_%281868%E2%80%931945%29.svg/23px-War_flag_of_the_Imperial_Japanese_Army_%281868%E2%80%931945%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/War_flag_of_the_Imperial_Japanese_Army_%281868%E2%80%931945%29.svg/35px-War_flag_of_the_Imperial_Japanese_Army_%281868%E2%80%931945%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/War_flag_of_the_Imperial_Japanese_Army_%281868%E2%80%931945%29.svg/45px-War_flag_of_the_Imperial_Japanese_Army_%281868%E2%80%931945%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> Japanese: <ul><li>Japanese medical data: <ul><li>455,700<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a>–700,000 military dead<a href="#cite_note-Yomiuri_Shimbun-20">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-21">[a]</a></li> <li>1,934,820 wounded and missing<a href="#cite_note-22">[21]</a></li> <li>22,293+ captured<a href="#cite_note-23">[b]</a></li> <li>Total: 2,500,000+ military casualties (1937 to 1945 excluding Manchuria and <a href="/wiki/Burma_campaign" title="Burma campaign">Burma campaign</a>)</li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Flag_of_Manchukuo.svg/23px-Flag_of_Manchukuo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Flag_of_Manchukuo.svg/35px-Flag_of_Manchukuo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Flag_of_Manchukuo.svg/45px-Flag_of_Manchukuo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> Puppet states and collaborators: <ul><li>288,140–574,560 dead</li> <li>742,000 wounded</li> <li>Middle estimate: 960,000 dead and wounded<a href="#cite_note-24">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-Rummel,_Table_5A-17">[17]</a></li></ul></li> <li>Total:</li> <li>c. 3,000,000–3,600,000 military casualties after July 1937 (excluding Manchuria and <a href="/wiki/Burma_campaign" title="Burma campaign">Burma campaign</a>)<a href="#cite_note-25">[c]</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="text-align:center;border-top:1px dotted #aaa;"> Total casualties: 15,000,000<a href="#cite_note-26">[23]</a>–22,000,000<a href="#cite_note-Clodfelter-14">[14]</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> This number does not include Japanese killed by Chinese forces in the Burma campaign and does not include Japanese killed in Manchuria. </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> Excluding more than 1 million who were disarmed following the surrender of Japan </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> Including casualties of Japanese puppet forces. The combined toll is most likely around 3,500,000: 2.5 million Japanese, per their own records, and 1,000,000 collaborators. </li> </ol></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Second_Sino-Japanese_War" style="margin:0;float:right;clear:right;width:25.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;margin-left:1em;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-vertical mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Campaignbox_Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Template:Campaignbox Second Sino-Japanese War"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Campaignbox_Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Template talk:Campaignbox Second Sino-Japanese War"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox_Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox Second Sino-Japanese War"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Second_Sino-Japanese_War" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Second Sino-Japanese War</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>1931–1937 (pre-war skirmishes)</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_invasion_of_Manchuria" title="Japanese invasion of Manchuria">Manchuria</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mukden_Incident" class="mw-redirect" title="Mukden Incident">Mukden</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lytton_Report" title="Lytton Report">Lytton Report</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jiangqiao_campaign" title="Jiangqiao campaign">Jiangqiao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resistance_at_Nenjiang_Bridge" title="Resistance at Nenjiang Bridge">Nenjiang Bridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jinzhou_Operation" title="Jinzhou Operation">Jinzhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defense_of_Harbin" title="Defense of Harbin">Harbin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/January_28_incident" title="January 28 incident">1st Shanghai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacification_of_Manchukuo" title="Pacification of Manchukuo">Pacification of Manchukuo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Actions_in_Inner_Mongolia_(1933%E2%80%931936)" title="Actions in Inner Mongolia (1933–1936)">Inner Mongolia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Defense_of_the_Great_Wall" title="Defense of the Great Wall">Great Wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Rehe" title="Battle of Rehe">Rehe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suiyuan_campaign" title="Suiyuan campaign">Suiyuan</a></li></ul></li></ul> <dl><dt>1937–1939</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marco_Polo_Bridge_Incident" class="mw-redirect" title="Marco Polo Bridge Incident">Marco Polo Bridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Beiping%E2%80%93Tianjin" title="Battle of Beiping–Tianjin">Beiping–Tianjin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Chahar" title="Operation Chahar">Chahar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Shanghai" title="Battle of Shanghai">2nd Shanghai</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Defense_of_Sihang_Warehouse" title="Defense of Sihang Warehouse">Sihang Warehouse</a></li></ul></li> <li>Railway Operation <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beiping%E2%80%93Hankou_Railway_Operation" title="Beiping–Hankou Railway Operation">Beiping–Hankou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tianjin%E2%80%93Pukou_Railway_Operation" title="Tianjin–Pukou Railway Operation">Tianjin–Pukou</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Taiyuan" title="Battle of Taiyuan">Taiyuan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pingxingguan" title="Battle of Pingxingguan">Pingxingguan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Xinkou" title="Battle of Xinkou">Xinkou</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Nanking" title="Battle of Nanking">Nanking</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nanjing_Massacre" title="Nanjing Massacre">Massacre</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Xuzhou" title="Battle of Xuzhou">Xuzhou</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Taierzhuang" title="Battle of Taierzhuang">Taierzhuang</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Northern_and_Eastern_Henan" title="Battle of Northern and Eastern Henan">North-East Henan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lanfeng" title="Battle of Lanfeng">Lanfeng</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amoy_Operation" title="Amoy Operation">Amoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Chongqing" title="Bombing of Chongqing">Chongqing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1938_Yellow_River_flood" title="1938 Yellow River flood">Yellow River flood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Wuhan" title="Battle of Wuhan">Wuhan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Wanjialing" title="Battle of Wanjialing">Wanjialing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1938_Changsha_fire" title="1938 Changsha fire">Wenxi fire</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canton_Operation" title="Canton Operation">Canton</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hainan_Island_Operation" title="Hainan Island Operation">Hainan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Nanchang" title="Battle of Nanchang">Nanchang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Suixian%E2%80%93Zaoyang" title="Battle of Suixian–Zaoyang">Suixian–Zaoyang</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Swatow_Operation" title="Swatow Operation">Swatow</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Changsha_(1939)" title="Battle of Changsha (1939)">1st Changsha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_South_Guangxi" title="Battle of South Guangxi">South Guangxi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kunlun_Pass" title="Battle of Kunlun Pass">Kunlun Pass</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1939%E2%80%931940_Winter_Offensive" title="1939–1940 Winter Offensive">Winter Offensive</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_West_Suiyuan" title="Battle of West Suiyuan">West Suiyuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Wuyuan" title="Battle of Wuyuan">Wuyuan</a></li></ul></li></ul> <dl><dt>1940–1942</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Zaoyang%E2%80%93Yichang" title="Battle of Zaoyang–Yichang">Zaoyang–Yichang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hundred_Regiments_Offensive" title="Hundred Regiments Offensive">Hundred Regiments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_invasion_of_French_Indochina" title="Japanese invasion of French Indochina">North Vietnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Hubei_Operation" title="Central Hubei Operation">Central Hubei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Fourth_Army_incident" title="New Fourth Army incident">South Anhui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_South_Henan" title="Battle of South Henan">South Henan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Hubei_Operation" title="Western Hubei Operation">West Hubei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Shanggao" title="Battle of Shanggao">Shanggao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_South_Shanxi" title="Battle of South Shanxi">South Shanxi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Changsha_(1941)" title="Battle of Changsha (1941)">2nd Changsha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Changsha_(1941%E2%80%931942)" title="Battle of Changsha (1941–1942)">3rd Changsha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Yunnan%E2%80%93Burma_Road" title="Battle of the Yunnan–Burma Road">Yunnan-Burma Road</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tachiao" title="Battle of Tachiao">Tachiao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Oktwin" title="Battle of Oktwin">Oktwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Toungoo" title="Battle of Toungoo">Toungoo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Yenangyaung" title="Battle of Yenangyaung">Yenangyaung</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhejiang-Jiangxi_campaign" title="Zhejiang-Jiangxi campaign">Zhejiang–Jiangxi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proposed_Japanese_invasion_of_Sichuan" title="Proposed Japanese invasion of Sichuan">Sichuan (cancelled)</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>1943–1945</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_West_Hubei" title="Battle of West Hubei">West Hubei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Northern_Burma_and_Western_Yunnan" title="Battle of Northern Burma and Western Yunnan">North Burma and West Yunnan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Myitkyina" title="Siege of Myitkyina">Myitkyina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mount_Song" title="Battle of Mount Song">Mount Song</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Changde" title="Battle of Changde">Changde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Ichi-Go" title="Operation Ichi-Go">Ichi-Go</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Changsha_(1944)" title="Battle of Changsha (1944)">4th Changsha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hengyang" title="Battle of Hengyang">Hengyang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Guilin%E2%80%93Liuzhou" title="Battle of Guilin–Liuzhou">Guilin–Liuzhou</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_West_Henan%E2%80%93North_Hubei" title="Battle of West Henan–North Hubei">West Henan–North Hubei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_West_Hunan" title="Battle of West Hunan">West Hunan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Guangxi_campaign" title="Second Guangxi campaign">Guangxi</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Aerial_engagements_of_the_Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Aerial engagements of the Second Sino-Japanese War">Air War</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Taihoku_Air_Strike" class="mw-redirect" title="Taihoku Air Strike">Taihoku</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Pacific_War" style="margin:0;float:right;clear:right;width:25.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;margin-left:1em;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-vertical mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Campaignbox_Pacific_War" title="Template:Campaignbox Pacific War"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Campaignbox_Pacific_War" title="Template talk:Campaignbox Pacific War"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox_Pacific_War" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox Pacific War"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Pacific_War" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Pacific_War" title="Pacific War">Pacific War</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Pacific_Ocean_theater_of_World_War_II" title="Pacific Ocean theater of World War II">Central Pacific</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor" title="Attack on Pearl Harbor">Pearl Harbor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marshalls%E2%80%93Gilberts_raids" title="Marshalls–Gilberts raids">Marshalls–Gilberts raids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_K" title="Operation K">K</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doolittle_Raid" title="Doolittle Raid">Doolittle Raid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Midway" title="Battle of Midway">Midway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_and_Marshall_Islands_campaign" title="Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign">Gilberts and Marshalls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mariana_and_Palau_Islands_campaign" title="Mariana and Palau Islands campaign">Marianas and Palau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcano_and_Ryukyu_Islands_campaign" title="Volcano and Ryukyu Islands campaign">Volcano and Ryukyu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Inmate" title="Operation Inmate">Truk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_Island_massacre" title="Ocean Island massacre">Ocean Island</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean_in_World_War_II" title="Indian Ocean in World War II">Indian Ocean (1941–1945)</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_raiders_in_the_Indian_Ocean" title="Japanese raiders in the Indian Ocean">Japanese merchant raids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_the_Andaman_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Japanese occupation of the Andaman Islands">Andaman Islands</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Homfreyganj_massacre" title="Homfreyganj massacre">Homfreyganj massacre</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Christmas_Island" title="Battle of Christmas Island">Christmas Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean_raid" title="Indian Ocean raid">1st Indian Ocean</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Easter_Sunday_Raid" title="Easter Sunday Raid">Ceylon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Stab" title="Operation Stab">Bay of Bengal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean_raid_(1944)" title="Indian Ocean raid (1944)">2nd Indian Ocean</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/South-East_Asian_theatre_of_World_War_II" title="South-East Asian theatre of World War II">Southeast Asia</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_invasion_of_French_Indochina" title="Japanese invasion of French Indochina">Indochina (1940)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franco-Thai_War" title="Franco-Thai War">Franco-Thai War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_invasion_of_Thailand" title="Japanese invasion of Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malayan_campaign" title="Malayan campaign">Malaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hong_Kong" title="Battle of Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Singapore" title="Fall of Singapore">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat_in_French_Indochina" title="Japanese coup d'état in French Indochina">Indochina (1945)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Malacca_Strait" title="Battle of the Malacca Strait">Malacca Strait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/August_Revolution" title="August Revolution">Vietnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Jurist" title="Operation Jurist">Jurist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Tiderace" title="Operation Tiderace">Tiderace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Zipper" title="Operation Zipper">Zipper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_South-East_Asia_(1944%E2%80%9345)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bombing of South-East Asia (1944–45)">Strategic bombing (1944–45)</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Burma_campaign" title="Burma campaign">Burma and India</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_invasion_of_Burma" title="Japanese invasion of Burma">Burma (1941–42)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burma_campaign_(1942%E2%80%931943)" title="Burma campaign (1942–1943)">Burma (1942–43)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burma_campaign_(1944)" title="Burma campaign (1944)">Burma and India (1944)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burma_campaign_(1944%E2%80%931945)" title="Burma campaign (1944–1945)">Burma (1944–45)</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/South_West_Pacific_theatre_of_World_War_II" title="South West Pacific theatre of World War II">Southwest Pacific</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_East_Indies_campaign" title="Dutch East Indies campaign">Dutch East Indies (1941–42)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippines_campaign_(1941%E2%80%931942)" title="Philippines campaign (1941–1942)">Philippines (1941–42)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_RY" title="Operation RY">RY</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solomon_Islands_campaign" title="Solomon Islands campaign">Solomon Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Coral_Sea" title="Battle of the Coral Sea">Coral Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Timor" title="Battle of Timor">Timor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axis_naval_activity_in_Australian_waters" title="Axis naval activity in Australian waters">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Guinea_campaign" title="New Guinea campaign">New Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Britain_campaign" title="New Britain campaign">New Britain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippines_campaign_(1944%E2%80%931945)" title="Philippines campaign (1944–1945)">Philippines (1944–45)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Borneo_campaign" title="Borneo campaign">Borneo (1945)</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/American_Theater_(World_War_II)" class="mw-redirect" title="American Theater (World War II)">North America</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bombardment_of_Ellwood" title="Bombardment of Ellwood">Ellwood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aleutian_Islands_campaign" title="Aleutian Islands campaign">Aleutian Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Theater_(World_War_II)#Bombardment_of_Estevan_Point_Lighthouse" class="mw-redirect" title="American Theater (World War II)">Estevan Point Lighthouse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombardment_of_Fort_Stevens" title="Bombardment of Fort Stevens">Fort Stevens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lookout_Air_Raids" title="Lookout Air Raids">Lookout Air Raids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fu-Go_balloon_bomb" title="Fu-Go balloon bomb">Fire balloon bombs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_Hula" title="Project Hula">Project Hula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_PX" title="Operation PX">PX</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Japan_campaign" title="Japan campaign">Japan</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_raids_on_Japan" title="Air raids on Japan">Air raids</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Tokyo" title="Bombing of Tokyo">Tokyo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attack_on_Yokosuka" title="Attack on Yokosuka">Yokosuka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attacks_on_Kure_and_the_Inland_Sea_(July_1945)" class="mw-redirect" title="Attacks on Kure and the Inland Sea (July 1945)">Kure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">Hiroshima and Nagasaki</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_air_attacks_on_the_Mariana_Islands" title="Japanese air attacks on the Mariana Islands">Mariana Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcano_and_Ryukyu_Islands_campaign" title="Volcano and Ryukyu Islands campaign">Volcano and Ryukyu Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Starvation" title="Operation Starvation">Starvation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allied_naval_bombardments_of_Japan_during_World_War_II" title="Allied naval bombardments of Japan during World War II">Naval bombardments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Sagami_Bay" title="Battle of Sagami Bay">Sagami Bay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_South_Sakhalin" class="mw-redirect" title="Invasion of South Sakhalin">South Sakhalin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_the_Kuril_Islands" title="Invasion of the Kuril Islands">Kuril Islands</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Shumshu" title="Battle of Shumshu">Shumshu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Downfall" title="Operation Downfall">Downfall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surrender_of_Japan" title="Surrender of Japan">Japanese surrender</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Japanese_War" title="Soviet–Japanese War">Manchuria and Northern Korea</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kantokuen" title="Kantokuen">Kantokuen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_invasion_of_Manchuria" title="Soviet invasion of Manchuria">Manchuria (1945)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mutanchiang" title="Battle of Mutanchiang">Mutanchiang</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seishin_Operation" title="Seishin Operation">Chongjin</a></li></ul> <hr /> <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Second Sino-Japanese War</a> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Military_campaigns_of_the_Empire_of_Japan" style="margin:0;float:right;clear:right;width:25.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;margin-left:1em;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-vertical mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Campaignbox_Japanese_colonial_campaigns" title="Template:Campaignbox Japanese colonial campaigns"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Campaignbox_Japanese_colonial_campaigns" title="Template talk:Campaignbox Japanese colonial campaigns"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox_Japanese_colonial_campaigns" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox Japanese colonial campaigns"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Military_campaigns_of_the_Empire_of_Japan" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Military campaigns of the <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Empire of Japan</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Meiji_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Meiji period">Meiji period</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_invasion_of_Taiwan_(1874)" title="Japanese invasion of Taiwan (1874)">Taiwan (1874)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ganghwa_Island_incident" title="Ganghwa Island incident">Ganghwa (1875)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ry%C5%ABky%C5%AB_Disposition" class="mw-redirect" title="Ryūkyū Disposition">Ryukyu (1879)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Sino-Japanese_War" title="First Sino-Japanese War">Manchuria, Korea, and Taiwan (1894–1895)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triple_Intervention" title="Triple Intervention">Liaodong Peninsula (1895)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boxer_Rebellion" title="Boxer Rebellion">China (1899–1901)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Japanese_War" title="Russo-Japanese War">Manchuria and Korea (1904–1905)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan%E2%80%93Korea_Treaty_of_1910" title="Japan–Korea Treaty of 1910">Korea (1910)</a> </li></ul> <a href="/wiki/Taish%C5%8D_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Taishō period">Taishō period</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Tsingtao" title="Siege of Tsingtao">Tsingtao (1914)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_German_colonial_possessions" title="Japanese occupation of German colonial possessions">German Pacific possesions (1914)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_intervention_in_Siberia" title="Japanese intervention in Siberia">Siberia (1918–1922)</a></li></ul> <a href="/wiki/Sh%C5%8Dwa_(1926%E2%80%931989)" class="mw-redirect" title="Shōwa (1926–1989)">Shōwa period</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_invasion_of_Manchuria" title="Japanese invasion of Manchuria">Manchuria and Inner Mongolia (1931–1936)</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">China (1937–45)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_invasion_of_French_Indochina" title="Japanese invasion of French Indochina">French Indochina (1940)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacific_War" title="Pacific War">Asia-Pacific (1941–1945)</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Campaigns_of_World_War_II" style="margin:0;float:right;clear:right;width:25.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;margin-left:1em;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-vertical mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Campaignbox_World_War_II" title="Template:Campaignbox World War II"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Campaignbox_World_War_II" title="Template talk:Campaignbox World War II"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox_World_War_II" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox World War II"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Campaigns_of_World_War_II" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Campaigns of <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/European_theatre_of_World_War_II" title="European theatre of World War II">Europe</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Poland" title="Invasion of Poland">Poland</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Polish_resistance_movement_in_World_War_II" title="Polish resistance movement in World War II">Polish resistance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoney_War" title="Phoney War">Phoney War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finland_in_World_War_II" title="Finland in World War II">Finland</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Winter_War" title="Winter War">Winter War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continuation_War" title="Continuation War">Karelia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lapland_War" title="Lapland War">Lapland</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Weser%C3%BCbung" title="Operation Weserübung">Denmark and Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Front_(World_War_II)" title="Western Front (World War II)">Western Front</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_France" title="Battle of France">1940</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Resistance" title="French Resistance">Resistance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Front_(World_War_II)#1944–1945:_The_Second_Front" title="Western Front (World War II)">1944–1945</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_invasion_of_France" title="Italian invasion of France">Alps 1940</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Second_Battle_of_the_Alps" title="Second Battle of the Alps">1944</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Britain" title="Battle of Britain">Britain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balkans_campaign_(World_War_II)" title="Balkans campaign (World War II)">Balkans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II_in_Yugoslavia" title="World War II in Yugoslavia">Yugoslavian Partisans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_resistance" title="Greek resistance">Greek resistance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Front_(World_War_II)" title="Eastern Front (World War II)">Eastern Front</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1940%E2%80%931944_insurgency_in_Chechnya" title="1940–1944 insurgency in Chechnya">Chechnya</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_campaign_(World_War_II)" title="Italian campaign (World War II)">Italy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allied_invasion_of_Sicily" title="Allied invasion of Sicily">Sicily</a></li></ul></li></ul> <a href="/wiki/Pacific_War" title="Pacific War">Asia-Pacific</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacific_Ocean_theater_of_World_War_II" title="Pacific Ocean theater of World War II">Pacific Ocean</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/South_West_Pacific_theatre_of_World_War_II" title="South West Pacific theatre of World War II">South West Pacific</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franco-Thai_War" title="Franco-Thai War">Franco-Thai War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South-East_Asian_theatre_of_World_War_II" title="South-East Asian theatre of World War II">South-East Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burma_campaign" title="Burma campaign">Burma and India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan_campaign" title="Japan campaign">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Japanese_War" title="Soviet–Japanese War">Manchuria and Northern Korea</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Japanese_border_conflicts" title="Soviet–Japanese border conflicts">pre-war border conflicts</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attacks_on_Australia_during_World_War_II" title="Attacks on Australia during World War II">Australia</a></li></ul> <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_and_Middle_East_theatre_of_World_War_II" title="Mediterranean and Middle East theatre of World War II">Mediterranean and Middle East</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/North_African_campaign" title="North African campaign">North Africa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Desert_campaign" title="Western Desert campaign">Libya-Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Torch" title="Operation Torch">Morocco-Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunisian_campaign" title="Tunisian campaign">Tunisia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_African_campaign_(World_War_II)" title="East African campaign (World War II)">East Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Mediterranean" title="Battle of the Mediterranean">Mediterranean Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adriatic_campaign_of_World_War_II" title="Adriatic campaign of World War II">Adriatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Malta_(World_War_II)" title="Siege of Malta (World War II)">Malta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Iraqi_War" title="Anglo-Iraqi War">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syria%E2%80%93Lebanon_campaign" title="Syria–Lebanon campaign">Syria–Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Soviet_invasion_of_Iran" title="Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dodecanese_campaign" title="Dodecanese campaign">Dodecanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Dragoon" title="Operation Dragoon">Southern France</a></li></ul> Other campaigns <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Theater_(World_War_II)" class="mw-redirect" title="American Theater (World War II)">Americas</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecuadorian%E2%80%93Peruvian_War" title="Ecuadorian–Peruvian War">Ecuador–Peru</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antarctica_during_World_War_II" title="Antarctica during World War II">Antarctica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Atlantic" title="Battle of the Atlantic">Atlantic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_naval_operations_of_World_War_II" title="Arctic naval operations of World War II">Arctic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_warfare_of_World_War_II" title="Air warfare of World War II">Air Warfare</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_bombing_during_World_War_II" title="Strategic bombing during World War II">Strategic bombing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_West_Africa_in_World_War_II" title="French West Africa in World War II">French West Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean_in_World_War_II" title="Indian Ocean in World War II">Indian Ocean</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Madagascar" title="Battle of Madagascar">Madagascar</a></li></ul></li></ul> Coups <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Planned_Nazi_coup_and_invasion_of_Uruguay" title="Planned Nazi coup and invasion of Uruguay">Uruguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1940_Norwegian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" class="mw-redirect" title="1940 Norwegian coup d'état">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_the_Baltic_states" title="Occupation of the Baltic states">Baltic Nations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yugoslav_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="Yugoslav coup d'état">Yugoslavia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legionnaires%27_rebellion_and_Bucharest_pogrom" title="Legionnaires' rebellion and Bucharest pogrom">Romania 1941</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1941_Iraqi_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1941 Iraqi coup d'état">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Fascist_regime_in_Italy" title="Fall of the Fascist regime in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palm_Sunday_Coup" title="Palm Sunday Coup">Salvador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/20_July_plot" title="20 July plot">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lorkovi%C4%87%E2%80%93Voki%C4%87_plot" title="Lorković–Vokić plot">Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1944_Romanian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1944 Romanian coup d'état">Romania 1944</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1944_Bulgarian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1944 Bulgarian coup d'état">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Panzerfaust" title="Operation Panzerfaust">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat_in_French_Indochina" title="Japanese coup d'état in French Indochina">French Indochina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ky%C5%ABj%C5%8D_incident" title="Kyūjō incident">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matsue_incident" title="Matsue incident">Matsue</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="color: #202122;background-color:#b0c4de">Second Sino-Japanese War</th></tr><tr style="display:none;"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #b0c4de;">Chinese name</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">Traditional Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data">抗日戰爭</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Simplified_Chinese_characters" title="Simplified Chinese characters">Simplified Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data">抗日战争</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox-subbox mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="display:inline-table; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size: 100%; text-align: left;color: #202122; background-color: #f9ffbc;">Transcriptions</th></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Standard Mandarin</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hanyu_Pinyin" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanyu Pinyin">Hanyu Pinyin</a></th><td class="infobox-data">kàng rì zhàn zhēng</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Bopomofo" title="Bopomofo">Bopomofo</a></th><td class="infobox-data">ㄎㄤˋ ㄖˋ ㄓㄢˋ ㄓㄥ</td></tr></tbody></table></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #b0c4de;">Alternative name</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">Traditional Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data">抗戰</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Simplified_Chinese_characters" title="Simplified Chinese characters">Simplified Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data">抗战</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox-subbox mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="display:inline-table; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size: 100%; text-align: left;color: #202122; background-color: #f9ffbc;">Transcriptions</th></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Standard Mandarin</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hanyu_Pinyin" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanyu Pinyin">Hanyu Pinyin</a></th><td class="infobox-data">kàng zhàn</td></tr></tbody></table></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #b0c4de;">Second alternative Chinese name</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">Traditional Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data">八年抗戰</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Simplified_Chinese_characters" title="Simplified Chinese characters">Simplified Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data">八年抗战</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox-subbox mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="display:inline-table; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size: 100%; text-align: left;color: #202122; background-color: #f9ffbc;">Transcriptions</th></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Standard Mandarin</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hanyu_Pinyin" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanyu Pinyin">Hanyu Pinyin</a></th><td class="infobox-data">bā nián kàng zhàn</td></tr></tbody></table></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #b0c4de;">Third alternative Chinese name</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">Traditional Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data">十四年抗戰</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Simplified_Chinese_characters" title="Simplified Chinese characters">Simplified Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data">十四年抗战</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox-subbox mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="display:inline-table; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size: 100%; text-align: left;color: #202122; background-color: #f9ffbc;">Transcriptions</th></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Standard Mandarin</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hanyu_Pinyin" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanyu Pinyin">Hanyu Pinyin</a></th><td class="infobox-data">shí sì nián kàng zhàn</td></tr></tbody></table></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #b0c4de;">Fourth alternative Chinese name</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">Traditional Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data">第二次中日戰爭</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Simplified_Chinese_characters" title="Simplified Chinese characters">Simplified Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data">第二次中日战争</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox-subbox mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="display:inline-table; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size: 100%; text-align: left;color: #202122; background-color: #f9ffbc;">Transcriptions</th></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Standard Mandarin</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hanyu_Pinyin" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanyu Pinyin">Hanyu Pinyin</a></th><td class="infobox-data">dì èr cì zhōng rì zhàn zhēng</td></tr></tbody></table></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #b0c4de;">Fifth alternative Chinese name</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">Traditional Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data">(日本)侵華戰爭</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Simplified_Chinese_characters" title="Simplified Chinese characters">Simplified Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data">(日本)侵华战争</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox-subbox mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="display:inline-table; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size: 100%; text-align: left;color: #202122; background-color: #f9ffbc;">Transcriptions</th></tr></tbody></table></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #b0c4de;">Japanese name</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Kanji" title="Kanji">Kanji</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><div title="Japanese-language text"><div lang="ja"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li>支那事変</li><li>日支戦争</li><li>日中戦争</li></ul></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hiragana" title="Hiragana">Hiragana</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><div title="Japanese-language text"><div lang="ja"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li>しなじへん</li><li>にっしせんそう</li><li>にっちゅうせんそう</li></ul></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Katakana" title="Katakana">Katakana</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><div title="Japanese-language text"><div lang="ja"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li>シナジヘン</li><li>ニッシセンソウ</li><li>ニッチュウセンソウ</li></ul></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox-subbox mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="display:inline-table; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size: 100%; text-align: left;color: #202122; background-color: #f9ffbc;">Transcriptions</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Japanese" title="Romanization of Japanese">Romanization</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li>Shina jihen</li><li>Nisshi sensō</li><li>Nicchū sensō</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Kunrei-shiki_romanization" title="Kunrei-shiki romanization">Kunrei-shiki</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li>Sina zihen</li><li>Nissi sensou</li><li>Nittyuu sensou</li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr></tbody></table> The Second Sino-Japanese War was fought between the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Republic of China (1912–1949)">Republic of China</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Empire of Japan</a> between 1937 and 1945, following a period of war localized to <a href="/wiki/Manchuria" title="Manchuria">Manchuria</a> that started in 1931.<a href="#cite_note-27">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-28">[25]</a> It is considered part of <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, and often regarded as the beginning of World War II in Asia. It was the largest Asian war in the 20th century<a href="#cite_note-29">[26]</a> and has been described as "the Asian <a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">Holocaust</a>", in reference to the scale of <a href="/wiki/Japanese_war_crimes" title="Japanese war crimes">Japanese war crimes</a> against Chinese civilians.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHsiungLevine1992171-30">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-31">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-32">[29]</a> It is known in China as the War of Resistance against Japanese Aggression (<a href="/wiki/Simplified_Chinese_characters" title="Simplified Chinese characters">simplified Chinese</a>: 抗日战争; <a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">traditional Chinese</a>: 抗日戰爭). On 18 September 1931, the Japanese staged the <a href="/wiki/Mukden_incident" title="Mukden incident">Mukden incident</a>, a <a href="/wiki/False_flag" title="False flag">false flag</a> event fabricated to justify their <a href="/wiki/Japanese_invasion_of_Manchuria" title="Japanese invasion of Manchuria">invasion of Manchuria</a> and establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Puppet_state" title="Puppet state">puppet state</a> of <a href="/wiki/Manchukuo" title="Manchukuo">Manchukuo</a>. This is sometimes marked as the beginning of the war.<a href="#cite_note-Hotta2007-33">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-Paine2012-34">[31]</a> From 1931 to 1937, China and Japan engaged in skirmishes, including <a href="/wiki/January_28_incident" title="January 28 incident">in Shanghai</a> and in Northern China. Chinese Nationalist and Communist forces, respectively led by <a href="/wiki/Chiang_Kai-shek" title="Chiang Kai-shek">Chiang Kai-shek</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao Zedong</a>, had fought each other in the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Civil_War" title="Chinese Civil War">Chinese Civil War</a> since 1927. In late 1933, Chiang Kai-shek <a href="/wiki/Fifth_encirclement_campaign_against_the_Jiangxi_Soviet" title="Fifth encirclement campaign against the Jiangxi Soviet">encircled</a> the Chinese Communists in an attempt to finally destroy them, forcing the Communists into the <a href="/wiki/Long_March" title="Long March">Long March</a>, resulting in the Communists losing around 90% of their men. As a Japanese invasion became imminent, Chiang still refused to form a united front before he was <a href="/wiki/Xi%27an_Incident" title="Xi'an Incident">placed under house arrest by his subordinates who forced him</a> to form the <a href="/wiki/Second_United_Front" title="Second United Front">Second United Front</a> in late 1936 in order to resist the Japanese invasion together. The full-scale war began on 7 July 1937 with the <a href="/wiki/Marco_Polo_Bridge_incident" title="Marco Polo Bridge incident">Marco Polo Bridge incident</a> near <a href="/wiki/Beijing" title="Beijing">Beijing</a>, which prompted a full-scale Japanese invasion of the rest of China. The Japanese captured the capital of <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Nanking" title="Battle of Nanking">Nanjing</a> in 1937 and perpetrated the <a href="/wiki/Nanjing_Massacre" title="Nanjing Massacre">Nanjing Massacre</a>. After failing to stop the Japanese capture of <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Wuhan" title="Battle of Wuhan">Wuhan</a> in 1938, then China's de facto capital at the time, the <a href="/wiki/Nationalist_government" title="Nationalist government">Nationalist government</a> relocated to <a href="/wiki/Chongqing" title="Chongqing">Chongqing</a> in the Chinese interior. After the <a href="/wiki/Sino-Soviet_Non-Aggression_Pact" title="Sino-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact">Sino-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact</a>, Soviet aid bolstered the <a href="/wiki/National_Revolutionary_Army" title="National Revolutionary Army">National Revolutionary Army</a> and <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_Air_Force" title="Republic of China Air Force">Air Force</a>. By 1939, after Chinese victories at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Changsha_(1939)" title="Battle of Changsha (1939)">Changsha</a> and with Japan's lines of communications stretched deep into the interior, the war reached a stalemate. The Japanese were unable to defeat <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Chinese Communist Party">Chinese Communist Party</a> forces in <a href="/wiki/Shaanxi" title="Shaanxi">Shaanxi</a>, who waged a campaign of sabotage and <a href="/wiki/Guerrilla_warfare" title="Guerrilla warfare">guerrilla warfare</a>. In November 1939, Chinese nationalist forces <a href="/wiki/1939%E2%80%931940_Winter_Offensive" title="1939–1940 Winter Offensive">launched a large scale winter offensive</a>, and in August 1940, communist forces launched the <a href="/wiki/Hundred_Regiments_Offensive" title="Hundred Regiments Offensive">Hundred Regiments Offensive</a> in central China. In December 1941, Japan launched a surprise <a href="/wiki/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor" title="Attack on Pearl Harbor">attack on Pearl Harbor</a> and declared war on the United States. The US increased its aid to China under the <a href="/wiki/Lend-Lease_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Lend-Lease Act">Lend-Lease Act</a>, becoming its main financial and military supporter. With <a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Burma" title="Japanese occupation of Burma">Burma</a> cut off, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Army_Air_Forces" title="United States Army Air Forces">United States Army Air Forces</a> airlifted material over <a href="/wiki/The_Hump" title="The Hump">the Himalayas</a>. In 1944, Japan launched <a href="/wiki/Operation_Ichi-Go" title="Operation Ichi-Go">Operation Ichi-Go</a>, the invasion of <a href="/wiki/Henan" title="Henan">Henan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Changsha" title="Changsha">Changsha</a>. In 1945, the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Expeditionary_Force" title="Chinese Expeditionary Force">Chinese Expeditionary Force</a> resumed <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Northern_Burma_and_Western_Yunnan" title="Battle of Northern Burma and Western Yunnan">its advance in Burma</a> and completed the <a href="/wiki/Ledo_Road" title="Ledo Road">Ledo Road</a> linking India to China. China launched large counteroffensives in South China and repulsed a <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_West_Hunan" title="Battle of West Hunan">failed Japanese invasion of West Hunan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Second_Guangxi_campaign" title="Second Guangxi campaign">recaptured Japanese occupied regions of Guangxi</a>. Japan formally <a href="/wiki/Japanese_instrument_of_surrender" class="mw-redirect" title="Japanese instrument of surrender">surrendered</a> on 2 September 1945, following the <a href="/wiki/Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki</a>, <a href="/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Japanese_War" title="Soviet–Japanese War">Soviet declaration of war</a> and subsequent invasions of <a href="/wiki/Manchukuo" title="Manchukuo">Manchukuo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Korea_under_Japanese_rule" title="Korea under Japanese rule">Korea</a>. The war resulted in the deaths of around 20 million people, mostly Chinese civilians. China was recognized as one of the <a href="/wiki/Four_Policemen" title="Four Policemen">Big Four Allies</a>, regained all territories lost, and became one of the <a href="/wiki/Permanent_members_of_the_United_Nations_Security_Council" title="Permanent members of the United Nations Security Council">five permanent members</a> of the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council" title="United Nations Security Council">United Nations Security Council</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMitter2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidBqc_YkuyaCICpgPA369_369]-35">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-36">[33]</a> The Chinese Civil War resumed in 1946, ending with a communist victory and the <a href="/wiki/Proclamation_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Proclamation of the People's Republic of China">Proclamation of the People's Republic of China</a> in 1949. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Names">Names</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Sino-Japanese_War&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Names">edit</a>]</div> In China, the war is most commonly known as the "War of Resistance against Japanese Aggression" (<a href="/wiki/Simplified_Chinese_characters" title="Simplified Chinese characters">simplified Chinese</a>: 抗日战争; <a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">traditional Chinese</a>: 抗日戰爭), and shortened to "Resistance against Japanese Aggression" (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 抗日) or the "War of Resistance" (simplified Chinese: 抗战; traditional Chinese: 抗戰). It was also called the "Eight Years' War of Resistance" (simplified Chinese: 八年抗战; traditional Chinese: 八年抗戰), but in 2017 the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Ministry_of_Education" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese Ministry of Education">Chinese Ministry of Education</a> issued a directive stating that textbooks were to refer to the war as the "Fourteen Years' War of Resistance" (simplified Chinese: 十四年抗战; traditional Chinese: 十四年抗戰), reflecting a focus on the broader conflict with Japan going back to the 1931 <a href="/wiki/Japanese_invasion_of_Manchuria" title="Japanese invasion of Manchuria">Japanese invasion of Manchuria</a>.<a href="#cite_note-37">[34]</a> According to historian <a href="/wiki/Rana_Mitter" title="Rana Mitter">Rana Mitter</a>, historians in China are unhappy with the blanket revision, and (despite sustained tensions) the Republic of China did not consider itself to be in an ongoing war with Japan over these six years.<a href="#cite_note-38">[35]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">need quotation to verify</a>] It is also referred to as part of the "Global Anti-Fascist War". In Japan, nowadays, the name "Japan–China War" (<a href="/wiki/Japanese_language" title="Japanese language">Japanese</a>: 日中戦争, <a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Japanese" title="Romanization of Japanese">romanized</a>: Nitchū Sensō) is most commonly used because of its perceived objectivity. When the invasion of <a href="/wiki/China_proper" title="China proper">China proper</a> began in earnest in July 1937 near <a href="/wiki/Beijing" title="Beijing">Beijing</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">government of Japan</a> used "The North China Incident" (Japanese: 北支事變/華北事變, romanized: Hokushi Jihen/Kahoku Jihen), and with the outbreak of the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Shanghai" title="Battle of Shanghai">Battle of Shanghai</a> the following month, it was changed to "The China Incident" (Japanese: 支那事變, romanized: <a href="/wiki/Shina_(word)" title="Shina (word)">Shina</a> Jihen). The word "incident" (Japanese: 事變, romanized: jihen) was used by Japan, as neither country had made a formal <a href="/wiki/Declaration_of_war" title="Declaration of war">declaration of war</a>. From the Japanese perspective, localizing these conflicts was beneficial in preventing intervention from other countries, particularly the United Kingdom and the United States, which were its primary source of petroleum and steel respectively. A formal expression of these conflicts would potentially lead to an American embargo in accordance with the <a href="/wiki/Neutrality_Acts_of_the_1930s" title="Neutrality Acts of the 1930s">Neutrality Acts of the 1930s</a>.<a href="#cite_note-en-39">[36]</a> In addition, due to China's fractured political status, Japan often claimed that China was no longer a recognizable political entity on which war could be declared.<a href="#cite_note-40">[37]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_names">Other names</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Sino-Japanese_War&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Other names">edit</a>]</div> In <a href="/wiki/Propaganda_in_Japan_during_the_Second_Sino-Japanese_War_and_World_War_II" title="Propaganda in Japan during the Second Sino-Japanese War and World War II">Japanese propaganda</a>, the invasion of China became a crusade (Japanese: 聖戦, romanized: seisen), the first step of the "eight corners of the world under one roof" slogan (Japanese: 八紘一宇, romanized: <a href="/wiki/Hakk%C5%8D_ichiu" title="Hakkō ichiu">Hakkō ichiu</a>). In 1940, <a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Japan" title="Prime Minister of Japan">Japanese Prime Minister</a> <a href="/wiki/Fumimaro_Konoe" title="Fumimaro Konoe">Fumimaro Konoe</a> launched the <a href="/wiki/Taisei_Yokusankai" class="mw-redirect" title="Taisei Yokusankai">Taisei Yokusankai</a>. When both sides formally declared war in December 1941, the name was replaced by "<a href="/wiki/Pacific_War" title="Pacific War">Greater East Asia War</a>" (Japanese: 大東亞戰爭, romanized: Daitōa Sensō). Although the Japanese government still uses the term "China Incident" in formal documents,<a href="#cite_note-41">[38]</a> the word <a href="/wiki/Shina_(word)" title="Shina (word)">Shina</a> is considered derogatory by China and therefore the media in Japan often paraphrase with other expressions like "The Japan–China Incident" (Japanese: 日華事變/日支事變, romanized: Nikka Jiken/Nisshi Jiken), which were used by media as early as the 1930s. The name "Second Sino-Japanese War" is not commonly used in Japan as the China it fought a war against in 1894 to 1895 was led by the <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a>, and thus is called the Qing-Japanese War (Japanese: 日清戦争, romanized: Nisshin–Sensō), rather than the <a href="/wiki/First_Sino-Japanese_War" title="First Sino-Japanese War">First Sino-Japanese War</a>. Another term for the second war between Japan and China is the "Japanese invasion of China", a term used mainly in foreign and Chinese narratives.<a href="#cite_note-42">[39]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Sino-Japanese_War&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Background">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/China%E2%80%93Japan_relations" title="China–Japan relations">China–Japan relations</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Previous_war">Previous war</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Sino-Japanese_War&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Previous war">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/First_Sino-Japanese_War" title="First Sino-Japanese War">First Sino-Japanese War</a></div> The origins of the Second Sino-Japanese War can be traced back to the First Sino-Japanese War of 1894–1895, in which China, then under the rule of the Qing dynasty, was defeated by Japan and forced to cede <a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a> and recognize the full and complete independence of <a href="/wiki/Joseon" title="Joseon">Korea</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Shimonoseki" title="Treaty of Shimonoseki">Treaty of Shimonoseki</a>. Japan also annexed the <a href="/wiki/Senkaku_Islands" title="Senkaku Islands">Senkaku Islands</a>, which Japan claims were uninhabited, in early 1895 as a result of its victory at the end of the war. Japan had also attempted to annex the <a href="/wiki/Liaodong_Peninsula" title="Liaodong Peninsula">Liaodong Peninsula</a> following the war, though was forced to return it to China following an <a href="/wiki/Triple_Intervention" title="Triple Intervention">intervention</a> by <a href="/wiki/French_Third_Republic" title="French Third Republic">France</a>, <a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">Germany</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Economist-2012-12-empty-space-43">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-44">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-45">[42]</a> The Qing dynasty was on the brink of collapse due to internal revolts and the imposition of the <a href="/wiki/Unequal_treaties" title="Unequal treaties">unequal treaties</a>, while Japan had emerged as a <a href="/wiki/Great_power" title="Great power">great power</a> through its <a href="/wiki/Modernization" class="mw-redirect" title="Modernization">modernization</a> measures.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson5-46">[43]</a> In 1905, Japan successfully defeated the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Russo-Japanese_War" title="Russo-Japanese War">Russo-Japanese War</a>, gaining <a href="/wiki/Dalian" title="Dalian">Tailen</a> and southern <a href="/wiki/Sakhalin" title="Sakhalin">Sakhalin</a> and establishing a <a href="/wiki/Korean_Empire" title="Korean Empire">protectorate</a> over Korea. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Warlords_in_the_Republic_of_China">Warlords in the Republic of China</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Sino-Japanese_War&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Warlords in the Republic of China">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/1911_Revolution" title="1911 Revolution">1911 Revolution</a> and <a href="/wiki/Warlord_Era" title="Warlord Era">Warlord Era</a></div> In 1911, factions of the Qing Army uprose against the government, staging a <a href="/wiki/1911_Revolution" title="1911 Revolution">revolution</a> that swept across China's southern provinces.<a href="#cite_note-47">[44]</a> The Qing responded by appointing <a href="/wiki/Yuan_Shikai" title="Yuan Shikai">Yuan Shikai</a>, commander of the loyalist <a href="/wiki/Beiyang_Army" title="Beiyang Army">Beiyang Army</a>, as temporary prime minister in order to subdue the revolution.<a href="#cite_note-48">[45]</a> Yuan, wanting to remain in power, compromised with the revolutionaries, and agreed to abolish the monarchy and establish a new republican government, under the condition he be appointed president of China. The new <a href="/wiki/Beiyang_government" title="Beiyang government">Beiyang government</a> of China was proclaimed in March 1912, after which Yuan Shikai began to amass power for himself. In 1913, the parliamentary political leader <a href="/wiki/Song_Jiaoren" title="Song Jiaoren">Song Jiaoren was assassinated</a>; it is generally believed Yuan Shikai ordered the assassination.<a href="#cite_note-49">[46]</a> Yuan Shikai then forced the parliament to pass a bill to strengthen the power of the president and sought to <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_China_(1915%E2%80%931916)" title="Empire of China (1915–1916)">restore the imperial system</a>, becoming the new emperor of China. However, there was little support for an imperial restoration among the general population, and protests and demonstrations soon broke out across the country. Yuan's attempts at restoring the monarchy triggered the <a href="/wiki/National_Protection_War" title="National Protection War">National Protection War</a>, and Yuan Shikai was overthrown after only a few months. In the aftermath of Shikai's death in June 1916, control of China fell into the hands of the Beiyang Army leadership. The Beiyang government was a civilian government in name, but in practice it was a <a href="/wiki/Military_dictatorship" title="Military dictatorship">military dictatorship</a><a href="#cite_note-50">[47]</a> with a different warlord controlling each province of the country. China was reduced to a fractured state. As a result, China's prosperity began to wither and its economy declined. This instability presented an opportunity for nationalistic politicians in Japan to press for territorial expansion.<a href="#cite_note-51">[48]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Twenty-One_Demands">Twenty-One Demands</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Sino-Japanese_War&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Twenty-One Demands">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Twenty-One_Demands" title="Twenty-One Demands">Twenty-One Demands</a></div> In 1915, Japan issued the <a href="/wiki/Twenty-One_Demands" title="Twenty-One Demands">Twenty-One Demands</a> to extort further political and commercial privilege from China, which was accepted by the regime of Yuan Shikai.<a href="#cite_note-52">[49]</a> Following <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>, Japan acquired the <a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empire</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Sphere_of_influence" title="Sphere of influence">sphere of influence</a> in <a href="/wiki/Shandong" title="Shandong">Shandong</a> province,<a href="#cite_note-53">[50]</a> leading to nationwide anti-Japanese <a href="/wiki/May_Fourth_Movement" title="May Fourth Movement">protests and mass demonstrations</a> in China. The country remained fragmented under the <a href="/wiki/Beiyang_Government" class="mw-redirect" title="Beiyang Government">Beiyang Government</a> and was unable to resist foreign incursions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor33-54">[51]</a> For the purpose of unifying China and defeating the regional warlords, the <a href="/wiki/Kuomintang" title="Kuomintang">Kuomintang</a> (KMT) in <a href="/wiki/Guangzhou" title="Guangzhou">Guangzhou</a> launched the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Expedition" title="Northern Expedition">Northern Expedition</a> from 1926 to 1928 with limited assistance from the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor57-55">[52]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Jinan_incident">Jinan incident</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Sino-Japanese_War&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Jinan incident">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Jinan_incident" title="Jinan incident">Jinan incident</a></div> The <a href="/wiki/National_Revolutionary_Army" title="National Revolutionary Army">National Revolutionary Army</a> (NRA) formed by the Kuomintang swept through southern and central China until it was checked in Shandong, where confrontations with the Japanese garrison escalated into armed conflict. The conflicts were collectively known as the Jinan incident of 1928, during which time the Japanese military killed several Chinese officials and fired artillery shells into Jinan. According to the investigation results of the Association of the Families of the Victims of the Jinan massacre, it showed that 6,123 Chinese civilians were killed and 1,701 injured.<a href="#cite_note-56">[53]</a> Relations between the Chinese Nationalist government and Japan severely worsened as a result of the Jinan incident.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor79-57">[54]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor82-58">[55]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reunification_of_China_(1928)">Reunification of China (1928)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Sino-Japanese_War&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Reunification of China (1928)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Chinese_reunification_(1928)" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese reunification (1928)">Chinese reunification (1928)</a></div> As the National Revolutionary Army approached Beijing, Zhang Zuolin decided to retreat back to Manchuria, before he was <a href="/wiki/Huanggutun_Incident" class="mw-redirect" title="Huanggutun Incident">assassinated</a> by the Kwantung Army in 1928.<a href="#cite_note-59">[56]</a> His son, <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Xueliang" title="Zhang Xueliang">Zhang Xueliang</a>, took over as the leader of the Fengtian clique in Manchuria. Later in the same year, Zhang declared his allegiance to the Nationalist government in Nanjing under <a href="/wiki/Chiang_Kai-shek" title="Chiang Kai-shek">Chiang Kai-shek</a>, and consequently, China was nominally reunified under one government.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor83-60">[57]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1929_Sino-Soviet_war">1929 Sino-Soviet war</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Sino-Japanese_War&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: 1929 Sino-Soviet war">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sino-Soviet_conflict_(1929)" title="Sino-Soviet conflict (1929)">Sino-Soviet conflict (1929)</a></div> The July–November 1929 conflict over the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Eastern_Railroad" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese Eastern Railroad">Chinese Eastern Railroad</a> (CER) further increased the tensions in the Northeast that led to the <a href="/wiki/Mukden_Incident" class="mw-redirect" title="Mukden Incident">Mukden Incident</a> and eventually the Second Sino-Japanese War. The Soviet <a href="/wiki/Red_Army" title="Red Army">Red Army</a> victory over Xueliang's forces not only reasserted Soviet control over the CER in Manchuria but revealed Chinese military weaknesses that Japanese Kwantung Army officers were quick to note.<a href="#cite_note-61">[58]</a> The Soviet Red Army performance also stunned the Japanese. Manchuria was central to Japan's East Asia policy. Both the 1921 and 1927 Imperial Eastern Region Conferences reconfirmed Japan's commitment to be the dominant power in the Northeast. The 1929 Red Army victory shook that policy to the core and reopened the Manchurian problem. By 1930, the Kwantung Army realized they faced a Red Army that was only growing stronger. The time to act was drawing near and Japanese plans to conquer the Northeast were accelerated.<a href="#cite_note-62">[59]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chinese_Communist_Party">Chinese Communist Party</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Sino-Japanese_War&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Chinese Communist Party">edit</a>]</div> In 1930, the <a href="/wiki/Central_Plains_War" title="Central Plains War">Central Plains War</a> broke out across China, involving regional commanders who had fought in alliance with the Kuomintang during the Northern Expedition, and the Nanjing government under Chiang. The <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Chinese Communist Party">Chinese Communist Party</a> (CCP) previously fought openly against the Nanjing government after the <a href="/wiki/Shanghai_massacre_of_1927" class="mw-redirect" title="Shanghai massacre of 1927">Shanghai massacre of 1927</a>, and they continued to expand during this protracted civil war. The Kuomintang government in Nanjing decided to focus their efforts on suppressing the Chinese Communists through the <a href="/wiki/Encirclement_Campaigns" class="mw-redirect" title="Encirclement Campaigns">Encirclement Campaigns</a>, following the policy of "first internal pacification, then external resistance" (Chinese: 攘外必先安內). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Prelude:_invasion_of_Manchuria_and_Northern_China">Prelude: invasion of Manchuria and Northern China</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Sino-Japanese_War&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Prelude: invasion of Manchuria and Northern China">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Japanese_invasion_of_Manchuria" title="Japanese invasion of Manchuria">Japanese invasion of Manchuria</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mukden_1931_japan_shenyang.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Mukden_1931_japan_shenyang.jpg/220px-Mukden_1931_japan_shenyang.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Mukden_1931_japan_shenyang.jpg/330px-Mukden_1931_japan_shenyang.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cb/Mukden_1931_japan_shenyang.jpg 2x" data-file-width="417" data-file-height="333" /></a><figcaption>Japanese troops entering <a href="/wiki/Shenyang" title="Shenyang">Shenyang</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Mukden_Incident" class="mw-redirect" title="Mukden Incident">Mukden Incident</a></figcaption></figure> The internecine warfare in China provided excellent opportunities for Japan, which saw Manchuria as a limitless supply of raw materials, a market for its manufactured goods (now excluded from the markets of many Western countries as a result of <a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Depression</a>-era <a href="/wiki/Tariff" title="Tariff">tariffs</a>), and a protective <a href="/wiki/Buffer_state" title="Buffer state">buffer state</a> against the Soviet Union in <a href="/wiki/Siberia" title="Siberia">Siberia</a>. As a result, the Japanese Army was widely prevalent in Manchuria immediately following the Japanese victory in the Russo-Japanese War in 1905, where Japan gained significant territory in Manchuria. As a result of their strengthened position, by 1915 Japan had negotiated a significant amount of economic privilege in the region by pressuring <a href="/wiki/Yuan_Shikai" title="Yuan Shikai">Yuan Shikai</a>, the president of the Republic of China at the time. With a widened range of economic privileges in Manchuria, Japan began focusing on developing and protecting matters of economic interests. This included railroads, businesses, natural resources, and a general control of the territory. With its influence growing, the Japanese Army began to justify its presence by stating that it was simply protecting its own economic interests. However militarists in the Japanese Army began pushing for an expansion of influence, leading to the Japanese Army assassinating the warlord of Manchuria, <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Zuolin" title="Zhang Zuolin">Zhang Zuolin</a>. This was done with hopes that it would start a crisis that would allow Japan to expand their power and influence in the region. When this was not as successful as they desired, [<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Japan then decided to invade Manchuria outright after the <a href="/wiki/Mukden_incident" title="Mukden incident">Mukden incident</a> in September 1931. Japanese soldiers set off a bomb on the Southern Manchurian Railroad in order to provoke an opportunity to act in "self defense" and invade outright. Japan charged that its rights in Manchuria, which had been established as a result of its victory in 1905 at the end of the <a href="/wiki/Russo-Japanese_War" title="Russo-Japanese War">Russo-Japanese War</a>, had been systematically violated and there were "more than 120 cases of infringement of rights and interests, interference with business, boycott of Japanese goods, unreasonable taxation, detention of individuals, confiscation of properties, eviction, demand for cessation of business, assault and battery, and the oppression of Korean residents".<a href="#cite_note-63">[60]</a> After five months of fighting, Japan established the puppet state of <a href="/wiki/Manchukuo" title="Manchukuo">Manchukuo</a> in 1932, and installed the last Emperor of China, <a href="/wiki/Puyi" title="Puyi">Puyi</a>, as its puppet ruler. Militarily too weak to challenge Japan directly, China appealed to the <a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations" title="League of Nations">League of Nations</a> for help. The League's investigation led to the publication of the <a href="/wiki/Lytton_Report" title="Lytton Report">Lytton Report</a>, condemning Japan for its incursion into Manchuria, causing Japan to withdraw from the League of Nations. No country took action against Japan beyond tepid censure. From 1931 until summer 1937, the Nationalist Army under Chiang Kai-shek did little to oppose Japanese encroachment into China.<a href="#cite_note-Crean-64">[61]</a>: 69  Incessant fighting followed the Mukden Incident. In 1932, Chinese and Japanese troops fought the <a href="/wiki/January_28_Incident" class="mw-redirect" title="January 28 Incident">January 28 Incident</a> battle. This resulted in the demilitarization of <a href="/wiki/Shanghai" title="Shanghai">Shanghai</a>, which forbade the Chinese to deploy troops in their own city. In Manchukuo there was an <a href="/wiki/Pacification_of_Manchukuo" title="Pacification of Manchukuo">ongoing campaign</a> to pacify the <a href="/wiki/Anti-Japanese_Volunteer_Armies" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Japanese Volunteer Armies">Anti-Japanese Volunteer Armies</a> that arose from widespread outrage over the policy of non-resistance to Japan. On 15 April 1932, the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Soviet_Republic" title="Chinese Soviet Republic">Chinese Soviet Republic</a> led by the Communists declared war on Japan.<a href="#cite_note-65">[62]</a> In 1933, the Japanese <a href="/wiki/Defense_of_the_Great_Wall" title="Defense of the Great Wall">attacked the Great Wall</a> region. The <a href="/wiki/Tanggu_Truce" title="Tanggu Truce">Tanggu Truce</a> established in its aftermath, gave Japan control of <a href="/wiki/Rehe_Province" title="Rehe Province">Rehe Province</a>, as well as a demilitarized zone between the Great Wall and Beijing-Tianjin region. Japan aimed to create another buffer zone between Manchukuo and the Chinese Nationalist government in Nanjing. Japan increasingly exploited China's internal conflicts to reduce the strength of its fractious opponents. Even years after the Northern Expedition, the political power of the Nationalist government was limited to just the area of the <a href="/wiki/Yangtze_River_Delta" class="mw-redirect" title="Yangtze River Delta">Yangtze River Delta</a>. Other sections of China were essentially in the hands of local Chinese warlords. Japan sought various <a href="/wiki/Hanjian" title="Hanjian">Chinese collaborators</a> and helped them establish governments friendly to Japan. This policy was called the Specialization of <a href="/wiki/North_China" title="North China">North China</a> (華北特殊化; huáběitèshūhùa), more commonly known as the North China Autonomous Movement. The northern provinces affected by this policy were <a href="/wiki/Chahar_Province" title="Chahar Province">Chahar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Suiyuan" title="Suiyuan">Suiyuan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hebei" title="Hebei">Hebei</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shanxi" title="Shanxi">Shanxi</a>, and Shandong. This Japanese policy was most effective in the area of what is now <a href="/wiki/Inner_Mongolia" title="Inner Mongolia">Inner Mongolia</a> and Hebei. In 1935, under Japanese pressure, China signed the <a href="/wiki/He%E2%80%93Umezu_Agreement" title="He–Umezu Agreement">He–Umezu Agreement</a>, which forbade the KMT to conduct party operations in Hebei. In the same year, the <a href="/wiki/Chin%E2%80%93Doihara_Agreement" class="mw-redirect" title="Chin–Doihara Agreement">Chin–Doihara Agreement</a> was signed expelling the KMT from Chahar. Thus, by the end of 1935 the Chinese government had essentially abandoned northern China. In its place, the Japanese-backed <a href="/wiki/East_Hebei_Autonomous_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="East Hebei Autonomous Council">East Hebei Autonomous Council</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Hebei%E2%80%93Chahar_Political_Council" title="Hebei–Chahar Political Council">Hebei–Chahar Political Council</a> were established. There in the empty space of Chahar the <a href="/wiki/Mengjiang" title="Mengjiang">Mongol military government</a> was formed on 12 May 1936. Japan provided all the necessary military and economic aid. Afterwards Chinese volunteer forces continued to resist Japanese aggression in Manchuria, and <a href="/wiki/Actions_in_Inner_Mongolia_(1933%E2%80%931936)" title="Actions in Inner Mongolia (1933–1936)">Chahar and Suiyuan</a>. Some Chinese historians believe the 18 September 1931 Japanese invasion of Manchuria marks the start of the War of Resistance.<a href="#cite_note-:2-66">[63]</a> Although not the conventional Western view, British historian Rana Mitter describes this Chinese trend of historical analysis as "perfectly reasonable".<a href="#cite_note-:2-66">[63]</a> In 2017, the Chinese government officially announced that it would adopt this view.<a href="#cite_note-:2-66">[63]</a> Under this interpretation, the 1931–1937 period is viewed as the "partial" war, while 1937–1945 is a period of "total" war.<a href="#cite_note-:2-66">[63]</a> This view of a fourteen-year war has political significance because it provides more recognition for the role of northeast China in the War of Resistance.<a href="#cite_note-:2-66">[63]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="1937:_Full-scale_invasion_of_China">1937: Full-scale invasion of China</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Sino-Japanese_War&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: 1937: Full-scale invasion of China">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Marco_Polo_Bridge_Incident" class="mw-redirect" title="Marco Polo Bridge Incident">Marco Polo Bridge Incident</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jiangjieshi-declare.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Jiangjieshi-declare.jpg/170px-Jiangjieshi-declare.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="231" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Jiangjieshi-declare.jpg/255px-Jiangjieshi-declare.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Jiangjieshi-declare.jpg/340px-Jiangjieshi-declare.jpg 2x" data-file-width="460" data-file-height="626" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Chiang_Kai-shek" title="Chiang Kai-shek">Chiang Kai-shek</a> announced the <a href="/wiki/Kuomintang" title="Kuomintang">Kuomintang</a> policy of resistance against Japan at <a href="/wiki/Lushan_District" class="mw-redirect" title="Lushan District">Lushan</a> on 10 July 1937, three days after the <a href="/wiki/Marco_Polo_Bridge_Incident" class="mw-redirect" title="Marco Polo Bridge Incident">Marco Polo Bridge Incident</a>.</figcaption></figure> On the night of 7 July 1937, Chinese and Japanese troops exchanged fire in the vicinity of the <a href="/wiki/Marco_Polo_Bridge" title="Marco Polo Bridge">Marco Polo (or Lugou) Bridge</a>, a crucial access-route to Beijing. What began as confused, sporadic skirmishing soon escalated into a <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Beiping%E2%80%93Tianjin" title="Battle of Beiping–Tianjin">full-scale battle</a> in which Beijing and its port city of Tianjin fell to invading Japanese forces (July–August 1937). , <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Battle_of_Beiping–Tianjin">Battle of Beiping–Tianjin</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Sino-Japanese_War&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Battle of Beiping–Tianjin">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Beiping%E2%80%93Tianjin" title="Battle of Beiping–Tianjin">Battle of Beiping–Tianjin</a></div> On 11 July, in accordance with the Goso conference, the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Army_General_Staff" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial Japanese Army General Staff">Imperial Japanese Army General Staff</a> authorized the deployment of an <a href="/wiki/Infantry_division" class="mw-redirect" title="Infantry division">infantry division</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Chosen_Army_of_Japan" class="mw-redirect" title="Chosen Army of Japan">Chōsen Army</a>, two combined brigades from the <a href="/wiki/Kwantung_Army" title="Kwantung Army">Kwantung Army</a> and an air regiment composed of 18 squadrons as reinforcements to Northern China. By 20 July, total Japanese military strength in the Beijing-Tianjin area exceeded 180,000 personnel. The Japanese gave Sung and his troops "free passage" before moving in to pacify resistance in areas surrounding Beijing (then Beiping) and Tianjin. After 24 days of combat, the Chinese 29th Army was forced to withdraw. The Japanese captured Beijing and the <a href="/wiki/Taku_Forts" title="Taku Forts">Taku Forts</a> at Tianjin on 29 and 30 July respectively, thus concluding the Beijing-Tianjin campaign. However, the Japanese Army had been given orders not to advance further than the Yongding River. In a sudden <a href="/wiki/Volte-face" title="Volte-face">volte-face</a>, the Konoe government's foreign minister opened negotiations with Chiang Kai-shek's government in Nanjing and stated: "Japan wants Chinese cooperation, not Chinese land." Nevertheless, negotiations failed to move further. The <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Shanghai#Ōyama_Incident" title="Battle of Shanghai">Ōyama Incident</a> on 9 August escalated the skirmishes and battles into full scale warfare.<a href="#cite_note-Hoyt2001-67">[64]</a> The 29th Army's resistance (and poor equipment) inspired the 1937 "<a href="/wiki/Sword_March" class="mw-redirect" title="Sword March">Sword March</a>", which—with slightly reworked lyrics—became the National Revolutionary Army's standard <a href="/wiki/Marching_cadence" class="mw-redirect" title="Marching cadence">marching cadence</a> and popularized the <a href="/wiki/Racial_epithet" class="mw-redirect" title="Racial epithet">racial epithet</a> <a href="/wiki/Guizi" title="Guizi">guizi</a> to describe the Japanese invaders.<a href="#cite_note-68">[65]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Battle_of_Shanghai">Battle of Shanghai</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Sino-Japanese_War&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Battle of Shanghai">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Shanghai" title="Battle of Shanghai">Battle of Shanghai</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bloody_Saturday,_Shanghai.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Bloody_Saturday%2C_Shanghai.jpg/220px-Bloody_Saturday%2C_Shanghai.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="179" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Bloody_Saturday%2C_Shanghai.jpg/330px-Bloody_Saturday%2C_Shanghai.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Bloody_Saturday%2C_Shanghai.jpg/440px-Bloody_Saturday%2C_Shanghai.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2940" data-file-height="2396" /></a><figcaption>A baby sits in the remains of a Shanghai train station on <a href="/wiki/Bloody_Saturday_(photograph)" title="Bloody Saturday (photograph)">'Bloody Saturday'</a>, 1937</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Imperial_General_Headquarters" title="Imperial General Headquarters">Imperial General Headquarters</a> (GHQ) in Tokyo, content with the gains acquired in northern China following the Marco Polo Bridge Incident, initially showed reluctance to escalate the conflict into a full-scale war. Following the shooting of two Japanese officers who were attempting to enter the Hongqiao military airport on 9 August 1937, the Japanese demanded that all Chinese forces withdraw from Shanghai; the Chinese outright refused to meet this demand. In response, both the Chinese and the Japanese marched reinforcements into the Shanghai area. Chiang concentrated his best troops north of Shanghai in an effort to impress the city's large foreign community and increase China's foreign support.<a href="#cite_note-Crean-64">[61]</a>: 71  On 13 August 1937, Kuomintang soldiers attacked <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Navy_Land_Forces" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial Japanese Navy Land Forces">Japanese Marine</a> positions in Shanghai, with Japanese army troops and marines in turn crossing into the city with naval gunfire support at <a href="/wiki/Zhabei" title="Zhabei">Zhabei</a>, leading to the Battle of Shanghai. On 14 August, Chinese forces under the command of <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Zhizhong" title="Zhang Zhizhong">Zhang Zhizhong</a> were ordered to capture or destroy the Japanese strongholds in Shanghai, leading to bitter street fighting. In an attack on the Japanese cruiser <a href="/wiki/Japanese_cruiser_Izumo" title="Japanese cruiser Izumo">Izumo</a>, Kuomintang planes accidentally bombed the <a href="/wiki/Shanghai_International_Settlement" title="Shanghai International Settlement">Shanghai International Settlement</a>, which led to more than 3,000 civilian deaths.<a href="#cite_note-Wakeman280281-69">[66]</a> In the three days from 14 August through 16, 1937, the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Navy" title="Imperial Japanese Navy">Imperial Japanese Navy</a> (IJN) sent many <a href="/wiki/Sortie" title="Sortie">sorties</a> of the then-advanced long-ranged <a href="/wiki/Mitsubishi_G3M" title="Mitsubishi G3M">G3M</a> medium-heavy land-based bombers and assorted <a href="/wiki/List_of_aircraft_of_the_Japanese_Navy" class="mw-redirect" title="List of aircraft of the Japanese Navy">carrier-based aircraft</a> with the expectation of destroying the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_Air_Force" title="Republic of China Air Force">Chinese Air Force</a>. However, the Imperial Japanese Navy encountered unexpected resistance from the defending Chinese <a href="/wiki/Curtiss_F11C_Goshawk" title="Curtiss F11C Goshawk">Curtiss Hawk II</a>/<a href="/wiki/Curtiss_Hawk_III" class="mw-redirect" title="Curtiss Hawk III">Hawk III</a> and <a href="/wiki/Boeing_P-26_Peashooter" title="Boeing P-26 Peashooter">P-26/281 Peashooter</a> fighter squadrons; suffering heavy (50%) losses from the defending Chinese pilots (14 August was subsequently commemorated by the KMT as China's Air Force Day).<a href="#cite_note-70">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-71">[68]</a> The skies of China had become a testing zone for advanced <a href="/wiki/Biplane" title="Biplane">biplane</a> and new-generation <a href="/wiki/Monoplane" title="Monoplane">monoplane</a> combat-aircraft designs. The introduction of the advanced <a href="/wiki/Mitsubishi_A5M" title="Mitsubishi A5M">A5M</a> "Claude" fighters into the Shanghai-Nanjing theater of operations, beginning on 18 September 1937, helped the Japanese achieve a certain level of <a href="/wiki/Air_superiority_fighter" title="Air superiority fighter">air superiority</a>.<a href="#cite_note-72">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-73">[70]</a> However the few experienced Chinese veteran pilots, as well as several Chinese-American volunteer fighter pilots, including Maj. <a href="/wiki/Art_Chin" class="mw-redirect" title="Art Chin">Art Chin</a>, Maj. <a href="/wiki/John_Wong_Pan-yang" title="John Wong Pan-yang">John Wong Pan-yang</a>, and Capt. Chan Kee-Wong, even in their older and slower biplanes, proved more than able to hold their own against the sleek A5Ms in <a href="/wiki/Dogfight" title="Dogfight">dogfights</a>, and it also proved to be a <a href="/wiki/Attrition_warfare" title="Attrition warfare">battle of attrition</a> against the Chinese Air Force. At the start of the battle, the local strength of the NRA was around five divisions, or about 70,000 troops, while local Japanese forces comprised about 6,300 marines. On 23 August, the Chinese Air Force attacked Japanese troop landings at Wusongkou in northern Shanghai with Hawk III fighter-attack planes and P-26/281 fighter escorts, and the Japanese intercepted most of the attack with <a href="/wiki/Nakajima_A2N" title="Nakajima A2N">A2N</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nakajima_A4N" title="Nakajima A4N">A4N</a> fighters from the aircraft carriers <a href="/wiki/Japanese_aircraft_carrier_H%C5%8Dsh%C5%8D" title="Japanese aircraft carrier Hōshō">Hosho</a> and <a href="/wiki/Japanese_aircraft_carrier_Ry%C5%ABj%C5%8D" title="Japanese aircraft carrier Ryūjō">Ryujo</a>, shooting down several of the Chinese planes while losing a single A4N in the dogfight with Lt. <a href="/wiki/John_Huang_Xinrui" class="mw-redirect" title="John Huang Xinrui">Huang Xinrui</a> in his P-26/281; the Japanese Army reinforcements succeeded in landing in northern Shanghai.<a href="#cite_note-74">[71]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Army" title="Imperial Japanese Army">Imperial Japanese Army</a> (IJA) ultimately committed over 300,000 troops, along with numerous naval vessels and aircraft, to capture the city. After more than three months of intense fighting, their casualties far exceeded initial expectations.<a href="#cite_note-75">[72]</a> On 26 October, the IJA captured Dachang, a key strong-point within Shanghai, and on 5 November, additional reinforcements from Japan landed in Hangzhou Bay. Finally, on 9 November, the NRA began a general retreat. Japan did not immediately occupy the Shanghai International Settlement or the <a href="/wiki/Shanghai_French_Concession" title="Shanghai French Concession">Shanghai French Concession</a>, areas which were outside of China's control due to the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_port" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaty port">treaty port</a> system. Japan moved into these areas after its 1941 declaration of war against the United States and the United Kingdom.<a href="#cite_note-:02-76">[73]</a>: 11–12  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Battle_of_Nanjing_and_massacre">Battle of Nanjing and massacre</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Sino-Japanese_War&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Battle of Nanjing and massacre">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Nanjing_Massacre" title="Nanjing Massacre">Nanjing Massacre</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Photo_07_(The_%22Shame%22_Album).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Photo_07_%28The_%22Shame%22_Album%29.jpg/170px-Photo_07_%28The_%22Shame%22_Album%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="210" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Photo_07_%28The_%22Shame%22_Album%29.jpg/255px-Photo_07_%28The_%22Shame%22_Album%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Photo_07_%28The_%22Shame%22_Album%29.jpg/340px-Photo_07_%28The_%22Shame%22_Album%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="485" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>A Chinese POW about to be beheaded by a Japanese officer with a <a href="/wiki/Shin_gunto" class="mw-redirect" title="Shin gunto">shin gunto</a></figcaption></figure> Building on the hard-won victory in Shanghai, the IJA advanced on and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Nanjing" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Nanjing">captured the KMT capital city</a> of Nanjing (December 1937) and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Xinkou" title="Battle of Xinkou">Northern Shanxi</a> (September – November 1937). Upon the capture of Nanjing, Japanese committed massive war atrocities including mass murder and rape of Chinese civilians after 13 December 1937, which has been referred to as the <a href="/wiki/Nanjing_Massacre" title="Nanjing Massacre">Nanjing Massacre</a>. Over the next several weeks, Japanese troops perpetrated numerous mass executions and tens of thousands of rapes. The army looted and burned the surrounding towns and the city, destroying more than a third of the buildings.<a href="#cite_note-77">[74]</a> The number of Chinese killed in the massacre has been subject to much debate, with estimates ranging from 100,000 to more than 300,000.<a href="#cite_note-highest_death_toll_estimate-78">[75]</a> The numbers agreed upon by most scholars are provided by the <a href="/wiki/International_Military_Tribunal_for_the_Far_East" title="International Military Tribunal for the Far East">International Military Tribunal for the Far East</a>, which estimate at least 200,000 murders and 20,000 rapes.<a href="#cite_note-79">[76]</a> The Japanese atrocities in Nanjing, especially following the Chinese defense of Shanghai, increased international goodwill for the Chinese people and the Chinese government.<a href="#cite_note-Crean-64">[61]</a>: 72  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="1938">1938</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Sino-Japanese_War&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: 1938">edit</a>]</div> By January 1938, most conventional Kuomintang forces had either been defeated or no longer offered major resistance to Japanese advances. Communist-led rural resistance to the Japanese remained active, however.<a href="#cite_note-:4-80">[77]</a>: 122  At the start of 1938, the leadership in Tokyo still hoped to limit the scope of the conflict to occupy areas around Shanghai, Nanjing and most of northern China. They thought this would preserve strength for an anticipated showdown with the Soviet Union, but by now the Japanese government and GHQ had effectively lost control of the Japanese army in China. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Battles_of_Xuzhou_and_Taierzhuang">Battles of Xuzhou and Taierzhuang</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Sino-Japanese_War&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Battles of Xuzhou and Taierzhuang">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Taierzhuang.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Taierzhuang.jpg/220px-Taierzhuang.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Taierzhuang.jpg/330px-Taierzhuang.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Taierzhuang.jpg/440px-Taierzhuang.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1063" data-file-height="699" /></a><figcaption>Chinese soldiers in <a href="/wiki/Urban_warfare" title="Urban warfare">urban warfare</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Taierzhuang" title="Battle of Taierzhuang">Battle of Taierzhuang</a>, March–April 1938</figcaption></figure> With many victories achieved, Japanese field generals <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Xuzhou" title="Battle of Xuzhou">escalated the war in Jiangsu</a> in an attempt to wipe out the Chinese forces in the area. The Japanese managed to overcome Chinese resistance around Bengbu and the Teng xian, but were fought to a halt at Linyi.<a href="#cite_note-81">[78]</a> The Japanese were then decisively defeated at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Taierzhuang" title="Battle of Taierzhuang">Battle of Taierzhuang</a> (March–April 1938), where the Chinese used night attacks and <a href="/wiki/Close-quarters_combat" class="mw-redirect" title="Close-quarters combat">close quarters combat</a> to overcome Japanese advantages in firepower. The Chinese also severed Japanese supply lines from the rear, forcing the Japanese to retreat in the first Chinese victory of the war.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMitter2013149–150-82">[79]</a> The Japanese then attempted to surround and destroy the Chinese armies in the Xuzhou region with an enormous <a href="/wiki/Pincer_movement" title="Pincer movement">pincer movement</a>. However the majority of the Chinese forces, some 200,000-300,000 troops in 40 divisions, managed to break out of the encirclement and retreat to defend Wuhan, the Japanese's next target.<a href="#cite_note-83">[80]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Battle_of_Wuhan">Battle of Wuhan</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Sino-Japanese_War&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Battle of Wuhan">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:NRAWanjialing1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/NRAWanjialing1.jpg/220px-NRAWanjialing1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/NRAWanjialing1.jpg/330px-NRAWanjialing1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/00/NRAWanjialing1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="302" /></a><figcaption>Chinese troops advancing near Wanjialing</figcaption></figure> Following Xuzhou, the IJA changed its strategy and deployed almost all of its existing armies in China to <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Wuhan" title="Battle of Wuhan">attack the city of Wuhan</a>, which had become the political, economic and military center of China, in hopes of destroying the fighting strength of the NRA and forcing the KMT government to negotiate for peace.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuang168-84">[81]</a> On 6 June, they captured Kaifeng, the capital of Henan, and threatened to take Zhengzhou, the junction of the Pinghan and Longhai railways. The Japanese forces, numbering some 400,000 men, were faced by over 1 million NRA troops in the Central Yangtze region. Having learned from their defeats at Shanghai and Nanjing, the Chinese had adapted themselves to fight the Japanese and managed to check their forces on many fronts, slowing and sometimes reversing the Japanese advances, as in the case of <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Wanjialing" title="Battle of Wanjialing">Wanjialing</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Mackinnon2008-85">[82]</a>: 39–41  To overcome Chinese resistance, Japanese forces frequently deployed poison gas and committed atrocities against civilians, such as a "mini-Nanjing Massacre" in the city of <a href="/wiki/Jiujiang" title="Jiujiang">Jiujiang</a> upon its capture.<a href="#cite_note-Mackinnon2008-85">[82]</a>: 39 <a href="#cite_note-86">[83]</a> After four months of intense combat, the Nationalists were forced to abandon Wuhan by October, and its government and armies retreated to Chongqing.<a href="#cite_note-Crean-64">[61]</a>: 72  Both sides had suffered tremendous casualties in the battle, with the Chinese losing up to 500,000 soldiers killed or wounded,<a href="#cite_note-Mackinnon2008-85">[82]</a>: 42 </ref> and the Japanese up to 200,000.<a href="#cite_note-87">[84]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Communist_resistance">Communist resistance</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Sino-Japanese_War&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Communist resistance">edit</a>]</div> After their victory at Wuhan, Japan advanced deep into Communist territory and redeployed 50,000 troops to the <a href="/wiki/Shanxi-Chahar-Hebei_Border_Region" class="mw-redirect" title="Shanxi-Chahar-Hebei Border Region">Shanxi-Chahar-Hebei Border Region</a>. Elements of the Eighth Route Army soon attacked the advancing Japanese, inflicting between 3,000 and 5,000 casualties and resulting in a Japanese retreat. As the Japanese military came to understand that the Communists avoided conventional attacks and defense, it altered its tactics.<a href="#cite_note-:4-80">[77]</a>: 122  The Japanese military built more roads to quicken movement between strongpoints and cities, blockaded rivers and roads in an effort to disrupt Communists supply, sought to expand militia from its puppet regime to conserve manpower, and use systematic violence on civilians in the Border Region in an effort to destroy its economy. The Japanese military mandated confiscation of the Eighth Route Army's goods and used this directive as a pretext to confiscate goods, including engaging in grave robbery in the Border Region.<a href="#cite_note-:4-80">[77]</a>: 122–124  With Japanese casualties and costs mounting, the Imperial General Headquarters attempted to break Chinese resistance by ordering the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Navy_Air_Service" title="Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service">Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service</a> and <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Army_Air_Service" title="Imperial Japanese Army Air Service">Imperial Japanese Army Air Service</a> to launch the war's first <a href="/wiki/Strategic_bombing_during_World_War_II#Japanese_bombing" title="Strategic bombing during World War II">massive air raids</a> on civilian targets. Japanese raiders hit the Kuomintang's newly established <a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Chongqing" title="Bombing of Chongqing">provisional capital of Chongqing</a> and most other major cities in unoccupied China, leaving many people either dead, injured, or homeless. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Yellow_River_flood">Yellow River flood</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Sino-Japanese_War&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Yellow River flood">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1938_June_Yellow_River.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/1938_June_Yellow_River.gif/220px-1938_June_Yellow_River.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/1938_June_Yellow_River.gif/330px-1938_June_Yellow_River.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/1938_June_Yellow_River.gif/440px-1938_June_Yellow_River.gif 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="340" /></a><figcaption>National Revolutionary Army soldiers during the <a href="/wiki/1938_Yellow_River_flood" title="1938 Yellow River flood">1938 Yellow River flood</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="excerpt-block"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/1938_Yellow_River_flood" title="1938 Yellow River flood">1938 Yellow River flood</a>.[<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=1938_Yellow_River_flood&action=edit">edit</a>]</div><div class="excerpt"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Yellow_River_Flooded_Area_1938.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Yellow_River_Flooded_Area_1938.svg/220px-Yellow_River_Flooded_Area_1938.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="126" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Yellow_River_Flooded_Area_1938.svg/330px-Yellow_River_Flooded_Area_1938.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Yellow_River_Flooded_Area_1938.svg/440px-Yellow_River_Flooded_Area_1938.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="206" data-file-height="118" /></a><figcaption>A map of the flooded area in 1938</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/1938_Yellow_River_flood" title="1938 Yellow River flood">1938 Yellow River flood</a> (<a href="/wiki/Simplified_Chinese_characters" title="Simplified Chinese characters">simplified Chinese</a>: 花园口决堤事件; <a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">traditional Chinese</a>: 花園口決堤事件; <a href="/wiki/Pinyin" title="Pinyin">pinyin</a>: Huāyuánkǒu Juédī Shìjiàn; <abbr title="Literal translation">lit.</abbr> 'Huayuankou Dam Burst Incident') was a man-made <a href="/wiki/Flood" title="Flood">flood</a> from June 1938 to January 1947 created by the intentional destruction of <a href="/wiki/Levee" title="Levee">levees</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Yellow_River" title="Yellow River">Yellow River</a> in <a href="/wiki/Huayuankou,_Henan" title="Huayuankou, Henan">Huayuankou, Henan</a> by the <a href="/wiki/National_Revolutionary_Army" title="National Revolutionary Army">National Revolutionary Army</a> (NRA) during the Second Sino-Japanese War. The first wave of floods hit <a href="/wiki/Zhongmu_County" title="Zhongmu County">Zhongmu County</a> on 13 June 1938. NRA commanders intended the flood to act as a <a href="/wiki/Scorched_earth" title="Scorched earth">scorched earth</a> defensive line against the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Armed_Forces" title="Imperial Japanese Armed Forces">Imperial Japanese Armed Forces</a>.<a href="#cite_note-1938_Yellow_River_flood_Di_Wu-88">[85]</a><a href="#cite_note-1938_Yellow_River_flood_dutch-89">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-90">[87]</a> There were three long-term strategic intentions behind the decision to cause the flooding: firstly, the flood in Henan safeguarded the <a href="/wiki/Guanzhong" title="Guanzhong">Guanzhong</a> section of the <a href="/wiki/Longhai_railway" title="Longhai railway">Longhai railway</a>, a major northwestern route used by the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> to send supplies to the NRA from August 1937 to March 1941.<a href="#cite_note-1938_Yellow_River_flood_Longhai_railway,_Qu_2003-91">[88]</a><a href="#cite_note-1938_Yellow_River_flood_Zhang_Longjie_2019-92">[89]</a> Secondly, the flooding of significant portions of land and railway sections made it difficult for the Japanese military to enter Shaanxi, thereby preventing them from <a href="/wiki/Proposed_Japanese_invasion_of_Sichuan" title="Proposed Japanese invasion of Sichuan">invading the Sichuan basin</a>, where the Chinese wartime capital of <a href="/wiki/Chongqing" title="Chongqing">Chongqing</a> and China's southwestern <a href="/wiki/Home_front" title="Home front">home front</a> were located.<a href="#cite_note-1938_Yellow_River_flood_Xi-93">[90]</a> Thirdly, the floods in Henan and Anhui destroyed much of the tracks and bridges of the <a href="/wiki/Beijing%E2%80%93Guangzhou_railway" title="Beijing–Guangzhou railway">Beijing–Wuhan railway</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Tianjin%E2%80%93Pukou_railway" title="Tianjin–Pukou railway">Tianjin–Pukou railway</a> and the Longhai railway, thereby preventing the Japanese from effectively moving their forces across Northern and Central China.<a href="#cite_note-1938_Yellow_River_flood_Railway_and_theaters,_Qu_2003-94">[91]</a> In the short term, the NRA aimed to use the flood to halt the rapid transit of Japanese units from Northern China <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Wuhan" title="Battle of Wuhan">to areas near Wuhan</a>.<a href="#cite_note-1938_Yellow_River_flood_Railway_and_theaters,_Qu_2003-94">[91]</a><a href="#cite_note-1938_Yellow_River_flood_NIDS-95">[92]</a><a href="#cite_note-1938_Yellow_River_flood_Fu_and_Hong_2015-96">[93]</a><a href="#cite_note-97">[94]</a></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="1939–1940:_Chinese_counterattack_and_stalemate">1939–1940: Chinese counterattack and stalemate</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Sino-Japanese_War&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: 1939–1940: Chinese counterattack and stalemate">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a>. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Special:EditPage/Second Sino-Japanese War">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>. (October 2023) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Second_Sino-Japanese_War_WW2.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Second_Sino-Japanese_War_WW2.png/220px-Second_Sino-Japanese_War_WW2.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Second_Sino-Japanese_War_WW2.png/330px-Second_Sino-Japanese_War_WW2.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Second_Sino-Japanese_War_WW2.png/440px-Second_Sino-Japanese_War_WW2.png 2x" data-file-width="776" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>The extent of Japanese occupation in 1940 (in red)</figcaption></figure> From the beginning of 1939, the war entered a new phase with the unprecedented defeat of the Japanese at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Suixian%E2%80%93Zaoyang" title="Battle of Suixian–Zaoyang">Battle of Suixian–Zaoyang</a>, <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Changsha_(1939)" title="Battle of Changsha (1939)">First Battle of Changsha</a>, <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_South_Guangxi" title="Battle of South Guangxi">Battle of South Guangxi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Zaoyi" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Zaoyi">Battle of Zaoyi</a>. These outcomes encouraged the Chinese to launch their first large-scale <a href="/wiki/1939%E2%80%931940_Winter_Offensive" title="1939–1940 Winter Offensive">counter-offensive</a> against the IJA in early 1940; however, due to its low military-industrial capacity and limited experience in modern warfare, this offensive was defeated. Afterwards Chiang could not risk any more all-out offensive campaigns given the poorly trained, under-equipped, and disorganized state of his armies and opposition to his leadership both within the Kuomintang and in China in general. He had lost a substantial portion of his best trained and equipped troops in the Battle of Shanghai and was at times at the mercy of his generals, who maintained a high degree of autonomy from the central KMT government. During the offensive, Hui forces in Suiyuan under generals <a href="/wiki/Ma_Hongbin" title="Ma Hongbin">Ma Hongbin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ma_Buqing" title="Ma Buqing">Ma Buqing</a> routed the Imperial Japanese Army and their puppet Inner Mongol forces and prevented the planned Japanese advance into northwest China. Ma Hongbin's father <a href="/wiki/Ma_Fulu" title="Ma Fulu">Ma Fulu</a> had fought against Japanese in the <a href="/wiki/Boxer_Rebellion" title="Boxer Rebellion">Boxer Rebellion</a>. General <a href="/wiki/Ma_Biao_(general)" title="Ma Biao (general)">Ma Biao</a> led Hui, Salar and Dongxiang cavalry to defeat the Japanese at the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Huaiyang&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Huaiyang (page does not exist)">Battle of Huaiyang</a>. Ma Biao fought against the Japanese in the Boxer Rebellion. After 1940, the Japanese encountered tremendous difficulties in administering and garrisoning the seized territories, and tried to solve their occupation problems by implementing a strategy of creating friendly puppet governments favourable to Japanese interests in the territories conquered, most prominently the <a href="/wiki/Wang_Jingwei_Government" class="mw-redirect" title="Wang Jingwei Government">Wang Jingwei Government</a> headed by former KMT premier <a href="/wiki/Wang_Jingwei" title="Wang Jingwei">Wang Jingwei</a>. However, <a href="/wiki/Japanese_war_crimes" title="Japanese war crimes">atrocities</a> committed by the Imperial Japanese Army, as well as Japanese refusal to delegate any real power, left the puppets very unpopular and largely ineffective. The only success the Japanese had was to recruit a large <a href="/wiki/Collaborationist_Chinese_Army" title="Collaborationist Chinese Army">Collaborationist Chinese Army</a> to maintain public security in the occupied areas. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Japanese_expansion">Japanese expansion</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Sino-Japanese_War&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Japanese expansion">edit</a>]</div> By 1941, Japan held most of the eastern coastal areas of China and Vietnam, but <a href="/wiki/Guerrilla_warfare" title="Guerrilla warfare">guerrilla</a> fighting continued in these occupied areas. Japan had suffered high casualties which resulted from unexpectedly stubborn Chinese resistance, and neither side could make any swift progress in the manner of <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a> in Western Europe. By 1943, Guangdong had experienced famine. As the situation worsened, New York Chinese compatriots received a letter stating that 600,000 people were killed in <a href="/wiki/Siyi" title="Siyi">Siyi</a> by starvation.<a href="#cite_note-98">[95]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chinese_resistance_strategy">Chinese resistance strategy</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Sino-Japanese_War&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Chinese resistance strategy">edit</a>]</div> The basis of Chinese strategy before the entrance of the Western <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II" title="Allies of World War II">Allies</a> can be divided into two periods as follows: <ul><li>First period: 7 July 1937 – 25 October 1938 (end of the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Wuhan" title="Battle of Wuhan">Battle of Wuhan</a>)</li> <li>Second period: 25 October 1938 – December 1941 (the Allied declaration of war on Japan)</li></ul> Unlike Japan, China was unprepared for <a href="/wiki/Total_war" title="Total war">total war</a> and had little military-industrial strength, no <a href="/wiki/Armoured_warfare" title="Armoured warfare">mechanized divisions</a>, and few <a href="/wiki/Armoured_fighting_vehicle" title="Armoured fighting vehicle">armoured forces</a>.<a href="#cite_note-99">[96]</a> Up until the mid-1930s, China had hoped that the League of Nations would provide countermeasures to Japan's aggression.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Second_phase:_October_1938_–_December_1941">Second phase: October 1938 – December 1941</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Sino-Japanese_War&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Second phase: October 1938 – December 1941">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chinese_soldiers_1939.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Chinese_soldiers_1939.jpg/220px-Chinese_soldiers_1939.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Chinese_soldiers_1939.jpg/330px-Chinese_soldiers_1939.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Chinese_soldiers_1939.jpg/440px-Chinese_soldiers_1939.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="465" /></a><figcaption>National Revolutionary Army soldiers march to the front in 1939.</figcaption></figure> During this period, the main Chinese objective was to drag out the war for as long as possible in a war of attrition, thereby exhausting Japanese resources while it was building up China's military capacity. American general <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stilwell" title="Joseph Stilwell">Joseph Stilwell</a> called this strategy "winning by outlasting". The NRA adopted the concept of "magnetic warfare" to attract advancing Japanese troops to definite points where they were subjected to ambush, flanking attacks, and encirclements in major engagements. The most prominent example of this tactic was the successful defense of <a href="/wiki/Changsha" title="Changsha">Changsha</a> in 1939, and again in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Changsha_(1941)" title="Battle of Changsha (1941)">1941 battle</a>, in which heavy casualties were inflicted on the IJA. Local Chinese <a href="/wiki/Resistance_movement" title="Resistance movement">resistance forces</a>, organized separately by both the CCP and the KMT, continued their resistance in occupied areas to make Japanese administration over the vast land area of China difficult. In 1940, the <a href="/wiki/Eighth_Route_Army" title="Eighth Route Army">Chinese Red Army</a> launched a <a href="/wiki/Hundred_Regiments_Offensive" title="Hundred Regiments Offensive">major offensive</a> in north China, destroying railways and a major coal mine. These constant guerilla and sabotage operations deeply frustrated the Imperial Japanese Army and they led them to employ the <a href="/wiki/Three_Alls_Policy" class="mw-redirect" title="Three Alls Policy">Three Alls Policy</a>—kill all, loot all, burn all. It was during this period that the bulk of Japanese war crimes were committed. By 1941, Japan had occupied much of north and coastal China, but the KMT central government and military had retreated to the western interior to continue their resistance, while the Chinese communists remained in control of base areas in <a href="/wiki/Shaanxi" title="Shaanxi">Shaanxi</a>. In the occupied areas, Japanese control was mainly limited to railroads and major cities ("points and lines"). They did not have a major military or administrative presence in the vast Chinese countryside, where Chinese guerrillas roamed freely. The United States strongly supported China starting in 1937 and warned Japan to get out.<a href="#cite_note-100">[97]</a> However, the United States continued to sell Japan petroleum and scrap metal exports until the <a href="/wiki/Japanese_invasion_of_French_Indochina" title="Japanese invasion of French Indochina">Japanese invasion of French Indochina</a> when the U.S. imposed a <a href="/wiki/Events_leading_to_the_attack_on_Pearl_Harbor" class="mw-redirect" title="Events leading to the attack on Pearl Harbor">scrap metal and oil embargo against Japan</a> (and froze all Japanese assets) in the summer of 1941.<a href="#cite_note-101">[98]</a> As the Soviets prepared for war against Nazi Germany in June 1941, and all new Soviet combat aircraft was needed in the west, Chiang Kai-shek sought American support through the Lend-Lease Act that was promised in March 1941. After the Lend-Lease Act was passed, American financial and military aid began to trickle in.<a href="#cite_note-102">[99]</a> <a href="/wiki/Claire_Lee_Chennault" title="Claire Lee Chennault">Claire Lee Chennault</a> commanded the 1st American Volunteer Group (nicknamed the <a href="/wiki/Flying_Tigers" title="Flying Tigers">Flying Tigers</a>), with American pilots flying American warplanes which were painted with the Chinese flag to attack the Japanese. He headed both the volunteer group and the uniformed U.S. Army Air Forces units that replaced it in 1942.<a href="#cite_note-103">[100]</a> However, it was the Soviets that provided the greatest material help for China's war of resistance against the imperial Japanese invasion from 1937 into 1941, with fighter aircraft for the Nationalist Chinese Air Force and artillery and armour for the Chinese Army through the <a href="/wiki/Sino-Soviet_Non-Aggression_Pact" title="Sino-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact">Sino-Soviet Treaty</a>; <a href="/wiki/Operation_Zet" title="Operation Zet">Operation Zet</a> also provided for a group of Soviet volunteer combat aviators to join the Chinese Air Force in the fight against the Japanese occupation from late 1937 through 1939. The United States embargoed Japan in 1941 depriving her of shipments of oil and various other resources necessary to continue the war in China. This pressure, which was intended to disparage a continuation of the war and bring Japan into negotiation, resulted in the <a href="/wiki/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor" title="Attack on Pearl Harbor">Attack on Pearl Harbor</a> and Japan's drive south to procure from the resource-rich European colonies in Southeast Asia by force the resources which the United States had denied to them. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Relationship_between_the_Nationalists_and_the_Communists">Relationship between the Nationalists and the Communists</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Sino-Japanese_War&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Relationship between the Nationalists and the Communists">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Zhu_De_with_NRA_Emblem.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Zhu_De_with_NRA_Emblem.jpg/170px-Zhu_De_with_NRA_Emblem.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Zhu_De_with_NRA_Emblem.jpg/255px-Zhu_De_with_NRA_Emblem.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/ff/Zhu_De_with_NRA_Emblem.jpg 2x" data-file-width="310" data-file-height="402" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Eighth_Route_Army" title="Eighth Route Army">Eighth Route Army</a> Commander <a href="/wiki/Zhu_De" title="Zhu De">Zhu De</a> with a KMT "Blue Sky, White Sun" emblem cap</figcaption></figure> After the Mukden Incident in 1931, Chinese public opinion was strongly critical of Manchuria's leader, the "young marshal" Zhang Xueliang, for his non-resistance to the Japanese invasion, even though the Kuomintang central government was also responsible for this policy, giving Zhang an order to improvise while not offering support. After losing Manchuria to the Japanese, Zhang and his <a href="/wiki/Fengtian_clique" title="Fengtian clique">Northeast Army</a> were given the duty of suppressing the Red Army in Shaanxi after their <a href="/wiki/Long_March" title="Long March">Long March</a>. This resulted in great casualties for his Northeast Army, which received no support in manpower or weaponry from Chiang Kai-shek. In the <a href="/wiki/Xi%27an_Incident" title="Xi'an Incident">Xi'an Incident</a> that took place on 12 December 1936, Zhang Xueliang kidnapped Chiang Kai-shek in <a href="/wiki/Xi%27an" title="Xi'an">Xi'an</a>, hoping to force an end to KMT–CCP conflict. To secure the release of Chiang, the KMT agreed to a temporary ceasefire with the Communists. On 24 December, the two parties agreed to a <a href="/wiki/Second_United_Front_(China)" class="mw-redirect" title="Second United Front (China)">United Front</a> against Japan; this had salutary effects for the beleaguered Communists, who agreed to form the <a href="/wiki/New_Fourth_Army" title="New Fourth Army">New Fourth Army</a> and the <a href="/wiki/8th_Route_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="8th Route Army">8th Route Army</a> under the nominal control of the NRA. In addition, <a href="/wiki/Shaan-Gan-Ning_Border_Region" class="mw-redirect" title="Shaan-Gan-Ning Border Region">Shaan-Gan-Ning</a> and Shanxi-Chahar-Hebei border regions were created, under the control of the CCP. In Shaan-Gan-Ning, Communists in the Shaan-Gan-Ning Base Area fostered <a href="/wiki/History_of_opium_in_China" title="History of opium in China">opium production</a>, taxed it, and engaged in its trade—including selling to Japanese-occupied and KMT-controlled provinces.<a href="#cite_note-:0-104">[101]</a><a href="#cite_note-:1-105">[102]</a> The Red Army fought alongside KMT forces during the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Taiyuan" title="Battle of Taiyuan">Battle of Taiyuan</a>, and the high point of their cooperation came in 1938 during the Battle of Wuhan. The formation of a united front added to the legality of the CCP, but what kind of support the central government would provide to the communists were not settled. When compromise with the CCP failed to incentivize the Soviet Union to engage in an open conflict against Japan, the KMT withheld further support for the Communists. To strengthen their legitimacy, Communist forces actively engaged the Japanese early on. These operations weakened Japanese forces in Shanxi and other areas in the North. Mao Zedong was distrustful of Chiang Kai-shek, however, and shifted strategy to guerrilla warfare in order to preserve the CCP's military strength.<a href="#cite_note-106">[103]</a> Despite Japan's steady territorial gains in northern China, the coastal regions, and the rich <a href="/wiki/Yangtze_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Yangtze River">Yangtze River</a> Valley in central China, the distrust between the two antagonists was scarcely veiled. The uneasy alliance began to break down by late 1938, partially due to the Communists' aggressive efforts to expand their military strength by absorbing Chinese guerrilla forces behind Japanese lines. Chinese militia who refused to switch their allegiance were often labelled "collaborators" and attacked by CCP forces. For example, the Red Army led by <a href="/wiki/He_Long" title="He Long">He Long</a> attacked and wiped out a brigade of Chinese militia led by Zhang Yin-wu in Hebei in June 1939.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuang259-107">[104]</a> Starting in 1940, open conflict between Nationalists and Communists became more frequent in the occupied areas outside of Japanese control, culminating in the <a href="/wiki/New_Fourth_Army_Incident" class="mw-redirect" title="New Fourth Army Incident">New Fourth Army Incident</a> in January 1941. Afterwards, the Second United Front completely broke down and Chinese Communists leader <a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao Zedong</a> outlined the preliminary plan for the CCP's eventual seizure of power from Chiang Kai-shek. Mao himself is quoted outlining the "721" policy, saying "We are fighting 70 percent for self development, 20 percent for compromise, and 10 percent against Japan".[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Mao began his final push for consolidation of CCP power under his authority, and his teachings became the central tenets of the CCP doctrine that came to be formalized as <a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong_Thought" class="mw-redirect" title="Mao Zedong Thought">Mao Zedong Thought</a>. The Communists also began to focus most of their energy on building up their sphere of influence wherever opportunities were presented, mainly through rural mass organizations, administrative, land and tax reform measures favouring poor peasants; while the Nationalists attempted to neutralize the spread of Communist influence by military blockade of areas controlled by CCP and fighting the Japanese at the same time.<a href="#cite_note-CRISIS-TIME-MAGAZINE-108">[105]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Entrance_of_the_Western_Allies">Entrance of the Western Allies</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Sino-Japanese_War&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Entrance of the Western Allies">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chiang_Kai_Shek_and_wife_with_Lieutenant_General_Stilwell.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Chiang_Kai_Shek_and_wife_with_Lieutenant_General_Stilwell.jpg/220px-Chiang_Kai_Shek_and_wife_with_Lieutenant_General_Stilwell.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="168" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Chiang_Kai_Shek_and_wife_with_Lieutenant_General_Stilwell.jpg/330px-Chiang_Kai_Shek_and_wife_with_Lieutenant_General_Stilwell.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Chiang_Kai_Shek_and_wife_with_Lieutenant_General_Stilwell.jpg/440px-Chiang_Kai_Shek_and_wife_with_Lieutenant_General_Stilwell.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2934" data-file-height="2236" /></a><figcaption>Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek and his wife <a href="/wiki/Soong_Mei-ling" title="Soong Mei-ling">Soong Mei-ling</a> with Lieutenant General <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stilwell" title="Joseph Stilwell">Joseph Stilwell</a> in 1942, <a href="/wiki/British_Burma" class="mw-redirect" title="British Burma">British Burma</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><audio id="mwe_player_0" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" style="width:220px;" data-durationhint="1261" data-mwtitle="Madame_Chiang_Kai_Shek_of_China_Addressed_the_House_of_Representatives_on_18_February_1943.mp3" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Madame_Chiang_Kai_Shek_of_China_Addressed_the_House_of_Representatives_on_18_February_1943.mp3"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/73/Madame_Chiang_Kai_Shek_of_China_Addressed_the_House_of_Representatives_on_18_February_1943.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/73/Madame_Chiang_Kai_Shek_of_China_Addressed_the_House_of_Representatives_on_18_February_1943.mp3/Madame_Chiang_Kai_Shek_of_China_Addressed_the_House_of_Representatives_on_18_February_1943.mp3.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-transcodekey="ogg" data-width="0" data-height="0" /></audio><figcaption>The 18 February 1943 address by Soong Mei-ling before both houses of the United States Congress.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:United_China_Relief1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/United_China_Relief1.jpg/220px-United_China_Relief1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="281" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/United_China_Relief1.jpg/330px-United_China_Relief1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/United_China_Relief1.jpg/440px-United_China_Relief1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1914" /></a><figcaption>A United States poster from the United China Relief organization advocating aid to China</figcaption></figure> Following the attack on Pearl Harbor, the United States declared war against Japan, and within days China joined the Allies in formal declaration of war against Japan, Germany and Italy.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] As the Western Allies entered the war against Japan, the Sino-Japanese War would become part of a greater conflict, the <a href="/wiki/Pacific_War" title="Pacific War">Pacific theatre</a> of <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>. Almost immediately, Chinese troops achieved another decisive victory in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Changsha_(1942)" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Changsha (1942)">Battle of Changsha</a>, which earned the Chinese government much prestige from the Western Allies. President Franklin D. Roosevelt referred to the United States, United Kingdom, Soviet Union and China as the world's "<a href="/wiki/Four_Policemen" title="Four Policemen">Four Policemen</a>"; his primary reason for elevating China to such a status was the belief that after the war it would serve as a bulwark against the Soviet Union.<a href="#cite_note-109">[106]</a> Knowledge of Japanese naval movements in the Pacific was provided to the American Navy by the <a href="/wiki/Sino-American_Cooperative_Organization" title="Sino-American Cooperative Organization">Sino-American Cooperative Organization</a> (SACO) which was run by the Chinese intelligence head <a href="/wiki/Dai_Li" title="Dai Li">Dai Li</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Wakeman2003-110">[107]</a> Philippine and Japanese ocean weather was affected by weather originating near northern China.<a href="#cite_note-Kush2012-111">[108]</a> The base of SACO was located in Yangjiashan.<a href="#cite_note-Wakeman2003_2-112">[109]</a> Chiang Kai-shek continued to receive supplies from the United States. However, in contrast to the <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Route" title="Pacific Route">Arctic supply route</a> to the Soviet Union which stayed open through most of the war, sea routes to China and the <a href="/wiki/Yunnan%E2%80%93Vietnam_Railway" class="mw-redirect" title="Yunnan–Vietnam Railway">Yunnan–Vietnam Railway</a> had been closed since 1940. Therefore, between the <a href="/wiki/Japanese_conquest_of_Burma" class="mw-redirect" title="Japanese conquest of Burma">closing of the Burma Road</a> in 1942 and its re-opening as the <a href="/wiki/Ledo_Road" title="Ledo Road">Ledo Road</a> in 1945, foreign aid was largely limited to what could be flown in over "<a href="/wiki/The_Hump" title="The Hump">The Hump</a>". In Burma, on 16 April 1942, 7,000 British soldiers were encircled by the Japanese 33rd Division during the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Yenangyaung" title="Battle of Yenangyaung">Battle of Yenangyaung</a> and rescued by the Chinese 38th Division.<a href="#cite_note-113">[110]</a> After the <a href="/wiki/Doolittle_Raid" title="Doolittle Raid">Doolittle Raid</a>, the Imperial Japanese Army conducted a massive sweep through <a href="/wiki/Zhejiang" title="Zhejiang">Zhejiang</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jiangxi" title="Jiangxi">Jiangxi</a>, now known as the <a href="/wiki/Zhejiang-Jiangxi_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Zhejiang-Jiangxi Campaign">Zhejiang-Jiangxi Campaign</a>, with the goal of finding the surviving American airmen, applying retribution on the Chinese who aided them and destroying air bases. The operation started 15 May 1942, with 40 infantry battalions and 15–16 artillery battalions but was repelled by Chinese forces in September.<a href="#cite_note-114">[111]</a> During this campaign, the Imperial Japanese Army left behind a trail of devastation and also spread <a href="/wiki/Cholera" title="Cholera">cholera</a>, <a href="/wiki/Typhoid" class="mw-redirect" title="Typhoid">typhoid</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plague_(disease)" title="Plague (disease)">plague</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dysentery" title="Dysentery">dysentery</a> pathogens. Chinese estimates allege that as many as 250,000 civilians, the vast majority of whom were destitute Tanka boat people and other pariah ethnicities unable to flee, may have died of disease.<a href="#cite_note-115">[112]</a> It caused more than 16 million civilians to evacuate far away deep inward China. 90% of Ningbo's population had already fled before battle started.<a href="#cite_note-Mackinnon2008-85">[82]</a>: 49  Most of China's industry had already been captured or destroyed by Japan, and the Soviet Union refused to allow the United States to supply China through the <a href="/wiki/Kazakh_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic">Kazakhstan</a> into <a href="/wiki/Xinjiang" title="Xinjiang">Xinjiang</a> as the Xinjiang warlord Sheng Shicai had turned anti-Soviet in 1942 with Chiang's approval. For these reasons, the Chinese government never had the supplies and equipment needed to mount major counter-offensives. Despite the severe shortage of matériel, in 1943, the Chinese were successful in repelling major Japanese offensives <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_West_Hubei" title="Battle of West Hubei">in Hubei</a> and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Changde" title="Battle of Changde">Changde</a>. Chiang was named Allied commander-in-chief in the China theater in 1942. American general Joseph Stilwell served for a time as Chiang's chief of staff, while simultaneously commanding American forces in the <a href="/wiki/China_Burma_India_Theater_of_World_War_II" class="mw-redirect" title="China Burma India Theater of World War II">China-Burma-India Theater</a>. For many reasons, relations between Stilwell and Chiang soon broke down. Many historians (such as <a href="/wiki/Barbara_W._Tuchman" title="Barbara W. Tuchman">Barbara W. Tuchman</a>) have suggested it was largely due to the corruption and inefficiency of the Kuomintang government, while others (such as <a href="/wiki/Ray_Huang" title="Ray Huang">Ray Huang</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hans_van_de_Ven" title="Hans van de Ven">Hans van de Ven</a>) have depicted it as a more complicated situation. Stilwell had a strong desire to assume total control of Chinese troops and pursue an aggressive strategy, while Chiang preferred a patient and less expensive strategy of out-waiting the Japanese. Chiang continued to maintain a defensive posture despite Allied pleas to actively break the Japanese blockade, because China had already suffered tens of millions of war casualties and believed that Japan would eventually capitulate in the face of America's overwhelming industrial output. For these reasons the other Allies gradually began to lose confidence in the Chinese ability to conduct offensive operations from the Asian mainland, and instead concentrated their efforts against the Japanese in the <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Ocean_Areas_(command)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pacific Ocean Areas (command)">Pacific Ocean Areas</a> and <a href="/wiki/South_West_Pacific_theatre_of_World_War_II" title="South West Pacific theatre of World War II">South West Pacific Area</a>, employing an <a href="/wiki/Leapfrogging_(strategy)" title="Leapfrogging (strategy)">island hopping</a> strategy.<a href="#cite_note-116">[113]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cairo_conference.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Cairo_conference.jpg/220px-Cairo_conference.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Cairo_conference.jpg/330px-Cairo_conference.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Cairo_conference.jpg/440px-Cairo_conference.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2005" data-file-height="1551" /></a><figcaption>Chiang Kai-shek, <a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Winston_Churchill" title="Winston Churchill">Winston Churchill</a> at the 1943 <a href="/wiki/Cairo_Conference_(1943)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cairo Conference (1943)">Cairo Conference</a></figcaption></figure> Long-standing differences in national interest and political stance among China, the United States, and the United Kingdom remained in place. British Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Winston_Churchill" title="Winston Churchill">Winston Churchill</a> was reluctant to devote British troops, many of whom had been routed by the Japanese in earlier campaigns, to the reopening of the <a href="/wiki/Burma_Road" title="Burma Road">Burma Road</a>; Stilwell, on the other hand, believed that reopening the road was vital, as all China's mainland ports were under Japanese control. The Allies' "<a href="/wiki/Europe_first" title="Europe first">Europe first</a>" policy did not sit well with Chiang, while the later British insistence that China send more and more troops to Indochina for use in the <a href="/wiki/Burma_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Burma Campaign">Burma Campaign</a> was seen by Chiang as an attempt to use Chinese manpower to defend British colonial possessions. Chiang also believed that China should divert its crack army divisions from Burma to eastern China to defend the airbases of the American bombers that he hoped would defeat Japan through bombing, a strategy that American general Claire Lee Chennault supported but which Stilwell strongly opposed. In addition, Chiang voiced his support of the <a href="/wiki/Indian_independence_movement" title="Indian independence movement">Indian independence movement</a> in a 1942 meeting with <a href="/wiki/Mohandas_Gandhi" class="mw-redirect" title="Mohandas Gandhi">Mohandas Gandhi</a>, which further soured the relationship between China and the United Kingdom.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuang299–300-117">[114]</a> American and Canadian-born Chinese were recruited to act as covert operatives in Japanese-occupied China. Employing their racial background as a disguise, their mandate was to blend in with local citizens and wage a campaign of sabotage. Activities focused on destruction of Japanese transportation of supplies (signaling bomber destruction of railroads, bridges).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacLaren200–220-118">[115]</a> Chinese forces <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Northern_Burma_and_Western_Yunnan" title="Battle of Northern Burma and Western Yunnan">advanced to northern Burma</a> in late 1943, besieged Japanese troops in <a href="/wiki/Myitkyina" title="Myitkyina">Myitkyina</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mount_Song" title="Battle of Mount Song">captured Mount Song</a>.<a href="#cite_note-119">[116]</a> The British and Commonwealth forces had their operation in <a href="/wiki/Mission_204" title="Mission 204">Mission 204</a> which attempted to provide assistance to the Chinese Nationalist Army.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStevens70-120">[117]</a> The first phase in 1942 under command of <a href="/wiki/Special_Operations_Executive" title="Special Operations Executive">SOE</a> achieved very little, but lessons were learned and a second more successful phase, commenced in February 1943 under British Military command, was conducted before the Japanese <a href="/wiki/Operation_Ichi-Go" title="Operation Ichi-Go">Operation Ichi-Go</a> offensive in 1944 compelled evacuation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStevens73-121">[118]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Operation_Ichi-Go">Operation Ichi-Go</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Sino-Japanese_War&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Operation Ichi-Go">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Operation_Ichi-Go" title="Operation Ichi-Go">Operation Ichi-Go</a></div> Operation Ichi-Go was the largest military campaign of the Second Sino-Japanese War. The campaign mobilized 500,000 Japanese troops, 100,000 horses, 1,500 artillery pieces, and 800 tanks.<a href="#cite_note-Coble2023-122">[119]</a>: 19  The 750,000 casualty figure for Nationalist Chinese forces are not all dead and captured, Cox included in the 750,000 casualties that China incurred in Ichigo soldiers who simply "melted away" and others who were rendered combat ineffective besides killed and captured soldiers.<a href="#cite_note-Cox,_1980_pp._2-123">[120]</a> In late November 1944, the Japanese advanced slowed approximately 300 miles from Chongqing as it experienced shortages of trained soldiers and materiel. Although Operation Ichi-Go achieved its goals of seizing United States air bases and establishing a potential railway corridor from Manchukuo to Hanoi, it did so too late to impact the result of the broader war. American bombers in Chengdu were moved to the <a href="/wiki/Mariana_Islands" title="Mariana Islands">Mariana Islands</a> where, along with bombers from bases in Saipan and Tinian, they could still bomb the Japanese home islands.<a href="#cite_note-Coble2023-122">[119]</a>: 21–22  After Operation Ichigo, Chiang Kai-shek started a plan to withdraw Chinese troops from the Burma theatre against Japan in Southeast Asia for a counter offensive called "White Tower" and "Iceman" against Japanese soldiers in China in 1945.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHsiungLevine1992162–166-124">[121]</a> The poor performance of Chiang Kai-shek's forces in opposing the Japanese advance during Operation Ichigo became widely viewed as demonstrating Chiang's incompetence.<a href="#cite_note-:02-76">[73]</a>: 3  It irreparably damaged the Roosevelt administration's view of Chiang and the KMT.<a href="#cite_note-Crean-64">[61]</a>: 75  The campaign further weakened the Nationalist economy and government revenues.<a href="#cite_note-:02-76">[73]</a>: 22–24  Because of the Nationalists' increasing inability to fund the military, Nationalist authorities overlooked military corruption and smuggling. The Nationalist army increasingly turned to raiding villages to <a href="/wiki/Impressment" title="Impressment">press-gang</a> peasants into service and force marching them to assigned units. Approximately 10% of these peasants died before reaching their units.<a href="#cite_note-:02-76">[73]</a>: 24–25  By the end of 1944, Chinese troops under the command of <a href="/wiki/Sun_Li-jen" title="Sun Li-jen">Sun Li-jen</a> attacking from India, and those under <a href="/wiki/Wei_Lihuang" title="Wei Lihuang">Wei Lihuang</a> attacking from <a href="/wiki/Yunnan" title="Yunnan">Yunnan</a>, joined forces in <a href="/wiki/Mong-Yu" title="Mong-Yu">Mong-Yu</a>, successfully driving the Japanese out of North Burma and securing the Ledo Road, China's vital supply artery.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuang420-125">[122]</a> In Spring 1945 the Chinese launched offensives that retook <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_West_Hunan" title="Battle of West Hunan">Hunan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Second_Guangxi_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Guangxi Campaign">Guangxi</a>. With the Chinese army progressing well in training and equipment, Wedemeyer planned to launch Operation Carbonado in summer 1945 to retake Guangdong, thus obtaining a coastal port, and from there drive northwards toward Shanghai. However, the <a href="/wiki/Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki</a> and <a href="/wiki/Soviet_invasion_of_Manchuria" title="Soviet invasion of Manchuria">Soviet invasion of Manchuria</a> hastened Japanese surrender and these plans were not put into action.<a href="#cite_note-126">[123]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Chinese_industrial_base_and_the_CIC">Chinese industrial base and the CIC</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Sino-Japanese_War&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Chinese industrial base and the CIC">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Industrial_Cooperatives" title="Chinese Industrial Cooperatives">Chinese Industrial Cooperatives</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_cooperative_movement_in_China" title="History of the cooperative movement in China">History of the cooperative movement in China</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Gung-ho" class="mw-redirect" title="Gung-ho">Gung-ho</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Foreign_aid">Foreign aid</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Sino-Japanese_War&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Foreign aid">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Japanese_in_the_Chinese_resistance_to_the_Empire_of_Japan" title="Japanese in the Chinese resistance to the Empire of Japan">Japanese in the Chinese resistance to the Empire of Japan</a></div> Before the start of full-scale warfare of the Second Sino-Japanese War, Germany had since the time of the <a href="/wiki/Weimar_Republic" title="Weimar Republic">Weimar Republic</a>, provided much equipment and training to crack units of the National Revolutionary Army of China, including some aerial-combat training with the <a href="/wiki/Luftwaffe" title="Luftwaffe">Luftwaffe</a> to some pilots of the pre-Nationalist Air Force of China.<a href="#cite_note-127">[124]</a> A number of foreign powers, including the Americans, Italians and Japanese, provided training and equipment to different air force units of pre-war China. With the outbreak of full-scale war between China and the Empire of Japan, the Soviet Union became the primary supporter for China's war of resistance through the Sino-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact from 1937 to 1941. When the Imperial Japanese invaded <a href="/wiki/French_Indochina" title="French Indochina">French Indochina</a>, the United States enacted the <a href="/wiki/Oil_embargo" title="Oil embargo">oil and steel embargo</a> against Japan and froze all Japanese assets in 1941,<a href="#cite_note-128">[125]</a><a href="#cite_note-129">[126]</a> and with it came the <a href="/wiki/Lend-lease_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Lend-lease Act">Lend-Lease Act</a> of which China became a beneficiary on 6 May 1941; from there, China's main diplomatic, financial and military supporter came from the U.S., particularly following the attack on Pearl Harbor. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Overseas_Chinese">Overseas Chinese</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Sino-Japanese_War&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Overseas Chinese">edit</a>]</div> Over 3,200 overseas Chinese drivers and motor vehicle mechanics embarked to wartime China to support military and logistics supply lines, especially through Indo-China, which became of absolute tantamount importance when the Japanese cut-off all ocean-access to China's interior with the capture of <a href="/wiki/Nanning" title="Nanning">Nanning</a> after the Battle of South Guangxi. Overseas Chinese communities in the U.S. raised money and nurtured talent in response to Imperial Japan's aggressions in China, which helped to fund an entire squadron of Boeing P-26 fighter planes purchased for the looming war situation between China and the Empire of Japan; over a dozen Chinese-American aviators, including <a href="/wiki/John_Huang_Xinrui" class="mw-redirect" title="John Huang Xinrui">John "Buffalo" Huang</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Chin" title="Arthur Chin">Arthur Chin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hazel_Ying_Lee" title="Hazel Ying Lee">Hazel Ying Lee</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jurong_airfield" class="mw-redirect" title="Jurong airfield">Chan Kee-Wong</a> et al., formed the original contingent of foreign volunteer aviators to join the Chinese air forces (some provincial or warlord air forces, but ultimately all integrating into the centralized Chinese Air Force; often called the Nationalist Air Force of China) in the "patriotic call to duty for the motherland" to fight against the Imperial Japanese invasion.<a href="#cite_note-130">[127]</a><a href="#cite_note-131">[128]</a><a href="#cite_note-132">[129]</a><a href="#cite_note-133">[130]</a> Several of the original Chinese-American volunteer pilots were sent to <a href="/wiki/Lechfeld_Air_Base" title="Lechfeld Air Base">Lagerlechfeld Air Base</a> in Germany for aerial-gunnery training by the Chinese Air Force in 1936.<a href="#cite_note-134">[131]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="German">German</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Sino-Japanese_War&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: German">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/China-Germany_relations_(1912-1949)" class="mw-redirect" title="China-Germany relations (1912-1949)">China-Germany relations (1912-1949)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kung_and_hitler.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Kung_and_hitler.jpg/220px-Kung_and_hitler.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Kung_and_hitler.jpg/330px-Kung_and_hitler.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Kung_and_hitler.jpg/440px-Kung_and_hitler.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="864" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/H._H._Kung" title="H. H. Kung">H. H. Kung</a> and <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler" title="Adolf Hitler">Adolf Hitler</a> in Berlin</figcaption></figure> Prior to the war, Germany and China were in close economic and military cooperation, with Germany helping China modernize its industry and military in exchange for raw materials. Germany sent military advisers such as <a href="/wiki/Alexander_von_Falkenhausen" title="Alexander von Falkenhausen">Alexander von Falkenhausen</a> to China to help the KMT government reform its armed forces.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMitter2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidBqc_YkuyaCICpgPA65_65]-135">[132]</a> <a href="/wiki/List_of_German-trained_divisions_of_the_National_Revolutionary_Army" title="List of German-trained divisions of the National Revolutionary Army">Some divisions</a> began training to German standards and were to form a relatively small but well trained Chinese Central Army. By the mid-1930s about 80,000 soldiers had received German-style training.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMitter2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidBqc_YkuyaCICpgPA66_66]-136">[133]</a> After the KMT lost Nanjing and retreated to Wuhan, Hitler's government decided to withdraw its support of China in 1938 in favour of an alliance with Japan as its main anti-Communist partner in East Asia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMitter2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidBqc_YkuyaCICpgPA165_165]-137">[134]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Soviet">Soviet</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Sino-Japanese_War&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Soviet">edit</a>]</div> After Germany and Japan signed the anti-communist <a href="/wiki/Anti-Comintern_Pact" title="Anti-Comintern Pact">Anti-Comintern Pact</a>, the Soviet Union hoped to keep China fighting, in order to deter a <a href="/wiki/Kantokuen" title="Kantokuen">Japanese invasion</a> of Siberia and save itself from a <a href="/wiki/Two-front_war" title="Two-front war">two-front war</a>. In September 1937, they signed the Sino-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact and approved Operation Zet, the formation of a secret <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Volunteer_Group" title="Soviet Volunteer Group">Soviet volunteer air force</a>, in which Soviet technicians upgraded and ran some of China's transportation systems. <a href="/wiki/Bomber" title="Bomber">Bombers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fighter_aircraft" title="Fighter aircraft">fighters</a>, supplies and advisors arrived, headed by <a href="/wiki/Aleksandr_Cherepanov" title="Aleksandr Cherepanov">Aleksandr Cherepanov</a>. Prior to the Western Allies, the Soviets provided the most foreign aid to China: some $250 million in credits for munitions and other supplies. The Soviet Union defeated Japan in the <a href="/wiki/Battles_of_Khalkhin_Gol" title="Battles of Khalkhin Gol">Battles of Khalkhin Gol</a> in May – September 1939, leaving the Japanese reluctant to fight the Soviets again.<a href="#cite_note-138">[135]</a> In April 1941, Soviet aid to China ended with the <a href="/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Japanese_Neutrality_Pact" title="Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact">Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact</a> and the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Front_(World_War_II)" title="Eastern Front (World War II)">Great Patriotic War</a>. This pact enabled the Soviet Union to avoid fighting against Germany and Japan at the same time. In August 1945, the Soviet Union annulled the neutrality pact with Japan and invaded Manchuria, Inner Mongolia, the Kuril Islands, and northern Korea. The Soviets also continued to support the Chinese Communist Party. In total, 3,665 Soviet advisors and pilots served in China,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor156-139">[136]</a> and 227 of them died fighting there.<a href="#cite_note-140">[137]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Western_allies">Western allies</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Sino-Japanese_War&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Western allies">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="United_States">United States</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Sino-Japanese_War&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: United States">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/American_Volunteer_Group" title="American Volunteer Group">American Volunteer Group</a>, <a href="/wiki/Flying_Tigers" title="Flying Tigers">Flying Tigers</a>, and <a href="/wiki/China_Air_Task_Force" title="China Air Task Force">China Air Task Force</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ClaireChennault.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/ClaireChennault.jpeg/220px-ClaireChennault.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/ClaireChennault.jpeg/330px-ClaireChennault.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/ClaireChennault.jpeg/440px-ClaireChennault.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="490" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Flying_Tigers" title="Flying Tigers">Flying Tigers</a> Commander <a href="/wiki/Claire_Lee_Chennault" title="Claire Lee Chennault">Claire Lee Chennault</a></figcaption></figure> The United States generally avoided taking sides between Japan and China until 1940, providing virtually no aid to China in this period. For instance, the 1934 Silver Purchase Act signed by President Roosevelt caused chaos in China's economy which helped the Japanese war effort. The 1933 Wheat and Cotton Loan mainly benefited American producers, while aiding to a smaller extent both Chinese and Japanese alike. This policy was due to US fear of breaking off profitable trade ties with Japan, in addition to US officials and businesses perception of China as a potential source of massive profit for the US by absorbing surplus American products, as William Appleman Williams states.<a href="#cite_note-141">[138]</a> From December 1937, events such as the <a href="/wiki/Panay_incident" class="mw-redirect" title="Panay incident">Japanese attack on USS Panay</a> and the Nanjing Massacre swung public opinion in the West sharply against Japan and increased their fear of Japanese expansion, which prompted the United States, the United Kingdom, and <a href="/wiki/French_Third_Republic" title="French Third Republic">France</a> to provide loan assistance for war supply contracts to <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Republic of China (1912–1949)">China</a>. Australia also prevented a Japanese government-owned company from taking over an iron mine in Australia, and banned <a href="/wiki/Iron_ore" title="Iron ore">iron ore</a> exports in 1938.<a href="#cite_note-142">[139]</a> However, in July 1939, negotiations between Japanese Foreign Minister Arita Khatira and the British Ambassador in Tokyo, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Craigie_(diplomat)" title="Robert Craigie (diplomat)">Robert Craigie</a>, led to an agreement by which the United Kingdom recognized Japanese conquests in China. At the same time, the US government extended a trade agreement with Japan for six months, then fully restored it. Under the agreement, Japan purchased trucks for the Kwantung Army,<a href="#cite_note-143">[140]</a> machine tools for aircraft factories, <a href="/wiki/Strategic_material" title="Strategic material">strategic materials</a> (steel and scrap iron up to 16 October 1940, petrol and petroleum products up to 26 June 1941),<a href="#cite_note-144">[141]</a> and various other much-needed supplies. In a hearing before the United States Congress House of Representatives Committee on Foreign Affairs on Wednesday, 19 April 1939, the acting chairman Sol Bloom and other Congressmen interviewed Maxwell S. Stewart, a former Foreign Policy Association research staff and economist who charged that America's Neutrality Act and its "neutrality policy" was a massive farce which only benefited Japan and that Japan did not have the capability nor could ever have invaded China without the massive amount of raw material America exported to Japan. America exported far more raw material to Japan than to China in the years 1937–1940.<a href="#cite_note-145">[142]</a><a href="#cite_note-146">[143]</a><a href="#cite_note-147">[144]</a><a href="#cite_note-148">[145]</a> According to the United States Congress, the U.S.'s third largest export destination was Japan until 1940 when France overtook it due to France being at war too. Japan's military machine acquired war materials, automotive equipment, steel, scrap iron, copper, oil, that it wanted from the United States in 1937–1940 and was allowed to purchase aerial bombs, aircraft equipment, and aircraft from America up to the summer of 1938. War essentials exports from the United States to Japan increased by 124% along with a general increase of 41% of all American exports from 1936 to 1937 when Japan invaded China. Japan's war economy was fueled by exports to the United States at over twice the rate immediately preceding the war.<a href="#cite_note-149">[146]</a> According to the U.S. Department of Commerce, Japan corresponded to the following share of American exports; <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Flying_Tigers_blood_chit_from_ROC_National_Government,_provided_courtesy_of_Robert_Baldwin.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Flying_Tigers_blood_chit_from_ROC_National_Government%2C_provided_courtesy_of_Robert_Baldwin.jpg/220px-Flying_Tigers_blood_chit_from_ROC_National_Government%2C_provided_courtesy_of_Robert_Baldwin.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="287" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Flying_Tigers_blood_chit_from_ROC_National_Government%2C_provided_courtesy_of_Robert_Baldwin.jpg/330px-Flying_Tigers_blood_chit_from_ROC_National_Government%2C_provided_courtesy_of_Robert_Baldwin.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Flying_Tigers_blood_chit_from_ROC_National_Government%2C_provided_courtesy_of_Robert_Baldwin.jpg/440px-Flying_Tigers_blood_chit_from_ROC_National_Government%2C_provided_courtesy_of_Robert_Baldwin.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1303" /></a><figcaption>A "<a href="/wiki/Blood_chit" title="Blood chit">blood chit</a>" issued to American Volunteer Group pilots requesting all Chinese to offer rescue and protection</figcaption></figure> Japan invaded and occupied the northern part of <a href="/wiki/French_Indochina" title="French Indochina">French Indochina</a> in September 1940 to prevent China from receiving the 10,000 tons of materials delivered monthly by the Allies via the <a href="/wiki/Haiphong%E2%80%93Yunnan_Fou_Railway" class="mw-redirect" title="Haiphong–Yunnan Fou Railway">Haiphong–Yunnan Fou Railway</a> line. On 22 June 1941, <a href="/wiki/Operation_Barbarossa" title="Operation Barbarossa">Germany attacked the Soviet Union</a>. In spite of non-aggression pacts or trade connections, Hitler's assault threw the world into a frenzy of re-aligning political outlooks and strategic prospects. On 21 July, Japan occupied the southern part of French Indochina (southern Vietnam and Cambodia), contravening a 1940 <a href="/wiki/Gentlemen%27s_agreement" title="Gentlemen's agreement">gentlemen's agreement</a> not to move into southern French Indochina. From bases in Cambodia and southern Vietnam, Japanese planes could attack Malaya, Singapore, and the Dutch East Indies. As the Japanese occupation of northern French Indochina in 1940 had already cut off supplies from the West to China, the move into southern French Indochina was viewed as a direct threat to British and Dutch colonies. Many principal figures in the Japanese government and military (particularly the navy) were against the move, as they foresaw that it would invite retaliation from the West. On 24 July 1941, Roosevelt requested Japan withdraw all its forces from Indochina. Two days later the US and the UK began an oil embargo; two days after that the Netherlands joined them. This was a decisive moment in the Second Sino-Japanese War. The loss of oil imports made it impossible for Japan to continue operations in China on a long-term basis. It set the stage for Japan to launch a series of military attacks against the Allies, including the attack on Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941. In mid-1941, the United States government financed the creation of the <a href="/wiki/American_Volunteer_Group" title="American Volunteer Group">American Volunteer Groups</a> (AVG), of which one the "Flying Tigers" reached China, to replace the withdrawn Soviet volunteers and aircraft. The Flying Tigers did not enter actual combat until after the United States had declared war on Japan. Led by Chennault, their early combat success of 300 kills against a loss of 12 of their newly introduced <a href="/wiki/Curtiss_P-40_Warhawk" title="Curtiss P-40 Warhawk">Curtiss P-40 Warhawk</a> fighters heavily armed with six <a href="/wiki/M2_Browning" title="M2 Browning">0.50-inch caliber machine guns</a> and very fast diving speeds earned them wide recognition at a time when the Chinese Air Force and Allies in the Pacific and SE Asia were suffering heavy losses, and soon afterwards their "boom and zoom" high-speed hit-and-run air combat tactics would be adopted by the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Army_Air_Forces" title="United States Army Air Forces">United States Army Air Forces</a>.<a href="#cite_note-150">[147]</a> The Sino-American Cooperative Organization<a href="#cite_note-151">[148]</a><a href="#cite_note-152">[149]</a><a href="#cite_note-153">[150]</a> was an organization created by the SACO Treaty signed by the Republic of China and the United States of America in 1942 that established a mutual intelligence gathering entity in China between the respective nations against Japan. It operated in China jointly along with the Office of Strategic Services (OSS), America's first intelligence agency and forerunner of the CIA while also serving as joint training program between the two nations. Among all the wartime missions that Americans set up in China, SACO was the only one that adopted a policy of "total immersion" with the Chinese. The "Rice Paddy Navy" or "What-the-Hell Gang" operated in the China-Burma-India theater, advising and training, forecasting weather and scouting landing areas for USN fleet and Gen Claire Chennault's 14th AF, rescuing downed American flyers, and intercepting Japanese radio traffic. An underlying mission objective during the last year of war was the development and preparation of the China coast for Allied penetration and occupation. <a href="/wiki/Fujian" title="Fujian">Fujian</a> was scouted as a potential staging area and springboard for the future military landing of the Allies of World War II in Japan. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="United_Kingdom">United Kingdom</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Sino-Japanese_War&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: United Kingdom">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Mission_204" title="Mission 204">Mission 204</a> and <a href="/wiki/British_Army_Aid_Group" title="British Army Aid Group">British Army Aid Group</a></div> After the Tanggu Truce of 1933, Chiang Kai-Shek and the British government would have more friendly relations but were uneasy due to British foreign concessions there. During the Second Sino-Japanese War the British government would initially have an impartial viewpoint toward the conflict urging both to reach an agreement and prevent war. British public opinion would swing in favor of the Chinese after <a href="/wiki/Hughe_Knatchbull-Hugessen" title="Hughe Knatchbull-Hugessen">Hughe Knatchbull-Hugessen</a>'s car which had Union Jacks on it was attacked by Japanese aircraft with Hugessen being temporarily paralyzed with outrage against the attack from the public and government. The British public were largely supportive of the Chinese and many relief efforts were untaken to help China. Britain at this time was beginning the process of rearmament and the sale of military surplus was banned but there was never an embargo on private companies shipping arms. A number of unassembled <a href="/wiki/Gloster_Gladiator" title="Gloster Gladiator">Gloster Gladiator</a> fighters were imported to China via Hong Kong for the Chinese Air Force. Between July 1937 and November 1938 on average 60,000 tons of munitions were shipped from Britain to China via Hong Kong. Attempts by the United Kingdom and the United States to do a joint intervention were unsuccessful as both countries had rocky relations in the interwar era.<a href="#cite_note-154">[151]</a> In February 1941 a Sino-British agreement was forged whereby British troops would assist the Chinese "Surprise Troops" units of guerrillas already operating in China, and China would assist Britain in Burma.<a href="#cite_note-155">[152]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mission204China.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Mission204China.jpg/220px-Mission204China.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Mission204China.jpg/330px-Mission204China.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Mission204China.jpg/440px-Mission204China.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="471" /></a><figcaption>British and Australian troops from 'Mission 204' march to the front in <a href="/wiki/Jiangxi_province" class="mw-redirect" title="Jiangxi province">Jiangxi province</a> in June 1942</figcaption></figure> When <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hong_Kong" title="Battle of Hong Kong">Hong Kong was overrun</a> in December 1941, the <a href="/wiki/British_Army_Aid_Group" title="British Army Aid Group">British Army Aid Group</a> (B.A.A.G.) was set up and headquartered in <a href="/wiki/Guilin" title="Guilin">Guilin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Guangxi" title="Guangxi">Guangxi</a>. It's aim was to assist prisoners of war and internees to escape from Japanese camps. This led to the formation of the <a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong_Volunteer_Company" title="Hong Kong Volunteer Company">Hong Kong Volunteer Company</a> which later fought in Burma.<a href="#cite_note-NSW_2012-156">[153]</a> B.A.A.G. also sent agents to gather intelligence – military, political and economic in Southern China, as well as giving medical and humanitarian assistance to Chinese civilians and military personnel.<a href="#cite_note-IWM-157">[154]</a> A British-Australian commando operation, <a href="/wiki/Mission_204" title="Mission 204">Mission 204</a> (Tulip Force), was initialized to provide training to Chinese guerrilla troops. The mission conducted two operations, mostly in the provinces of Yunnan and Jiangxi. The first operation commenced in February 1942 from Burma on a long journey to the Chinese front. Due to issues with supporting the Chinese and gradual disease and supply issues, the first phase achieved very little and the unit was withdrawn in September.<a href="#cite_note-158">[155]</a> Another phase was set up with lessons learned from the first. Commencing in February 1943 this time valid assistance was given to the Chinese 'Surprise Troops' in various actions against the Japanese. These involved ambushes, attacks on airfields, blockhouses, and supply depots. The unit operated successfully before withdrawal in November 1944.<a href="#cite_note-159">[156]</a> Commandos and members of <a href="/wiki/Special_Operations_Executive" title="Special Operations Executive">SOE</a> who had formed <a href="/wiki/Force_136" title="Force 136">Force 136</a>, worked with the <a href="/wiki/Free_Thai_Movement" title="Free Thai Movement">Free Thai Movement</a> who also operated in China, mostly while on their way into <a href="/wiki/Thailand_in_World_War_II" title="Thailand in World War II">Thailand</a>.<a href="#cite_note-160">[157]</a> After the Japanese blocked the <a href="/wiki/Burma_Road" title="Burma Road">Burma Road</a> in April 1942, and before the <a href="/wiki/Ledo_Road" title="Ledo Road">Ledo Road</a> was finished in early 1945, the majority of US and British supplies to the Chinese had to be delivered via airlift over the eastern end of the <a href="/wiki/Himalayan_Mountains" class="mw-redirect" title="Himalayan Mountains">Himalayan Mountains</a> known as "<a href="/wiki/The_Hump" title="The Hump">The Hump</a>". Flying over the Himalayas was extremely dangerous, but the airlift continued daily to August 1945, at great cost in men and aircraft. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="French_Indochina">French Indochina</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Sino-Japanese_War&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: French Indochina">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Japanese_invasion_of_French_Indochina" title="Japanese invasion of French Indochina">Japanese invasion of French Indochina</a> and <a href="/wiki/Japanese_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat_in_French_Indochina" title="Japanese coup d'état in French Indochina">Japanese coup d'état in French Indochina</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:French_retreat_to_China.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/French_retreat_to_China.jpg/220px-French_retreat_to_China.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/French_retreat_to_China.jpg/330px-French_retreat_to_China.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/French_retreat_to_China.jpg/440px-French_retreat_to_China.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1568" data-file-height="1204" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Troupes_coloniales" title="Troupes coloniales">French colonial troops</a> retreating to the Chinese border after the Japanese coup d'état in March 1945</figcaption></figure> The Chinese Kuomintang also supported the Vietnamese <a href="/wiki/Vi%E1%BB%87t_Nam_Qu%E1%BB%91c_D%C3%A2n_%C4%90%E1%BA%A3ng" title="Việt Nam Quốc Dân Đảng">Việt Nam Quốc Dân Đảng</a> (VNQDD) in its battle against French and Japanese imperialism. In <a href="/wiki/Guangxi" title="Guangxi">Guangxi</a>, Chinese military leaders were organizing Vietnamese nationalists against the Japanese. The VNQDD had been active in Guangxi and some of their members had joined the KMT army.<a href="#cite_note-William_J._Duiker_1976_272-161">[158]</a> Under the umbrella of KMT activities, a broad alliance of nationalists emerged. With Ho at the forefront, the <a href="/wiki/Viet_Minh" title="Viet Minh">Viet Nam Doc Lap Dong Minh Hoi</a> (Vietnamese Independence League, usually known as the Viet Minh) was formed and based in the town of <a href="/wiki/Jingxi,_Guangxi" title="Jingxi, Guangxi">Jingxi</a>.<a href="#cite_note-William_J._Duiker_1976_272-161">[158]</a> The pro-VNQDD nationalist Ho Ngoc Lam, a KMT army officer and former disciple of <a href="/wiki/Phan_B%E1%BB%99i_Ch%C3%A2u" title="Phan Bội Châu">Phan Bội Châu</a>,[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] was named as the deputy of <a href="/wiki/Ph%E1%BA%A1m_V%C4%83n_%C4%90%E1%BB%93ng" title="Phạm Văn Đồng">Phạm Văn Đồng</a>, later to be Ho's Prime Minister. The front was later broadened and renamed the Viet Nam Giai Phong Dong Minh (Vietnam Liberation League).<a href="#cite_note-William_J._Duiker_1976_272-161">[158]</a> The Viet Nam Revolutionary League was a union of various Vietnamese nationalist groups, run by the pro Chinese VNQDD. Chinese KMT General <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Fakui" title="Zhang Fakui">Zhang Fakui</a> created the league to further Chinese influence in Indochina, against the French and Japanese. Its stated goal was for unity with China under the <a href="/wiki/Three_Principles_of_the_People" title="Three Principles of the People">Three Principles of the People</a>, created by KMT founder Dr. Sun and opposition to Japanese and French Imperialists.<a href="#cite_note-162">[159]</a><a href="#cite_note-163">[160]</a> The Revolutionary League was controlled by Nguyen Hai Than, who was born in China and could not speak Vietnamese[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>]. General Zhang shrewdly blocked the Communists of Vietnam, and <a href="/wiki/Ho_Chi_Minh" title="Ho Chi Minh">Ho Chi Minh</a> from entering the league, as Zhang's main goal was Chinese influence in Indochina.<a href="#cite_note-164">[161]</a> The KMT utilized these Vietnamese nationalists during World War II against Japanese forces.<a href="#cite_note-William_J._Duiker_1976_272-161">[158]</a> <a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a>, through General Stilwell, privately made it clear that they preferred that the French not reacquire French Indochina (modern day Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos) after the war was over. Roosevelt offered Chiang Kai-shek control of all of Indochina. It was said that Chiang Kai-shek replied: "Under no circumstances!"<a href="#cite_note-165">[162]</a> After the war, 200,000 Chinese troops under General <a href="/wiki/Lu_Han_(general)" title="Lu Han (general)">Lu Han</a> were sent by Chiang Kai-shek to northern Indochina (north of the 16th parallel) to accept the surrender of Japanese occupying forces there, and remained in Indochina until 1946, when the French returned.<a href="#cite_note-166">[163]</a> The Chinese used the VNQDD, the Vietnamese branch of the Chinese Kuomintang, to increase their influence in French Indochina and to put pressure on their opponents.<a href="#cite_note-167">[164]</a> Chiang Kai-shek threatened the French with war in response to maneuvering by the French and Ho Chi Minh's forces against each other, forcing them to come to a peace agreement. In February 1946, he also forced the French to surrender all of their concessions in China and to renounce their extraterritorial privileges in exchange for the Chinese withdrawing from northern Indochina and allowing French troops to reoccupy the region. Following France's agreement to these demands, the withdrawal of Chinese troops began in March 1946.<a href="#cite_note-168">[165]</a><a href="#cite_note-169">[166]</a><a href="#cite_note-170">[167]</a><a href="#cite_note-171">[168]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Central_Asian_rebellions">Central Asian rebellions</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Sino-Japanese_War&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Central Asian rebellions">edit</a>]</div> In 1937, then pro-Soviet General Sheng Shicai <a href="/wiki/Xinjiang_War_(1937)" class="mw-redirect" title="Xinjiang War (1937)">invaded Dunganistan</a> accompanied by Soviet troops to defeat General <a href="/wiki/Ma_Hushan" title="Ma Hushan">Ma Hushan</a> of the <a href="/wiki/36th_Division_(National_Revolutionary_Army)" class="mw-redirect" title="36th Division (National Revolutionary Army)">KMT 36th Division</a>. General Ma expected help from Nanjing, but did not receive it. The Nationalist government was forced to deny these maneuvers as "Japanese propaganda", as it needed continued military supplies from the Soviets.<a href="#cite_note-172">[169]</a> As the war went on, Nationalist General Ma Buqing was in virtual control of the <a href="/wiki/Gansu" title="Gansu">Gansu</a> corridor.<a href="#cite_note-173">[170]</a> Ma had earlier fought against the Japanese, but because the Soviet threat was great, Chiang in July 1942 directed him to move 30,000 of his troops to the Tsaidam marsh in the <a href="/wiki/Qaidam_Basin" title="Qaidam Basin">Qaidam Basin</a> of <a href="/wiki/Qinghai" title="Qinghai">Qinghai</a>.<a href="#cite_note-174">[171]</a><a href="#cite_note-175">[172]</a> Chiang further named Ma as Reclamation Commissioner, to threaten Sheng's southern flank in Xinjiang, which bordered Tsaidam. The <a href="/wiki/Ili_Rebellion" title="Ili Rebellion">Ili Rebellion</a> broke out in Xinjiang when the Kuomintang Hui Officer Liu Bin-Di was killed while fighting Turkic Uyghur rebels in November 1944. The Soviet Union supported the Turkic rebels against the Kuomintang, and Kuomintang forces fought back.<a href="#cite_note-176">[173]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ethnic_minorities">Ethnic minorities</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Sino-Japanese_War&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Ethnic minorities">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Chinese_ethnic_minorities_in_the_Second_Sino-Japanese_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese ethnic minorities in the Second Sino-Japanese War">Chinese ethnic minorities in the Second Sino-Japanese War</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ma_Jia_Jun.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Ma_Jia_Jun.jpg/220px-Ma_Jia_Jun.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="196" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Ma_Jia_Jun.jpg/330px-Ma_Jia_Jun.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/38/Ma_Jia_Jun.jpg 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="356" /></a><figcaption>Chinese Muslim cavalry</figcaption></figure> Japan attempted to reach out to Chinese ethnic minorities in order to rally them to their side against the <a href="/wiki/Han_Chinese" title="Han Chinese">Han Chinese</a>, but only succeeded with certain <a href="/wiki/Manchu_people" title="Manchu people">Manchu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mongols" title="Mongols">Mongol</a>, <a href="/wiki/Uyghurs" title="Uyghurs">Uyghur</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tibetan_people" title="Tibetan people">Tibetan</a> elements. The Japanese attempt to get the Muslim <a href="/wiki/Hui_people" title="Hui people">Hui people</a> on their side failed, as many Chinese generals such as <a href="/wiki/Bai_Chongxi" title="Bai Chongxi">Bai Chongxi</a>, Ma Hongbin, <a href="/wiki/Ma_Hongkui" title="Ma Hongkui">Ma Hongkui</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ma_Bufang" title="Ma Bufang">Ma Bufang</a> were Hui. The Japanese attempted to approach Ma Bufang but were unsuccessful in making any agreement with him.<a href="#cite_note-177">[174]</a> Ma Bufang ended up supporting the anti-Japanese Imam <a href="/wiki/Hu_Songshan" title="Hu Songshan">Hu Songshan</a>, who prayed for the destruction of the Japanese.<a href="#cite_note-178">[175]</a> Ma became chairman (governor) of Qinghai in 1938 and commanded a group army. He was appointed because of his anti-Japanese inclinations,<a href="#cite_note-179">[176]</a> and was such an obstruction to Japanese agents trying to contact the Tibetans that he was called an "adversary" by a Japanese agent.<a href="#cite_note-180">[177]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hui_Muslims">Hui Muslims</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Sino-Japanese_War&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Hui Muslims">edit</a>]</div> Hui cemeteries were destroyed for military reasons.<a href="#cite_note-181">[178]</a> Many Hui fought in the war against the Japanese such as Bai Chongxi, Ma Hongbin, Ma Hongkui, Ma Bufang, <a href="/wiki/Ma_Zhanshan" title="Ma Zhanshan">Ma Zhanshan</a>, Ma Biao, <a href="/wiki/Ma_Zhongying" title="Ma Zhongying">Ma Zhongying</a>, Ma Buqing and Ma Hushan. Qinghai Tibetans served in the Qinghai army against the Japanese.<a href="#cite_note-182">[179]</a> The Qinghai Tibetans view the Tibetans of Central Tibet (Tibet proper, ruled by the Dalai Lamas from Lhasa) as distinct and different from themselves, and even take pride in the fact that they were not ruled by Lhasa ever since the collapse of the <a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Empire" title="Tibetan Empire">Tibetan Empire</a>.<a href="#cite_note-183">[180]</a> Xining was subjected to aerial bombardment by Japanese warplanes in 1941, causing all ethnicities in Qinghai to unite against the Japanese. General <a href="/wiki/Han_Youwen" title="Han Youwen">Han Youwen</a> directed the defense of the city of Xining during air raids by Japanese planes. Han survived an aerial bombardment by Japanese planes in Xining while he was being directed via telephone by Ma Bufang, who hid in an air-raid shelter in a military barracks. The bombing resulted in Han being buried in rubble, though he was later rescued. John Scott reported in 1934 that there was both strong anti-Japanese feeling and anti-Bolshevik among the Muslims of Gansu and he mentioned the Muslim generals Ma Fuxiang, Ma Qi, Ma Anliang and Ma Bufang who was chairman of Qinghai province when he stayed in Xining.<a href="#cite_note-184">[181]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Conclusion_and_aftermath">Conclusion and aftermath</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Sino-Japanese_War&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Conclusion and aftermath">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="End_of_the_Pacific_War_and_the_surrender_of_Japanese_troops_in_China">End of the Pacific War and the surrender of Japanese troops in China</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Sino-Japanese_War&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: End of the Pacific War and the surrender of Japanese troops in China">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki</a>, <a href="/wiki/Soviet_invasion_of_Manchuria" title="Soviet invasion of Manchuria">Soviet invasion of Manchuria</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Japanese_Instrument_of_Surrender" title="Japanese Instrument of Surrender">Japanese Instrument of Surrender</a></div> During the Second Sino-Japanese War, the Japanese had consistent tactical successes but failed to achieve strategic results.<a href="#cite_note-Crean-64">[61]</a>: 70  Although it seized the majority of China's industrial capacity, occupied most major cities, and rarely lost a battle, Japan's occupation of China was costly.<a href="#cite_note-Crean-64">[61]</a>: 70  Japan had approximately 50,000 military fatalities each year and 200,000 wounded per year.<a href="#cite_note-Crean-64">[61]</a>: 70 <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:3_September_1945_-_Chungking_Victory_Parade.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/3_September_1945_-_Chungking_Victory_Parade.jpg/220px-3_September_1945_-_Chungking_Victory_Parade.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/3_September_1945_-_Chungking_Victory_Parade.jpg/330px-3_September_1945_-_Chungking_Victory_Parade.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/3_September_1945_-_Chungking_Victory_Parade.jpg/440px-3_September_1945_-_Chungking_Victory_Parade.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="368" /></a><figcaption>WWII victory parade at Chongqing on 3 September 1945</figcaption></figure> In less than two weeks the <a href="/wiki/Kwantung_Army" title="Kwantung Army">Kwantung Army</a>, which was the primary Japanese fighting force,<a href="#cite_note-185">[182]</a><a href="#cite_note-186">[183]</a> consisting of over a million men but lacking in adequate armour, artillery, or air support, had been destroyed by the Soviets. Japanese Emperor <a href="/wiki/Hirohito" title="Hirohito">Hirohito</a> officially <a href="/wiki/Surrender_of_Japan" title="Surrender of Japan">capitulated</a> to the Allies on 15 August 1945. The official surrender was signed aboard the battleship <a href="/wiki/USS_Missouri_(BB-63)" title="USS Missouri (BB-63)">USS Missouri</a> on 2 September 1945, in a ceremony where several Allied commanders including Chinese general <a href="/wiki/Hsu_Yung-chang" class="mw-redirect" title="Hsu Yung-chang">Hsu Yung-chang</a> were present. After the Allied victory in the Pacific, General <a href="/wiki/Douglas_MacArthur" title="Douglas MacArthur">Douglas MacArthur</a> ordered all Japanese forces within China (excluding <a href="/wiki/Manchuria" title="Manchuria">Manchuria</a>), Taiwan and French Indochina north of 16° north latitude to surrender to Chiang Kai-shek, and the Japanese troops in China formally surrendered on 9 September 1945, at 9:00.<a href="#cite_note-surrender-187">[184]</a> The ninth hour of the ninth day of the ninth month was chosen in echo of the <a href="/wiki/Armistice_of_11_November_1918" title="Armistice of 11 November 1918">Armistice of 11 November 1918</a> (on the eleventh hour of the eleventh day of the eleventh month) and because "nine" is a <a href="/wiki/Numbers_in_Chinese_culture#Nine" class="mw-redirect" title="Numbers in Chinese culture">homophone of the word for "long lasting"</a> in Chinese (to suggest that the peace won would last forever).<a href="#cite_note-188">[185]</a> Chiang relied on American help in transporting Nationalist troops to regain control of formerly Japanese-occupied areas.<a href="#cite_note-:02-76">[73]</a>: 3  Non-Chinese generally viewed the behavior of these troops as undercutting Nationalist legitimacy, and these troops engaged in corruption and looting, leading to widespread views of a "botched liberation."<a href="#cite_note-:02-76">[73]</a>: 3  The Nationalist government seized Japanese-held businesses at the time of the Japanese surrender.<a href="#cite_note-:02-76">[73]</a>: 92  The Nationalist government made little effort to return these businesses to their original Chinese owners.<a href="#cite_note-:02-76">[73]</a>: 92–93  A mechanism existed through which Chinese and foreign owners could petition for the return of their former property.<a href="#cite_note-:02-76">[73]</a>: 92  In practice, the Nationalist government and its officials retained a great deal of the seized property and embezzling property, particularly from warehouses, was common.<a href="#cite_note-:02-76">[73]</a>: 93  Nationalist officials sometimes extorted money from individuals in liberated territories under threat of labeling them as Japanese collaborators.<a href="#cite_note-:02-76">[73]</a>: 93  Chiang's focus on his communist opponents prompted him to leave Japanese troops or troops of the Japanese puppet regimes to remain on duty in occupied areas so as to avoid their surrender to Communist forces.<a href="#cite_note-:02-76">[73]</a>: 3  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Post-war_struggle_and_resumption_of_the_civil_war">Post-war struggle and resumption of the civil war</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Sino-Japanese_War&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Post-war struggle and resumption of the civil war">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Civil_War" title="Chinese Civil War">Chinese Civil War</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%E9%87%8D%E6%85%B6%E6%9C%83%E8%AB%87_%E8%94%A3%E4%BB%8B%E7%9F%B3%E8%88%87%E6%AF%9B%E6%BE%A4%E6%9D%B1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/%E9%87%8D%E6%85%B6%E6%9C%83%E8%AB%87_%E8%94%A3%E4%BB%8B%E7%9F%B3%E8%88%87%E6%AF%9B%E6%BE%A4%E6%9D%B1.jpg/220px-%E9%87%8D%E6%85%B6%E6%9C%83%E8%AB%87_%E8%94%A3%E4%BB%8B%E7%9F%B3%E8%88%87%E6%AF%9B%E6%BE%A4%E6%9D%B1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="214" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/%E9%87%8D%E6%85%B6%E6%9C%83%E8%AB%87_%E8%94%A3%E4%BB%8B%E7%9F%B3%E8%88%87%E6%AF%9B%E6%BE%A4%E6%9D%B1.jpg/330px-%E9%87%8D%E6%85%B6%E6%9C%83%E8%AB%87_%E8%94%A3%E4%BB%8B%E7%9F%B3%E8%88%87%E6%AF%9B%E6%BE%A4%E6%9D%B1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/%E9%87%8D%E6%85%B6%E6%9C%83%E8%AB%87_%E8%94%A3%E4%BB%8B%E7%9F%B3%E8%88%87%E6%AF%9B%E6%BE%A4%E6%9D%B1.jpg/440px-%E9%87%8D%E6%85%B6%E6%9C%83%E8%AB%87_%E8%94%A3%E4%BB%8B%E7%9F%B3%E8%88%87%E6%AF%9B%E6%BE%A4%E6%9D%B1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="656" data-file-height="639" /></a><figcaption>Chiang Kai-shek and Mao Zedong in 1945</figcaption></figure> In 1945, China emerged from the war nominally a great military power [<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] but economically weak and on the verge of all-out civil war. The economy was sapped by the military demands of a long costly war and internal strife, by spiraling inflation, and by corruption in the Nationalist government that included profiteering, speculation and hoarding. The poor performance of Nationalist forces opposing the Ichi-go campaign was largely viewed as reflecting poorly on Chiang's competence.<a href="#cite_note-:02-76">[73]</a>: 3  Chiang blamed the failure on the United States, particularly Stilwell, who had used Chinese forces in the Burma Campaign and in Chiang's view, left China insufficiently defended.<a href="#cite_note-:02-76">[73]</a>: 3  As part of the Yalta Conference, which allowed a Soviet sphere of influence in Manchuria, the Soviets dismantled and removed more than half of the industrial equipment left there by the Japanese before handing over Manchuria to China. Large swathes of the prime farming areas had been ravaged by the fighting and there was starvation and famine in the wake of the war. Many towns and cities were destroyed, and millions were rendered homeless by floods. The problems of rehabilitation and reconstruction after the ravages of a protracted war were staggering, and the war left the Nationalists severely weakened, and their policies left them unpopular. Meanwhile, the war strengthened the Communists both in popularity and as a viable fighting force. At Yan'an and elsewhere in the communist controlled areas, Mao Zedong was able to adapt <a href="/wiki/Marxism%E2%80%93Leninism" title="Marxism–Leninism">Marxism–Leninism</a> to Chinese conditions. He taught party cadres to lead the masses by living and working with them, eating their food, and thinking their thoughts. The Chinese Red Army fostered an image of conducting guerrilla warfare in defense of the people. Communist troops adapted to changing wartime conditions and became a seasoned fighting force. With skillful organization and propaganda, the Communists increased party membership from 100,000 in 1937 to 1.2 million by 1945. Mao also began to execute his plan to establish a new China by rapidly moving his forces from Yan'an and elsewhere to Manchuria. This opportunity was available to the Communists because although Nationalist representatives were not invited to Yalta, they had been consulted and had agreed to the Soviet invasion of Manchuria in the belief that the Soviet Union would cooperate only with the Nationalist government after the war. However, the Soviet occupation of Manchuria was long enough to allow the Communist forces to move in en masse and arm themselves with the military hardware surrendered by the Imperial Japanese Army, quickly establish control in the countryside and move into position to encircle the Nationalist government army in major cities of northeast China. Following that, the Chinese Civil War broke out between the Nationalists and Communists, which concluded with the Communist victory in <a href="/wiki/Mainland_China" title="Mainland China">mainland China</a> and the retreat of the Nationalists to Taiwan in 1949. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Aftermath">Aftermath</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Sino-Japanese_War&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Aftermath">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:AntijapaneseWarMemorialMuseum.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/AntijapaneseWarMemorialMuseum.jpg/220px-AntijapaneseWarMemorialMuseum.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/AntijapaneseWarMemorialMuseum.jpg/330px-AntijapaneseWarMemorialMuseum.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/AntijapaneseWarMemorialMuseum.jpg/440px-AntijapaneseWarMemorialMuseum.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2560" data-file-height="1920" /></a><figcaption>China War of Resistance Against Japan Memorial Museum on the site where the <a href="/wiki/Marco_Polo_Bridge_Incident" class="mw-redirect" title="Marco Polo Bridge Incident">Marco Polo Bridge Incident</a> took place</figcaption></figure> The Nationalists suffered higher casualties because they were the main combatants opposing the Japanese in each of the 22 major battles (involving more than 100,000 troops on both sides) between China and Japan. The Communist forces, by contrast, usually avoided pitched battles with the Japanese, in which their guerrilla tactics were less effective, and generally limited their combat to guerrilla actions (the <a href="/wiki/Hundred_Regiments_Offensive" title="Hundred Regiments Offensive">Hundred Regiments Offensive</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pingxingguan" title="Battle of Pingxingguan">Battle of Pingxingguan</a> are notable exceptions).<a href="#cite_note-189">[186]</a> The Nationalists committed their strongest divisions in early battle against the Japanese (including the 36th, 87th, 88th divisions, the crack divisions of Chiang's Central Army) to defend Shanghai and continued to deploy most of their forces to fight the Japanese even as the Communists changed their strategy to engage mainly in a political offensive against the Japanese while declaring that the CCP should "save and preserve our strength and wait for favourable timing" by the end of 1941.<a href="#cite_note-190">[187]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legacy">Legacy</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Sino-Japanese_War&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Legacy">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="China-Japan_relations">China-Japan relations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Sino-Japanese_War&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: China-Japan relations">edit</a>]</div> Today, the war is a major point of contention and resentment between China and Japan. The war remains a major roadblock for <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_China%E2%80%93Japan_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="People's Republic of China–Japan relations">Sino-Japanese relations</a>. Issues regarding the current historical outlook on the war exist. For example, the Japanese government has been accused of <a href="/wiki/Historical_revisionism" title="Historical revisionism">historical revisionism</a> by allowing the approval of a few <a href="/wiki/Japanese_textbook_controversy" class="mw-redirect" title="Japanese textbook controversy">school textbooks</a> omitting or glossing over Japan's militant past, although the most recent controversial book, the New History Textbook was used by only 0.039% of junior high schools in Japan<a href="#cite_note-191">[188]</a> and despite the efforts of the Japanese nationalist textbook reformers, by the late 1990s the most common Japanese schoolbooks contained references to, for instance, the Nanjing Massacre, <a href="/wiki/Unit_731" title="Unit 731">Unit 731</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Comfort_women" title="Comfort women">comfort women</a> of World War II, all historical issues which have faced challenges from ultranationalists in the past.<a href="#cite_note-192">[189]</a> In 2005, a history textbook prepared by the Japanese Society for History Textbook Reform which had been approved by the government in 2001, sparked huge outcry and protests in China and Korea. It referred to the Nanjing Massacre and other atrocities such as the <a href="/wiki/Manila_massacre" title="Manila massacre">Manila massacre</a> as an "incident", glossed over the issue of comfort women, and made only brief references to the death of Chinese soldiers and civilians in Nanjing.<a href="#cite_note-193">[190]</a> A copy of the 2005 version of a junior high school textbook titled New History Textbook found that there is no mention of the "Nanjing Massacre" or the "Nanjing Incident". Indeed, the only one sentence that referred to this event was: "they [the Japanese troops] occupied that city in December".<a href="#cite_note-194">[191]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Taiwan">Taiwan</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Sino-Japanese_War&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Taiwan">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Legal_status_of_Taiwan" class="mw-redirect" title="Legal status of Taiwan">Legal status of Taiwan</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Taiwan_Strait.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Taiwan_Strait.png/170px-Taiwan_Strait.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Taiwan_Strait.png/255px-Taiwan_Strait.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Taiwan_Strait.png/340px-Taiwan_Strait.png 2x" data-file-width="681" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Taiwan_Strait" title="Taiwan Strait">Taiwan Strait</a> and the island of <a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a></figcaption></figure> Taiwan and the <a href="/wiki/Penghu" title="Penghu">Penghu</a> islands were put under the administrative control of the Republic of China (ROC) government in 1945 by the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Relief_and_Rehabilitation_Administration" title="United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration">United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration</a>.<a href="#cite_note-unhcr.org-195">[192]</a> The ROC proclaimed Taiwan <a href="/wiki/Retrocession_Day" title="Retrocession Day">Retrocession Day</a> on 25 October 1945. However, due to the unresolved Chinese Civil War, neither the newly established People's Republic of China in mainland China nor the Nationalist ROC that retreated to Taiwan was invited to sign the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_San_Francisco" title="Treaty of San Francisco">Treaty of San Francisco</a>, as neither had shown full and complete legal capacity to enter into an international legally binding agreement.<a href="#cite_note-aao.sinica.edu.tw-196">[193]</a> Since China was not present, the Japanese only formally renounced the territorial sovereignty of Taiwan and Penghu islands without specifying to which country Japan relinquished the sovereignty, and the treaty was signed in 1951 and came into force in 1952. In 1952, the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Taipei" title="Treaty of Taipei">Treaty of Taipei</a> was signed separately between the ROC and Japan that basically followed the same guideline of the Treaty of San Francisco, not specifying which country has sovereignty over Taiwan. However, Article 10 of the treaty states that the <a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_people" title="Taiwanese people">Taiwanese people</a> and the juridical person should be the people and the juridical person of the ROC.<a href="#cite_note-unhcr.org-195">[192]</a> Both the PRC and ROC governments base their claims to Taiwan on the <a href="/wiki/Japanese_Instrument_of_Surrender" title="Japanese Instrument of Surrender">Japanese Instrument of Surrender</a> which specifically accepted the <a href="/wiki/Potsdam_Declaration" title="Potsdam Declaration">Potsdam Declaration</a> which refers to the <a href="/wiki/1943_Cairo_Declaration" title="1943 Cairo Declaration">Cairo Declaration</a>. Disputes over the precise de jure sovereign of Taiwan persist to the present. On a de facto basis, sovereignty over Taiwan has been and continues to be exercised by the ROC. Japan's position has been to avoid commenting on Taiwan's status, maintaining that Japan renounced all claims to sovereignty over its former colonial possessions after World War II, including Taiwan.<a href="#cite_note-197">[194]</a> Traditionally, the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Republic of China">Republic of China</a> government has held celebrations marking the <a href="/wiki/Victory_Day" title="Victory Day">Victory Day</a> on 9 September (now known as <a href="/wiki/Armed_Forces_Day" title="Armed Forces Day">Armed Forces Day</a>) and Taiwan's Retrocession Day on 25 October. However, after the <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Progressive_Party" title="Democratic Progressive Party">Democratic Progressive Party</a> (DPP) won the <a href="/wiki/2000_Republic_of_China_presidential_election" class="mw-redirect" title="2000 Republic of China presidential election">presidential election</a> in 2000, these national holidays commemorating the war have been cancelled as the <a href="/wiki/Taiwan_Independence" class="mw-redirect" title="Taiwan Independence">pro-independent</a> DPP does not see the relevancy of celebrating events that happened in mainland China. Meanwhile, many KMT supporters, particularly veterans who retreated with the government in 1949, still have an emotional interest in the war. For example, in celebrating the 60th anniversary of the end of war in 2005, the cultural bureau of KMT stronghold <a href="/wiki/Taipei" title="Taipei">Taipei</a> held a series of talks in the <a href="/wiki/Sun_Yat-sen_Memorial_Hall" class="mw-redirect" title="Sun Yat-sen Memorial Hall">Sun Yat-sen Memorial Hall</a> regarding the war and post-war developments, while the KMT held its own exhibit in the KMT headquarters. Whereas the KMT won the <a href="/wiki/2008_Republic_of_China_presidential_election" class="mw-redirect" title="2008 Republic of China presidential election">presidential election</a> in 2008, the ROC government resumed commemorating the war. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Japanese_women_left_in_China">Japanese women left in China</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Sino-Japanese_War&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: Japanese women left in China">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Japanese_people_in_China" title="Japanese people in China">Japanese people in China</a></div> Several thousand Japanese who were sent as colonizers to Manchukuo and Inner Mongolia were left behind in China. The majority of these were women, and they married mostly Chinese men and became known as "stranded war wives" (zanryu fujin).<a href="#cite_note-198">[195]</a><a href="#cite_note-199">[196]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Korean_women_left_in_China">Korean women left in China</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Sino-Japanese_War&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: Korean women left in China">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Koreans_in_China" title="Koreans in China">Koreans in China</a></div> In China some Korean comfort women stayed behind instead of going back to their native land.<a href="#cite_note-200">[197]</a><a href="#cite_note-201">[198]</a> Most Korean comfort women who were left behind in China married Chinese men.<a href="#cite_note-202">[199]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Commemorations">Commemorations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Sino-Japanese_War&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: Commemorations">edit</a>]</div> Three major museums in China commemorate China's War of Resistance, including the <a href="/wiki/Museum_of_the_War_of_Chinese_People%27s_Resistance_Against_Japanese_Aggression" title="Museum of the War of Chinese People's Resistance Against Japanese Aggression">Museum of the War of Chinese People's Resistance Against Japanese Aggression</a>.<a href="#cite_note-203">[200]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Casualties">Casualties</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Sino-Japanese_War&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section: Casualties">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Casualties_of_a_mass_panic_-_Chungking,_China.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Casualties_of_a_mass_panic_-_Chungking%2C_China.jpg/220px-Casualties_of_a_mass_panic_-_Chungking%2C_China.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="303" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Casualties_of_a_mass_panic_-_Chungking%2C_China.jpg/330px-Casualties_of_a_mass_panic_-_Chungking%2C_China.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Casualties_of_a_mass_panic_-_Chungking%2C_China.jpg/440px-Casualties_of_a_mass_panic_-_Chungking%2C_China.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2137" data-file-height="2945" /></a><figcaption>Casualties of a mass panic during a June 1941 Japanese <a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Chongqing" title="Bombing of Chongqing">bombing of Chongqing</a>. More than 5,000 civilians died during the first two days of air raids in 1939.<a href="#cite_note-204">[201]</a></figcaption></figure> The conflict lasted eight years, two months and two days (from 7 July 1937, to 9 September 1945). The total number of casualties that resulted from this war (and subsequently theater) equaled more than half the total number of casualties that later resulted from the entire Pacific War.<a href="#cite_note-205">[202]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chinese">Chinese</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Sino-Japanese_War&action=edit&section=51" title="Edit section: Chinese">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Duncan Anderson, Head of the Department of War Studies at the Royal Military Academy, UK, writing for BBC states that the total number of casualties was around 20 million.<a href="#cite_note-206">[203]</a></li> <li>The official <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="People's Republic of China">PRC</a> statistics for China's civilian and military casualties in the Second Sino-Japanese War from 1937 to 1945 are 20 million dead and 15 million wounded. The figures for total military casualties, killed and wounded are: NRA 3.2 million; <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Liberation_Army" title="People's Liberation Army">People's Liberation Army</a> 500,000.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>]</li> <li>The official account of the war published in Taiwan reported that the Nationalist Chinese Army lost 3,238,000 men (1,797,000 wounded, 1,320,000 killed, and 120,000 missing) and 5,787,352 civilians casualties putting the total number of casualties at 9,025,352. The <a href="/wiki/Kuomintang" title="Kuomintang">Nationalists</a> fought in 22 major engagements, most of which involved more than 100,000 troops on both sides, 1,171 minor engagements most of which involved more than 50,000 troops on both sides, and 38,931 skirmishes.<a href="#cite_note-Hsu-13">[13]</a> The Chinese reported their yearly total battle casualties as 367,362 for 1937, 735,017 for 1938, 346,543 for 1939, and 299,483 for 1941.<a href="#cite_note-207">[204]</a></li> <li>An academic study published in the United States in 1959 estimates military casualties: 1.5 million killed in battle, 750,000 missing in action, 1.5 million deaths due to disease and 3 million wounded; civilian casualties: due to military activity, killed 1,073,496 and 237,319 wounded; 335,934 killed and 426,249 wounded in Japanese air attacks.<a href="#cite_note-208">[205]</a></li> <li>According to historian Mitsuyoshi Himeta, at least 2.7 million civilians died during the "kill all, loot all, burn all" operation (<a href="/wiki/Three_Alls_Policy" class="mw-redirect" title="Three Alls Policy">Three Alls Policy</a>, or sanko sakusen) implemented in May 1942 in north China by general <a href="/wiki/Yasuji_Okamura" title="Yasuji Okamura">Yasuji Okamura</a> and authorized on 3 December 1941, by Imperial Headquarter Order number 575.<a href="#cite_note-209">[206]</a></li> <li>The property loss suffered by the Chinese was valued at 383 billion US dollars according to the currency exchange rate in July 1937, roughly 50 times the <a href="/wiki/Gross_domestic_product" title="Gross domestic product">gross domestic product</a> of Japan at that time (US$7.7 billion).<a href="#cite_note-210">[207]</a></li> <li>In addition, the war created 95 million <a href="/wiki/Refugee" title="Refugee">refugees</a>.<a href="#cite_note-211">[208]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolph_Rummel" class="mw-redirect" title="Rudolph Rummel">Rudolph Rummel</a> gave a figure of 3,949,000 people in China murdered directly by the Japanese army while giving a figure of 10,216,000 total dead in the war with the additional millions of deaths due to indirect causes like starvation, disease and disruption but not direct killing by Japan.<a href="#cite_note-212">[209]</a><a href="#cite_note-213">[210]</a> China suffered from famines during the war caused by drought affected both China and <a href="/wiki/British_Raj" title="British Raj">India</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chinese_famine_of_1942%E2%80%9343" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese famine of 1942–43">Chinese famine of 1942–43</a> in <a href="/wiki/Henan" title="Henan">Henan</a> that led to starvation deaths of 2 to 3 million people, Guangdong famine caused more than 3 million people to flee or die, and the <a href="/wiki/Bengal_Famine_of_1943" class="mw-redirect" title="Bengal Famine of 1943">1943–1945 Indian famine in Bengal</a> that killed about 3 million Indians in <a href="/wiki/Bengal" title="Bengal">Bengal</a> and parts of Southern India.<a href="#cite_note-214">[211]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Japanese">Japanese</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Sino-Japanese_War&action=edit&section=52" title="Edit section: Japanese">edit</a>]</div> The Japanese recorded around 1.1 to 1.9 million military casualties during all of World War II (which include killed, wounded and missing). The official death toll of Japanese men killed in China, according to the Japan Defense Ministry, is 480,000. Based on the investigation of the Japanese <a href="/wiki/Yomiuri_Shimbun" title="Yomiuri Shimbun">Yomiuri Shimbun</a>, the military death toll of Japan in China is about 700,000 since 1937 (excluding the deaths in Manchuria).<a href="#cite_note-Yomiuri_Shimbun-20">[20]</a> Another source from Hilary Conroy claims that a total of 447,000 Japanese soldiers died or went missing in China during the Second Sino-Japanese War. Of the 1,130,000 Imperial Japanese Army soldiers who died during World War II, 39 percent died in China.<a href="#cite_note-Coox_pp._308-215">[212]</a> Then in <a href="/wiki/War_Without_Mercy" title="War Without Mercy">War Without Mercy</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_W._Dower" title="John W. Dower">John W. Dower</a> claims that a total of 396,000 Japanese soldiers died in China during the Second Sino-Japanese War. Of this number, the Imperial Japanese Army lost 388,605 soldiers and the Imperial Japanese Navy lost 8,000 soldiers. Another 54,000 soldiers also died after the war had ended, mostly from illness and starvation.<a href="#cite_note-Coox_pp._308-215">[212]</a> Of the 1,740,955 Japanese soldiers who died during World War II, 22 percent died in China.<a href="#cite_note-Ref-1-216">[213]</a> Japanese statistics, however, lack complete estimates for the wounded. From 1937 to 1941, 185,647 Japanese soldiers were killed in China and 520,000 were wounded. Disease also incurred critical losses on Japanese forces. From 1937 to 1941, 430,000 Japanese soldiers were recorded as being sick. In North China alone, 18,000 soldiers were evacuated back to Japan for illnesses in 1938, 23,000 in 1939, and 15,000 in 1940.<a href="#cite_note-Ref-1-216">[213]</a><a href="#cite_note-217">[a]</a> From 1941 to 1945: 202,958 dead; another 54,000 dead after war's end. Chinese forces also report that by May 1945, 22,293 Japanese soldiers were captured as prisoners. Many more Japanese soldiers surrendered when the war ended.<a href="#cite_note-Coox_pp._308-215">[212]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ref-1-216">[213]</a> Contemporary studies from the Beijing Central Compilation and Translation Press state that the Japanese suffered a total of 2,227,200 casualties, including 1,055,000 dead and 1,172,341 injured. This Chinese publication analyzes statistics provided by Japanese publications and claimed these numbers were largely based on Japanese publications.<a href="#cite_note-Press-218">[214]</a> Both Nationalist and Communist Chinese sources report that their respective forces were responsible for the deaths of over 1.7 million Japanese soldiers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHsu565-219">[215]</a> Nationalist War Minister <a href="/wiki/He_Yingqin" title="He Yingqin">He Yingqin</a> himself contested the Communists' claims, finding it impossible for a force of "untrained, undisciplined, poorly equipped" guerrillas of Communist forces to have killed so many enemy soldiers.<a href="#cite_note-220">[216]</a> The Nationalist Chinese authorities ridiculed Japanese estimates of Chinese casualties. In 1940, the National Herald stated that the Japanese exaggerated Chinese casualties, while deliberately concealing the true number of Japanese casualties, releasing false figures that made them appear much lower. The article reports on the casualty situation of the war up to 1940.<a href="#cite_note-221">[217]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Use_of_chemical_and_biological_weapons">Use of chemical and biological weapons</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Sino-Japanese_War&action=edit&section=53" title="Edit section: Use of chemical and biological weapons">edit</a>]</div> Despite Article 23 of the <a href="/wiki/Hague_Conventions_of_1899_and_1907" title="Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907">Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907</a>, article V of the Treaty in Relation to the Use of Submarines and Noxious Gases in Warfare,<a href="#cite_note-222">[218]</a> article 171 of the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles" title="Treaty of Versailles">Treaty of Versailles</a> and a resolution adopted by the League of Nations on 14 May 1938, condemning the use of poison gas by the Empire of Japan, the Imperial Japanese Army frequently used chemical weapons during the war. According to Walter E. Grunden, history professor at <a href="/wiki/Bowling_Green_State_University" title="Bowling Green State University">Bowling Green State University</a>, Japan permitted the use of chemical weapons in China because the Japanese concluded that Chinese forces did not possess the capacity to retaliate in kind.<a href="#cite_note-223">[219]</a> The Japanese incorporated gas warfare into many aspects of their army, which includes special gas troops, infantry, artillery, engineers and air force; the Japanese were aware of basic gas tactics of other armies, and deployed multifarious gas warfare tactics in China.<a href="#cite_note-224">[220]</a> The Japanese were very dependent on gas weapons when they were engaged in chemical warfare.<a href="#cite_note-225">[221]</a> Japan used poison gas at Hankow during the Battle of Wuhan to break fierce Chinese resistance after conventional Japanese assaults were repelled by Chinese defenders. Rana Mitter writes, <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">Under General Xue Yue, some 100,000 Chinese troops pushed back Japanese forces at Huangmei. At the fortress of Tianjiazhen, thousands of men fought until the end of September, with Japanese victory assured only with the use of poison gas.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMitter2013166-226">[222]</a></blockquote> According to <a href="/wiki/Freda_Utley" title="Freda Utley">Freda Utley</a>, during the battle at Hankow, in areas where Japanese artillery or gunboats on the river could not reach Chinese defenders on hilltops, Japanese infantrymen had to fight Chinese troops on the hills.<a href="#cite_note-fredautley1-227">[223]</a> She noted that the Japanese were inferior at hand-to-hand combat against the Chinese, and resorted to deploying poison gas to defeat the Chinese troops.<a href="#cite_note-fredautley1-227">[223]</a> She was told by General <a href="/wiki/Li_Zongren" title="Li Zongren">Li Zongren</a> that the Japanese consistently used <a href="/wiki/Tear_gas" title="Tear gas">tear gas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mustard_gas" title="Mustard gas">mustard gas</a> against Chinese troops.<a href="#cite_note-fredautley1-227">[223]</a> Li also added that his forces could not withstand large scale deployments of Japanese poison gas.<a href="#cite_note-fredautley1-227">[223]</a> Since Chinese troops did not have gas-masks, the poison gases provided enough time for Japanese troops to bayonet debilitated Chinese soldiers.<a href="#cite_note-fredautley1-227">[223]</a> During the battle in Yichang of October 1941, Japanese troops used chemical munitions in their artillery and mortar fire, and warplanes dropped gas bombs all over the area; since the Chinese troops were poorly equipped and without gas-masks, they were severely gassed, burned and killed.<a href="#cite_note-228">[224]</a> According to historians <a href="/wiki/Yoshiaki_Yoshimi" title="Yoshiaki Yoshimi">Yoshiaki Yoshimi</a> and Seiya Matsuno, the chemical weapons were authorized by specific orders given by Hirohito himself, transmitted by the Imperial General Headquarters. For example, the Emperor authorized the use of toxic gas on 375 separate occasions during the Battle of Wuhan from August to October 1938.<a href="#cite_note-229">[225]</a> They were also used during the invasion of Changde. Those orders were transmitted either by <a href="/wiki/Prince_Kan%27in_Kotohito" title="Prince Kan'in Kotohito">Prince Kan'in Kotohito</a> or General <a href="/wiki/Hajime_Sugiyama" title="Hajime Sugiyama">Hajime Sugiyama</a>.<a href="#cite_note-230">[226]</a> Gases manufactured in <a href="/wiki/Okunoshima" class="mw-redirect" title="Okunoshima">Okunoshima</a> were used more than 2,000 times against Chinese soldiers and civilians in the war in China in the 1930s and 1940s<a href="#cite_note-231">[227]</a> <a href="/wiki/Biological_warfare" title="Biological warfare">Bacteriological weapons</a> provided by <a href="/wiki/Shir%C5%8D_Ishii" title="Shirō Ishii">Shirō Ishii</a>'s units were also profusely used. For example, in 1940, the Imperial Japanese Army Air Force bombed <a href="/wiki/Ningbo" title="Ningbo">Ningbo</a> with <a href="/wiki/Flea" title="Flea">fleas</a> carrying the <a href="/wiki/Bubonic_plague" title="Bubonic plague">bubonic plague</a>.<a href="#cite_note-232">[228]</a> During the <a href="/wiki/Khabarovsk_War_Crime_Trials" class="mw-redirect" title="Khabarovsk War Crime Trials">Khabarovsk War Crime Trials</a> the accused, such as Major General Kiyashi Kawashima, testified that, in 1941, some 40 members of Unit 731 air-dropped plague-contaminated fleas on <a href="/wiki/Changde" title="Changde">Changde</a>. These attacks caused epidemic plague outbreaks.<a href="#cite_note-233">[229]</a> In the Zhejiang-Jiangxi Campaign, of the 10,000 Japanese soldiers who fell ill with the disease, about 1,700 Japanese troops died when the biological weapons rebounded on their own forces.<a href="#cite_note-234">[230]</a><a href="#cite_note-235">[231]</a> Japan gave its own soldiers <a href="/wiki/Methamphetamines" class="mw-redirect" title="Methamphetamines">methamphetamines</a> in the form of <a href="/wiki/Philopon" class="mw-redirect" title="Philopon">Philopon</a>.<a href="#cite_note-236">[232]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Use_of_suicide_attacks">Use of suicide attacks</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Sino-Japanese_War&action=edit&section=54" title="Edit section: Use of suicide attacks">edit</a>]</div> Chinese armies deployed "dare to die corps" (<a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">traditional Chinese</a>: 敢死隊; <a href="/wiki/Simplified_Chinese_characters" title="Simplified Chinese characters">simplified Chinese</a>: 敢死队; <a href="/wiki/Pinyin" title="Pinyin">pinyin</a>: gǎnsǐduì) or "suicide squads" against the Japanese.<a href="#cite_note-237">[233]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chinese_infantry_soldier_preparing_a_suicide_vest_of_Model_24_hand_grenades_at_the_Battle_of_Taierzhuang_against_Japanese_Tanks.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Chinese_infantry_soldier_preparing_a_suicide_vest_of_Model_24_hand_grenades_at_the_Battle_of_Taierzhuang_against_Japanese_Tanks.jpg/220px-Chinese_infantry_soldier_preparing_a_suicide_vest_of_Model_24_hand_grenades_at_the_Battle_of_Taierzhuang_against_Japanese_Tanks.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="237" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Chinese_infantry_soldier_preparing_a_suicide_vest_of_Model_24_hand_grenades_at_the_Battle_of_Taierzhuang_against_Japanese_Tanks.jpg/330px-Chinese_infantry_soldier_preparing_a_suicide_vest_of_Model_24_hand_grenades_at_the_Battle_of_Taierzhuang_against_Japanese_Tanks.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Chinese_infantry_soldier_preparing_a_suicide_vest_of_Model_24_hand_grenades_at_the_Battle_of_Taierzhuang_against_Japanese_Tanks.jpg/440px-Chinese_infantry_soldier_preparing_a_suicide_vest_of_Model_24_hand_grenades_at_the_Battle_of_Taierzhuang_against_Japanese_Tanks.jpg 2x" data-file-width="590" data-file-height="636" /></a><figcaption>Chinese suicide bomber putting on an explosive vest made out of Model 24 hand grenades to use in an attack on Japanese tanks at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Taierzhuang" title="Battle of Taierzhuang">Battle of Taierzhuang</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Suicide_bombing" class="mw-redirect" title="Suicide bombing">Suicide bombing</a> was also used against the Japanese. A Chinese soldier detonated a grenade vest and killed 20 Japanese at <a href="/wiki/Defense_of_Sihang_Warehouse#29_October" title="Defense of Sihang Warehouse">Sihang Warehouse</a>. Chinese troops <a href="/wiki/Explosive_belt" title="Explosive belt">strapped explosives, such as grenade packs or dynamite to their bodies</a> and threw themselves under Japanese tanks to blow them up.<a href="#cite_note-238">[234]</a> This tactic was used during the Battle of Shanghai, where a Chinese suicide bomber stopped a Japanese tank column by exploding himself beneath the lead tank,<a href="#cite_note-239">[235]</a> and at the Battle of Taierzhuang, where dynamite and grenades were strapped on by Chinese troops who rushed at Japanese tanks and blew themselves up.<a href="#cite_note-240">[236]</a><a href="#cite_note-241">[237]</a> During one incident at Taierzhuang, Chinese suicide bombers destroyed four Japanese tanks with grenade bundles.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Combatants">Combatants</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Sino-Japanese_War&action=edit&section=55" title="Edit section: Combatants">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Combatants_of_the_Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Combatants of the Second Sino-Japanese War">Combatants of the Second Sino-Japanese War</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Sino-Japanese_War&action=edit&section=56" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/32px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="21" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/48px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/64px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /><a href="/wiki/Portal:Japan" title="Portal:Japan">Japan portal</a></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="21" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/48px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/64px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /><a href="/wiki/Portal:China" title="Portal:China">China portal</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aviation_Martyrs%27_Cemetery" title="Aviation Martyrs' Cemetery">Aviation Martyrs' Cemetery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan_during_World_War_II" title="Japan during World War II">Japan during World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_war_crimes" title="Japanese war crimes">Japanese war crimes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_engagements_of_the_Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="List of military engagements of the Second Sino-Japanese War">List of military engagements of the Second Sino-Japanese War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong_thanking_Japan_controversy" title="Mao Zedong thanking Japan controversy">Mao Zedong thanking Japan controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Events_preceding_World_War_II_in_Asia#Noteworthy_events" title="Events preceding World War II in Asia">Timeline of events leading to World War II in Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_events_preceding_World_War_II" title="Timeline of events preceding World War II">Timeline of events preceding World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_crimes_in_World_War_II#Crimes_perpetrated_by_Japan" title="War crimes in World War II">War crimes in World War II#Crimes perpetrated by Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_China_during_the_Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Women in China during the Second Sino-Japanese War">Women in China during the Second Sino-Japanese War</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Sino-Japanese_War&action=edit&section=57" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-217"><a href="#cite_ref-217">^</a> This number does not include the casualties of the large numbers of Chinese collaborator government troops fighting on the Japanese side. </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Sino-Japanese_War&action=edit&section=58" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Sino-Japanese_War&action=edit&section=59" title="Edit section: Citations">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Hsiung_171-1"><a href="#cite_ref-Hsiung_171_1-0">^</a> Hsiung, China's Bitter Victory, p. 171 </li> <li id="cite_note-Horner2003-2"><a href="#cite_ref-Horner2003_2-0">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFDavid_Murray_Horner2003" class="citation book cs1">David Murray Horner (24 July 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DShPzguQ64UC&pg=PA14">The Second World War: The Pacific</a>. Taylor & Francis. pp. 14–15. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-96845-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-96845-4"><bdi>978-0-415-96845-4</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221012012446/https://books.google.com/books?id=DShPzguQ64UC&pg=PA14">Archived</a> from the original on 12 October 2022. Retrieved 6 March 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Second+World+War%3A+The+Pacific&rft.pages=14-15&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2003-07-24&rft.isbn=978-0-415-96845-4&rft.au=David+Murray+Horner&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDShPzguQ64UC%26pg%3DPA14&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-China's_Bitter_Victory-3"><a href="#cite_ref-China's_Bitter_Victory_3-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHsiung1992" class="citation book cs1">Hsiung (1992). China's Bitter Victory. Routledge. p. 79. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-563-24246-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-563-24246-5"><bdi>978-1-563-24246-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China%27s+Bitter+Victory&rft.pages=79&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-1-563-24246-5&rft.au=Hsiung&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-八路军·表册-4"><a href="#cite_ref-八路军·表册_4-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"> <bdi lang="zh">八路军·表册</bdi> (in Chinese). 中国人民解放军历史资料丛书编审委员会. 1994. pp. 第3页. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-7-506-52290-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-7-506-52290-8"><bdi>978-7-506-52290-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E5%85%AB%E8%B7%AF%E5%86%9B%C2%B7%E8%A1%A8%E5%86%8C&rft.pages=%E7%AC%AC3%E9%A1%B5&rft.pub=%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E4%BA%BA%E6%B0%91%E8%A7%A3%E6%94%BE%E5%86%9B%E5%8E%86%E5%8F%B2%E8%B5%84%E6%96%99%E4%B8%9B%E4%B9%A6%E7%BC%96%E5%AE%A1%E5%A7%94%E5%91%98%E4%BC%9A&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-7-506-52290-8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> 丁星, 《新四军初期的四个支队—新四军组织沿革简介(2)》【J】, 铁军, 2007年第2期, 38–40页 </li> <li id="cite_note-Hsiung-6"><a href="#cite_ref-Hsiung_6-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHsiung,_James_C.1992" class="citation book cs1">Hsiung, James C. (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3Yt6TTRdUzwC">China's Bitter Victory: The War With Japan, 1937–1945</a>. New York: M. E. Sharpe publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-56324-246-X" title="Special:BookSources/1-56324-246-X"><bdi>1-56324-246-X</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221012012542/https://books.google.com/books?id=3Yt6TTRdUzwC">Archived</a> from the original on 12 October 2022. Retrieved 5 October 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China%27s+Bitter+Victory%3A+The+War+With+Japan%2C+1937%E2%80%931945&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=M.+E.+Sharpe+publishing&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=1-56324-246-X&rft.au=Hsiung%2C+James+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3Yt6TTRdUzwC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHsu535-7"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHsu535_7-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHsu">Hsu</a>, p. 535. </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlack2012" class="citation book cs1">Black, Jeremy (2012). Avoiding Armageddon: From the Great Wall to the Fall of France, 1918–40. A&C Black. p. 171. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-441-12387-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-441-12387-9"><bdi>978-1-441-12387-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Avoiding+Armageddon%3A+From+the+Great+Wall+to+the+Fall+of+France%2C+1918%E2%80%9340&rft.pages=171&rft.pub=A%26C+Black&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-441-12387-9&rft.aulast=Black&rft.aufirst=Jeremy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-RKKA_General_Staff-9"><a href="#cite_ref-RKKA_General_Staff_9-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.alexanderyakovlev.org/fond/issues-doc/1001032">RKKA General Staff, 1939</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160425061436/http://www.alexanderyakovlev.org/fond/issues-doc/1001032">Archived</a> 25 April 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Retrieved 17 April 2016 </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ajrp.awm.gov.au/ajrp/AJRP2.nsf/530e35f7e2ae7707ca2571e3001a112d/e7daa03b9084ad56ca257209000a85f7?OpenDocument">Ministry of Health and Welfare, 1964</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160311073745/http://ajrp.awm.gov.au/ajrp/AJRP2.nsf/530e35f7e2ae7707ca2571e3001a112d/e7daa03b9084ad56ca257209000a85f7?OpenDocument">Archived</a> 11 March 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Retrieved 11 March 2016 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJowett72-11"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJowett72_11-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFJowett">Jowett</a>, p. 72. </li> <li id="cite_note-統計-12"><a href="#cite_ref-統計_12-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLiu1995" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Liu, Tinghua 刘庭华 (1995). <bdi lang="zh">中国抗日战争与第二次世界大战系年要录·统计荟萃 1931–1945</bdi> (in Chinese). Haichao chubanshe. p. 312. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/7-80054-595-4" title="Special:BookSources/7-80054-595-4"><bdi>7-80054-595-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E6%8A%97%E6%97%A5%E6%88%98%E4%BA%89%E4%B8%8E%E7%AC%AC%E4%BA%8C%E6%AC%A1%E4%B8%96%E7%95%8C%E5%A4%A7%E6%88%98%E7%B3%BB%E5%B9%B4%E8%A6%81%E5%BD%95%C2%B7%E7%BB%9F%E8%AE%A1%E8%8D%9F%E8%90%83+1931%E2%80%931945&rft.pages=312&rft.pub=Haichao+chubanshe&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=7-80054-595-4&rft.aulast=Liu&rft.aufirst=Tinghua+%E5%88%98%E5%BA%AD%E5%8D%8E&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hsu-13">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hsu_13-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hsu_13-1">b</a> Hsu Long-hsuen "History of the Sino-Japanese war (1937–1945)" Taipei 1972 </li> <li id="cite_note-Clodfelter-14">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Clodfelter_14-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Clodfelter_14-1">b</a> Clodfelter, Micheal "Warfare and Armed Conflicts: A Statistical Reference", Vol. 2, pp. 956. Includes civilians who died due to famine and other environmental disasters caused by the war. Only includes the 'regular' Chinese army; does NOT include guerrillas and does not include Chinese casualties in Manchuria or Burma. </li> <li id="cite_note-Rummel,_Table_6A-15">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rummel,_Table_6A_15-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rummel,_Table_6A_15-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rummel,_Table_6A_15-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/CHINA.TAB6.A.GIF">"Rummel, Table 6A"</a>. hawaii.edu. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161013041559/http://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/CHINA.TAB6.A.GIF">Archived</a> from the original on 13 October 2016. Retrieved 1 January 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=hawaii.edu&rft.atitle=Rummel%2C+Table+6A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.hawaii.edu%2Fpowerkills%2FCHINA.TAB6.A.GIF&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceA-16">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_16-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_16-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_16-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_16-3">d</a> <a href="/wiki/R._J._Rummel" title="R. J. Rummel">R. J. Rummel</a>. China's Bloody Century. Transaction 1991 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-88738-417-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-88738-417-X">0-88738-417-X</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-Rummel,_Table_5A-17">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rummel,_Table_5A_17-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rummel,_Table_5A_17-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rummel,_Table_5A_17-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRummel" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Rudolph_Rummel" class="mw-redirect" title="Rudolph Rummel">Rummel, Rudolph</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/CHINA.TAB5.A.GIF">"Estimates, Sources, and Calculations, July 1937 to August 1945"</a>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Hawai%CA%BBi" title="University of Hawaiʻi">University of Hawaiʻi</a> (GIF). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151227115818/http://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/CHINA.TAB5.A.GIF">Archived</a> from the original on 27 December 2015. Retrieved 17 June 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=University+of+Hawai%CA%BBi&rft.atitle=Estimates%2C+Sources%2C+and+Calculations%2C+July+1937+to+August+1945&rft.aulast=Rummel&rft.aufirst=Rudolph&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.hawaii.edu%2Fpowerkills%2FCHINA.TAB5.A.GIF&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> Meng Guoxiang & Zhang Qinyuan, 1995. "关于抗日战争中我国军民伤亡数字问题". </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.zephyr.dti.ne.jp/~kj8899/chidorigafuchi.jpg">Chidorigafuchi National Cemetery</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180916100524/http://www.zephyr.dti.ne.jp/~kj8899/chidorigafuchi.jpg">Archived</a> 16 September 2018 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Retrieved 10 March 2016 </li> <li id="cite_note-Yomiuri_Shimbun-20">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Yomiuri_Shimbun_20-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Yomiuri_Shimbun_20-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uKodAQAAMAAJ">戦争: 中国侵略(War: Invasion of China)</a> (in Japanese). 読売新聞社. 1983. p. 186. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221012012415/https://books.google.com/books?id=uKodAQAAMAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 12 October 2022. Retrieved 16 January 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E6%88%A6%E4%BA%89%3A+%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E4%BE%B5%E7%95%A5%28War%3A+Invasion+of+China%29&rft.pages=186&rft.pub=%E8%AA%AD%E5%A3%B2%E6%96%B0%E8%81%9E%E7%A4%BE&rft.date=1983&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DuKodAQAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> He Yingqin, "Eight Year Sino-Japanese War" </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> <a href="/wiki/R._J._Rummel" title="R. J. Rummel">R. J. Rummel</a>. China's Bloody Century. Transaction 1991 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-88738-417-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-88738-417-X">0-88738-417-X</a>. Table 5A </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> Ho Ping-ti, Studies on the Population of China, 1368–1953, Harvard University Press, 1953. p. 252 </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarter2023" class="citation web cs1">Carter, James (20 September 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://thechinaproject.com/2023/09/20/the-origins-of-world-war-ii-in-asia/">"The Origins of World War II in Asia"</a>. The China Project. Retrieved 13 July 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+China+Project&rft.atitle=The+Origins+of+World+War+II+in+Asia&rft.date=2023-09-20&rft.aulast=Carter&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fthechinaproject.com%2F2023%2F09%2F20%2Fthe-origins-of-world-war-ii-in-asia%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.history.ox.ac.uk/chinas-war-japan">"China's War with Japan"</a>. Faculty of History, University of Oxford. Retrieved 13 July 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Faculty+of+History%2C+University+of+Oxford&rft.atitle=China%27s+War+with+Japan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.history.ox.ac.uk%2Fchinas-war-japan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBix1992" class="citation cs2">Bix, Herbert P. (1992), "The Showa Emperor's 'Monologue' and the Problem of War Responsibility", Journal of Japanese Studies, 18 (2): 295–363, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F132824">10.2307/132824</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0095-6848">0095-6848</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/132824">132824</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Japanese+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Showa+Emperor%27s+%27Monologue%27+and+the+Problem+of+War+Responsibility&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=295-363&rft.date=1992&rft.issn=0095-6848&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F132824%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F132824&rft.aulast=Bix&rft.aufirst=Herbert+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHsiungLevine1992171-30"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHsiungLevine1992171_30-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHsiungLevine1992">Hsiung & Levine 1992</a>, p. 171. </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTodd" class="citation web cs1">Todd, Douglas. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://vancouversun.com/news/metro/douglas-todd-lest-we-overlook-the-asian-holocaust">"Douglas Todd: Lest we overlook the 'Asian Holocaust'"</a>. Vancouver Sun. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210709184534/https://vancouversun.com/news/metro/douglas-todd-lest-we-overlook-the-asian-holocaust">Archived</a> from the original on 9 July 2021. Retrieved 2 July 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Vancouver+Sun&rft.atitle=Douglas+Todd%3A+Lest+we+overlook+the+%27Asian+Holocaust%27&rft.aulast=Todd&rft.aufirst=Douglas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fvancouversun.com%2Fnews%2Fmetro%2Fdouglas-todd-lest-we-overlook-the-asian-holocaust&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKang1995" class="citation web cs1">Kang, K. (4 August 1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1995-08-04-me-31301-story.html">"Breaking Silence: Exhibit on 'Forgotten Holocaust' Focuses on Japanese War Crimes"</a>. Los Angeles Times. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220119212048/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1995-08-04-me-31301-story.html">Archived</a> from the original on 19 January 2022. Retrieved 2 July 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Los+Angeles+Times&rft.atitle=Breaking+Silence%3A+Exhibit+on+%27Forgotten+Holocaust%27+Focuses+on+Japanese+War+Crimes&rft.date=1995-08-04&rft.aulast=Kang&rft.aufirst=K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.latimes.com%2Farchives%2Fla-xpm-1995-08-04-me-31301-story.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hotta2007-33"><a href="#cite_ref-Hotta2007_33-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHotta2007" class="citation book cs1">Hotta, E. (25 December 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Kih_DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA75">Pan-Asianism and Japan's War 1931–1945</a>. Palgrave Macmillan US. p. 40. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-230-60992-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-230-60992-1"><bdi>978-0-230-60992-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221012012415/https://books.google.com/books?id=Kih_DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA75">Archived</a> from the original on 12 October 2022. Retrieved 28 November 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pan-Asianism+and+Japan%27s+War+1931%E2%80%931945&rft.pages=40&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan+US&rft.date=2007-12-25&rft.isbn=978-0-230-60992-1&rft.aulast=Hotta&rft.aufirst=E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKih_DAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA75&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Paine2012-34"><a href="#cite_ref-Paine2012_34-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPaine2012" class="citation book cs1">Paine, S. C. M. (20 August 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bAYgAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA123">The Wars for Asia, 1911–1949</a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 123. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-139-56087-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-139-56087-0"><bdi>978-1-139-56087-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221012012418/https://books.google.com/books?id=bAYgAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA123">Archived</a> from the original on 12 October 2022. Retrieved 28 November 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Wars+for+Asia%2C+1911%E2%80%931949&rft.pages=123&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2012-08-20&rft.isbn=978-1-139-56087-0&rft.aulast=Paine&rft.aufirst=S.+C.+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DbAYgAwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA123&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMitter2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidBqc_YkuyaCICpgPA369_369]-35"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMitter2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidBqc_YkuyaCICpgPA369_369]_35-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMitter2013">Mitter (2013)</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Bqc_YkuyaCIC&pg=PA369">369</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrinkley2003" class="citation book cs1">Brinkley, Douglas (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HymSg_Pp7X0C&pg=PA223">The New York Times Living History: World War II, 1942–1945: The Allied Counteroffensive</a>. Macmillan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-805-07247-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-805-07247-1"><bdi>978-0-805-07247-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221012012542/https://books.google.com/books?id=HymSg_Pp7X0C&pg=PA223">Archived</a> from the original on 12 October 2022. Retrieved 2 September 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+New+York+Times+Living+History%3A+World+War+II%2C+1942%E2%80%931945%3A+The+Allied+Counteroffensive&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-805-07247-1&rft.aulast=Brinkley&rft.aufirst=Douglas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHymSg_Pp7X0C%26pg%3DPA223&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCain2017" class="citation web cs1">Cain, Sian (13 January 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/books/2017/jan/13/china-rewrites-history-books-to-extend-sino-japanese-war-by-six-years">"China rewrites history books to extend Sino-Japanese war by six years"</a>. the Guardian. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210525000904/https://www.theguardian.com/books/2017/jan/13/china-rewrites-history-books-to-extend-sino-japanese-war-by-six-years">Archived</a> from the original on 25 May 2021. Retrieved 4 May 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=the+Guardian&rft.atitle=China+rewrites+history+books+to+extend+Sino-Japanese+war+by+six+years&rft.date=2017-01-13&rft.aulast=Cain&rft.aufirst=Sian&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fbooks%2F2017%2Fjan%2F13%2Fchina-rewrites-history-books-to-extend-sino-japanese-war-by-six-years&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMitter2020" class="citation book cs1">Mitter, Rana (2020). China's Good War: how World War II is shaping a new nationalism. Belknap Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China%27s+Good+War%3A+how+World+War+II+is+shaping+a+new+nationalism&rft.pub=Belknap+Press&rft.date=2020&rft.aulast=Mitter&rft.aufirst=Rana&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-en-39"><a href="#cite_ref-en_39-0">^</a> Jerald A. Combs. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_gx5215/is_2002/ai_n19132406/pg_7">Embargoes and Sanctions</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">dead link</a>‍]. Encyclopedia of American Foreign Policy, 2002 </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> Rea, George Bronson. The Case for Manchoukuo. New York: D. Appleton-Century Company, 1935. Pp 164. </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLinebarger1941" class="citation journal cs1">Linebarger, Paul M. A. (May 1941). "The Status of the China Incident". American Academy of Political and Social Science. 215. Sage Publications, Inc.: 36–43. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F000271624121500106">10.1177/000271624121500106</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1022596">1022596</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144915586">144915586</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Academy+of+Political+and+Social+Science&rft.atitle=The+Status+of+the+China+Incident&rft.volume=215&rft.pages=36-43&rft.date=1941-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144915586%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1022596%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F000271624121500106&rft.aulast=Linebarger&rft.aufirst=Paul+M.+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.lermuseum.org/interwar-years-1919-1938/japanese-invasion-of-china-7-july-1937">https://www.lermuseum.org/interwar-years-1919-1938/japanese-invasion-of-china-7-july-1937</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Economist-2012-12-empty-space-43"><a href="#cite_ref-Economist-2012-12-empty-space_43-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.economist.com/news/christmas/21568696-behind-row-over-bunch-pacific-rocks-lies-sad-magical-history-okinawa-narrative">"The Senkaku or Diaoyu Islands: Narrative of an empty space"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Economist" title="The Economist">The Economist</a>. No. Christmas Specials 2012. London: <a href="/wiki/Economist_Group" class="mw-redirect" title="Economist Group">Economist Group</a>. December 22, 2012. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0013-0613">0013-0613</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140226002234/http://www.economist.com/news/christmas/21568696-behind-row-over-bunch-pacific-rocks-lies-sad-magical-history-okinawa-narrative">Archived</a> from the original on 26 February 2014. Retrieved 26 February 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Economist&rft.atitle=The+Senkaku+or+Diaoyu+Islands%3A+Narrative+of+an+empty+space&rft.issue=Christmas+Specials+2012&rft.date=2012-12-22&rft.issn=0013-0613&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.economist.com%2Fnews%2Fchristmas%2F21568696-behind-row-over-bunch-pacific-rocks-lies-sad-magical-history-okinawa-narrative&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.historytoday.com/joyman-lee/senkakudiaoyu-islands-conflict">"Senkaku/Diaoyu: Islands of Conflict"</a>. History Today. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190201151322/https://www.historytoday.com/joyman-lee/senkakudiaoyu-islands-conflict">Archived</a> from the original on 1 February 2019. Retrieved 13 August 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=History+Today&rft.atitle=Senkaku%2FDiaoyu%3A+Islands+of+Conflict&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.historytoday.com%2Fjoyman-lee%2Fsenkakudiaoyu-islands-conflict&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-pacific-11341139">"How uninhabited islands soured China-Japan ties – BBC News"</a>. BBC. 10 November 2014. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191108101023/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-pacific-11341139">Archived</a> from the original on 8 November 2019. Retrieved 13 August 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=How+uninhabited+islands+soured+China-Japan+ties+%E2%80%93+BBC+News&rft.date=2014-11-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.com%2Fnews%2Fworld-asia-pacific-11341139&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson5-46"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson5_46-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWilson">Wilson</a>, p. 5. </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLiewSung_Chiao-jen1971" class="citation book cs1">Liew, Kit Siong; Sung Chiao-jen (1971). Struggle for democracy: Sung Chiao-jen and the 1911 Chinese revolution. Berkeley [usw.]: Univ. of California Pr. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-01760-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-01760-3"><bdi>978-0-520-01760-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Struggle+for+democracy%3A+Sung+Chiao-jen+and+the+1911+Chinese+revolution&rft.place=Berkeley+%5Busw.%5D&rft.pub=Univ.+of+California+Pr&rft.date=1971&rft.isbn=978-0-520-01760-3&rft.aulast=Liew&rft.aufirst=Kit+Siong&rft.au=Sung+Chiao-jen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNihartPowell1955" class="citation journal cs1">Nihart, F. B.; Powell, Ralph L. (1955). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1983349">"The Rise of Military Power in Modern China, 1895–1912"</a>. Military Affairs. 19 (2): 105. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1983349">10.2307/1983349</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0026-3931">0026-3931</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1983349">1983349</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Military+Affairs&rft.atitle=The+Rise+of+Military+Power+in+Modern+China%2C+1895%E2%80%931912.&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=105&rft.date=1955&rft.issn=0026-3931&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1983349%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1983349&rft.aulast=Nihart&rft.aufirst=F.+B.&rft.au=Powell%2C+Ralph+L.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.2307%2F1983349&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://news.ifeng.com/history/zl/xz/jinmanlou/200903/0330_5763_1083398.shtml">"谁是刺杀宋教仁的幕后元凶?_资讯_凤凰网"</a>. news.ifeng.com. Retrieved 30 July 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=news.ifeng.com&rft.atitle=%E8%B0%81%E6%98%AF%E5%88%BA%E6%9D%80%E5%AE%8B%E6%95%99%E4%BB%81%E7%9A%84%E5%B9%95%E5%90%8E%E5%85%83%E5%87%B6%3F_%E8%B5%84%E8%AE%AF_%E5%87%A4%E5%87%B0%E7%BD%91&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnews.ifeng.com%2Fhistory%2Fzl%2Fxz%2Fjinmanlou%2F200903%2F0330_5763_1083398.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> 《时局未宁之内阁问题》, 《满洲报》1922年7月27日, "论说" </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.shehui.pku.edu.cn/upload/editor/file/20191007/20191007171957_7532.pdf">"北洋军阀时期中华民族共同体的构建路径与效应分析"</a> (PDF). shehui.pku.edu.cn (in Chinese).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=shehui.pku.edu.cn&rft.atitle=%E5%8C%97%E6%B4%8B%E5%86%9B%E9%98%80%E6%97%B6%E6%9C%9F%E4%B8%AD%E5%8D%8E%E6%B0%91%E6%97%8F%E5%85%B1%E5%90%8C%E4%BD%93%E7%9A%84%E6%9E%84%E5%BB%BA%E8%B7%AF%E5%BE%84%E4%B8%8E%E6%95%88%E5%BA%94%E5%88%86%E6%9E%90&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.shehui.pku.edu.cn%2Fupload%2Feditor%2Ffile%2F20191007%2F20191007171957_7532.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> Hoyt, Edwin P., Japan's War: The Great Pacific Conflict, p. 45 </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> Palmer and Colton, A History of Modern World, p. 725 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor33-54"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylor33_54-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTaylor">Taylor</a>, p. 33. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor57-55"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylor57_55-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTaylor">Taylor</a>, p. 57. </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a> Zhen Jiali, Ji Nan Can An (Jinan Massacre) (China University of Political Science and Law Press, 1987), pp. 238. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor79-57"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylor79_57-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTaylor">Taylor</a>, p. 79. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor82-58"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylor82_58-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTaylor">Taylor</a>, p. 82. </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a> Boorman, Biographical Dictionary, vol. 1, p. 121 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor83-60"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylor83_60-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTaylor">Taylor</a>, p. 83. </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> Michael M. Walker, The 1929 Sino-Soviet War: The War Nobody Knew (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2017), p. 290. </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a> Michael M. Walker, The 1929 Sino-Soviet War: The War Nobody Knew (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2017), pp. 290–291. </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ibiblio.org/pha/monos/144/144chap1.html">Political Strategy Prior to Outbreak of War Part I</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210225142637/http://ibiblio.org/pha/monos/144/144chap1.html">Archived</a> 25 February 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Japanese monograph No. 144 </li> <li id="cite_note-Crean-64">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Crean_64-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Crean_64-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Crean_64-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Crean_64-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Crean_64-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Crean_64-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Crean_64-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Crean_64-7">h</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrean2024" class="citation book cs1">Crean, Jeffrey (2024). The Fear of Chinese Power: an International History. New Approaches to International History series. London: Bloomsbury. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-350-23394-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-350-23394-2"><bdi>978-1-350-23394-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Fear+of+Chinese+Power%3A+an+International+History&rft.place=London&rft.series=New+Approaches+to+International+History+series&rft.pub=Bloomsbury&rft.date=2024&rft.isbn=978-1-350-23394-2&rft.aulast=Crean&rft.aufirst=Jeffrey&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIriye1987" class="citation book cs1">Iriye, Akira (1987). The Origins of the Second World War in Asia and the Pacific. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv9zckzn.9">j.ctv9zckzn.9</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Origins+of+the+Second+World+War+in+Asia+and+the+Pacific&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1987&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2Fj.ctv9zckzn.9%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Iriye&rft.aufirst=Akira&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-66">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_66-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_66-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_66-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_66-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_66-4">e</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMitter2020" class="citation book cs1">Mitter, Rana (2020). China's good war: how World War II is shaping a new nationalism. Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a>. pp. 90–94. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-98426-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-98426-4"><bdi>978-0-674-98426-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China%27s+good+war%3A+how+World+War+II+is+shaping+a+new+nationalism&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.pages=90-94&rft.pub=The+Belknap+Press+of+Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-0-674-98426-4&rft.aulast=Mitter&rft.aufirst=Rana&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hoyt2001-67"><a href="#cite_ref-Hoyt2001_67-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEdwin_Palmer_Hoyt2001" class="citation book cs1">Edwin Palmer Hoyt (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xITp5N5hceEC&pg=PA152">Japan's War: The Great Pacific Conflict</a>. Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 152–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8154-1118-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8154-1118-5"><bdi>978-0-8154-1118-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Japan%27s+War%3A+The+Great+Pacific+Conflict&rft.pages=152-&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-8154-1118-5&rft.au=Edwin+Palmer+Hoyt&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxITp5N5hceEC%26pg%3DPA152&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a> Lei, Bryant. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://core.kmi.open.ac.uk/download/pdf/12207607.pdf">"New Songs of the Battlefield": Songs and Memories of the Chinese Cultural Revolution, p. 85.</a> University of Pittsburgh (Pittsburgh), 2004. </li> <li id="cite_note-Wakeman280281-69"><a href="#cite_ref-Wakeman280281_69-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWakeman1996" class="citation book cs1">Wakeman, Frederic E. (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vT5GrHv4VcMC&q=August%2014%2C%201937%20Shanghai&pg=PA281">Policing Shanghai, 1927–1937</a>. University of California Press. pp. 280–281. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-520-20761-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-520-20761-0"><bdi>0-520-20761-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Policing+Shanghai%2C+1927%E2%80%931937&rft.pages=280-281&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=0-520-20761-0&rft.aulast=Wakeman&rft.aufirst=Frederic+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvT5GrHv4VcMC%26q%3DAugust%252014%252C%25201937%2520Shanghai%26pg%3DPA281&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160826110540/http://air.mnd.gov.tw/English/Publish.aspx?cnid=906&p=13447&Level=2">"-Brief history of military airplanes"</a>. mnd.gov.tw. 19 September 2006. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://air.mnd.gov.tw/English/Publish.aspx?cnid=906&p=13447&Level=2">the original</a> on 26 August 2016. Retrieved 13 August 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=mnd.gov.tw&rft.atitle=-Brief+history+of+military+airplanes&rft.date=2006-09-19&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fair.mnd.gov.tw%2FEnglish%2FPublish.aspx%3Fcnid%3D906%26p%3D13447%26Level%3D2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/taiwan/archives/2012/02/13/2003525367">"War hero's son seeks to establish museum in Taiwan"</a>. Taipei Times. 13 February 2012. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210924090122/http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/taiwan/archives/2012/02/13/2003525367">Archived</a> from the original on 24 September 2021. Retrieved 13 August 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Taipei+Times&rft.atitle=War+hero%27s+son+seeks+to+establish+museum+in+Taiwan&rft.date=2012-02-13&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.taipeitimes.com%2FNews%2Ftaiwan%2Farchives%2F2012%2F02%2F13%2F2003525367&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160303225928/http://www.militaryfactory.com/aircraft/detail-page-2.asp?aircraft_id=619">"Mitsubishi A5M (Claude) – Development and Operational History, Performance Specifications and Picture Gallery"</a>. militaryfactory.com. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.militaryfactory.com/aircraft/detail-page-2.asp?aircraft_id=619">the original</a> on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 13 August 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=militaryfactory.com&rft.atitle=Mitsubishi+A5M+%28Claude%29+%E2%80%93+Development+and+Operational+History%2C+Performance+Specifications+and+Picture+Gallery&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.militaryfactory.com%2Faircraft%2Fdetail-page-2.asp%3Faircraft_id%3D619&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJanuszewski2013" class="citation book cs1">Januszewski, Tadeusz (2013). Mitsubishi A5M Claude (Yellow Series). Sandomierz, Poland: Stratus. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-83-61421-99-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-83-61421-99-3"><bdi>978-83-61421-99-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mitsubishi+A5M+Claude+%28Yellow+Series%29&rft.place=Sandomierz%2C+Poland&rft.pub=Stratus&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-83-61421-99-3&rft.aulast=Januszewski&rft.aufirst=Tadeusz&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://air.mnd.gov.tw/EN/PastCurrent/PastCurrent_Detail.aspx?FID=28&CID=176&ID=1327">"Martyr Qin Jia-zhu"</a>. air.mnd.gov.tw. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201105082630/https://air.mnd.gov.tw/EN/PastCurrent/PastCurrent_Detail.aspx?FID=28&CID=176&ID=1327">Archived</a> from the original on 5 November 2020. Retrieved 8 November 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=air.mnd.gov.tw&rft.atitle=Martyr+Qin+Jia-zhu&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fair.mnd.gov.tw%2FEN%2FPastCurrent%2FPastCurrent_Detail.aspx%3FFID%3D28%26CID%3D176%26ID%3D1327&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a> Fu Jing-hui, An Introduction of Chinese and Foreign History of War, 2003, pp. 109–111 </li> <li id="cite_note-:02-76">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:02_76-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:02_76-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:02_76-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:02_76-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:02_76-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:02_76-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:02_76-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:02_76-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:02_76-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:02_76-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:02_76-10">k</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:02_76-11">l</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:02_76-12">m</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:02_76-13">n</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoble2023" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Parks_M._Coble" title="Parks M. Coble">Coble, Parks M.</a> (2023). The Collapse of Nationalist China: How Chiang Kai-shek Lost China's Civil War. Cambridge New York, NY: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-009-29761-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-009-29761-5"><bdi>978-1-009-29761-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Collapse+of+Nationalist+China%3A+How+Chiang+Kai-shek+Lost+China%27s+Civil+War&rft.place=Cambridge+New+York%2C+NY&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=978-1-009-29761-5&rft.aulast=Coble&rft.aufirst=Parks+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Nanjing-Massacre">"Nanjing Massacre"</a>. Encyclopædia Britannica. 13 December 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Nanjing+Massacre&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.date=2022-12-13&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fevent%2FNanjing-Massacre&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-highest_death_toll_estimate-78"><a href="#cite_ref-highest_death_toll_estimate_78-0">^</a> Daqing Yang, "A Sino-Japanese Controversy: The Nanjing Atrocity As History", Sino-Japanese Studies, November 1990, 16. </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAskew2002" class="citation web cs1">Askew, David (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180405031715/http://www.japanesestudies.org.uk/articles/Askew.html">""The Nanjing Incident: Recent Research and Trends""</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.japanesestudies.org.uk/articles/Askew.html">the original</a> on 5 April 2018. Retrieved 20 May 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%22The+Nanjing+Incident%3A+Recent+Research+and+Trends%22&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Askew&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.japanesestudies.org.uk%2Farticles%2FAskew.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:4-80">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:4_80-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_80-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_80-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOpper2020" class="citation book cs1">Opper, Marc (2020). People's Wars in China, Malaya, and Vietnam. Ann Arbor: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Michigan_Press" title="University of Michigan Press">University of Michigan Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3998%2Fmpub.11413902">10.3998/mpub.11413902</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12657%2F23824">20.500.12657/23824</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-472-90125-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-472-90125-8"><bdi>978-0-472-90125-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:211359950">211359950</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=People%27s+Wars+in+China%2C+Malaya%2C+and+Vietnam&rft.place=Ann+Arbor&rft.pub=University+of+Michigan+Press&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F20.500.12657%2F23824&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A211359950%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3998%2Fmpub.11413902&rft.isbn=978-0-472-90125-8&rft.aulast=Opper&rft.aufirst=Marc&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMackinnon2008" class="citation book cs1">Mackinnon, Stephen (2008). Wuhan, 1938: War, Refugees, and the Making of Modern China. University of California Press. p. 32.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Wuhan%2C+1938%3A+War%2C+Refugees%2C+and+the+Making+of+Modern+China&rft.pages=32&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Mackinnon&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMitter2013149–150-82"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMitter2013149–150_82-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMitter2013">Mitter 2013</a>, pp. 149–150. </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarmsen2018" class="citation book cs1">Harmsen, Peter (2018). Storm Clouds over the Pacific, 1931-1941. Casemate. p. 111.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Storm+Clouds+over+the+Pacific%2C+1931-1941&rft.pages=111&rft.pub=Casemate&rft.date=2018&rft.aulast=Harmsen&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuang168-84"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHuang168_84-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHuang">Huang</a>, p. 168. </li> <li id="cite_note-Mackinnon2008-85">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Mackinnon2008_85-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mackinnon2008_85-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mackinnon2008_85-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mackinnon2008_85-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMackinnon2008" class="citation book cs1">Mackinnon, Stephen (2008). Wuhan 1938: War, Refugees, and the Making of Modern China. University of California Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Wuhan+1938%3A+War%2C+Refugees%2C+and+the+Making+of+Modern+China&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Mackinnon&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarmsen2018" class="citation book cs1">Harmsen, Peter (2018). Storm Clouds over the Pacific, 1931-1941. Casemate. p. 119.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Storm+Clouds+over+the+Pacific%2C+1931-1941&rft.pages=119&rft.pub=Casemate&rft.date=2018&rft.aulast=Harmsen&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClodfelter2017" class="citation book cs1">Clodfelter, Michael (2017). Warfare and Armed Conflicts: A Statistical Encyclopedia of Casualty and Other Figures, 1492-2015 (4th ed.). McFarland & Company. p. 393.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Warfare+and+Armed+Conflicts%3A+A+Statistical+Encyclopedia+of+Casualty+and+Other+Figures%2C+1492-2015&rft.pages=393&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=McFarland+%26+Company&rft.date=2017&rft.aulast=Clodfelter&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-1938_Yellow_River_flood_Di_Wu-88"><a href="#cite_ref-1938_Yellow_River_flood_Di_Wu_88-0">^</a> Di Wu, "The cult of geography: Chinese riverine defence during the Battle of Wuhan, 1937-1938". War in History. Volume: 29 issue: 1, page(s): 185-204. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0968344520961548">https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0968344520961548</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-1938_Yellow_River_flood_dutch-89"><a href="#cite_ref-1938_Yellow_River_flood_dutch_89-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDutch2009" class="citation journal cs1">Dutch, Steven I. (November 2009). "The Largest Act of Environmental Warfare in History". Environmental & Engineering Geoscience. 15 (4): 287–297. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009EEGeo..15..287D">2009EEGeo..15..287D</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2113%2Fgseegeosci.15.4.287">10.2113/gseegeosci.15.4.287</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Environmental+%26+Engineering+Geoscience&rft.atitle=The+Largest+Act+of+Environmental+Warfare+in+History&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=287-297&rft.date=2009-11&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2113%2Fgseegeosci.15.4.287&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2009EEGeo..15..287D&rft.aulast=Dutch&rft.aufirst=Steven+I.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a> Muscolino, Micah S. (2014). The Ecology of War in China: Henan Province, the Yellow River, and Beyond, 1938–1950. Cambridge University Press. </li> <li id="cite_note-1938_Yellow_River_flood_Longhai_railway,_Qu_2003-91"><a href="#cite_ref-1938_Yellow_River_flood_Longhai_railway,_Qu_2003_91-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREF渠长根2003" class="citation thesis cs1">渠长根 (2003). 功罪千秋——花园口事件研究. East China Normal University (PhD). pp. 37, 38, 72.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=%E5%8A%9F%E7%BD%AA%E5%8D%83%E7%A7%8B%E2%80%94%E2%80%94%E8%8A%B1%E5%9B%AD%E5%8F%A3%E4%BA%8B%E4%BB%B6%E7%A0%94%E7%A9%B6&rft.date=2003&rft.au=%E6%B8%A0%E9%95%BF%E6%A0%B9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-1938_Yellow_River_flood_Zhang_Longjie_2019-92"><a href="#cite_ref-1938_Yellow_River_flood_Zhang_Longjie_2019_92-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREF张龙杰2019" class="citation journal cs1">张龙杰 (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.szlilun.com/content/2020-05/14/content_23127182_0.htm">"全面抗战时期苏联对国共两党援助比较研究"</a>. 深圳社会科学 (4).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=%E6%B7%B1%E5%9C%B3%E7%A4%BE%E4%BC%9A%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6&rft.atitle=%E5%85%A8%E9%9D%A2%E6%8A%97%E6%88%98%E6%97%B6%E6%9C%9F%E8%8B%8F%E8%81%94%E5%AF%B9%E5%9B%BD%E5%85%B1%E4%B8%A4%E5%85%9A%E6%8F%B4%E5%8A%A9%E6%AF%94%E8%BE%83%E7%A0%94%E7%A9%B6&rft.issue=4&rft.date=2019&rft.au=%E5%BC%A0%E9%BE%99%E6%9D%B0&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.szlilun.com%2Fcontent%2F2020-05%2F14%2Fcontent_23127182_0.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-1938_Yellow_River_flood_Xi-93"><a href="#cite_ref-1938_Yellow_River_flood_Xi_93-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREF渠长根2003" class="citation thesis cs1">渠长根 (2003). 功罪千秋——花园口事件研究. East China Normal University (PhD). pp. 38, 41, 73.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=%E5%8A%9F%E7%BD%AA%E5%8D%83%E7%A7%8B%E2%80%94%E2%80%94%E8%8A%B1%E5%9B%AD%E5%8F%A3%E4%BA%8B%E4%BB%B6%E7%A0%94%E7%A9%B6&rft.date=2003&rft.au=%E6%B8%A0%E9%95%BF%E6%A0%B9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-1938_Yellow_River_flood_Railway_and_theaters,_Qu_2003-94">^ <a href="#cite_ref-1938_Yellow_River_flood_Railway_and_theaters,_Qu_2003_94-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-1938_Yellow_River_flood_Railway_and_theaters,_Qu_2003_94-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREF渠长根2003" class="citation thesis cs1">渠长根 (2003). 功罪千秋——花园口事件研究. East China Normal University (PhD). pp. 23–24, 72–73.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=%E5%8A%9F%E7%BD%AA%E5%8D%83%E7%A7%8B%E2%80%94%E2%80%94%E8%8A%B1%E5%9B%AD%E5%8F%A3%E4%BA%8B%E4%BB%B6%E7%A0%94%E7%A9%B6&rft.date=2003&rft.au=%E6%B8%A0%E9%95%BF%E6%A0%B9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-1938_Yellow_River_flood_NIDS-95"><a href="#cite_ref-1938_Yellow_River_flood_NIDS_95-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREF防衛庁防衛研修所戦史室1976" class="citation book cs1">防衛庁防衛研修所戦史室 (1976). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nids.mod.go.jp/military_history_search/SoshoView?kanno=089">支那事変陸軍作戦＜2＞昭和十四年九月まで</a>. 朝雲新聞社. pp. 77–78, 125 – via ebook on Japan National Institute for Defense Studies.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E6%94%AF%E9%82%A3%E4%BA%8B%E5%A4%89%E9%99%B8%E8%BB%8D%E4%BD%9C%E6%88%A6%EF%BC%9C2%EF%BC%9E%E6%98%AD%E5%92%8C%E5%8D%81%E5%9B%9B%E5%B9%B4%E4%B9%9D%E6%9C%88%E3%81%BE%E3%81%A7&rft.pages=77-78%2C+125&rft.pub=%E6%9C%9D%E9%9B%B2%E6%96%B0%E8%81%9E%E7%A4%BE&rft.date=1976&rft.au=%E9%98%B2%E8%A1%9B%E5%BA%81%E9%98%B2%E8%A1%9B%E7%A0%94%E4%BF%AE%E6%89%80%E6%88%A6%E5%8F%B2%E5%AE%A4&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nids.mod.go.jp%2Fmilitary_history_search%2FSoshoView%3Fkanno%3D089&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-1938_Yellow_River_flood_Fu_and_Hong_2015-96"><a href="#cite_ref-1938_Yellow_River_flood_Fu_and_Hong_2015_96-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREF傅應川洪小夏2015" class="citation book cs1">傅應川; 洪小夏 (2015). "第十章重探徐州會戰". In 郭岱君 (ed.). 重探抗戰史（一）：從抗日大戰略的形成到武漢會戰1931-1938. Taipei: 聯經. p. 437-440, 447-449.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%E7%AC%AC%E5%8D%81%E7%AB%A0+%E9%87%8D%E6%8E%A2%E5%BE%90%E5%B7%9E%E6%9C%83%E6%88%B0&rft.btitle=%E9%87%8D%E6%8E%A2%E6%8A%97%E6%88%B0%E5%8F%B2%EF%BC%88%E4%B8%80%EF%BC%89%EF%BC%9A%E5%BE%9E%E6%8A%97%E6%97%A5%E5%A4%A7%E6%88%B0%E7%95%A5%E7%9A%84%E5%BD%A2%E6%88%90%E5%88%B0%E6%AD%A6%E6%BC%A2%E6%9C%83%E6%88%B01931-1938&rft.place=Taipei&rft.pages=437-440%2C+447-449&rft.pub=%E8%81%AF%E7%B6%93&rft.date=2015&rft.au=%E5%82%85%E6%87%89%E5%B7%9D&rft.au=%E6%B4%AA%E5%B0%8F%E5%A4%8F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEastman1986" class="citation book cs1">Eastman, Lloyd E. (1986). "Nationalist China during the Sino-Japanese War 1937-1945". In Twitchett, Denis; Fairbank, John (eds.). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 13: Republican China 1912-1949, part 2. Cambridge University Press. p. 555.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Nationalist+China+during+the+Sino-Japanese+War+1937-1945&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+China%2C+Volume+13%3A+Republican+China+1912-1949%2C+part+2&rft.pages=555&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.aulast=Eastman&rft.aufirst=Lloyd+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMar2010" class="citation book cs1">Mar, Lisa Rose (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4hdwAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA117">Brokering Belonging: Chinese in Canada's Exclusion Era, 1885–1945</a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0199780549" title="Special:BookSources/978-0199780549"><bdi>978-0199780549</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Brokering+Belonging%3A+Chinese+in+Canada%27s+Exclusion+Era%2C+1885%E2%80%931945&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0199780549&rft.aulast=Mar&rft.aufirst=Lisa+Rose&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4hdwAgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA117&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFL1999–2000" class="citation web cs1">L, Klemen (1999–2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://warfare.gq/dutcheastindies/china_armour.html">"Chinese Nationalist Armour in World War II"</a>. Forgotten Campaign: The Dutch East Indies Campaign 1941–1942. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110321233313/http://www.dutcheastindies.webs.com/china_armour.html">Archived</a> from the original on 21 March 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Forgotten+Campaign%3A+The+Dutch+East+Indies+Campaign+1941%E2%80%931942&rft.atitle=Chinese+Nationalist+Armour+in+World+War+II&rft.date=1999%2F2000&rft.aulast=L&rft.aufirst=Klemen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwarfare.gq%2Fdutcheastindies%2Fchina_armour.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a> John McVickar Haight, "Franklin D. Roosevelt and a Naval Quarantine of Japan." Pacific Historical Review 40.2 (1971): 203–226 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://phr.ucpress.edu/content/ucpphr/40/2/203.full.pdf">online</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">permanent dead link</a>‍] </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USA/USA-P-Strategy/Strategy-5.html">"HyperWar: US Army in WWII: Strategy and Command: The First Two Years"</a>. www.ibiblio.org. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130525064812/http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USA/USA-P-Strategy/Strategy-5.html">Archived</a> from the original on 25 May 2013. Retrieved 4 January 2021. <q>For the Japanese, most of whom were unwilling to pay the American price for peace, time was of the essence. They were convinced that acceptance of American peace terms would only lead to further demands and ultimately leave Japan dependent on the United States and United Kingdom. To them the gambles of war seemed preferable to the ignominy of a disgraceful peace.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.ibiblio.org&rft.atitle=HyperWar%3A+US+Army+in+WWII%3A+Strategy+and+Command%3A+The+First+Two+Years&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ibiblio.org%2Fhyperwar%2FUSA%2FUSA-P-Strategy%2FStrategy-5.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a> Tai-Chun Kuo, "A Strong Diplomat in a Weak Polity: TV Soong and wartime US–China relations, 1940–1943." Journal of Contemporary China 18.59 (2009): 219–231. </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a> Daniel Ford, Flying Tigers: Claire Chennault and His American Volunteers, 1941–1942 (2007). </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-104"><a href="#cite_ref-:0_104-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSaichVan_De_Ven2015" class="citation book cs1">Saich, Tony; Van De Ven, Hans J. (2015). "The Blooming Poppy under the Red Sun: The Yan'an Way and the Opium Trade". New Perspectives on the Chinese Revolution. Routledge. pp. 263–297. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9781315702124">10.4324/9781315702124</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-46391-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-317-46391-7"><bdi>978-1-317-46391-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Blooming+Poppy+under+the+Red+Sun%3A+The+Yan%27an+Way+and+the+Opium+Trade&rft.btitle=New+Perspectives+on+the+Chinese+Revolution&rft.pages=263-297&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4324%2F9781315702124&rft.isbn=978-1-317-46391-7&rft.aulast=Saich&rft.aufirst=Tony&rft.au=Van+De+Ven%2C+Hans+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-105"><a href="#cite_ref-:1_105-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHevia2003" class="citation journal cs1">Hevia, James Louis (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://muse.jhu.edu/content/crossref/journals/china_review_international/v010/10.2hevia.pdf">"Opium, Empire, and Modern History"</a> (PDF). China Review International. 10 (2): 307–326. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fcri.2004.0076">10.1353/cri.2004.0076</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1527-9367">1527-9367</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143635262">143635262</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=China+Review+International&rft.atitle=Opium%2C+Empire%2C+and+Modern+History&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=307-326&rft.date=2003&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143635262%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1527-9367&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fcri.2004.0076&rft.aulast=Hevia&rft.aufirst=James+Louis&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmuse.jhu.edu%2Fcontent%2Fcrossref%2Fjournals%2Fchina_review_international%2Fv010%2F10.2hevia.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNobu2021" class="citation web cs1">Nobu, Iwatani (27 July 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nippon.com/en/in-depth/d00722/">"How the War with Japan Saved the Chinese Communist Party"</a>. Nippon Communications Foundation.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Nippon+Communications+Foundation&rft.atitle=How+the+War+with+Japan+Saved+the+Chinese+Communist+Party&rft.date=2021-07-27&rft.aulast=Nobu&rft.aufirst=Iwatani&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nippon.com%2Fen%2Fin-depth%2Fd00722%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuang259-107"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHuang259_107-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHuang">Huang</a>, p. 259. </li> <li id="cite_note-CRISIS-TIME-MAGAZINE-108"><a href="#cite_ref-CRISIS-TIME-MAGAZINE_108-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation magazine cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071120121411/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,801570-4,00.html">"Crisis"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Time_(magazine)" title="Time (magazine)">Time</a>. 13 November 1944. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,801570-4,00.html">the original</a> on 20 November 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Time&rft.atitle=Crisis&rft.date=1944-11-13&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.time.com%2Ftime%2Fmagazine%2Farticle%2F0%2C9171%2C801570-4%2C00.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWestad2003" class="citation book cs1">Westad, Odd (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/decisiveencounte00west">Decisive Encounters: The Chinese Civil War, 1946–1950</a>. Stanford University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/decisiveencounte00west/page/305">305</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-4484-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-4484-3"><bdi>978-0-8047-4484-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Decisive+Encounters%3A+The+Chinese+Civil+War%2C+1946%E2%80%931950&rft.pages=305&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-8047-4484-3&rft.aulast=Westad&rft.aufirst=Odd&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdecisiveencounte00west&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wakeman2003-110"><a href="#cite_ref-Wakeman2003_110-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrederic_E._Wakeman2003" class="citation book cs1">Frederic E. Wakeman (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jYYYQYK6FAYC&pg=PA309">Spymaster: Dai Li and the Chinese Secret Service</a>. University of California Press. pp. 309–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-92876-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-92876-3"><bdi>978-0-520-92876-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221012012438/https://books.google.com/books?id=jYYYQYK6FAYC&pg=PA309">Archived</a> from the original on 12 October 2022. Retrieved 29 July 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Spymaster%3A+Dai+Li+and+the+Chinese+Secret+Service&rft.pages=309-&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-520-92876-3&rft.au=Frederic+E.+Wakeman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjYYYQYK6FAYC%26pg%3DPA309&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kush2012-111"><a href="#cite_ref-Kush2012_111-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLinda_Kush2012" class="citation book cs1">Linda Kush (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2azvCwAAQBAJ&pg=PT206">The Rice Paddy Navy: U.S. Sailors Undercover in China</a>. Bloomsbury Publishing. pp. 206–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78200-312-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-78200-312-0"><bdi>978-1-78200-312-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221012012459/https://books.google.com/books?id=2azvCwAAQBAJ&pg=PT206">Archived</a> from the original on 12 October 2022. Retrieved 29 July 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rice+Paddy+Navy%3A+U.S.+Sailors+Undercover+in+China&rft.pages=206-&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Publishing&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-78200-312-0&rft.au=Linda+Kush&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2azvCwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT206&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wakeman2003_2-112"><a href="#cite_ref-Wakeman2003_2_112-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrederic_E._Wakeman2003" class="citation book cs1">Frederic E. Wakeman (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jYYYQYK6FAYC&pg=PA497">Spymaster: Dai Li and the Chinese Secret Service</a>. University of California Press. pp. 497–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-92876-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-92876-3"><bdi>978-0-520-92876-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221012012542/https://books.google.com/books?id=jYYYQYK6FAYC&pg=PA497">Archived</a> from the original on 12 October 2022. Retrieved 29 July 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Spymaster%3A+Dai+Li+and+the+Chinese+Secret+Service&rft.pages=497-&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-520-92876-3&rft.au=Frederic+E.+Wakeman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjYYYQYK6FAYC%26pg%3DPA497&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSlim1956" class="citation book cs1">Slim, William (1956). Defeat into Victory. London: Cassell. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-304-29114-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-304-29114-5"><bdi>0-304-29114-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Defeat+into+Victory&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Cassell&rft.date=1956&rft.isbn=0-304-29114-5&rft.aulast=Slim&rft.aufirst=William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchoppa2011" class="citation book cs1">Schoppa, R. Keith (2011). In a Sea of Bitterness, Refugees during the Sino-Japanese War. Harvard University Press. p. 28. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-05988-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-05988-7"><bdi>978-0-674-05988-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=In+a+Sea+of+Bitterness%2C+Refugees+during+the+Sino-Japanese+War&rft.pages=28&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-674-05988-7&rft.aulast=Schoppa&rft.aufirst=R.+Keith&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a> Yuki Tanaka, Hidden Horrors, Westviewpres, 1996, p. 138 </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a> Hans Van de Ven, "Stilwell in the Stocks: The Chinese Nationalists and the Allied Powers in the Second World War", Asian Affairs 34.3 (November 2003): 243–259. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuang299–300-117"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHuang299–300_117-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHuang">Huang</a>, pp. 299–300. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacLaren200–220-118"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMacLaren200–220_118-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMacLaren">MacLaren</a>, pp. 200–220. </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeevor2012" class="citation book cs1">The Second World War. London: <a href="/wiki/Weidenfeld_%26_Nicolson" title="Weidenfeld & Nicolson">Weidenfeld & Nicolson</a>. 2012. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-297-84497-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-297-84497-6"><bdi>978-0-297-84497-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Second+World+War&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Weidenfeld+%26+Nicolson&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-297-84497-6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStevens70-120"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStevens70_120-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFStevens">Stevens</a>, p. 70. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStevens73-121"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStevens73_121-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFStevens">Stevens</a>, p. 73. </li> <li id="cite_note-Coble2023-122">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Coble2023_122-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Coble2023_122-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoble2023" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Parks_M._Coble" title="Parks M. Coble">Coble, Parks M.</a> (2023). The Collapse of Nationalist China: How Chiang Kai-shek Lost China's Civil War. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-009-29761-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-009-29761-5"><bdi>978-1-009-29761-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Collapse+of+Nationalist+China%3A+How+Chiang+Kai-shek+Lost+China%27s+Civil+War&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=978-1-009-29761-5&rft.aulast=Coble&rft.aufirst=Parks+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cox,_1980_pp._2-123"><a href="#cite_ref-Cox,_1980_pp._2_123-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190407201533/http://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a272727.pdf">Cox, 1980 pp. 2</a> Retrieved 9 March 2016 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHsiungLevine1992162–166-124"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHsiungLevine1992162–166_124-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHsiungLevine1992">Hsiung & Levine 1992</a>, pp. 162–166. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuang420-125"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHuang420_125-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHuang">Huang</a>, p. 420. </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141111214346/http://www.history.army.mil/brochures/chinoff/chinoff.htm">"China Offensive"</a>. Center of Military History. United states Army. 3 October 2003. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.history.army.mil/brochures/chinoff/chinoff.htm">the original</a> on 11 November 2014. Retrieved 14 November 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Center+of+Military+History&rft.atitle=China+Offensive&rft.date=2003-10-03&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.history.army.mil%2Fbrochures%2Fchinoff%2Fchinoff.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChanGongLittle2015" class="citation web cs1">Chan, Andy; Gong, John; Little, Michael (7 October 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://disciplesofflight.com/world-war-2-flying-ace-arthur-chin/">"World War 2 Flying Ace Arthur Chin's Amazing True Story"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190326113109/https://disciplesofflight.com/world-war-2-flying-ace-arthur-chin/">Archived</a> from the original on 26 March 2019. Retrieved 20 January 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=World+War+2+Flying+Ace+Arthur+Chin%27s+Amazing+True+Story&rft.date=2015-10-07&rft.aulast=Chan&rft.aufirst=Andy&rft.au=Gong%2C+John&rft.au=Little%2C+Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdisciplesofflight.com%2Fworld-war-2-flying-ace-arthur-chin%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USA/USA-P-Strategy/Strategy-5.html">"HyperWar: US Army in WWII: Strategy and Command: The First Two Years"</a>. www.ibiblio.org. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130525064812/http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USA/USA-P-Strategy/Strategy-5.html">Archived</a> from the original on 25 May 2013. Retrieved 13 November 2020. <q>By the fall of 1941 relations between the United States and Japan had reached a critical stage... the Japanese, most of whom were unwilling to pay the American price for peace... were convinced that acceptance of American peace terms would only lead to further demands and ultimately leave Japan dependent on the United States and Great Britain.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.ibiblio.org&rft.atitle=HyperWar%3A+US+Army+in+WWII%3A+Strategy+and+Command%3A+The+First+Two+Years&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ibiblio.org%2Fhyperwar%2FUSA%2FUSA-P-Strategy%2FStrategy-5.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://american.edu/TED/ice/japan-oil.htm">"Inventory of Conflict and Environment (ICE), Template"</a>. 13 October 2007. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071013230714/http://american.edu/TED/ice/japan-oil.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 13 October 2007. Retrieved 13 November 2020. <q>The US, the biggest oil supplier for Japan at the time, imposed the oil embargo on Japan in July, 1941, and it helped the Japanese to make up their minds to fight against the Americans. Thus, in a way, the attack on Pearl Harbor was not a surprise one at all; it was a necessary result of the conflict and negotiation.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Inventory+of+Conflict+and+Environment+%28ICE%29%2C+Template&rft.date=2007-10-13&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Famerican.edu%2FTED%2Fice%2Fjapan-oil.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.airforcemag.com/article/0699before/">"Before the Flying Tigers"</a>. Air Force Magazine. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201125171645/https://www.airforcemag.com/article/0699before/">Archived</a> from the original on 25 November 2020. Retrieved 8 November 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Air+Force+Magazine&rft.atitle=Before+the+Flying+Tigers&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.airforcemag.com%2Farticle%2F0699before%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.century-of-flight.freeola.com/Aviation%20history/WW2/aces/Wong%20Sun-Shui.htm">"Major 'Buffalo' Wong Sun-Shui"</a>. www.century-of-flight.freeola.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080905180041/http://www.century-of-flight.freeola.com/Aviation%20history/WW2/aces/Wong%20Sun-Shui.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 5 September 2008. Retrieved 8 November 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.century-of-flight.freeola.com&rft.atitle=Major+%27Buffalo%27+Wong+Sun-Shui&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.century-of-flight.freeola.com%2FAviation%2520history%2FWW2%2Faces%2FWong%2520Sun-Shui.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://1859oregonmagazine.com/think-oregon/art-culture/hazel-lee/">"Sky's the Limit"</a>. 1859 Oregon's Magazine. 10 November 2016. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180130091648/https://1859oregonmagazine.com/think-oregon/art-culture/hazel-lee/">Archived</a> from the original on 30 January 2018. Retrieved 8 November 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=1859+Oregon%27s+Magazine&rft.atitle=Sky%27s+the+Limit&rft.date=2016-11-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2F1859oregonmagazine.com%2Fthink-oregon%2Fart-culture%2Fhazel-lee%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nbcnews.com/news/asian-america/remembering-hazel-lee-first-chinese-american-female-military-pilot-n745851">"Remembering Hazel Lee, the first Chinese-American female military pilot"</a>. NBC News. 25 May 2017. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180211113655/https://www.nbcnews.com/news/asian-america/remembering-hazel-lee-first-chinese-american-female-military-pilot-n745851">Archived</a> from the original on 11 February 2018. Retrieved 8 November 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=NBC+News&rft.atitle=Remembering+Hazel+Lee%2C+the+first+Chinese-American+female+military+pilot&rft.date=2017-05-25&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nbcnews.com%2Fnews%2Fasian-america%2Fremembering-hazel-lee-first-chinese-american-female-military-pilot-n745851&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://disciplesofflight.com/world-war-2-flying-ace-arthur-chin/">"World War 2 Flying Ace Arthur Chin's Amazing True Story"</a>. 7 October 2015. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190326113109/https://disciplesofflight.com/world-war-2-flying-ace-arthur-chin/">Archived</a> from the original on 26 March 2019. Retrieved 8 November 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=World+War+2+Flying+Ace+Arthur+Chin%27s+Amazing+True+Story&rft.date=2015-10-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdisciplesofflight.com%2Fworld-war-2-flying-ace-arthur-chin%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMitter2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidBqc_YkuyaCICpgPA65_65]-135"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMitter2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidBqc_YkuyaCICpgPA65_65]_135-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMitter2013">Mitter (2013)</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Bqc_YkuyaCIC&pg=PA65">65</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMitter2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidBqc_YkuyaCICpgPA66_66]-136"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMitter2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidBqc_YkuyaCICpgPA66_66]_136-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMitter2013">Mitter (2013)</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Bqc_YkuyaCIC&pg=PA66">66</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMitter2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidBqc_YkuyaCICpgPA165_165]-137"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMitter2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidBqc_YkuyaCICpgPA165_165]_137-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMitter2013">Mitter (2013)</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Bqc_YkuyaCIC&pg=PA165">165</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-138"><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a> Douglas Varner, To the Banks of the Halha: The Nomohan Incident and the Northern Limits of the Japanese Empire (2008) </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor156-139"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylor156_139-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTaylor">Taylor</a>, p. 156. </li> <li id="cite_note-140"><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.soldat.ru/doc/casualties/book/chapter4_4.html">[1]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100313141742/http://www.soldat.ru/doc/casualties/book/chapter4_4.html">Archived</a> 13 March 2010 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPederson2011" class="citation book cs1">Pederson, William D. (2011). A Companion to Franklin D. Roosevelt. Blackwell Publishing. pp. 591–597, 601. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1444395174" title="Special:BookSources/978-1444395174"><bdi>978-1444395174</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+Franklin+D.+Roosevelt&rft.pages=591-597%2C+601&rft.pub=Blackwell+Publishing&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1444395174&rft.aulast=Pederson&rft.aufirst=William+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-142"><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110221003912/http://www.info.dfat.gov.au/info/historical/HistDocs.nsf/%28LookupVolNoNumber%29/3~221">"Memorandum by Mr J. McEwen, Minister for External Affairs 10 May 1940"</a>. Info.dfat.gov.au. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.info.dfat.gov.au/info/historical/HistDocs.nsf/(LookupVolNoNumber)/3~221">the original</a> on February 21, 2011. Retrieved December 2, 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Memorandum+by+Mr+J.+McEwen%2C+Minister+for+External+Affairs+10+May+1940&rft.pub=Info.dfat.gov.au&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.info.dfat.gov.au%2Finfo%2Fhistorical%2FHistDocs.nsf%2F%28LookupVolNoNumber%29%2F3~221&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-143"><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a> US Congress. Investigation of Concentracion of Economic Power. Hearings before the Temporary National Economic Committee. 76th Congress, 2nd Session, Pt. 21. Washington, 1940, p. 11241 </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a> Д. Г. Наджафов. Нейтралитет США. 1935–1941. М., "Наука", 1990. стр.157 </li> <li id="cite_note-145"><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUnited_States._Congress._House._Committee_on_Foreign_Affairs1939" class="citation book cs1">United States. Congress. House. Committee on Foreign Affairs (1939). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=E9IfAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA266">Hearings</a>. p. 266.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hearings&rft.pages=266&rft.date=1939&rft.au=United+States.+Congress.+House.+Committee+on+Foreign+Affairs&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DE9IfAAAAMAAJ%26pg%3DPA266&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-146"><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUnited_States._Congress._House1939" class="citation book cs1">United States. Congress. House (1939). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-JMa8xpP5tYC&pg=PA266">Hearings</a>. U.S. Government Printing Office. p. 266.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hearings&rft.pages=266&rft.pub=U.S.+Government+Printing+Office&rft.date=1939&rft.au=United+States.+Congress.+House&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-JMa8xpP5tYC%26pg%3DPA266&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-147"><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUnited_States._Congress._House._Committee_on_Foreign_Affairs1939" class="citation book cs1">United States. Congress. House. Committee on Foreign Affairs (1939). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tcxEAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA266">American Neutrality Policy: Hearings Before the United States House Committee on Foreign Affairs, Seventy-Sixth Congress, First Session, on Apr. 11–13, 17–21, 24–28, May 2, 1939</a>. U.S. Government Printing Office. p. 266.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=American+Neutrality+Policy%3A+Hearings+Before+the+United+States+House+Committee+on+Foreign+Affairs%2C+Seventy-Sixth+Congress%2C+First+Session%2C+on+Apr.+11%E2%80%9313%2C+17%E2%80%9321%2C+24%E2%80%9328%2C+May+2%2C+1939&rft.pages=266&rft.pub=U.S.+Government+Printing+Office&rft.date=1939&rft.au=United+States.+Congress.+House.+Committee+on+Foreign+Affairs&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DtcxEAQAAMAAJ%26pg%3DPA266&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-148"><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUnited_States._Congress._House._Foreign_AFfairs1939" class="citation book cs1">United States. Congress. House. Foreign AFfairs (1939). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=eEB5-sXYBVcC&pg=PA266">American Neutrality Policy: Hearings ... on Present Neutrality Law (public Res. No. 27)... April 11 – May 2, 1939</a>. pp. 263–302.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=American+Neutrality+Policy%3A+Hearings+...+on+Present+Neutrality+Law+%28public+Res.+No.+27%29...+April+11+%E2%80%93+May+2%2C+1939&rft.pages=263-302&rft.date=1939&rft.au=United+States.+Congress.+House.+Foreign+AFfairs&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DeEB5-sXYBVcC%26pg%3DPA266&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-149"><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUnited_States._Congress1967" class="citation book cs1">United States. Congress (1967). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=G-9N8WlYKK4C&pg=PA473">Congressional Record: Proceedings and Debates of the ... Congress, Volume 113, Part 1</a>. U.S. Government Printing Office. p. 474. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221012013420/https://books.google.com/books?id=G-9N8WlYKK4C&pg=PA473">Archived</a> from the original on 12 October 2022. Retrieved 31 May 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Congressional+Record%3A+Proceedings+and+Debates+of+the+...+Congress%2C+Volume+113%2C+Part+1&rft.pages=474&rft.pub=U.S.+Government+Printing+Office&rft.date=1967&rft.au=United+States.+Congress&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DG-9N8WlYKK4C%26pg%3DPA473&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-150"><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/2015/06/16/ace-served-flying-tigers-china/28837427/">"Ace served with Flying Tigers in China"</a>. <a href="/wiki/USA_Today" title="USA Today">USA Today</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191212231029/https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/2015/06/16/ace-served-flying-tigers-china/28837427/">Archived</a> from the original on 12 December 2019. Retrieved 26 May 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=USA+Today&rft.atitle=Ace+served+with+Flying+Tigers+in+China&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.usatoday.com%2Fstory%2Fnews%2F2015%2F06%2F16%2Face-served-flying-tigers-china%2F28837427%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-151"><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150625193541/http://www.drnh.gov.tw/ImagesPost/365fe047-7f22-47fb-a84e-d4d5f94cbe43/3fca19ba-644a-4958-b81b-9f7ff743a1d6_ALLFILES.pdf">"軍統局對美國戰略局的認識與合作開展"</a> (PDF). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.drnh.gov.tw/ImagesPost/365fe047-7f22-47fb-a84e-d4d5f94cbe43/3fca19ba-644a-4958-b81b-9f7ff743a1d6_ALLFILES.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 25 June 2015. Retrieved 24 June 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%E8%BB%8D%E7%B5%B1%E5%B1%80%E5%B0%8D%E7%BE%8E%E5%9C%8B%E6%88%B0%E7%95%A5%E5%B1%80%E7%9A%84%E8%AA%8D%E8%AD%98%E8%88%87+%E5%90%88%E4%BD%9C%E9%96%8B%E5%B1%95&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.drnh.gov.tw%2FImagesPost%2F365fe047-7f22-47fb-a84e-d4d5f94cbe43%2F3fca19ba-644a-4958-b81b-9f7ff743a1d6_ALLFILES.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-152"><a href="#cite_ref-152">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150624183008/http://www.drnh.gov.tw/ImagesPost/365fe047-7f22-47fb-a84e-d4d5f94cbe43/19036c97-3e88-415c-9c4e-d728b91c910c_ALLFILES.pdf">"館戴笠與忠義救國軍"</a> (PDF). 24 June 2015. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.drnh.gov.tw/ImagesPost/365fe047-7f22-47fb-a84e-d4d5f94cbe43/19036c97-3e88-415c-9c4e-d728b91c910c_ALLFILES.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 24 June 2015. Retrieved 8 November 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%E9%A4%A8%E6%88%B4%E7%AC%A0%E8%88%87%E5%BF%A0%E7%BE%A9%E6%95%91%E5%9C%8B%E8%BB%8D&rft.date=2015-06-24&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.drnh.gov.tw%2FImagesPost%2F365fe047-7f22-47fb-a84e-d4d5f94cbe43%2F19036c97-3e88-415c-9c4e-d728b91c910c_ALLFILES.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-153"><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBergin2009" class="citation journal cs1">Bergin, Bob (March 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160304055154/https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/vol53no1/pdfs/U-%20Bergin-Spymaster.pdf">"Spymaster: Dai Li and the Chinese Secret Service"</a> (PDF). Studies in Intelligence. 53: 75–78. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/vol53no1/pdfs/U-%20Bergin-Spymaster.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 24 June 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Studies+in+Intelligence&rft.atitle=Spymaster%3A+Dai+Li+and+the+Chinese+Secret+Service&rft.volume=53&rft.pages=75-78&rft.date=2009-03&rft.aulast=Bergin&rft.aufirst=Bob&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cia.gov%2Flibrary%2Fcenter-for-the-study-of-intelligence%2Fcsi-publications%2Fcsi-studies%2Fstudies%2Fvol53no1%2Fpdfs%2FU-%2520Bergin-Spymaster.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-154"><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPerry2011" class="citation journal cs1">Perry, J. K. J. (7 September 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09592296.2011.599641">"Powerless and Frustrated: Britain's Relationship With China During the Opening Years of the Second Sino–Japanese War, 1937–1939"</a>. Diplomacy & Statecraft. 22 (3): 408–430. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F09592296.2011.599641">10.1080/09592296.2011.599641</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:153517917">153517917</a>. Retrieved 23 October 2023 – via Taylor & Francis Online.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Diplomacy+%26+Statecraft&rft.atitle=Powerless+and+Frustrated%3A+Britain%27s+Relationship+With+China+During+the+Opening+Years+of+the+Second+Sino%E2%80%93Japanese+War%2C+1937%E2%80%931939&rft.volume=22&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=408-430&rft.date=2011-09-07&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F09592296.2011.599641&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A153517917%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Perry&rft.aufirst=J.+K.+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.tandfonline.com%2Fdoi%2Fabs%2F10.1080%2F09592296.2011.599641&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-155"><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKirby1958" class="citation book cs1">Kirby, Major General Woodburn, S (1958). The War against Japan, Vol 2: India's Most Dangerous Hour. London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+War+against+Japan%2C+Vol+2%3A+India%27s+Most+Dangerous+Hour&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Her+Majesty%27s+Stationery+Office&rft.date=1958&rft.aulast=Kirby&rft.aufirst=Major+General+Woodburn%2C+S&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-NSW_2012-156"><a href="#cite_ref-NSW_2012_156-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://static1.squarespace.com/static/531286c0e4b04bcb37e6c5c5/t/53214071e4b010ef1a5b9dd8/1394688113290/HK+Vol+&+ex+PoW+Assn+NSW.+OP9+The+Hong+Kong+Volunteer+Company.pdf">"The Hong Kong Volunteer Company"</a> (PDF). Hong Kong Volunteer & Ex.PoW Association of NSW. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211223171645/https://static1.squarespace.com/static/531286c0e4b04bcb37e6c5c5/t/53214071e4b010ef1a5b9dd8/1394688113290/HK+Vol+&+ex+PoW+Assn+NSW.+OP9+The+Hong+Kong+Volunteer+Company.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 23 December 2021. Retrieved 23 December 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Hong+Kong+Volunteer+Company&rft.pub=Hong+Kong+Volunteer+%26+Ex.PoW+Association+of+NSW&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fstatic1.squarespace.com%2Fstatic%2F531286c0e4b04bcb37e6c5c5%2Ft%2F53214071e4b010ef1a5b9dd8%2F1394688113290%2FHK%2BVol%2B%26%2Bex%2BPoW%2BAssn%2BNSW.%2BOP9%2BThe%2BHong%2BKong%2BVolunteer%2BCompany.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-IWM-157"><a href="#cite_ref-IWM_157-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.iwm.org.uk/collections/item/object/30076590">"BADGE, UNIT, BRITISH, BRITISH ARMY AID GROUP (BAAG)"</a>. www.iwm.org.uk. Imperial War Museum.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.iwm.org.uk&rft.atitle=BADGE%2C+UNIT%2C+BRITISH%2C+BRITISH+ARMY+AID+GROUP+%28BAAG%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.iwm.org.uk%2Fcollections%2Fitem%2Fobject%2F30076590&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-158"><a href="#cite_ref-158">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhiteheadBennett1990" class="citation book cs1">Whitehead, John; Bennett, George (1990). Escape to Fight on: With 204 Military Mission in China. Robert Hale. pp. 132, 174–78. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780709041313" title="Special:BookSources/9780709041313"><bdi>9780709041313</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Escape+to+Fight+on%3A+With+204+Military+Mission+in+China&rft.pages=132%2C+174-78&rft.pub=Robert+Hale&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=9780709041313&rft.aulast=Whitehead&rft.aufirst=John&rft.au=Bennett%2C+George&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-159"><a href="#cite_ref-159">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStevens2005" class="citation journal cs1">Stevens, Keith (March 2005). "A token operation: 204 military mission to China, 1941–1945". Asian Affairs. 36 (1): 66–74. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F03068370500039151">10.1080/03068370500039151</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161326427">161326427</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Asian+Affairs&rft.atitle=A+token+operation%3A+204+military+mission+to+China%2C+1941%E2%80%931945&rft.volume=36&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=66-74&rft.date=2005-03&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F03068370500039151&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A161326427%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Stevens&rft.aufirst=Keith&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-160"><a href="#cite_ref-160">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160813081130/https://www.cia.gov/news-information/featured-story-archive/2008-featured-story-archive/free-thai-movement.html">"A Look Back ... "Free Thai" Movement is Born"</a>. cia.gov. <a href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">Central Intelligence Agency</a>. 30 April 2013. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cia.gov/news-information/featured-story-archive/2008-featured-story-archive/free-thai-movement.html">the original</a> on 13 August 2016. Retrieved 20 June 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=cia.gov&rft.atitle=A+Look+Back+...+%22Free+Thai%22+Movement+is+Born&rft.date=2013-04-30&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cia.gov%2Fnews-information%2Ffeatured-story-archive%2F2008-featured-story-archive%2Ffree-thai-movement.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-William_J._Duiker_1976_272-161">^ <a href="#cite_ref-William_J._Duiker_1976_272_161-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-William_J._Duiker_1976_272_161-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-William_J._Duiker_1976_272_161-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-William_J._Duiker_1976_272_161-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliam_J._Duiker1976" class="citation book cs1">William J. Duiker (1976). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HKRuAAAAMAAJ&q=Chang+Fa-Kuei+vnqdd">The rise of nationalism in Vietnam, 1900–1941</a>. Cornell University Press. p. 272. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8014-0951-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-8014-0951-9"><bdi>0-8014-0951-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+rise+of+nationalism+in+Vietnam%2C+1900%E2%80%931941&rft.pages=272&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=1976&rft.isbn=0-8014-0951-9&rft.au=William+J.+Duiker&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHKRuAAAAMAAJ%26q%3DChang%2BFa-Kuei%2Bvnqdd&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-162"><a href="#cite_ref-162">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJames_P._Harrison1989" class="citation book cs1">James P. Harrison (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/endlesswarvietna0000harr">The endless war: Vietnam's struggle for independence</a>. Columbia University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/endlesswarvietna0000harr/page/81">81</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-231-06909-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-231-06909-X"><bdi>0-231-06909-X</bdi></a>. Retrieved 30 November 2010. <q>Chang Fa-Kuei vnqdd.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+endless+war%3A+Vietnam%27s+struggle+for+independence&rft.pages=81&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=0-231-06909-X&rft.au=James+P.+Harrison&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fendlesswarvietna0000harr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-163"><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUnited_States._Joint_Chiefs_of_Staff._Historical_Division1982" class="citation book cs1">United States. Joint Chiefs of Staff. Historical Division (1982). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uEDfAAAAMAAJ&q=Chang+Fa-Kuei+vnqdd">The History of the Joint Chiefs of Staff: History of the Indochina incident, 1940–1954</a>. Michael Glazier. p. 56. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780894532870" title="Special:BookSources/9780894532870"><bdi>9780894532870</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+the+Joint+Chiefs+of+Staff%3A+History+of+the+Indochina+incident%2C+1940%E2%80%931954&rft.pages=56&rft.pub=Michael+Glazier&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=9780894532870&rft.au=United+States.+Joint+Chiefs+of+Staff.+Historical+Division&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DuEDfAAAAMAAJ%26q%3DChang%2BFa-Kuei%2Bvnqdd&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-164"><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOscar_Chapuis2000" class="citation book cs1">Oscar Chapuis (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9RorGHF0fGIC&pg=PA106">The last emperors of Vietnam: from Tự Đức to Bảo Đại</a>. Greenwood. p. 106. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-313-31170-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-313-31170-6"><bdi>0-313-31170-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+last+emperors+of+Vietnam%3A+from+T%E1%BB%B1+%C4%90%E1%BB%A9c+to+B%E1%BA%A3o+%C4%90%E1%BA%A1i&rft.pages=106&rft.pub=Greenwood&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0-313-31170-6&rft.au=Oscar+Chapuis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9RorGHF0fGIC%26pg%3DPA106&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-165"><a href="#cite_ref-165">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarbara_Wertheim_Tuchman1985" class="citation book cs1">Barbara Wertheim Tuchman (1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=v5YlBtzklvQC&pg=PA235">The march of folly: from Troy to Vietnam</a>. Random House, Inc. p. 235. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-345-30823-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-345-30823-9"><bdi>0-345-30823-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+march+of+folly%3A+from+Troy+to+Vietnam&rft.pages=235&rft.pub=Random+House%2C+Inc.&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=0-345-30823-9&rft.au=Barbara+Wertheim+Tuchman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dv5YlBtzklvQC%26pg%3DPA235&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-166"><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLarry_H._Addington2000" class="citation book cs1">Larry H. Addington (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/americaswarinvie0000addi">America's war in Vietnam: a short narrative history</a>. Indiana University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/americaswarinvie0000addi/page/30">30</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-253-21360-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-253-21360-6"><bdi>0-253-21360-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=America%27s+war+in+Vietnam%3A+a+short+narrative+history&rft.pages=30&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0-253-21360-6&rft.au=Larry+H.+Addington&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Famericaswarinvie0000addi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-167"><a href="#cite_ref-167">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeter_Neville2007" class="citation book cs1">Peter Neville (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=o1t8-EjWyrgC&pg=PA119">Britain in Vietnam: prelude to disaster, 1945-6</a>. Psychology Press. p. 119. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-35848-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-35848-4"><bdi>978-0-415-35848-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Britain+in+Vietnam%3A+prelude+to+disaster%2C+1945-6&rft.pages=119&rft.pub=Psychology+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-415-35848-4&rft.au=Peter+Neville&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Do1t8-EjWyrgC%26pg%3DPA119&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-168"><a href="#cite_ref-168">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVan_Nguyen_Duong2008" class="citation book cs1">Van Nguyen Duong (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pVNaoUu7veUC&pg=PA21">The tragedy of the Vietnam War: a South Vietnamese officer's analysis</a>. McFarland. p. 21. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7864-3285-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7864-3285-1"><bdi>978-0-7864-3285-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221012013925/https://books.google.com/books?id=pVNaoUu7veUC&pg=PA21">Archived</a> from the original on 12 October 2022. Retrieved 18 October 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+tragedy+of+the+Vietnam+War%3A+a+South+Vietnamese+officer%27s+analysis&rft.pages=21&rft.pub=McFarland&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-7864-3285-1&rft.au=Van+Nguyen+Duong&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpVNaoUu7veUC%26pg%3DPA21&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-169"><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStein_Tønnesson2010" class="citation book cs1">Stein Tønnesson (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1I4HOcmE4XQC&pg=PA41">Vietnam 1946: how the war began</a>. University of California Press. p. 41. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-25602-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-25602-6"><bdi>978-0-520-25602-6</bdi></a>. Retrieved 18 October 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Vietnam+1946%3A+how+the+war+began&rft.pages=41&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-520-25602-6&rft.au=Stein+T%C3%B8nnesson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1I4HOcmE4XQC%26pg%3DPA41&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-170"><a href="#cite_ref-170">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFElizabeth_Jane_Errington1990" class="citation book cs1">Elizabeth Jane Errington (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yQGqQ3LmExwC&pg=PA63">The Vietnam War as history: edited by Elizabeth Jane Errington and B.J.C. McKercher</a>. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 63. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-275-93560-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-275-93560-4"><bdi>0-275-93560-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Vietnam+War+as+history%3A+edited+by+Elizabeth+Jane+Errington+and+B.J.C.+McKercher&rft.pages=63&rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=0-275-93560-4&rft.au=Elizabeth+Jane+Errington&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DyQGqQ3LmExwC%26pg%3DPA63&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-171"><a href="#cite_ref-171">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.historyplace.com/unitedstates/vietnam/index-1945.html">"The Vietnam War Seeds of Conflict 1945–1960"</a>. The History Place. 1999. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081217062228/http://www.historyplace.com/unitedstates/vietnam/index-1945.html">Archived</a> from the original on 17 December 2008. Retrieved 28 December 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Vietnam+War+Seeds+of+Conflict+1945%E2%80%931960&rft.pub=The+History+Place&rft.date=1999&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.historyplace.com%2Funitedstates%2Fvietnam%2Findex-1945.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-172"><a href="#cite_ref-172">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHsiao-ting_Lin2010" class="citation book cs1">Hsiao-ting Lin (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rsLQdBUgyMUC">Modern China's Ethnic Frontiers: A Journey to the West</a>. Taylor & Francis. p. 58. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-58264-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-58264-3"><bdi>978-0-415-58264-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221012013926/https://books.google.com/books?id=rsLQdBUgyMUC">Archived</a> from the original on 12 October 2022. Retrieved 28 June 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Modern+China%27s+Ethnic+Frontiers%3A+A+Journey+to+the+West&rft.pages=58&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-415-58264-3&rft.au=Hsiao-ting+Lin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DrsLQdBUgyMUC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-173"><a href="#cite_ref-173">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=y3oeAAAAMAAJ">Asia, Volume 40</a>. Asia Magazine. 1940. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221012013926/https://books.google.com/books?id=y3oeAAAAMAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 12 October 2022. Retrieved 28 June 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Asia%2C+Volume+40&rft.pub=Asia+Magazine&rft.date=1940&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dy3oeAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-174"><a href="#cite_ref-174">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2">War, Leadership and Ethnopolitics: Chiang Kai-shek and China's frontiers, 1941–1945, Informaworld.com</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=War%2C+Leadership+and+Ethnopolitics%3A+Chiang+Kai-shek+and+China%27s+frontiers%2C+1941%E2%80%931945&rft.pub=Informaworld.com&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-175"><a href="#cite_ref-175">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHsiao-ting_Lin2007" class="citation journal cs1">Hsiao-ting Lin (February 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.files.ethz.ch/isn/31657/Full_Text.pdf">"Nationalists, Muslim Warlords, and the "Great Northwestern Development" in Pre-Communist China"</a> (PDF). The China and Eurasia Forum Quarterly. 5 (1). Central Asia-Caucasus Institute & Silk Road Studies Program: 115–135. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190329212604/https://www.files.ethz.ch/isn/31657/Full_Text.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 29 March 2019. Retrieved 2 December 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+China+and+Eurasia+Forum+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Nationalists%2C+Muslim+Warlords%2C+and+the+%22Great+Northwestern+Development%22+in+Pre-Communist+China&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=115-135&rft.date=2007-02&rft.au=Hsiao-ting+Lin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.files.ethz.ch%2Fisn%2F31657%2FFull_Text.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-176"><a href="#cite_ref-176">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFInstitute_of_Muslim_Minority_Affairs1982" class="citation book cs1">Institute of Muslim Minority Affairs (1982). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4J0uAAAAIAAJ">Journal of the Institute of Muslim Minority Affairs, Volumes 4–5</a>. King Abdulaziz University. p. 299. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221012013926/https://books.google.com/books?id=4J0uAAAAIAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 12 October 2022. Retrieved 28 June 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Journal+of+the+Institute+of+Muslim+Minority+Affairs%2C+Volumes+4%E2%80%935&rft.pages=299&rft.pub=King+Abdulaziz+University&rft.date=1982&rft.au=Institute+of+Muslim+Minority+Affairs&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4J0uAAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-177"><a href="#cite_ref-177">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrederick_Roelker_WulsinJoseph_Fletcher1979" class="citation book cs1">Frederick Roelker Wulsin; Joseph Fletcher (1979). Mary Ellen Alonso (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WltwAAAAMAAJ&q=ma+bufang">China's inner Asian frontier: photographs of the Wulsin expedition to northwest China in 1923 : from the archives of the Peabody Museum, Harvard University, and the National Geographic Society</a>. The Museum : distributed by Harvard University Press. p. 50. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-674-11968-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-674-11968-1"><bdi>0-674-11968-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221012013926/https://books.google.com/books?id=WltwAAAAMAAJ&q=ma+bufang">Archived</a> from the original on 12 October 2022. Retrieved 28 June 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China%27s+inner+Asian+frontier%3A+photographs+of+the+Wulsin+expedition+to+northwest+China+in+1923+%3A+from+the+archives+of+the+Peabody+Museum%2C+Harvard+University%2C+and+the+National+Geographic+Society&rft.pages=50&rft.pub=The+Museum+%3A+distributed+by+Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=0-674-11968-1&rft.au=Frederick+Roelker+Wulsin&rft.au=Joseph+Fletcher&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWltwAAAAMAAJ%26q%3Dma%2Bbufang&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-178"><a href="#cite_ref-178">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStéphane_A._DudoignonHisao_KomatsuYasushi_Kosugi2006" class="citation book cs1">Stéphane A. Dudoignon; Hisao Komatsu; Yasushi Kosugi (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MJzB6wrz6Q4C&q=uxiang">Intellectuals in the modern Islamic world: transmission, transformation, communication</a>. Taylor & Francis. p. 261. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-36835-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-36835-9"><bdi>0-415-36835-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221012014428/https://books.google.com/books?id=MJzB6wrz6Q4C&q=uxiang">Archived</a> from the original on 12 October 2022. Retrieved 28 June 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Intellectuals+in+the+modern+Islamic+world%3A+transmission%2C+transformation%2C+communication&rft.pages=261&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=0-415-36835-9&rft.au=St%C3%A9phane+A.+Dudoignon&rft.au=Hisao+Komatsu&rft.au=Yasushi+Kosugi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DMJzB6wrz6Q4C%26q%3Duxiang&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-179"><a href="#cite_ref-179">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobert_L._Jarman2001" class="citation book cs1">Robert L. Jarman (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fOkvAQAAIAAJ">China Political Reports 1911–1960: 1942–1945</a>. Archive Editions. p. 311. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85207-930-4" title="Special:BookSources/1-85207-930-4"><bdi>1-85207-930-4</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221012014427/https://books.google.com/books?id=fOkvAQAAIAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 12 October 2022. Retrieved 28 June 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China+Political+Reports+1911%E2%80%931960%3A+1942%E2%80%931945&rft.pages=311&rft.pub=Archive+Editions&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=1-85207-930-4&rft.au=Robert+L.+Jarman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DfOkvAQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-180"><a href="#cite_ref-180">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHisao_KimuraScott_Berry1990" class="citation book cs1">Hisao Kimura; Scott Berry (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wDqlbKQhFIQC&pg=PA56">Japanese agent in Tibet: my ten years of travel in disguise</a>. Serindia Publications, Inc. p. 232. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-906026-24-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-906026-24-5"><bdi>0-906026-24-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221012014428/https://books.google.com/books?id=wDqlbKQhFIQC&pg=PA56">Archived</a> from the original on 12 October 2022. Retrieved 28 June 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Japanese+agent+in+Tibet%3A+my+ten+years+of+travel+in+disguise&rft.pages=232&rft.pub=Serindia+Publications%2C+Inc.&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=0-906026-24-5&rft.au=Hisao+Kimura&rft.au=Scott+Berry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DwDqlbKQhFIQC%26pg%3DPA56&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-181"><a href="#cite_ref-181">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLei2010" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Lei, Wan (February 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/4427135">"The Chinese Islamic 'Goodwill Mission to the Middle East' During the Anti-Japanese War"</a>. DÎVÂN DİSİPLİNLERARASI ÇALIŞMALAR DERGİSİ. cilt 15 (sayı 29): 139–141. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140318035752/http://www.academia.edu/4427135/The_Chinese_Islamic_Goodwill_Mission_to_the_Middle_East_-_Japonyaya_Karsi_Savasta_Cinli_Muslumanlarin_Orta_Dogu_iyi_Niyet_Heyeti_-_Wan_LEI">Archived</a> from the original on 18 March 2014. Retrieved 19 June 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=D%C3%8EV%C3%82N+D%C4%B0S%C4%B0PL%C4%B0NLERARASI+%C3%87ALI%C5%9EMALAR+DERG%C4%B0S%C4%B0&rft.atitle=The+Chinese+Islamic+%27Goodwill+Mission+to+the+Middle+East%27+During+the+Anti-Japanese+War&rft.volume=cilt+15&rft.issue=say%C4%B1+29&rft.pages=139-141&rft.date=2010-02&rft.aulast=Lei&rft.aufirst=Wan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F4427135&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-182"><a href="#cite_ref-182">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=O9EMAQAAMAAJ&q=unique+1937+aboriginal">China at War</a>. China Information Publishing Company. 1940. p. 16. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221012014429/https://books.google.com/books?id=O9EMAQAAMAAJ&q=unique+1937+aboriginal">Archived</a> from the original on 12 October 2022. Retrieved 20 October 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China+at+War&rft.pages=16&rft.pub=China+Information+Publishing+Company&rft.date=1940&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DO9EMAQAAMAAJ%26q%3Dunique%2B1937%2Baboriginal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-183"><a href="#cite_ref-183">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoodman2004" class="citation journal cs1">Goodman, David S. G. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://qinghaiecotourism.com/zh/assets/Emergence%25202004.pdf">"Qinghai and the Emergence of the West: Nationalities, Communal Interaction and National Integration"</a> (PDF). The China Quarterly. Cambridge University Press for the School of Oriental and African Studies. University of London, UK.: 385. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0305-7410">0305-7410</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150402131412/http://qinghaiecotourism.com/zh/assets/Emergence%25202004.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 13 July 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+China+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Qinghai+and+the+Emergence+of+the+West%3A+Nationalities%2C+Communal+Interaction+and+National+Integration&rft.pages=385&rft.date=2004&rft.issn=0305-7410&rft.aulast=Goodman&rft.aufirst=David+S.+G.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fqinghaiecotourism.com%2Fzh%2Fassets%2FEmergence%2525202004.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-184"><a href="#cite_ref-184">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScott1934" class="citation book cs1">Scott, John (17 October 1934). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/dli.bengal.10689.4291/page/n25/mode/2up?view=theater">"A SHORT JOURNEY THROUGH NORTHWESTERN KANSU AND THE TIBETAN BORDER COUNTRY"</a>. Journal Of The Royal Central Asian Society – Vol.21; Pt. 1- 4. pp. 25, 26. <q>We spent a day resting at Hsining. This is a walled city lying just within the old Tibetan border, and is the capital of the new Province of Ching Hai and the seat of the Provincial Civil Government. The Chairman of the Provincial Council, or Shihehang, is Ma Pu Fang, a young Moslem in the early thirties, a strong and somewhat ruthless character as befits a scion of the family which has in recent years produced such outstanding men as Ma An Liang, Ma Ch'i, and Ma Fu Hsiang. He has kept the Province in fair order, since he assumed control a year or two ago; though his relations with the Military Governor, his uncle Ma Shun Cheng, are at the moment none too cordial and trouble threatens. Further, there is a certain movement for independence among these Moslems, and a tendency to break away from Nanking and join up with their fellow-Moslems further west. The latter is much under the influence of Russia, which for years has tried to extend its influence into Kansu, but with very little success, for the Kansu Moslems are a sturdy independent people and make poor material for Bolshevik propaganda. We saw no signs of any Japanese whatever, and strong anti-Japanese feeling was very apparent.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=A+SHORT+JOURNEY+THROUGH+NORTHWESTERN+KANSU+AND+THE+TIBETAN+BORDER+COUNTRY&rft.btitle=Journal+Of+The+Royal+Central+Asian+Society+%E2%80%93+Vol.21%3B+Pt.+1-+4&rft.pages=25%2C+26&rft.date=1934-10-17&rft.aulast=Scott&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdli.bengal.10689.4291%2Fpage%2Fn25%2Fmode%2F2up%3Fview%3Dtheater&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-185"><a href="#cite_ref-185">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080302130751/http://www-cgsc.army.mil/carl/resources/csi/glantz3/glantz3.asp">"Leavenworth Papers No. 7 (August Storm: The Soviet 1945 Strategic Offensive in Manchuria)"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www-cgsc.army.mil/carl/resources/csi/glantz3/glantz3.asp">the original</a> on 2 March 2008. Retrieved 15 July 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Leavenworth+Papers+No.+7+%28August+Storm%3A+The+Soviet+1945+Strategic+Offensive+in+Manchuria%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww-cgsc.army.mil%2Fcarl%2Fresources%2Fcsi%2Fglantz3%2Fglantz3.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-186"><a href="#cite_ref-186">^</a> Robert A. Pape. Why Japan Surrendered. International Security, Vol. 18, No. 2 (Autumn, 1993), pp. 154–201 </li> <li id="cite_note-surrender-187"><a href="#cite_ref-surrender_187-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.taiwandocuments.org/surrender02.htm">Act of Surrender, 9 September 1945</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230402122255/http://www.taiwandocuments.org/surrender02.htm">Archived</a> 2 April 2023 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (page visited on 3 September 2015). </li> <li id="cite_note-188"><a href="#cite_ref-188">^</a> Hans Van De Ven, "A call to not lead humanity into another war", <a href="/wiki/China_Daily" title="China Daily">China Daily</a>, 31 August 2015. </li> <li id="cite_note-189"><a href="#cite_ref-189">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLovell2019" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Julia_Lovell" title="Julia Lovell">Lovell, Julia</a> (3 September 2019). Maoism: A Global History. <a href="/wiki/Doubleday_(publisher)" title="Doubleday (publisher)">Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group</a>. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kx1-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT41">31</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-525-65605-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-525-65605-0"><bdi>978-0-525-65605-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1078879585">1078879585</a>. <q>Though it is also worth pointing out that, in practice, Mao's recipe for guerrilla manoeuvres played a limited role in Chinese revolutionary wars during the 1930s and '40s. Nationalist armies carried most of the resistance to the Japanese during the Second World War, and Chinese Communist victory in the final years of the civil war up to 1949 was won through field battles that the Soviets taught the CCP how to fight.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Maoism%3A+A+Global+History&rft.pages=31&rft.pub=Knopf+Doubleday+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2019-09-03&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1078879585&rft.isbn=978-0-525-65605-0&rft.aulast=Lovell&rft.aufirst=Julia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-190"><a href="#cite_ref-190">^</a> Yang Kuisong, "The Formation and Implementation of the Chinese Communists' Guerrilla Warfare Strategy in the Enemy's Rear during the Sino-Japanese War", paper presented at Harvard University Conference on Wartime China, Maui, January 2004, pp. 32–36 </li> <li id="cite_note-191"><a href="#cite_ref-191">^</a> Sven Saaler: Politics, Memory and Public Opinion: The History Textbook Controversy and Japanese Society. Munich: 2005 </li> <li id="cite_note-192"><a href="#cite_ref-192">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160803172812/http://www.abc.net.au/foreign/stories/s841387.htm">"Foreign Correspondent – 22/04/2003: Japan – Unit 731"</a>. Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.abc.net.au/foreign/stories/s841387.htm">the original</a> on 3 August 2016. Retrieved 13 August 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Foreign+Correspondent+%E2%80%93+22%2F04%2F2003%3A+Japan+%E2%80%93+Unit+731&rft.pub=Australian+Broadcasting+Corporation&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.abc.net.au%2Fforeign%2Fstories%2Fs841387.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-193"><a href="#cite_ref-193">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOi2013" class="citation web cs1">Oi, Mariko (14 March 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-21226068">"What Japanese history lessons leave out"</a>. BBC. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180616083041/https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-21226068">Archived</a> from the original on 16 June 2018. Retrieved 21 June 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=What+Japanese+history+lessons+leave+out&rft.pub=BBC&rft.date=2013-03-14&rft.aulast=Oi&rft.aufirst=Mariko&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.com%2Fnews%2Fmagazine-21226068&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-194"><a href="#cite_ref-194">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWang2014" class="citation web cs1">Wang, Zheng (23 April 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://thediplomat.com/2014/04/history-education-the-source-of-conflict-between-china-and-japan/">"History Education: The Source of Conflict Between China and Japan"</a>. The Diplomat. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171111205550/https://thediplomat.com/2014/04/history-education-the-source-of-conflict-between-china-and-japan/">Archived</a> from the original on 11 November 2017. Retrieved 11 November 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Diplomat&rft.atitle=History+Education%3A+The+Source+of+Conflict+Between+China+and+Japan&rft.date=2014-04-23&rft.aulast=Wang&rft.aufirst=Zheng&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fthediplomat.com%2F2014%2F04%2Fhistory-education-the-source-of-conflict-between-china-and-japan%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-unhcr.org-195">^ <a href="#cite_ref-unhcr.org_195-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-unhcr.org_195-1">b</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/country,,,,TWN,,4954ce6323,0.html">World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples – Taiwan : Overview</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110728144641/http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/country%2C%2C%2C%2CTWN%2C%2C4954ce6323%2C0.html">Archived</a> 28 July 2011 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> United Nations High Commission for Refugees </li> <li id="cite_note-aao.sinica.edu.tw-196"><a href="#cite_ref-aao.sinica.edu.tw_196-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090326201339/http://aao.sinica.edu.tw/download/publication_e/Year2007/human12.pdf">"Disputes over Taiwan Sovereignty and the Sino-Japanese Peace Treaty Since World War II"</a> (PDF). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://aao.sinica.edu.tw/download/publication_e/Year2007/human12.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on March 26, 2009. Retrieved August 25, 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Disputes+over+Taiwan+Sovereignty+and+the+Sino-Japanese+Peace+Treaty+Since+World+War+II&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Faao.sinica.edu.tw%2Fdownload%2Fpublication_e%2FYear2007%2Fhuman12.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-197"><a href="#cite_ref-197">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://home.kyodo.co.jp/modules/fstStory/index.php?storyid=453676">[2]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">permanent dead link</a>‍] FOCUS: Taiwan–Japan ties back on shaky ground as Taipei snubs Tokyo envoy </li> <li id="cite_note-198"><a href="#cite_ref-198">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://japanfocus.org/-Rowena-Ward/2374/article.html">"Left Behind: Japan's Wartime Defeat and the Stranded Women of Manchukuo"</a>. The Asia-Pacific Journal: Japan Focus. March 2007. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160112110754/http://japanfocus.org/-Rowena-Ward/2374/article.html">Archived</a> from the original on 12 January 2016. Retrieved 13 August 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Asia-Pacific+Journal%3A+Japan+Focus&rft.atitle=Left+Behind%3A+Japan%27s+Wartime+Defeat+and+the+Stranded+Women+of+Manchukuo&rft.date=2007-03&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjapanfocus.org%2F-Rowena-Ward%2F2374%2Farticle.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-199"><a href="#cite_ref-199">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fDCsD-1zitUC&pg=PA59">Mackerras 2003</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221012014429/https://books.google.com/books?id=fDCsD-1zitUC&pg=PA59">Archived</a> 12 October 2022 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, p. 59. </li> <li id="cite_note-200"><a href="#cite_ref-200">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=auqCyUi5Dq0C&pg=PA59">Tanaka 2002</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221012014429/https://books.google.com/books?id=auqCyUi5Dq0C&pg=PA59">Archived</a> 12 October 2022 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, p. 59. </li> <li id="cite_note-201"><a href="#cite_ref-201">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mV5dymPXNBgC&pg=PA59">Tanaka 2003</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221012014429/https://books.google.com/books?id=mV5dymPXNBgC&pg=PA59">Archived</a> 12 October 2022 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, p. 59. </li> <li id="cite_note-202"><a href="#cite_ref-202">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=To5OA8ZOEdYC&pg=PA90">Teunis 2007</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221012014429/https://books.google.com/books?id=To5OA8ZOEdYC&pg=PA90">Archived</a> 12 October 2022 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, p. 90. </li> <li id="cite_note-203"><a href="#cite_ref-203">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMitter2020" class="citation book cs1">Mitter, Rana (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1141442704">China's good war : how World War II is shaping a new nationalism</a>. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Belknap Press of <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a>. p. 111. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-98426-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-98426-4"><bdi>978-0-674-98426-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1141442704">1141442704</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China%27s+good+war+%3A+how+World+War+II+is+shaping+a+new+nationalism&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pages=111&rft.pub=The+Belknap+Press+of+Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1141442704&rft.isbn=978-0-674-98426-4&rft.aulast=Mitter&rft.aufirst=Rana&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F1141442704&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-204"><a href="#cite_ref-204">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Bix" class="mw-redirect" title="Herbert Bix">Herbert Bix</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hirohito_and_the_making_of_modern_Japan" class="mw-redirect" title="Hirohito and the making of modern Japan">Hirohito and the making of modern Japan</a>, 2001, p. 364 </li> <li id="cite_note-205"><a href="#cite_ref-205">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151124021032/http://www.history.co.uk/study-topics/history-of-ww2/sino-japanese-war">"Sino-Japanese War"</a>. History.co.uk. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.history.co.uk/study-topics/history-of-ww2/sino-japanese-war">the original</a> on 24 November 2015. Retrieved 27 November 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Sino-Japanese+War&rft.pub=History.co.uk&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.history.co.uk%2Fstudy-topics%2Fhistory-of-ww2%2Fsino-japanese-war&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-206"><a href="#cite_ref-206">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/worldwars/wwtwo/nuclear_01.shtml">"Nuclear Power: The End of the War Against Japan"</a>. BBC. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151128194317/http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/worldwars/wwtwo/nuclear_01.shtml">Archived</a> from the original on 28 November 2015. Retrieved 2 December 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Nuclear+Power%3A+The+End+of+the+War+Against+Japan&rft.pub=BBC&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fhistory%2Fworldwars%2Fwwtwo%2Fnuclear_01.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-207"><a href="#cite_ref-207">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClodfelter2015" class="citation book cs1">Clodfelter, Michael (2015). Warfare and Armed Conflicts: A Statistical Encyclopedia of Casualty and Other Figures, 1492-2015 (4th ed.). McFarland & Company. p. 393.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Warfare+and+Armed+Conflicts%3A+A+Statistical+Encyclopedia+of+Casualty+and+Other+Figures%2C+1492-2015&rft.pages=393&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=McFarland+%26+Company&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=Clodfelter&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-208"><a href="#cite_ref-208">^</a> Ho Ping-ti. Studies on the Population of China, 1368–1953. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1959. </li> <li id="cite_note-209"><a href="#cite_ref-209">^</a> * <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHimeta1995" class="citation book cs1">Himeta, Mitsuyoshi (1995). 日本軍による「三光政策・三光作戦をめぐって [Concerning the Three Alls Strategy/Three Alls Policy By the Japanese Forces]. Iwanami Bukkuretto. p. 43. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-4-00-003317-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-4-00-003317-6"><bdi>978-4-00-003317-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E6%97%A5%E6%9C%AC%E8%BB%8D%E3%81%AB%E3%82%88%E3%82%8B%E3%80%8C%E4%B8%89%E5%85%89%E6%94%BF%E7%AD%96%E3%83%BB%E4%B8%89%E5%85%89%E4%BD%9C%E6%88%A6%E3%82%92%E3%82%81%E3%81%90%E3%81%A3%E3%81%A6&rft.pages=43&rft.pub=Iwanami+Bukkuretto&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-4-00-003317-6&rft.aulast=Himeta&rft.aufirst=Mitsuyoshi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-210"><a href="#cite_ref-210">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Ho_Ying-chin" class="mw-redirect" title="Ho Ying-chin">Ho Ying-chin</a>, Who Actually Fought the Sino-Japanese War 1937–1945? 1978 </li> <li id="cite_note-211"><a href="#cite_ref-211">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrawfordFoster2007" class="citation book cs1">Crawford, Keith A.; Foster, Stuart J. (2007). War, nation, memory : international perspectives on World War II in school history textbooks. Charlotte, NC: Information Age. p. 90. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781607526599" title="Special:BookSources/9781607526599"><bdi>9781607526599</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/294758908">294758908</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=War%2C+nation%2C+memory+%3A+international+perspectives+on+World+War+II+in+school+history+textbooks&rft.place=Charlotte%2C+NC&rft.pages=90&rft.pub=Information+Age&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F294758908&rft.isbn=9781607526599&rft.aulast=Crawford&rft.aufirst=Keith+A.&rft.au=Foster%2C+Stuart+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-212"><a href="#cite_ref-212">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRummel1991" class="citation book cs1">Rummel, R. J. (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hawaii.edu/powerkills/NOTE2.HTM">China's Bloody Century</a>. Transaction Publishers. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200630135033/http://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/NOTE2.HTM">Archived</a> from the original on 30 June 2020. Retrieved 29 April 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China%27s+Bloody+Century&rft.pub=Transaction+Publishers&rft.date=1991&rft.aulast=Rummel&rft.aufirst=R.+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhawaii.edu%2Fpowerkills%2FNOTE2.HTM&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-213"><a href="#cite_ref-213">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRummel1991" class="citation book cs1">Rummel, Rudolph (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/9781315081328">China's Bloody Century Genocide and Mass Murder Since 1900</a>. Routledge. p. 348. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9781315081328">10.4324/9781315081328</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781315081328" title="Special:BookSources/9781315081328"><bdi>9781315081328</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180603094240/https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/9781315081328">Archived</a> from the original on 3 June 2018. Retrieved 29 April 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China%27s+Bloody+Century+Genocide+and+Mass+Murder+Since+1900&rft.pages=348&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1991&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4324%2F9781315081328&rft.isbn=9781315081328&rft.aulast=Rummel&rft.aufirst=Rudolph&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.taylorfrancis.com%2Fbooks%2F9781315081328&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-214"><a href="#cite_ref-214">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://winstonchurchill.org/resources/in-the-media/churchill-in-the-news/bengali-famine/">"The Bengali Famine"</a>. The International Churchill Society. 18 November 2008. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141230160807/http://www.winstonchurchill.org/learn/in-the-media/churchill-in-the-news/575-the-bengali-famine">Archived</a> from the original on 30 December 2014. Retrieved 8 November 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+International+Churchill+Society&rft.atitle=The+Bengali+Famine&rft.date=2008-11-18&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwinstonchurchill.org%2Fresources%2Fin-the-media%2Fchurchill-in-the-news%2Fbengali-famine%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Coox_pp._308-215">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Coox_pp._308_215-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Coox_pp._308_215-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Coox_pp._308_215-2">c</a> ed. <a href="/wiki/Alvin_Coox" title="Alvin Coox">Coox, Alvin</a> and Hilary Conroy "China and Japan: A Search for Balance since World War I", pp. 308. </li> <li id="cite_note-Ref-1-216">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ref-1_216-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ref-1_216-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ref-1_216-2">c</a> Dower, John "War Without Mercy", pp. 297. </li> <li id="cite_note-Press-218"><a href="#cite_ref-Press_218-0">^</a> Liu Feng, (2007). "血祭太阳旗: 百万侵华日军亡命实录". Central Compilation and Translation Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-7-80109-030-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-7-80109-030-0">978-7-80109-030-0</a>. Note: This Chinese publication analyses statistics provided by Japanese publications. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHsu565-219"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHsu565_219-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHsu">Hsu</a>, p. 565. </li> <li id="cite_note-220"><a href="#cite_ref-220">^</a> ed. Coox, Alvin and Hilary Conroy "China and Japan: A Search for Balance since World War I", pp. 296. </li> <li id="cite_note-221"><a href="#cite_ref-221">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6Rknr9XSMggC">China monthly review, Volume 95</a>. Millard Publishing Co. 1940. p. 187. Retrieved 28 June 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China+monthly+review%2C+Volume+95&rft.pages=187&rft.pub=Millard+Publishing+Co.&rft.date=1940&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6Rknr9XSMggC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-222"><a href="#cite_ref-222">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://wwi.lib.byu.edu/index.php/Washington_Treaty_in_Relation_to_the_Use_of_Submarines_and_Noxious_Gases_in_Warfare">"Washington Treaty in Relation to the Use of Submarines and Noxious Gases in Warfare — World War I Document Archive"</a>. Wwi.lib.byu.edu. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091004221650/http://wwi.lib.byu.edu/index.php/Washington_Treaty_in_Relation_to_the_Use_of_Submarines_and_Noxious_Gases_in_Warfare">Archived</a> from the original on 4 October 2009. Retrieved 2 December 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Washington+Treaty+in+Relation+to+the+Use+of+Submarines+and+Noxious+Gases+in+Warfare+%E2%80%94+World+War+I+Document+Archive&rft.pub=Wwi.lib.byu.edu&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwwi.lib.byu.edu%2Findex.php%2FWashington_Treaty_in_Relation_to_the_Use_of_Submarines_and_Noxious_Gases_in_Warfare&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-223"><a href="#cite_ref-223">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrunden2017" class="citation book cs1">Grunden, W.E. (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-51664-6_14">"No Retaliation in Kind: Japanese Chemical Warfare Policy in World War II"</a>. In Friedrich, B.; Hoffmann, D.; Renn, J.; Schmaltz, F.; Wolf, M. (eds.). One Hundred Years of Chemical Warfare: Research, Deployment, Consequences. Springer, Cham. pp. 259–271. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-319-51664-6_14">10.1007/978-3-319-51664-6_14</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-51663-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-319-51663-9"><bdi>978-3-319-51663-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:158528688">158528688</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221016161215/https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-51664-6_14">Archived</a> from the original on 16 October 2022. Retrieved 28 October 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=No+Retaliation+in+Kind%3A+Japanese+Chemical+Warfare+Policy+in+World+War+II&rft.btitle=One+Hundred+Years+of+Chemical+Warfare%3A+Research%2C+Deployment%2C+Consequences&rft.pages=259-271&rft.pub=Springer%2C+Cham&rft.date=2017&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A158528688%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-3-319-51664-6_14&rft.isbn=978-3-319-51663-9&rft.aulast=Grunden&rft.aufirst=W.E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2Fchapter%2F10.1007%2F978-3-319-51664-6_14&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-224"><a href="#cite_ref-224">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUnited_States._War_Department._Military_Intelligence_Division1944" class="citation book cs1">United States. War Department. Military Intelligence Division (1944). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gq1BAAAAIAAJ&dq=japanese+gas+hand+to+hand+combat&pg=PA69">Enemy Tactics in Chemical Warfare</a>. War Department. pp. 69–86. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230402122509/https://books.google.com/books?id=gq1BAAAAIAAJ&dq=japanese+gas+hand+to+hand+combat&pg=PA69">Archived</a> from the original on 2 April 2023. Retrieved 28 October 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Enemy+Tactics+in+Chemical+Warfare&rft.pages=69-86&rft.pub=War+Department&rft.date=1944&rft.au=United+States.+War+Department.+Military+Intelligence+Division&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dgq1BAAAAIAAJ%26dq%3Djapanese%2Bgas%2Bhand%2Bto%2Bhand%2Bcombat%26pg%3DPA69&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-225"><a href="#cite_ref-225">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUnited_States._War_Department._Military_Intelligence_Division1944" class="citation book cs1">United States. War Department. Military Intelligence Division (1944). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gq1BAAAAIAAJ&dq=japanese+gas+hand+to+hand+combat&pg=PA69">Enemy Tactics in Chemical Warfare</a>. War Department. p. 69. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230402122509/https://books.google.com/books?id=gq1BAAAAIAAJ&dq=japanese+gas+hand+to+hand+combat&pg=PA69">Archived</a> from the original on 2 April 2023. Retrieved 28 October 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Enemy+Tactics+in+Chemical+Warfare&rft.pages=69&rft.pub=War+Department&rft.date=1944&rft.au=United+States.+War+Department.+Military+Intelligence+Division&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dgq1BAAAAIAAJ%26dq%3Djapanese%2Bgas%2Bhand%2Bto%2Bhand%2Bcombat%26pg%3DPA69&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMitter2013166-226"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMitter2013166_226-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMitter2013">Mitter 2013</a>, p. 166. </li> <li id="cite_note-fredautley1-227">^ <a href="#cite_ref-fredautley1_227-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-fredautley1_227-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-fredautley1_227-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-fredautley1_227-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-fredautley1_227-4">e</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUtley1939" class="citation book cs1">Utley, Freda (1939). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fredautley.com/pdffiles/book19.pdf">China at War</a> (PDF). London: Faber and Faber. pp. 110–112, 170. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221028055717/https://fredautley.com/pdffiles/book19.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 28 October 2022. Retrieved 28 October 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China+at+War&rft.place=London&rft.pages=110-112%2C+170&rft.pub=Faber+and+Faber&rft.date=1939&rft.aulast=Utley&rft.aufirst=Freda&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fredautley.com%2Fpdffiles%2Fbook19.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-228"><a href="#cite_ref-228">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUnited_States._War_Department._Military_Intelligence_Division1944" class="citation book cs1">United States. War Department. Military Intelligence Division (1944). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gq1BAAAAIAAJ&dq=japanese+gas+hand+to+hand+combat&pg=PA82">Enemy Tactics in Chemical Warfare</a>. pp. 82–83. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230402122514/https://books.google.com/books?id=gq1BAAAAIAAJ&dq=japanese+gas+hand+to+hand+combat&pg=PA82">Archived</a> from the original on 2 April 2023. Retrieved 28 October 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Enemy+Tactics+in+Chemical+Warfare&rft.pages=82-83&rft.date=1944&rft.au=United+States.+War+Department.+Military+Intelligence+Division&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dgq1BAAAAIAAJ%26dq%3Djapanese%2Bgas%2Bhand%2Bto%2Bhand%2Bcombat%26pg%3DPA82&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-229"><a href="#cite_ref-229">^</a> Y. Yoshimi and S. Matsuno, Dokugasusen Kankei Shiryō II (Materials on poison gas warfare), Kaisetsu, Hōkan 2, Jugonen Sensō Gokuhi Shiryōshu, 1997, pp. 27–29 </li> <li id="cite_note-230"><a href="#cite_ref-230">^</a> Yoshimi and Matsuno, idem, <a href="/wiki/Herbert_P._Bix" title="Herbert P. Bix">Herbert Bix</a>, Hirohito and the Making of Modern Japan, 2001, pp. 360–364 </li> <li id="cite_note-231"><a href="#cite_ref-231">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKristof1995" class="citation web cs1">Kristof, Nicholas D. (12 August 1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190508142011/https://www.nytimes.com/1995/08/12/world/okunoshima-journal-a-museum-to-remind-japanese-of-their-own-guilt.html">"Okunoshima Journal; A Museum to Remind Japanese of Their Own Guilt"</a>. The New York Times. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1995/08/12/world/okunoshima-journal-a-museum-to-remind-japanese-of-their-own-guilt.html">the original</a> on 8 May 2019. Retrieved 17 March 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Okunoshima+Journal%3B+A+Museum+to+Remind+Japanese+of+Their+Own+Guilt&rft.date=1995-08-12&rft.aulast=Kristof&rft.aufirst=Nicholas+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1995%2F08%2F12%2Fworld%2Fokunoshima-journal-a-museum-to-remind-japanese-of-their-own-guilt.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-232"><a href="#cite_ref-232">^</a> Japan triggered bubonic plague outbreak, doctor claims, <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/japan-triggered-bubonic-plague-outbreak-doctor-claims-704147.html">[3]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110912142325/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/japan-triggered-bubonic-plague-outbreak-doctor-claims-704147.html">Archived</a> 12 September 2011 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Prince <a href="/wiki/Tsuneyoshi_Takeda" class="mw-redirect" title="Tsuneyoshi Takeda">Tsuneyoshi Takeda</a> and <a href="/wiki/Prince_Mikasa" class="mw-redirect" title="Prince Mikasa">Prince Mikasa</a> received a special screening by <a href="/wiki/Shir%C5%8D_Ishii" title="Shirō Ishii">Shirō Ishii</a> of a film showing imperial planes loading germ bombs for bubonic dissemination over Ningbo in 1940. (Daniel Barenblatt, A Plague upon Humanity, 2004, p. 32.) All these weapons were experimented with on humans before being used in the field. </li> <li id="cite_note-233"><a href="#cite_ref-233">^</a> Daniel Barenblatt, A Plague upon Humanity, 2004, pages 220–221. </li> <li id="cite_note-234"><a href="#cite_ref-234">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChevrierChomiczewskiGarrigue2004" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Chevrier, Marie Isabelle; Chomiczewski, Krzysztof; Garrigue, Henri, eds. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lILltXBTo8oC&pg=PA19">The Implementation of Legally Binding Measures to Strengthen the Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention: Proceedings of the NATO Advanced Study Institute, Held in Budapest, Hungary, 2001</a>. Vol. 150 of NATO science series: Mathematics, physics, and chemistry (illustrated ed.). Springer. p. 19. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4020-2097-X" title="Special:BookSources/1-4020-2097-X"><bdi>1-4020-2097-X</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221012014429/https://books.google.com/books?id=lILltXBTo8oC&pg=PA19">Archived</a> from the original on 12 October 2022. Retrieved 10 March 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Implementation+of+Legally+Binding+Measures+to+Strengthen+the+Biological+and+Toxin+Weapons+Convention%3A+Proceedings+of+the+NATO+Advanced+Study+Institute%2C+Held+in+Budapest%2C+Hungary%2C+2001&rft.pages=19&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=1-4020-2097-X&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DlILltXBTo8oC%26pg%3DPA19&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-235"><a href="#cite_ref-235">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCroddyWirtz2005" class="citation book cs1">Croddy, Eric A.; Wirtz, James J., eds. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZzlNgS70OHAC&pg=PA171">Weapons of Mass Destruction</a>. Jeffrey A. Larsen, Managing Editor. ABC-CLIO. p. 171. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85109-490-3" title="Special:BookSources/1-85109-490-3"><bdi>1-85109-490-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221012014931/https://books.google.com/books?id=ZzlNgS70OHAC&pg=PA171">Archived</a> from the original on 12 October 2022. Retrieved 10 March 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Weapons+of+Mass+Destruction&rft.pages=171&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=1-85109-490-3&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZzlNgS70OHAC%26pg%3DPA171&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-236"><a href="#cite_ref-236">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorgans2015" class="citation news cs1">Morgans, Julian (22 October 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.vice.com/en_asia/article/4wb78m/from-kamikaze-pilots-to-footy-players-heres-a-short-history-of-ice">"A Brief History of Meth"</a>. VICE News. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200806162920/https://www.vice.com/en_asia/article/4wb78m/from-kamikaze-pilots-to-footy-players-heres-a-short-history-of-ice">Archived</a> from the original on 6 August 2020. Retrieved 29 April 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=VICE+News&rft.atitle=A+Brief+History+of+Meth&rft.date=2015-10-22&rft.aulast=Morgans&rft.aufirst=Julian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.vice.com%2Fen_asia%2Farticle%2F4wb78m%2Ffrom-kamikaze-pilots-to-footy-players-heres-a-short-history-of-ice&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-237"><a href="#cite_ref-237">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFenby2008" class="citation book cs1">Fenby, Jonathan (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8VIUAQAAIAAJ&q=dare+to+die+corps+swords">Modern China: the fall and rise of a great power, 1850 to the present</a>. Ecco. p. 284. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-06-166116-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-06-166116-7"><bdi>978-0-06-166116-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221012014932/https://books.google.com/books?id=8VIUAQAAIAAJ&q=dare+to+die+corps+swords">Archived</a> from the original on 12 October 2022. Retrieved 24 April 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Modern+China%3A+the+fall+and+rise+of+a+great+power%2C+1850+to+the+present&rft.pages=284&rft.pub=Ecco&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-06-166116-7&rft.aulast=Fenby&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8VIUAQAAIAAJ%26q%3Ddare%2Bto%2Bdie%2Bcorps%2Bswords&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-238"><a href="#cite_ref-238">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchaedler2007" class="citation thesis cs1">Schaedler, Luc (Autumn 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140719204815/http://www.zora.uzh.ch/17710/3/Angry_Monk_Dissertation.pdf">Angry Monk: Reflections on Tibet: Literary, Historical, and Oral Sources for a Documentary Film</a> (PDF) (PhD thesis). University of Zurich. p. 518. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.zora.uzh.ch/17710/3/Angry_Monk_Dissertation.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 19 July 2014. Retrieved 24 April 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=Angry+Monk%3A+Reflections+on+Tibet%3A+Literary%2C+Historical%2C+and+Oral+Sources+for+a+Documentary+Film&rft.degree=PhD&rft.inst=University+of+Zurich&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Schaedler&rft.aufirst=Luc&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.zora.uzh.ch%2F17710%2F3%2FAngry_Monk_Dissertation.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-239"><a href="#cite_ref-239">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarmsen2013" class="citation book cs1">Harmsen, Peter (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jpPUAgAAQBAJ&q=shanghai+grenade+tanks+japanese&pg=PT127">Shanghai 1937: Stalingrad on the Yangtze</a> (illustrated ed.). Casemate. p. 112. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-61200-167-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-61200-167-8"><bdi>978-1-61200-167-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221012014932/https://books.google.com/books?id=jpPUAgAAQBAJ&q=shanghai+grenade+tanks+japanese&pg=PT127">Archived</a> from the original on 12 October 2022. Retrieved 24 April 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Shanghai+1937%3A+Stalingrad+on+the+Yangtze&rft.pages=112&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=Casemate&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-61200-167-8&rft.aulast=Harmsen&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjpPUAgAAQBAJ%26q%3Dshanghai%2Bgrenade%2Btanks%2Bjapanese%26pg%3DPT127&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-240"><a href="#cite_ref-240">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121007212422/http://mailer.fsu.edu/~akirk/tanks/Stories/emagazine-3/tanks/Chinese_Tank_Forces_and_Battles_before_1945_ed.htm">"Chinese Tank Forces and Battles before 1949"</a>. TANKS! E-Magazine (#4). Summer 2001. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mailer.fsu.edu/~akirk/tanks/Stories/emagazine-3/tanks/Chinese_Tank_Forces_and_Battles_before_1945_ed.htm">the original</a> on 7 October 2012. Retrieved 2 August 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=TANKS%21+E-Magazine&rft.atitle=Chinese+Tank+Forces+and+Battles+before+1949&rft.ssn=summer&rft.issue=%234&rft.date=2001&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmailer.fsu.edu%2F~akirk%2Ftanks%2FStories%2Femagazine-3%2Ftanks%2FChinese_Tank_Forces_and_Battles_before_1945_ed.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-241"><a href="#cite_ref-241">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOng2005" class="citation book cs1">Ong, Siew Chey (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bt7q8hfiZ4gC&q=taierzhuang+suicide+bombers&pg=PA94">China Condensed: 5000 Years of History & Culture</a> (illustrated ed.). Marshall Cavendish. p. 94. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/981-261-067-7" title="Special:BookSources/981-261-067-7"><bdi>981-261-067-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221012014932/https://books.google.com/books?id=bt7q8hfiZ4gC&q=taierzhuang+suicide+bombers&pg=PA94">Archived</a> from the original on 12 October 2022. Retrieved 24 April 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China+Condensed%3A+5000+Years+of+History+%26+Culture&rft.pages=94&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=Marshall+Cavendish&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=981-261-067-7&rft.aulast=Ong&rft.aufirst=Siew+Chey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dbt7q8hfiZ4gC%26q%3Dtaierzhuang%2Bsuicide%2Bbombers%26pg%3DPA94&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Sino-Japanese_War&action=edit&section=60" title="Edit section: Bibliography">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 40em"> <ul><li>Bayly, C. A., and T. N. Harper. Forgotten Armies: The Fall of British Asia, 1941–1945. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2005. xxxiii, 555p. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-674-01748-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-674-01748-X">0-674-01748-X</a>.</li> <li>Bayly, C. A., T. N. Harper. Forgotten Wars: Freedom and Revolution in Southeast Asia. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2007. xxx, 674p. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-02153-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-02153-2">978-0-674-02153-2</a>.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017/S0080440118000063">Benesch, Oleg. "Castles and the Militarisation of Urban Society in Imperial Japan", Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, Vol. 28 (Dec. 2018), pp. 107–134.</a></li> <li>Buss, Claude A. War And Diplomacy in Eastern Asia (1941) 570pp <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/waranddiplomacyi017840mbp/page/n595">online free</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDuiker1976" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/William_Duiker" class="mw-redirect" title="William Duiker">Duiker, William</a> (1976). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/riseofnationalis0000duik">The Rise of Nationalism in Vietnam, 1900–1941</a>. Ithaca, New York: <a href="/wiki/Cornell_University_Press" title="Cornell University Press">Cornell University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8014-0951-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-8014-0951-9"><bdi>0-8014-0951-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rise+of+Nationalism+in+Vietnam%2C+1900%E2%80%931941&rft.place=Ithaca%2C+New+York&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=1976&rft.isbn=0-8014-0951-9&rft.aulast=Duiker&rft.aufirst=William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Friseofnationalis0000duik&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/journal_of_military_history/v070/70.1gordon.html">Gordon, David M. "The China–Japan War, 1931–1945" Journal of Military History (January 2006). v. 70#1, pp, 137–82.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200314211033/https://muse.jhu.edu/article/191940">Archived</a> 14 March 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Historiographical overview of major books from the 1970s through 2006</li> <li>Guo Rugui, editor-in-chief Huang Yuzhang,中国抗日战争正面战场作战记 China's Anti-Japanese War Combat Operations (Jiangsu People's Publishing House, 2005) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/7-214-03034-9" title="Special:BookSources/7-214-03034-9">7-214-03034-9</a>. On line in Chinese: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20031129080955/http://warmuseum.ca/cwm/newspapers/operations/china_e.html">中国抗战正向战场作战记</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHastings2009" class="citation book cs1">Hastings, Max (2009). Retribution: The Battle for Japan, 1944–45. Vintage Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-307-27536-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-307-27536-3"><bdi>978-0-307-27536-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Retribution%3A+The+Battle+for+Japan%2C+1944%E2%80%9345&rft.pub=Vintage+Books&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-307-27536-3&rft.aulast=Hastings&rft.aufirst=Max&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFörsterGessler2005" class="citation book cs1">Förster, Stig; Gessler, Myriam (2005). "The Ultimate Horror: Reflections on Total War and Genocide". In Roger Chickering, Stig Förster and Bernd Greiner, eds., A World at Total War: Global Conflict and the Politics of Destruction, 1937–1945 (pp. 53–68). Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-83432-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-83432-2"><bdi>978-0-521-83432-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Ultimate+Horror%3A+Reflections+on+Total+War+and+Genocide&rft.btitle=In+Roger+Chickering%2C+Stig+F%C3%B6rster+and+Bernd+Greiner%2C+eds.%2C+A+World+at+Total+War%3A+Global+Conflict+and+the+Politics+of+Destruction%2C+1937%E2%80%931945+%28pp.+53%E2%80%9368%29&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-521-83432-2&rft.aulast=F%C3%B6rster&rft.aufirst=Stig&rft.au=Gessler%2C+Myriam&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHsiungLevine1992" class="citation cs2">Hsiung, James Chieh; Levine, Steven I., eds. (1992), China's Bitter Victory: The War with Japan, 1937–1945, Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87332-708-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-87332-708-X"><bdi>0-87332-708-X</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China%27s+Bitter+Victory%3A+The+War+with+Japan%2C+1937%E2%80%931945&rft.place=Armonk%2C+NY&rft.pub=M.E.+Sharpe&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=0-87332-708-X&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988">. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LY4YDQAAQBAJ&q=China%27s+bitter+victory">Reprinted</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210307234918/https://www.google.com/books/edition/China_s_Bitter_Victory_War_with_Japan_19/LY4YDQAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=China%27s%20bitter%20victory&printsec=frontcover">Archived</a> 7 March 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>: Abingdon, Oxon; New York: Routledge, 2015. Chapters on military, economic, diplomatic aspects of the war.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHuang" class="citation book cs1">Huang, Ray (31 January 1994). 從大歷史的角度讀蔣介石日記 (Reading Chiang Kai-shek's Diary from a Macro History Perspective). China Times Publishing Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/957-13-0962-1" title="Special:BookSources/957-13-0962-1"><bdi>957-13-0962-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E5%BE%9E%E5%A4%A7%E6%AD%B7%E5%8F%B2%E7%9A%84%E8%A7%92%E5%BA%A6%E8%AE%80%E8%94%A3%E4%BB%8B%E7%9F%B3%E6%97%A5%E8%A8%98+%28Reading+Chiang+Kai-shek%27s+Diary+from+a+Macro+History+Perspective%29&rft.pub=China+Times+Publishing+Company&rft.date=1994-01-31&rft.isbn=957-13-0962-1&rft.aulast=Huang&rft.aufirst=Ray&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Annalee Jacoby and Theodore H. White, Thunder out of China, New York: William Sloane Associates, 1946. Critical account of Chiang's government by Time magazine reporters.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJowett" class="citation book cs1">Jowett, Phillip (2005). Rays of the Rising Sun: Japan's Asian Allies 1931–45 Volume 1: China and Manchukuo. Helion and Company Ltd. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-874622-21-3" title="Special:BookSources/1-874622-21-3"><bdi>1-874622-21-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rays+of+the+Rising+Sun%3A+Japan%27s+Asian+Allies+1931%E2%80%9345+Volume+1%3A+China+and+Manchukuo&rft.pub=Helion+and+Company+Ltd&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=1-874622-21-3&rft.aulast=Jowett&rft.aufirst=Phillip&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> – Book about the Chinese and Mongolians who fought for the Japanese during the war.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHsu" class="citation book cs1">Hsu, Long-hsuen; Chang Ming-kai (1972). History of the Sino-Japanese war (1937–1945). Chung Wu Publishers. ASIN B00005W210.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+the+Sino-Japanese+war+%281937%E2%80%931945%29&rft.pub=Chung+Wu+Publishers&rft.date=1972&rft.aulast=Hsu&rft.aufirst=Long-hsuen&rft.au=Chang+Ming-kai&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Lary, Diana and Stephen R. Mackinnon, eds. The Scars of War: The Impact of Warfare on Modern China. Vancouver: UBC Press, 2001. 210p. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7748-0840-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-7748-0840-3">0-7748-0840-3</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLaureau1993" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Laureau, Patrick (June 1993). "Des Français en Chine (2ème partie)" [The French in China]. Avions: Toute l'aéronautique et son histoire (in French) (4): 32–38. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1243-8650">1243-8650</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Avions%3A+Toute+l%27a%C3%A9ronautique+et+son+histoire&rft.atitle=Des+Fran%C3%A7ais+en+Chine+%282%C3%A8me+partie%29&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=32-38&rft.date=1993-06&rft.issn=1243-8650&rft.aulast=Laureau&rft.aufirst=Patrick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"></li> <li>MacKinnon, Stephen R., Diana Lary and Ezra F. Vogel, eds. China at War: Regions of China, 1937–1945. Stanford University Press, 2007. xviii, 380p. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-5509-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-5509-2">978-0-8047-5509-2</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMacLaren" class="citation book cs1">MacLaren, Roy (1981). Canadians Behind Enemy Lines 1939–1945. UBC Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7748-1100-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-7748-1100-5"><bdi>0-7748-1100-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Canadians+Behind+Enemy+Lines+1939%E2%80%931945&rft.pub=UBC+Press&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=0-7748-1100-5&rft.aulast=MacLaren&rft.aufirst=Roy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> - Book about the Chinese from Canada as well as Americans who fought against Japan in the Second World War.</li> <li>Macri, Franco David. Clash of Empires in South China: The Allied Nations' Proxy War with Japan, 1935–1941 (2015) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://muse.jhu.edu/book/40548">online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171003225025/https://muse.jhu.edu/book/40548">Archived</a> 3 October 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMitter2013" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Rana_Mitter" title="Rana Mitter">Mitter, Rana</a> (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Bqc_YkuyaCIC">Forgotten Ally: China's World War II, 1937–1945</a>. HMH. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-547-84056-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-547-84056-7"><bdi>978-0-547-84056-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221012014934/https://books.google.com/books?id=Bqc_YkuyaCIC">Archived</a> from the original on 12 October 2022. Retrieved 27 January 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Forgotten+Ally%3A+China%27s+World+War+II%2C+1937%E2%80%931945&rft.pub=HMH&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-547-84056-7&rft.aulast=Mitter&rft.aufirst=Rana&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DBqc_YkuyaCIC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Peattie, Mark. Edward Drea, and Hans van de Ven, eds. The Battle for China: Essays on the Military History of the Sino-Japanese War of 1937–1945 (Stanford University Press, 2011); 614 pages</li> <li>Quigley, Harold S. Far Eastern War 1937 1941 (1942) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.157359">online free</a></li> <li>Steiner, Zara. "Thunder from the East: The Sino-Japanese Conflict and the European Powers, 1933=1938": in Steiner, The Triumph of the Dark: European International History 1933–1939 (2011) pp 474–551.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStevens" class="citation journal cs1">Stevens, Keith (March 2005). "A token operation: 204 military mission to China, 1941–1945". Asian Affairs. 36 (1): 66–74. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F03068370500039151">10.1080/03068370500039151</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161326427">161326427</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Asian+Affairs&rft.atitle=A+token+operation%3A+204+military+mission+to+China%2C+1941%E2%80%931945&rft.volume=36&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=66-74&rft.date=2005-03&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F03068370500039151&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A161326427%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Stevens&rft.aufirst=Keith&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaylor" class="citation book cs1">Taylor, Jay (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/generalissimochi00tayl">The Generalissimo: Chiang Kai-shek and the struggle for modern China</a>. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-03338-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-03338-2"><bdi>978-0-674-03338-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Generalissimo%3A+Chiang+Kai-shek+and+the+struggle+for+modern+China&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-674-03338-2&rft.aulast=Taylor&rft.aufirst=Jay&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgeneralissimochi00tayl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Van de Ven, Hans, Diana Lary, Stephen MacKinnon, eds. Negotiating China's Destiny in World War II (Stanford University Press, 2014) 336 pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=42871">online review</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150626130559/https://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=42871">Archived</a> 26 June 2015 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFvan_de_Ven2017" class="citation book cs1">van de Ven, Hans (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=a9PMmgEACAAJ">China at War: Triumph and Tragedy in the Emergence of the New China, 1937–1952</a>. London: Profile Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781781251942" title="Special:BookSources/9781781251942"><bdi>9781781251942</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221012014934/https://books.google.com/books?id=a9PMmgEACAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 12 October 2022. Retrieved 3 January 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China+at+War%3A+Triumph+and+Tragedy+in+the+Emergence+of+the+New+China%2C+1937%E2%80%931952&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Profile+Books&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=9781781251942&rft.aulast=van+de+Ven&rft.aufirst=Hans&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Da9PMmgEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilson" class="citation book cs1">Wilson, Dick (1982). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/whentigersfights00wils">When Tigers Fight: The story of the Sino-Japanese War, 1937–1945</a>. New York: Viking Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-670-76003-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-670-76003-X"><bdi>0-670-76003-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=When+Tigers+Fight%3A+The+story+of+the+Sino-Japanese+War%2C+1937%E2%80%931945&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Viking+Press&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=0-670-76003-X&rft.aulast=Wilson&rft.aufirst=Dick&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fwhentigersfights00wils&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZarrow" class="citation journal cs1">Zarrow, Peter (2005). "The War of Resistance, 1937–45". China in War and Revolution 1895–1949. London: Routledge.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=China+in+War+and+Revolution+1895%E2%80%931949&rft.atitle=The+War+of+Resistance%2C+1937%E2%80%9345&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Zarrow&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OKLiAAAAMAAJ">China at war, Volume 1, Issue 3</a>. China Information Committee. 1938. p. 66. Retrieved 21 March 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China+at+war%2C+Volume+1%2C+Issue+3&rft.pages=66&rft.pub=China+Information+Committee&rft.date=1938&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOKLiAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> Issue 40 of China, a collection of pamphlets. Original from Pennsylvania State University. Digitized 15 September 2009</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Sino-Japanese_War&action=edit&section=61" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/40px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/60px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/80px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="193" data-file-height="193" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikivoyage has a travel guide for <a href="https://en.wikivoyage.org/wiki/World_War_II_in_China#Q170314" class="extiw" title="wikivoyage:World War II in China">World War II in China</a>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Second_Sino-Japanese_War" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Second Sino-Japanese War">Second Sino-Japanese War</a>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bdoc.enpchina.eu/">Biographical Dictionary of Occupied China</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Chinese_declaration_of_war_against_Japan,_9_December_1941" class="extiw" title="s:Chinese declaration of war against Japan, 9 December 1941">Full text of the Chinese declaration of war against Japan on Wikisource</a></li> <li>"CBI Theater of Operations" – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/CBI/index.html">IBIBLIO World War II: China Burma India</a> Links to selected documents, photos, maps, and books.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20031129080955/http://warmuseum.ca/cwm/newspapers/operations/china_e.html">"World War II Newspaper Archives – War in China, 1937–1945"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://warmuseum.ca/cwm/newspapers/operations/china_e.html">the original</a> on 29 November 2003. Retrieved 2004-08-19.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=World+War+II+Newspaper+Archives+%E2%80%93+War+in+China%2C+1937%E2%80%931945&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwarmuseum.ca%2Fcwm%2Fnewspapers%2Foperations%2Fchina_e.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.warbirdforum.com/avg.htm">Annals of the Flying Tigers</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/ams/china/">Perry–Castañeda Library Map Collection</a>, China 1:250,000, Series L500, U.S. Army Map Service, 1954– . Topographic Maps of China during the Second World War.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/ams/manchuria/">Perry–Castañeda Library Map Collection</a> Manchuria 1:250,000, Series L542, U.S. Army Map Service, 1950– . Topographic Maps of Manchuria during the Second World War.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20010713042417/http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~asiactr/sino-japanese/index.htm">"Joint Study of the Sino-Japanese War, Harvard University"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~asiactr/sino-japanese/index.htm">the original</a> on 13 July 2001. Retrieved 2007-07-07.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Joint+Study+of+the+Sino-Japanese+War%2C+Harvard+University&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fas.harvard.edu%2F~asiactr%2Fsino-japanese%2Findex.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASecond+Sino-Japanese+War" class="Z3988"> Multi-year project seeks to expand research by promoting cooperation among scholars and institutions in China, Japan, the United States, and other nations. Includes extensive bibliographies.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.presbyterian.org.nz/archives/photogallery11/page1.htm">Photographs of the war from a Presbyterian mission near Canton</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.microworks.net/pacific/road_to_war/route_south.htm">"The Route South"</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Second_Sino-Japanese_War_(1937–1945)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;;background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Template:Second Sino-Japanese War"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Template talk:Second Sino-Japanese War"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Second Sino-Japanese War"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Second_Sino-Japanese_War_(1937–1945)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Second Sino-Japanese War</a> (1937–1945)</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div id="Background" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Background</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nanjing_decade" title="Nanjing decade">Nanjing decade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Civil_War" title="Chinese Civil War">Chinese Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mukden_Incident" class="mw-redirect" title="Mukden Incident">Mukden Incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_invasion_of_Manchuria" title="Japanese invasion of Manchuria">Japanese invasion of Manchuria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacification_of_Manchukuo" title="Pacification of Manchukuo">Pacification of Manchukuo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/January_28_incident" title="January 28 incident">January 28 incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defense_of_the_Great_Wall" title="Defense of the Great Wall">Defense of the Great Wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Rehe" title="Battle of Rehe">Battle of Rehe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanggu_Truce" title="Tanggu Truce">Tanggu Truce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Actions_in_Inner_Mongolia_(1933%E2%80%931936)" title="Actions in Inner Mongolia (1933–1936)">Inner Mongolia Campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1935_currency_reform" title="1935 currency reform">1935 currency reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Chahar_incident" title="North Chahar incident">North Chahar incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/He%E2%80%93Umezu_Agreement" title="He–Umezu Agreement">He–Umezu Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chin%E2%80%93Doihara_Agreement" class="mw-redirect" title="Chin–Doihara Agreement">Chin–Doihara Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/August_1_Declaration" title="August 1 Declaration">August 1 Declaration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/December_9th_Movement" title="December 9th Movement">December 9th Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebei%E2%80%93Chahar_Political_Council" title="Hebei–Chahar Political Council">Hebei–Chahar Political Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wayaobu_Manifesto" title="Wayaobu Manifesto">Wayaobu Manifesto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suiyuan_campaign" title="Suiyuan campaign">Suiyuan campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xi%27an_Incident" title="Xi'an Incident">Xi'an Incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_United_Front" title="Second United Front">Second United Front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marco_Polo_Bridge_Incident" class="mw-redirect" title="Marco Polo Bridge Incident">Marco Polo Bridge Incident</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div id="Participants" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Participants</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Governments</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal; background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Chinese</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Republic of China (1912–1949)">Republic of China</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kuomintang" title="Kuomintang">Kuomintang</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communist-controlled_China_(1927%E2%80%931949)" title="Communist-controlled China (1927–1949)">Communist China</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Chinese Communist Party">Chinese Communist Party</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal; background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Japanese and collaborators</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Empire of Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchukuo" title="Manchukuo">Manchukuo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mengjiang" title="Mengjiang">Mengjiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Hebei_Autonomous_Government" title="East Hebei Autonomous Government">East Hebei Autonomous Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Way_Government" title="Great Way Government">Great Way Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Provisional_Government_of_the_Republic_of_China_(1937%E2%80%931940)" title="Provisional Government of the Republic of China (1937–1940)">Provisional Chinese Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_Government_of_the_Republic_of_China" title="Reformed Government of the Republic of China">Reformed Chinese Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Jingwei_regime" title="Wang Jingwei regime">Wang Jingwei regime</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Combatants_of_the_Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Combatants of the Second Sino-Japanese War">Armed Forces</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal; background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Chinese</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Revolutionary_Army" title="National Revolutionary Army">Nationalist Armed Forces</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_Army" title="Republic of China Army">Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_Air_Force" title="Republic of China Air Force">Air Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_Navy" title="Republic of China Navy">Navy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_Marine_Corps" title="Republic of China Marine Corps">Marine Corps</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Liberation_Army" title="People's Liberation Army">Communist Armed Forces</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eighth_Route_Army" title="Eighth Route Army">Eighth Route Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Fourth_Army" title="New Fourth Army">New Fourth Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northeast_Anti-Japanese_United_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="Northeast Anti-Japanese United Army">Northeast Anti-Japanese United Army</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal; background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Japanese and collaborators</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Armed_Forces" title="Imperial Japanese Armed Forces">Imperial Japanese Armed Forces</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Army" title="Imperial Japanese Army">Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Army_Air_Service" title="Imperial Japanese Army Air Service">Army Air Service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Navy" title="Imperial Japanese Navy">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Navy_Air_Service" title="Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service">Navy Air Service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Marines" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial Japanese Marines">Naval Infantry</a></li></ul></li> <li>Manchukuo Armed Forces <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Manchukuo_Imperial_Army" title="Manchukuo Imperial Army">Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchukuo_Imperial_Air_Force" title="Manchukuo Imperial Air Force">Air Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchukuo_Imperial_Navy" title="Manchukuo Imperial Navy">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchukuo_Imperial_Guards" title="Manchukuo Imperial Guards">Guards</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inner_Mongolian_Army" title="Inner Mongolian Army">Inner Mongolian Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Hebei_Army" title="East Hebei Army">East Hebei Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collaborationist_Chinese_Army" title="Collaborationist Chinese Army">Collaborationist Chinese Army</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Political Leaders</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal; background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Chinese</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chiang_Kai-shek" title="Chiang Kai-shek">Chiang Kai-shek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao Zedong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lin_Sen" title="Lin Sen">Lin Sen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kung_Hsiang-hsi" class="mw-redirect" title="Kung Hsiang-hsi">Kung Hsiang-hsi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soong_Tse-ven" class="mw-redirect" title="Soong Tse-ven">Soong Tse-ven</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/He_Yingqin" title="He Yingqin">He Yingqin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chen_Cheng" title="Chen Cheng">Chen Cheng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Wentian" title="Zhang Wentian">Zhang Wentian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Ruofei" title="Wang Ruofei">Wang Ruofei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren_Bishi" title="Ren Bishi">Ren Bishi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal; background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Japanese and collaborators</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emperor_Hirohito" class="mw-redirect" title="Emperor Hirohito">Emperor Hirohito</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fumimaro_Konoe" title="Fumimaro Konoe">Fumimaro Konoe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kiichir%C5%8D_Hiranuma" class="mw-redirect" title="Kiichirō Hiranuma">Kiichirō Hiranuma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nobuyuki_Abe" title="Nobuyuki Abe">Nobuyuki Abe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitsumasa_Yonai" title="Mitsumasa Yonai">Mitsumasa Yonai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hideki_Tojo" title="Hideki Tojo">Hideki Tojo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuniaki_Koiso" title="Kuniaki Koiso">Kuniaki Koiso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kantar%C5%8D_Suzuki" title="Kantarō Suzuki">Kantarō Suzuki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naruhiko_Higashikuni" class="mw-redirect" title="Naruhiko Higashikuni">Naruhiko Higashikuni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seishir%C5%8D_Itagaki" title="Seishirō Itagaki">Seishirō Itagaki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shunroku_Hata" title="Shunroku Hata">Shunroku Hata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korechika_Anami" title="Korechika Anami">Korechika Anami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitsumasa_Yonai" title="Mitsumasa Yonai">Mitsumasa Yonai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zengo_Yoshida" title="Zengo Yoshida">Zengo Yoshida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shigetar%C5%8D_Shimada" title="Shigetarō Shimada">Shigetarō Shimada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puyi" title="Puyi">Puyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Jinghui" title="Zhang Jinghui">Zhang Jinghui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yu_Zhishan" title="Yu Zhishan">Yu Zhishan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demchugdongrub" title="Demchugdongrub">Demchugdongrub</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Jingwei" title="Wang Jingwei">Wang Jingwei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chen_Gongbo" title="Chen Gongbo">Chen Gongbo</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chi_Zongmo&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Chi Zongmo (page does not exist)">Chi Zongmo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Kemin" title="Wang Kemin">Wang Kemin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liang_Hongzhi" title="Liang Hongzhi">Liang Hongzhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren_Yuandao" title="Ren Yuandao">Ren Yuandao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bao_Wenyue" title="Bao Wenyue">Bao Wenyue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Military Leaders</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal; background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Chinese</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bai_Chongxi" title="Bai Chongxi">Bai Chongxi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yan_Xishan" title="Yan Xishan">Yan Xishan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_Li-jen" title="Sun Li-jen">Sun Li-jen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ma_Zhanshan" title="Ma Zhanshan">Ma Zhanshan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal; background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Japanese and collaborators</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prince_Kan%27in_Kotohito" title="Prince Kan'in Kotohito">Prince Kan'in Kotohito</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hajime_Sugiyama" title="Hajime Sugiyama">Hajime Sugiyama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoshijir%C5%8D_Umezu" title="Yoshijirō Umezu">Yoshijirō Umezu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prince_Fushimi_Hiroyasu" title="Prince Fushimi Hiroyasu">Prince Fushimi Hiroyasu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osami_Nagano" title="Osami Nagano">Osami Nagano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soemu_Toyoda" title="Soemu Toyoda">Soemu Toyoda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koshir%C5%8D_Oikawa" title="Koshirō Oikawa">Koshirō Oikawa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Li_Shouxin" title="Li Shouxin">Li Shouxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ye_Peng" title="Ye Peng">Ye Peng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yang_Kuiyi" title="Yang Kuiyi">Yang Kuiyi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div id="Course_of_War" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Course of War</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th id="Campaigns" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Campaigns</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Shanghai" title="Battle of Shanghai">Battle of Shanghai</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Jianqiao" title="Battle of Jianqiao">Battle of Jianqiao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bloody_Saturday_(Shanghai)" title="Bloody Saturday (Shanghai)">Bloody Saturday</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Taiyuan" title="Battle of Taiyuan">Battle of Taiyuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Nanjing" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Nanjing">Battle of Nanjing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Chongqing" title="Bombing of Chongqing">Bombing of Chongqing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Northern_and_Eastern_Henan" title="Battle of Northern and Eastern Henan">Battle of Northern and Eastern Henan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Wuhan" title="Battle of Wuhan">Battle of Wuhan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Xuzhou" title="Battle of Xuzhou">Battle of Xuzhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Nanchang" title="Battle of Nanchang">Battle of Nanchang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Suixian%E2%80%93Zaoyang" title="Battle of Suixian–Zaoyang">Battle of Suixian–Zaoyang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Changsha_(1939)" title="Battle of Changsha (1939)">1939 Changsha campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_South_Guangxi" title="Battle of South Guangxi">First Guangxi campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1939%E2%80%931940_Winter_Offensive" title="1939–1940 Winter Offensive">1939–1940 Winter Offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Zaoyang%E2%80%93Yichang" title="Battle of Zaoyang–Yichang">Battle of Zaoyang–Yichang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hundred_Regiments_Offensive" title="Hundred Regiments Offensive">Hundred Regiments Offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_South_Henan" title="Battle of South Henan">Battle of South Henan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Shanggao" title="Battle of Shanggao">Battle of Shanggao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_South_Shanxi" title="Battle of South Shanxi">Battle of South Shanxi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Changsha_(1941)" title="Battle of Changsha (1941)">1941 Changsha campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Changsha_(1941%E2%80%931942)" title="Battle of Changsha (1941–1942)">1941-1942 Changsha campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_invasion_of_Burma" title="Japanese invasion of Burma">Japanese invasion of Burma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhejiang-Jiangxi_campaign" title="Zhejiang-Jiangxi campaign">Zhejiang-Jiangxi campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linnan_Campaign" title="Linnan Campaign">Linnan campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Northern_Burma_and_Western_Yunnan" title="Battle of Northern Burma and Western Yunnan">Battle of Northern Burma and Western Yunnan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_West_Hubei" title="Battle of West Hubei">Battle of West Hubei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Changde" title="Battle of Changde">Changde campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burma_campaign_(1944)" title="Burma campaign (1944)">1944 Burma campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Ichi-Go" title="Operation Ichi-Go">Operation Ichi-Go</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burma_campaign_(1944%E2%80%931945)" title="Burma campaign (1944–1945)">1944-1945 Burma campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_West_Henan%E2%80%93North_Hubei" title="Battle of West Henan–North Hubei">West Henan–North Hubei campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_West_Hunan" title="Battle of West Hunan">Zhijiang campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Guangxi_campaign" title="Second Guangxi campaign">Second Guangxi campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lanfeng" title="Battle of Lanfeng">Battle of Lanfeng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Ichi-Go" title="Operation Ichi-Go">Battle of Central Henan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Changsha_(1944)" title="Battle of Changsha (1944)">1944 Battle of Changsha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Myitkyina" title="Siege of Myitkyina">Siege of Myitkyina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mount_Song" title="Battle of Mount Song">Battle of Mount Song</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hengyang" title="Battle of Hengyang">Battle of Hengyang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Guilin%E2%80%93Liuzhou" title="Battle of Guilin–Liuzhou">Battle of Guilin–Liuzhou</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Incidents</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tientsin_Incident_(1931)" title="Tientsin Incident (1931)">Tientsin Incident (1931)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/January_28_incident" title="January 28 incident">January 28 incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pingdingshan_massacre" title="Pingdingshan massacre">Pingdingshan massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Chahar_incident" title="North Chahar incident">North Chahar incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xi%27an_Incident" title="Xi'an Incident">Xi'an Incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murder_of_Pamela_Werner" title="Murder of Pamela Werner">Murder of Pamela Werner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marco_Polo_Bridge_Incident" class="mw-redirect" title="Marco Polo Bridge Incident">Marco Polo Bridge Incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Beiping%E2%80%93Tianjin" title="Battle of Beiping–Tianjin">Langfang Incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guanganmen_incident" title="Guanganmen incident">Guanganmen incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tongzhou_mutiny" title="Tongzhou mutiny">Tongzhou mutiny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhengding_Missionary_Murder" title="Zhengding Missionary Murder">Zhengding Missionary Murder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanking_Massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanking Massacre">Nanking Massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USS_Panay_incident" title="USS Panay incident">USS Panay incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kweilin_incident" title="Kweilin incident">Kweilin incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1938_Dalfram_dispute" title="1938 Dalfram dispute">1938 Dalfram dispute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tientsin_Incident" class="mw-redirect" title="Tientsin Incident">Tientsin Incident (1939)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaimingjie_germ_weapon_attack" title="Kaimingjie germ weapon attack">Kaimingjie germ weapon attack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huang_Yiguang" title="Huang Yiguang">Execution of Huang Yiguang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Fourth_Army_incident" title="New Fourth Army incident">New Fourth Army incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panjiayu_massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Panjiayu massacre">Panjiayu massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doolittle_Raid" title="Doolittle Raid">Rape of Nancheng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhejiang-Jiangxi_campaign" title="Zhejiang-Jiangxi campaign">Zhejiang-Jiangxi massacres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Changjiao_massacre" title="Changjiao massacre">Changjiao massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gegenmiao_massacre" title="Gegenmiao massacre">Gegenmiao massacre</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Political events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nine_Power_Treaty_Conference" title="Nine Power Treaty Conference">Nine Power Treaty Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konoe_Declarations" class="mw-redirect" title="Konoe Declarations">Konoe Declarations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yan%27an_Rectification_Movement" title="Yan'an Rectification Movement">Yan'an Rectification Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cairo_Conference" title="Cairo Conference">Cairo Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Conference_on_International_Organization" title="United Nations Conference on International Organization">United Nations Conference on International Organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Soviet_Treaty_of_Friendship_and_Alliance" title="Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship and Alliance">Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship and Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hirohito_surrender_broadcast" title="Hirohito surrender broadcast">Hirohito surrender broadcast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chongqing_Negotiations" title="Chongqing Negotiations">Chongqing Negotiations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surrender_of_Japan" title="Surrender of Japan">Surrender of Japan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div id="Aftermath" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Aftermath</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Japan" title="Occupation of Japan">Occupation of Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double_Tenth_Agreement" title="Double Tenth Agreement">Double Tenth Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retrocession_of_Taiwan" title="Retrocession of Taiwan">Retrocession of Taiwan</a></li></ul> <ul><li><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Retrocession_Day" title="Retrocession Day">Retrocession Day</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Revolution" title="Chinese Communist Revolution">Chinese Communist Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Soviet_Treaty_of_Friendship,_Alliance_and_Mutual_Assistance" title="Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship, Alliance and Mutual Assistance">Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship, Alliance and Mutual Assistance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_San_Francisco" title="Treaty of San Francisco">Treaty of San Francisco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Taipei" title="Treaty of Taipei">Treaty of Taipei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murayama_Statement" title="Murayama Statement">Murayama Statement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_hyperinflation" title="Chinese hyperinflation">Chinese hyperinflation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div id="Related_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li>Related topics</li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aerial_engagements_of_the_Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Aerial engagements of the Second Sino-Japanese War">Aerial engagements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Army_groups_of_the_National_Revolutionary_Army" title="Army groups of the National Revolutionary Army">Army groups of the National Revolutionary Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Japanese_aircraft_in_use_during_the_Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="List of Japanese aircraft in use during the Second Sino-Japanese War">Japanese Aircraft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_armoured_fighting_vehicles_used_by_the_Imperial_Japanese_Army_in_the_Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="List of armoured fighting vehicles used by the Imperial Japanese Army in the Second Sino-Japanese War">Japanese armoured fighting vehicles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Japanese_campaigns_of_the_Second_Sino-Japanese_War" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Japanese campaigns of the Second Sino-Japanese War">Japanese campaigns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Japanese_infantry_weapons_used_in_the_Second-Sino_Japanese_War" title="List of Japanese infantry weapons used in the Second-Sino Japanese War">Japanese infantry weapons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_engagements_of_the_Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="List of military engagements of the Second Sino-Japanese War">Military engagements</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Military</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Japanese_resistance_volunteers_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Japanese resistance volunteers in China">Anti-Japanese resistance volunteers in China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Volunteer_Group" title="American Volunteer Group">American Volunteer Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flying_Tigers" title="Flying Tigers">Flying Tigers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Volunteer_Group" title="Soviet Volunteer Group">Soviet Volunteer Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_invasion_of_Manchuria" title="Soviet invasion of Manchuria">Soviet invasion of Manchuria</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Political</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/China%E2%80%93Nazi_Germany_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="China–Nazi Germany relations">Sino-German cooperation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_China_(Second_Sino-Japanese_War)" title="Free China (Second Sino-Japanese War)">Free China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lend-Lease" title="Lend-Lease">Lend-Lease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Declaration_by_United_Nations" title="Declaration by United Nations">Declaration by United Nations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda_in_Japan_during_the_Second_Sino-Japanese_War_and_World_War_II" title="Propaganda in Japan during the Second Sino-Japanese War and World War II">Japanese propaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kumul_Rebellion" title="Kumul Rebellion">Kumul Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Practice" title="On Practice">On Practice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_war" title="People's war">People's war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Protracted_War" title="On Protracted War">On Protracted War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Muslims_in_the_Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Chinese Muslims in the Second Sino-Japanese War">Chinese Muslims in the Second Sino-Japanese War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_in_the_Chinese_resistance_to_the_Empire_of_Japan" title="Japanese in the Chinese resistance to the Empire of Japan">Japanese in the Chinese resistance to the Empire of Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ip_Man" title="Ip Man">Ip Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1939_Japanese_expedition_to_Tibet" title="1939 Japanese expedition to Tibet">1939 Japanese expedition to Tibet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Hong_Kong" title="Japanese occupation of Hong Kong">Japanese occupation of Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dixie_Mission" title="Dixie Mission">Dixie Mission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wartime_perception_of_the_Chinese_Communists" title="Wartime perception of the Chinese Communists">Wartime perception of the Chinese Communists</a></li> <li>Stubborn Army</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Category:Second Sino-Japanese War">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:China" title="Portal:China">China Portal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Japan" title="Portal:Japan">Japan Portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="World_War_II" style=";wide;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:World_War_II" title="Template:World War II"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:World_War_II" title="Template talk:World War II"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:World_War_II" title="Special:EditPage/Template:World War II"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="World_War_II" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_World_War_II" title="Outline of World War II">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_War_II_battles" title="List of World War II battles">Battles</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_War_II_military_operations" title="List of World War II military operations">Operations</a></li></ul></li> <li>Leaders <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allied_leaders_of_World_War_II" title="Allied leaders of World War II">Allied</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axis_leaders_of_World_War_II" title="Axis leaders of World War II">Axis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commanders_of_World_War_II" title="Commanders of World War II">Commanders</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II_casualties" title="World War II casualties">Casualties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Allied_World_War_II_conferences" title="List of Allied World War II conferences">Conferences</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_World_War_II_topics" title="Lists of World War II topics">Topics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_warfare_of_World_War_II" title="Air warfare of World War II">Air warfare of World War II</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_air_operations_during_the_Battle_of_Europe" title="List of air operations during the Battle of Europe">In Europe</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blitzkrieg" title="Blitzkrieg">Blitzkrieg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_officer_ranks_of_World_War_II" title="Comparative officer ranks of World War II">Comparative military ranks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II_cryptography" title="World War II cryptography">Cryptography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Declarations_of_war_during_World_War_II" title="Declarations of war during World War II">Declarations of war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diplomatic_history_of_World_War_II" title="Diplomatic history of World War II">Diplomacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_governments_in_exile_during_World_War_II" title="List of governments in exile during World War II">Governments in exile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Home_front_during_World_War_II" title="Home front during World War II">Home front</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Australian_home_front_during_World_War_II" title="Australian home front during World War II">Australian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_home_front_during_World_War_II" title="United Kingdom home front during World War II">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_home_front_during_World_War_II" title="United States home front during World War II">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lend-Lease" title="Lend-Lease">Lend-Lease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/British_contribution_to_the_Manhattan_Project" title="British contribution to the Manhattan Project">British contribution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_awards_and_decorations_of_World_War_II" title="List of military awards and decorations of World War II">Military awards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_World_War_II_military_equipment" title="Lists of World War II military equipment">Military equipment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_production_during_World_War_II" title="Military production during World War II">Military production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_history_of_World_War_II" title="Naval history of World War II">Naval history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_plunder" title="Nazi plunder">Nazi plunder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opposition_to_World_War_II" title="Opposition to World War II">Opposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technology_during_World_War_II" title="Technology during World War II">Technology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allied_technological_cooperation_during_World_War_II" title="Allied technological cooperation during World War II">Allied cooperation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mulberry_harbour" class="mw-redirect" title="Mulberry harbour">Mulberry harbour</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Total_war#World_War_II" title="Total war">Total war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_bombing_during_World_War_II" title="Strategic bombing during World War II">Strategic bombing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_War_II_puppet_states" title="List of World War II puppet states">Puppet states</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_World_War_II" title="Women in World War II">Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_and_World_War_II" title="Art and World War II">Art and World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_in_World_War_II" title="Music in World War II">Music in World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weather_events_during_wars#World_War_II" title="Weather events during wars">Weather events during World War II</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_theaters_and_campaigns_of_World_War_II" title="List of theaters and campaigns of World War II">Theaters</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asiatic-Pacific_theater" title="Asiatic-Pacific theater">Asia and Pacific</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South-East_Asian_theatre_of_World_War_II" title="South-East Asian theatre of World War II">South-East Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacific_War" title="Pacific War">Pacific</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacific_Ocean_theater_of_World_War_II" title="Pacific Ocean theater of World War II">North and Central Pacific</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_West_Pacific_theatre_of_World_War_II" title="South West Pacific theatre of World War II">South-West Pacific</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean_in_World_War_II" title="Indian Ocean in World War II">Indian Ocean</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_theatre_of_World_War_II" title="European theatre of World War II">Europe</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Front_(World_War_II)" title="Western Front (World War II)">Western Front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Front_(World_War_II)" title="Eastern Front (World War II)">Eastern Front</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_and_Middle_East_theatre_of_World_War_II" title="Mediterranean and Middle East theatre of World War II">Mediterranean and Middle East</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/North_African_campaign" title="North African campaign">North Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_African_campaign_(World_War_II)" title="East African campaign (World War II)">East Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_campaign_(World_War_II)" title="Italian campaign (World War II)">Italy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_West_Africa_in_World_War_II" title="French West Africa in World War II">West Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Atlantic" title="Battle of the Atlantic">Atlantic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Battle_of_the_Atlantic" title="Timeline of the Battle of the Atlantic">timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Theater_(World_War_II)" class="mw-redirect" title="American Theater (World War II)">Americas</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Aftermath_of_World_War_II" title="Aftermath of World War II">Aftermath</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Civil_War" title="Chinese Civil War">Chinese Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decolonization" title="Decolonization">Decolonization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Division_of_Korea" title="Division of Korea">Division of Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Indochina_War" title="First Indochina War">First Indochina War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flight_and_expulsion_of_Germans_(1944%E2%80%931950)" title="Flight and expulsion of Germans (1944–1950)">Expulsion of Germans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_Civil_War" title="Greek Civil War">Greek Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_National_Revolution" title="Indonesian National Revolution">Indonesian National Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Keelhaul" title="Operation Keelhaul">Keelhaul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marshall_Plan" title="Marshall Plan">Marshall Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allied-occupied_Germany" title="Allied-occupied Germany">Occupation of Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Japan" title="Occupation of Japan">Occupation of Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Osoaviakhim" title="Operation Osoaviakhim">Osoaviakhim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Paperclip" title="Operation Paperclip">Paperclip</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_occupations_by_the_Soviet_Union" title="Military occupations by the Soviet Union">Soviet occupations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_the_Baltic_states" title="Occupation of the Baltic states">Baltic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungary%E2%80%93Soviet_Union_relations" title="Hungary–Soviet Union relations">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_People%27s_Republic" title="Polish People's Republic">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_occupation_of_Romania" title="Soviet occupation of Romania">Romania</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oder%E2%80%93Neisse_line" title="Oder–Neisse line">Territorial changes of Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_on_the_Final_Settlement_with_Respect_to_Germany" title="Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany">Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/War_crimes_in_World_War_II" title="War crimes in World War II">War crimes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allied_war_crimes_during_World_War_II" title="Allied war crimes during World War II">Allied war crimes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_war_crimes#World_War_II" title="Soviet war crimes">Soviet war crimes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_war_crimes#World_War_II" title="British war crimes">British war crimes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_war_crimes#World_War_II" title="United States war crimes">United States war crimes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_war_crimes#World_War_II" title="German war crimes">German war crimes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Forced_labour_under_German_rule_during_World_War_II" title="Forced labour under German rule during World War II">forced labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_crimes_of_the_Wehrmacht" title="War crimes of the Wehrmacht">Wehrmacht war crimes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">The Holocaust</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aftermath_of_the_Holocaust" title="Aftermath of the Holocaust">Aftermath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_response_to_the_Holocaust" title="International response to the Holocaust">Response</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_trials" title="Nuremberg trials">Nuremberg trials</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_war_crimes" title="Italian war crimes">Italian war crimes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_war_crimes" title="Japanese war crimes">Japanese war crimes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nanjing_Massacre" title="Nanjing Massacre">Nanjing Massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unit_731" title="Unit 731">Unit 731</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Military_Tribunal_for_the_Far_East" title="International Military Tribunal for the Far East">Prosecution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Usta%C5%A1e" title="Ustaše">Croatian war crimes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genocide_of_Serbs_in_the_Independent_State_of_Croatia" title="Genocide of Serbs in the Independent State of Croatia">Genocide of Serbs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_the_Independent_State_of_Croatia" title="The Holocaust in the Independent State of Croatia">Persecution of Jews</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Romania#The_Holocaust" title="History of the Jews in Romania">Romanian war crimes</a></li> <li>Sexual violence <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_military_brothels_in_World_War_II" title="German military brothels in World War II">German military brothels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_camp_brothels_in_World_War_II" title="German camp brothels in World War II">Camp brothels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rape_during_the_occupation_of_Germany" title="Rape during the occupation of Germany">Rape during the occupation of Germany</a>  / <a href="/wiki/Rape_during_the_occupation_of_Japan" title="Rape during the occupation of Japan">Japan</a>  / <a href="/wiki/Rape_during_the_Soviet_occupation_of_Poland" title="Rape during the Soviet occupation of Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rape_during_the_liberation_of_France" title="Rape during the liberation of France">Rape during the liberation of France</a>  / <a href="/wiki/Rape_during_the_liberation_of_Serbia" title="Rape during the liberation of Serbia">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sook_Ching" title="Sook Ching">Sook Ching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comfort_women" title="Comfort women">Comfort women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manila_massacre#Mass_rapes" title="Manila massacre">Rape of Manila</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marocchinate" title="Marocchinate">Marocchinate</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/World_War_II_by_country" title="World War II by country">Participants</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II" title="Allies of World War II">Allies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algeria_in_World_War_II" title="Algeria in World War II">Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Australia_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of Australia during World War II">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgium_in_World_War_II" title="Belgium in World War II">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brazil_in_World_War_II" title="Brazil in World War II">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgaria_during_World_War_II" title="Bulgaria during World War II">Bulgaria</a> (<a href="/wiki/1944_Bulgarian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1944 Bulgarian coup d'état">from September 1944</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canada_in_World_War_II" title="Canada in World War II">Canada</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuba_during_World_War_II" title="Cuba during World War II">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Czechoslovakia_(1938%E2%80%931945)" title="Occupation of Czechoslovakia (1938–1945)">Czechoslovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denmark_in_World_War_II" title="Denmark in World War II">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Italo-Ethiopian_War" title="Second Italo-Ethiopian War">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eswatini_in_World_War_II" title="Eswatini in World War II">Eswatini</a> (formerly Swaziland)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finland_in_World_War_II" title="Finland in World War II">Finland</a> (<a href="/wiki/Lapland_War" title="Lapland War">from September 1944</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/France_during_World_War_II" title="France during World War II">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_France" title="Free France">Free France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Greece_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of Greece during World War II">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/India_in_World_War_II" title="India in World War II">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Co-belligerent_Army" title="Italian Co-belligerent Army">Italy</a> (<a href="/wiki/Italian_Civil_War" title="Italian Civil War">from September 1943</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luxembourg_in_World_War_II" title="Luxembourg in World War II">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexico_during_World_War_II" title="Mexico during World War II">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_Netherlands_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of the Netherlands during World War II">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Newfoundland_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of Newfoundland during World War II">Newfoundland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_New_Zealand_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of New Zealand during World War II">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norwegian_campaign" title="Norwegian campaign">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_Philippines_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of the Philippines during World War II">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Poland_(1939%E2%80%931945)" title="History of Poland (1939–1945)">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romania_in_World_War_II" title="Romania in World War II">Romania</a> (<a href="/wiki/1944_Romanian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1944 Romanian coup d'état">from August 1944</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone_in_World_War_II" title="Sierra Leone in World War II">Sierra Leone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_South_Africa_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of South Africa during World War II">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Rhodesia_in_World_War_II" title="Southern Rhodesia in World War II">Southern Rhodesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union_in_World_War_II" title="Soviet Union in World War II">Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuva_in_World_War_II" title="Tuva in World War II">Tuva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_Kingdom_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of the United Kingdom during World War II">United Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/British_Empire_in_World_War_II" title="British Empire in World War II">British Empire</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_States_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of the United States during World War II">United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Puerto_Ricans_in_World_War_II" title="Puerto Ricans in World War II">Puerto Rico</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II_in_Yugoslavia" title="World War II in Yugoslavia">Yugoslavia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Axis_powers" title="Axis powers">Axis</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italian_protectorate_of_Albania_(1939%E2%80%931943)" title="Italian protectorate of Albania (1939–1943)">Albania protectorate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgaria_during_World_War_II" title="Bulgaria during World War II">Bulgaria</a> (until September 1944)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Jingwei_regime" title="Wang Jingwei regime">Wang Jingwei regime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independent_State_of_Croatia" title="Independent State of Croatia">Independent State of Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finland_in_World_War_II" title="Finland in World War II">Finland</a> (until September 1944)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">German Reich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungary_in_World_War_II" title="Hungary in World War II">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azad_Hind" title="Azad Hind">Azad Hind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Indochina_in_World_War_II" title="French Indochina in World War II">French Indochina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Iraqi_War" title="Anglo-Iraqi War">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Italy_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of Italy during World War II">Italy</a> (until September 1943) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Social_Republic" title="Italian Social Republic">Italian Social Republic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Empire of Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchukuo" title="Manchukuo">Manchukuo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Philippine_Republic" title="Second Philippine Republic">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romania_in_World_War_II" title="Romania in World War II">Romania</a> (until August 1944)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovak_Republic_(1939%E2%80%931945)" title="Slovak Republic (1939–1945)">Slovak Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thailand_in_World_War_II" title="Thailand in World War II">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vichy_France" title="Vichy France">Vichy France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Collaboration_with_Axis_Powers" title="Template:Collaboration with Axis Powers">Collaboration</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Neutral_powers_during_World_War_II" title="Neutral powers during World War II">Neutral</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Afghanistan" title="Kingdom of Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Andorra#20th_and_21st_centuries" title="History of Andorra">Andorra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhutan" title="Bhutan">Bhutan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_neutrality_during_World_War_II" title="Irish neutrality during World War II">Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liechtenstein_in_World_War_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Liechtenstein in World War II">Liechtenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portugal_during_World_War_II" title="Portugal during World War II">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spain_during_World_War_II" title="Spain during World War II">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sweden_during_World_War_II" title="Sweden during World War II">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Switzerland_during_the_World_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Switzerland during the World Wars">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibet_(1912%E2%80%931951)" title="Tibet (1912–1951)">Tibet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vatican_City_during_World_War_II" title="Vatican City during World War II">Vatican City</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Resistance_during_World_War_II" title="Resistance during World War II">Resistance</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II_in_Albania" title="World War II in Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austrian_resistance" title="Austrian resistance">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgian_Resistance" title="Belgian Resistance">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_resistance_movement_during_World_War_II" title="Bulgarian resistance movement during World War II">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resistance_in_the_Protectorate_of_Bohemia_and_Moravia" title="Resistance in the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia">Czech lands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_resistance_movement" title="Danish resistance movement">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_the_Dutch_East_Indies#Underground_resistance" title="Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies">Dutch East Indies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estonian_anti-German_resistance_movement_1941%E2%80%931944" title="Estonian anti-German resistance movement 1941–1944">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arbegnoch" title="Arbegnoch">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Resistance" title="French Resistance">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_resistance_to_Nazism" title="German resistance to Nazism">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_resistance" title="Greek resistance">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Hong_Kong#Anti-Japanese_resistance" title="Japanese occupation of Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_resistance_movement" title="Italian resistance movement">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_dissidence_in_the_Empire_of_Japan#Dissidence_during_World_War_II" title="Political dissidence in the Empire of Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_resistance_in_German-occupied_Europe" title="Jewish resistance in German-occupied Europe">Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korea" title="Korea">Korea</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Liberation_Army" title="Korean Liberation Army">Korean Liberation Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Volunteer_Army" title="Korean Volunteer Army">Korean Volunteer Army</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latvian_anti-Nazi_resistance_movement_1941%E2%80%931945" title="Latvian anti-Nazi resistance movement 1941–1945">Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resistance_in_Lithuania_during_World_War_II" title="Resistance in Lithuania during World War II">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luxembourg_Resistance" title="Luxembourg Resistance">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malayan_Peoples%27_Anti-Japanese_Army" title="Malayan Peoples' Anti-Japanese Army">Malaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_resistance" title="Dutch resistance">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northeast_Anti-Japanese_United_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="Northeast Anti-Japanese United Army">Northeast China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norwegian_resistance_movement" title="Norwegian resistance movement">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippine_resistance_against_Japan" title="Philippine resistance against Japan">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_resistance_movement_in_World_War_II" title="Polish resistance movement in World War II">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_anti-communist_resistance_movement" title="Romanian anti-communist resistance movement">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_Thai_Movement" title="Free Thai Movement">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_partisans" title="Soviet partisans">Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovak_National_Uprising" title="Slovak National Uprising">Slovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_Insurgent_Army" title="Ukrainian Insurgent Army">Western Ukraine</a></li> <li>Vietnam <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vi%E1%BB%87t_Nam_Qu%E1%BB%91c_D%C3%A2n_%C4%90%E1%BA%A3ng" title="Việt Nam Quốc Dân Đảng">Quốc dân Đảng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viet_Minh" title="Viet Minh">Viet Minh</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yugoslav_Partisans" title="Yugoslav Partisans">Yugoslavia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Prisoner_of_war" title="Prisoner of war">POWs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Finnish_prisoners_of_war_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Finnish prisoners of war in the Soviet Union">Finnish prisoners in the Soviet Union</a></li> <li>German prisoners <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_prisoners_of_war_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="German prisoners of war in the Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_prisoners_of_war_in_Azerbaijan" title="German prisoners of war in Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_prisoners_of_war_in_the_United_States" title="German prisoners of war in the United States">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_prisoners_of_war_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="German prisoners of war in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_prisoners_of_war_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Italian prisoners of war in the Soviet Union">Italian prisoners in the Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_prisoners_of_war_in_World_War_II" title="Japanese prisoners of war in World War II">Japanese prisoners</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_prisoners_of_war_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Japanese prisoners of war in the Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_atrocities_committed_against_Polish_prisoners_of_war" title="German atrocities committed against Polish prisoners of war">German atrocities against Polish POWs</a></li> <li>Soviet prisoners <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_prisoners_of_war_in_Finland" title="Soviet prisoners of war in Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_atrocities_committed_against_Soviet_prisoners_of_war" title="German atrocities committed against Soviet prisoners of war">atrocities by Germans</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_prisoners-of-war_in_the_Soviet_Union_after_1939" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish prisoners-of-war in the Soviet Union after 1939">Polish prisoners in the Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_prisoners_of_war_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Romanian prisoners of war in the Soviet Union">Romanian prisoners in the Soviet Union</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_timelines_of_World_War_II" title="List of timelines of World War II">Timeline</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th id="Prelude" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_World_War_II" title="Causes of World War II">Prelude</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abyssinia_Crisis" title="Abyssinia Crisis">Africa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Second_Italo-Ethiopian_War" title="Second Italo-Ethiopian War">Second Italo-Ethiopian War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Events_preceding_World_War_II_in_Asia" title="Events preceding World War II in Asia">Asia</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Second Sino-Japanese War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battles_of_Khalkhin_Gol" title="Battles of Khalkhin Gol">Battles of Khalkhin Gol</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Events_preceding_World_War_II_in_Europe" title="Events preceding World War II in Europe">Europe</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anschluss" title="Anschluss">Anschluss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Munich_Agreement" title="Munich Agreement">Munich Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Czechoslovakia_(1938%E2%80%931945)" title="Occupation of Czechoslovakia (1938–1945)">Occupation of Czechoslovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Himmler" title="Operation Himmler">Operation Himmler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_invasion_of_Albania" title="Italian invasion of Albania">Italian invasion of Albania</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_World_War_II_(1939)" title="Timeline of World War II (1939)">1939</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Poland" title="Invasion of Poland">Invasion of Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Atlantic" title="Battle of the Atlantic">Battle of the Atlantic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoney_War" title="Phoney War">Phoney War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Changsha_(1939)" title="Battle of Changsha (1939)">First Battle of Changsha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_South_Guangxi" title="Battle of South Guangxi">Battle of South Guangxi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winter_War" title="Winter War">Winter War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1939%E2%80%931940_Winter_Offensive" title="1939–1940 Winter Offensive">1939–1940 Winter Offensive</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_World_War_II_(1940)" title="Timeline of World War II (1940)">1940</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Norwegian_campaign" title="Norwegian campaign">Norwegian campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_invasion_of_Denmark_(1940)" title="German invasion of Denmark (1940)">German invasion of Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Zaoyang%E2%80%93Yichang" title="Battle of Zaoyang–Yichang">Battle of Zaoyang–Yichang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_invasion_of_Luxembourg" title="German invasion of Luxembourg">German invasion of Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_invasion_of_the_Netherlands" title="German invasion of the Netherlands">German invasion of the Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_invasion_of_Belgium_(1940)" title="German invasion of Belgium (1940)">German invasion of Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_France" title="Battle of France">Battle of France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dunkirk_evacuation" title="Dunkirk evacuation">Dunkirk evacuation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Britain" title="Battle of Britain">Battle of Britain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Mediterranean" title="Battle of the Mediterranean">Battle of the Mediterranean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Desert_campaign" title="Western Desert campaign">North Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_West_Africa_in_World_War_II" title="French West Africa in World War II">West Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_invasion_of_British_Somaliland" title="Italian invasion of British Somaliland">British Somaliland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hundred_Regiments_Offensive" title="Hundred Regiments Offensive">Hundred Regiments Offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_the_Baltic_states" title="Occupation of the Baltic states">Baltic states</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_occupation_of_Bessarabia_and_Northern_Bukovina" title="Soviet occupation of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina">Eastern Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_invasion_of_French_Indochina" title="Japanese invasion of French Indochina">Japanese invasion of French Indochina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Italian_War" title="Greco-Italian War">Italian invasion of Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Compass" title="Operation Compass">Compass</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_World_War_II_(1941)" title="Timeline of World War II (1941)">1941</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_South_Henan" title="Battle of South Henan">Battle of South Henan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Shanggao" title="Battle of Shanggao">Battle of Shanggao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Yugoslavia" title="Invasion of Yugoslavia">Invasion of Yugoslavia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_invasion_of_Greece" title="German invasion of Greece">German invasion of Greece</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Crete" title="Battle of Crete">Battle of Crete</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Iraqi_War" title="Anglo-Iraqi War">Anglo-Iraqi War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_South_Shanxi" title="Battle of South Shanxi">Battle of South Shanxi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syria%E2%80%93Lebanon_campaign" title="Syria–Lebanon campaign">Syria–Lebanon campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_African_campaign_(World_War_II)" title="East African campaign (World War II)">East African campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Barbarossa" title="Operation Barbarossa">Invasion of the Soviet Union</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Summer_War" title="Summer War">Summer War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continuation_War" title="Continuation War">Finland</a> (<a href="/wiki/Operation_Silver_Fox" title="Operation Silver Fox">Silver Fox</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/June_Uprising_in_Lithuania" title="June Uprising in Lithuania">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kiev_(1941)" title="Battle of Kiev (1941)">Battle of Kiev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Soviet_invasion_of_Iran" title="Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran">Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Changsha_(1941)" title="Battle of Changsha (1941)">Second Battle of Changsha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Leningrad" title="Siege of Leningrad">Siege of Leningrad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Moscow" title="Battle of Moscow">Battle of Moscow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Gorky_in_World_War_II" title="Bombing of Gorky in World War II">Bombing of Gorky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Sevastopol_(1941%E2%80%931942)" title="Siege of Sevastopol (1941–1942)">Siege of Sevastopol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor" title="Attack on Pearl Harbor">Attack on Pearl Harbor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_invasion_of_Thailand" title="Japanese invasion of Thailand">Japanese invasion of Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hong_Kong" title="Battle of Hong Kong">Fall of Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippines_campaign_(1941%E2%80%931942)" title="Philippines campaign (1941–1942)">Fall of the Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Guam_(1941)" title="Battle of Guam (1941)">Battle of Guam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Wake_Island" title="Battle of Wake Island">Battle of Wake Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malayan_campaign" title="Malayan campaign">Malayan campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Borneo_(1941%E2%80%931942)" title="Battle of Borneo (1941–1942)">Battle of Borneo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_invasion_of_Burma" title="Japanese invasion of Burma">Japanese invasion of Burma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Changsha_(1941%E2%80%931942)" title="Battle of Changsha (1941–1942)">Third Battle of Changsha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Famine_(Greece)" title="Great Famine (Greece)">Greek famine of 1941–1944</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_World_War_II_(1942)" title="Timeline of World War II (1942)">1942</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Singapore" title="Fall of Singapore">Fall of Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Java_Sea" title="Battle of the Java Sea">Battle of the Java Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/St_Nazaire_Raid" title="St Nazaire Raid">St Nazaire Raid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Christmas_Island" title="Battle of Christmas Island">Battle of Christmas Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Coral_Sea" title="Battle of the Coral Sea">Battle of the Coral Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Madagascar" title="Battle of Madagascar">Battle of Madagascar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhejiang-Jiangxi_campaign" title="Zhejiang-Jiangxi campaign">Zhejiang-Jiangxi campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Gazala" title="Battle of Gazala">Battle of Gazala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Dutch_Harbor" title="Battle of Dutch Harbor">Battle of Dutch Harbor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Midway" title="Battle of Midway">Battle of Midway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aleutian_Islands_campaign" title="Aleutian Islands campaign">Aleutian Islands campaign</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Kiska" title="Japanese occupation of Kiska">Kiska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Attu" title="Japanese occupation of Attu"> Attu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Case_Blue" title="Case Blue">Blue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Battle_of_El_Alamein" title="First Battle of El Alamein">First Battle of El Alamein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Stalingrad" title="Battle of Stalingrad">Battle of Stalingrad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kokoda_Track_campaign" title="Kokoda Track campaign">Kokoda Track campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Rzhev,_summer_1942" title="Battle of Rzhev, summer 1942">Rzhev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dieppe_Raid" title="Dieppe Raid">Jubilee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Battle_of_El_Alamein" title="Second Battle of El Alamein">Second Battle of El Alamein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guadalcanal_campaign" title="Guadalcanal campaign">Guadalcanal campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Torch" title="Operation Torch">Torch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_famine_of_1942%E2%80%931943" title="Chinese famine of 1942–1943">Chinese famine of 1942–1943</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_World_War_II_(1943)" title="Timeline of World War II (1943)">1943</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_May_(1943)" title="Black May (1943)">Black May</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunisian_campaign" title="Tunisian campaign">Tunisian campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_West_Hubei" title="Battle of West Hubei">Battle of West Hubei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Attu" title="Battle of Attu">Battle of Attu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Gorky_in_World_War_II#June_1943" title="Bombing of Gorky in World War II">Bombing of Gorky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kursk" title="Battle of Kursk">Battle of Kursk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allied_invasion_of_Sicily" title="Allied invasion of Sicily">Allied invasion of Sicily</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smolensk_operation" title="Smolensk operation">Smolensk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solomon_Islands_campaign" title="Solomon Islands campaign">Solomon Islands campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Cottage" title="Operation Cottage">Cottage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Dnieper" title="Battle of the Dnieper">Battle of the Dnieper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allied_invasion_of_Italy" title="Allied invasion of Italy">Allied invasion of Italy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Armistice_of_Cassibile" title="Armistice of Cassibile">Armistice of Cassibile</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burma_campaign" title="Burma campaign">Burma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Northern_Burma_and_Western_Yunnan" title="Battle of Northern Burma and Western Yunnan">Northern Burma and Western Yunnan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Changde" title="Battle of Changde">Changde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kiev_(1943)" title="Battle of Kiev (1943)">Second Battle of Kiev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_and_Marshall_Islands_campaign" title="Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign">Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tarawa" title="Battle of Tarawa">Tarawa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Makin" title="Battle of Makin">Makin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bengal_famine_of_1943" title="Bengal famine of 1943">Bengal famine of 1943</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_World_War_II_(1944)" title="Timeline of World War II (1944)">1944</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Tempest" title="Operation Tempest">Tempest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Monte_Cassino" title="Battle of Monte Cassino">Monte Cassino</a> / <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Anzio" title="Battle of Anzio">Anzio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Korsun%E2%80%93Cherkassy" title="Battle of Korsun–Cherkassy">Korsun–Cherkassy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Narva_(1944)" title="Battle of Narva (1944)">Narva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Ichi-Go" title="Operation Ichi-Go">Ichi-Go</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Overlord" title="Operation Overlord">Overlord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normandy_landings" title="Normandy landings">Neptune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mariana_and_Palau_Islands_campaign" title="Mariana and Palau Islands campaign">Mariana and Palau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Bagration" title="Operation Bagration">Bagration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lvov%E2%80%93Sandomierz_offensive" class="mw-redirect" title="Lvov–Sandomierz offensive">Western Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Guam_(1944)" title="Battle of Guam (1944)">Second Battle of Guam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tannenberg_Line" title="Battle of Tannenberg Line">Tannenberg Line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Uprising" title="Warsaw Uprising">Warsaw Uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Jassy%E2%80%93Kishinev_offensive" title="Second Jassy–Kishinev offensive">Eastern Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberation_of_Paris" title="Liberation of Paris">Liberation of Paris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Dragoon" title="Operation Dragoon">Dragoon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_Line" title="Gothic Line">Gothic Line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgrade_offensive" title="Belgrade offensive">Belgrade offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lapland_War" title="Lapland War">Lapland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Market_Garden" title="Operation Market Garden">Market Garden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tallinn_offensive" title="Tallinn offensive">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Crossbow" title="Operation Crossbow">Crossbow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combined_Bomber_Offensive" title="Combined Bomber Offensive">Pointblank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_famine_of_1944%E2%80%931945" title="Vietnamese famine of 1944–1945">Vietnamese famine of 1944–1945</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippines_campaign_(1944%E2%80%931945)" title="Philippines campaign (1944–1945)">Philippines (1944–1945)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Leyte_Gulf" title="Battle of Leyte Gulf">Leyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrmian_Front" title="Syrmian Front">Syrmian Front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Budapest_offensive" title="Budapest offensive">Hungary</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Budapest" title="Siege of Budapest">Budapest</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burma_campaign_(1944%E2%80%931945)" title="Burma campaign (1944–1945)">Burma (1944–1945)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Bulge" title="Battle of the Bulge">Ardennes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Bodenplatte" title="Operation Bodenplatte">Bodenplatte</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_famine_of_1944%E2%80%931945" title="Dutch famine of 1944–1945">Dutch famine of 1944–1945</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_World_War_II_(1945%E2%80%931991)" title="Timeline of World War II (1945–1991)">1945</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vistula%E2%80%93Oder_offensive" title="Vistula–Oder offensive">Vistula–Oder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Manila_(1945)" title="Battle of Manila (1945)">Battle of Manila</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Iwo_Jima" title="Battle of Iwo Jima">Battle of Iwo Jima</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat_in_French_Indochina" title="Japanese coup d'état in French Indochina">Indochina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_offensive" title="Vienna offensive">Vienna offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_Hula" title="Project Hula">Project Hula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Allied_invasion_of_Germany" title="Western Allied invasion of Germany">Western invasion of Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bratislava%E2%80%93Brno_offensive" title="Bratislava–Brno offensive">Bratislava–Brno offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Okinawa" title="Battle of Okinawa">Battle of Okinawa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Guangxi_campaign" title="Second Guangxi campaign">Second Guangxi campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_West_Hunan" title="Battle of West Hunan">West Hunan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spring_1945_offensive_in_Italy" title="Spring 1945 offensive in Italy">Italy (Spring 1945)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Berlin" title="Battle of Berlin">Battle of Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prague_offensive" title="Prague offensive">Prague offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/End_of_World_War_II_in_Europe" title="End of World War II in Europe">Surrender of Germany</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_Instrument_of_Surrender" title="German Instrument of Surrender">document</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Borneo_campaign" title="Borneo campaign">Borneo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raid_on_Taipei" title="Raid on Taipei">Taipei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allied_naval_bombardments_of_Japan_during_World_War_II" title="Allied naval bombardments of Japan during World War II">Naval bombardment of Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_invasion_of_Manchuria" title="Soviet invasion of Manchuria">Manchuria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">Atomic bombings</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Debate_over_the_atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Debate over the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">Debate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_invasion_of_South_Sakhalin" title="Soviet invasion of South Sakhalin">South Sakhalin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_the_Kuril_Islands" title="Invasion of the Kuril Islands">Kuril Islands</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Shumshu" title="Battle of Shumshu">Shumshu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surrender_of_Japan" title="Surrender of Japan">Surrender of Japan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Potsdam_Declaration" title="Potsdam Declaration">Potsdam Declaration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_Instrument_of_Surrender" title="Japanese Instrument of Surrender">document</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/End_of_World_War_II_in_Asia" title="End of World War II in Asia">End of World War II in Asia</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg/16px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg/24px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg/32px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="3002" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:World" title="Portal:World">World portal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_World_War_II" title="Bibliography of World War II">Bibliography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:World_War_II" title="Category:World War II">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_World_War_II_by_region_and_country" style=";wide;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:WWII_history_by_nation" title="Template:WWII history by nation"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:WWII_history_by_nation" title="Template talk:WWII history by nation"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:WWII_history_by_nation" title="Special:EditPage/Template:WWII history by nation"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_World_War_II_by_region_and_country" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/World_War_II_by_country" title="World War II by country">History of World War II by region and country</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Africa</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Belgian_Congo_in_World_War_II" title="Belgian Congo in World War II">Belgian Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_invasion_of_British_Somaliland" title="Italian invasion of British Somaliland">British Somaliland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egypt_in_World_War_II" title="Egypt in World War II">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Ethiopia" title="Italian Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Somaliland_in_World_War_II" title="French Somaliland in World War II">French Somaliland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_West_Africa_in_World_War_II" title="French West Africa in World War II">French West Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Gambia_in_World_War_II" title="The Gambia in World War II">The Gambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gold_Coast_in_World_War_II" title="Gold Coast in World War II">Gold Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenya_in_World_War_II" title="Kenya in World War II">Kenya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberia_in_World_War_II" title="Liberia in World War II">Liberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madagascar_in_World_War_II" title="Madagascar in World War II">Madagascar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_African_campaign" title="North African campaign">North Africa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tunisian_campaign" title="Tunisian campaign">Tunisia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morocco_in_World_War_II" title="Morocco in World War II">Morocco</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyasaland_in_World_War_II" title="Nyasaland in World War II">Nyasaland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone_in_World_War_II" title="Sierra Leone in World War II">Sierra Leone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_South_Africa_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of South Africa during World War II">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Rhodesia_in_World_War_II" title="Southern Rhodesia in World War II">Southern Rhodesia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">North America</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canada_in_World_War_II" title="Canada in World War II">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuba_during_World_War_II" title="Cuba during World War II">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_dictatorship_in_El_Salvador#World_War_II" title="Military dictatorship in El Salvador">El Salvador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenland_in_World_War_II" title="Greenland in World War II">Greenland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexico_during_World_War_II" title="Mexico during World War II">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Newfoundland_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of Newfoundland during World War II">Newfoundland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_States_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of the United States during World War II">United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arizona_during_World_War_II" title="Arizona during World War II">Arizona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/California_during_World_War_II" title="California during World War II">California</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nevada_during_World_War_II" title="Nevada during World War II">Nevada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Mexico_during_World_War_II" title="New Mexico during World War II">New Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puerto_Ricans_in_World_War_II" title="Puerto Ricans in World War II">Puerto Rico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_and_World_War_II" title="Native Americans and World War II">Native Americans</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">South America</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Argentina_during_World_War_II" title="Argentina during World War II">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brazil_in_World_War_II" title="Brazil in World War II">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colombia_during_World_War_II" title="Colombia during World War II">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_America_during_World_War_II" title="Latin America during World War II">Latin America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suriname_during_World_War_II" title="Suriname during World War II">Suriname</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uruguay_during_World_War_II" title="Uruguay during World War II">Uruguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venezuela_during_World_War_II" title="Venezuela during World War II">Venezuela</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Asia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Burma" title="Japanese occupation of Burma">Burma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceylon_in_World_War_II" title="Ceylon in World War II">Ceylon</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">China</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Manchukuo" title="Manchukuo">Manchuria</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_the_Dutch_East_Indies" title="Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies">Dutch East Indies</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_New_Guinea" title="Japanese occupation of New Guinea">New Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_West_Sumatra" title="Japanese occupation of West Sumatra">West Sumatra</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Hong_Kong" title="Japanese occupation of Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/India_in_World_War_II" title="India in World War II">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Indochina_in_World_War_II" title="French Indochina in World War II">Indochina</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Cambodia" title="Japanese occupation of Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Soviet_invasion_of_Iran" title="Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Iraqi_War" title="Anglo-Iraqi War">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan_during_World_War_II" title="Japan during World War II">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Malaya" title="Japanese occupation of Malaya">Malaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongolia_in_World_War_II" title="Mongolia in World War II">Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepal_in_World_War_II" title="Nepal in World War II">Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_Philippines_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of the Philippines during World War II">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_British_Borneo" title="Japanese occupation of British Borneo">Sarawak, Brunei, Labuan, and British North Borneo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Singapore" title="Japanese occupation of Singapore">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thailand_in_World_War_II" title="Thailand in World War II">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibet_(1912%E2%80%931951)" title="Tibet (1912–1951)">Tibet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One-party_period_of_the_Republic_of_Turkey#Politics_of_World_War_II" title="One-party period of the Republic of Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuva_in_World_War_II" title="Tuva in World War II">Tuva</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II_in_Albania" title="World War II in Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anschluss" title="Anschluss">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgium_in_World_War_II" title="Belgium in World War II">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgaria_during_World_War_II" title="Bulgaria during World War II">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Czechoslovakia_(1938%E2%80%931945)" title="Occupation of Czechoslovakia (1938–1945)">Czechoslovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denmark_in_World_War_II" title="Denmark in World War II">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estonia_in_World_War_II" title="Estonia in World War II">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finland_in_World_War_II" title="Finland in World War II">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/France_during_World_War_II" title="France during World War II">France</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_France_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of France during World War II">Military history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II_in_the_Basque_Country" title="World War II in the Basque Country">Basque Country</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Greece_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of Greece during World War II">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungary_in_World_War_II" title="Hungary in World War II">Hungary</a> (<a href="/wiki/Carpathian_Ruthenia_during_World_War_II" title="Carpathian Ruthenia during World War II">Carpathian Ruthenia</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iceland_in_World_War_II" title="Iceland in World War II">Iceland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Emergency_(Ireland)" title="The Emergency (Ireland)">Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Italy_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of Italy during World War II">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Latvia_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of Latvia during World War II">Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Liechtenstein#World_War_II" title="History of Liechtenstein">Liechtenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resistance_in_Lithuania_during_World_War_II" title="Resistance in Lithuania during World War II">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luxembourg_in_World_War_II" title="Luxembourg in World War II">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Netherlands_in_World_War_II" title="Netherlands in World War II">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_occupation_of_Norway" title="German occupation of Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Poland_(1939%E2%80%931945)" title="History of Poland (1939–1945)">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portugal_during_World_War_II" title="Portugal during World War II">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romania_in_World_War_II" title="Romania in World War II">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovakia_during_World_War_II" title="Slovakia during World War II">Slovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union_in_World_War_II" title="Soviet Union in World War II">Soviet Union</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan_in_World_War_II" title="Azerbaijan in World War II">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byelorussia_in_World_War_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Byelorussia in World War II">Byelorussia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_history_of_Ukraine#World_War_II" title="Modern history of Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spain_during_World_War_II" title="Spain during World War II">Spain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II_in_the_Basque_Country" title="World War II in the Basque Country">Basque Country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catalonia_and_World_War_II" title="Catalonia and World War II">Catalonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galicia_and_World_War_II" title="Galicia and World War II">Galicia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sweden_during_World_War_II" title="Sweden during World War II">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Switzerland_during_the_World_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Switzerland during the World Wars">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_Kingdom_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of the United Kingdom during World War II">United Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/British_Empire_in_World_War_II" title="British Empire in World War II">British Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wales_in_the_World_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Wales in the World Wars">Wales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_occupation_of_the_Channel_Islands" title="German occupation of the Channel Islands">Channel Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Gibraltar_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of Gibraltar during World War II">Gibraltar</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vatican_City_during_World_War_II" title="Vatican City during World War II">Vatican City</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II_in_Yugoslavia" title="World War II in Yugoslavia">Yugoslavia</a> (<a href="/wiki/World_War_II_in_the_Slovene_Lands" title="World War II in the Slovene Lands">Slovenia</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Oceania and Antarctica</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antarctica_during_World_War_II" title="Antarctica during World War II">Antarctica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Australia_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of Australia during World War II">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_the_Gilbert_Islands" title="Japanese occupation of the Gilbert Islands">Gilbert Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Nauru" title="Japanese occupation of Nauru">Nauru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_New_Guinea" title="Japanese occupation of New Guinea">New Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_New_Zealand_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of New Zealand during World War II">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_the_Solomon_Islands" title="Japanese occupation of the Solomon Islands">Solomon Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacific_Islands_home_front_during_World_War_II" title="Pacific Islands home front during World War II">Pacific Islands</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="War_crimes" style=";wide;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:War_crimes" title="Template:War crimes"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:War_crimes" title="Template talk:War crimes"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:War_crimes" title="Special:EditPage/Template:War crimes"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="War_crimes" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/War_crime" title="War crime">War crimes</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_war_crimes" title="List of war crimes">List of war crimes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/International_humanitarian_law" title="International humanitarian law">International humanitarian law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Sources_of_international_law" title="Sources of international law">Sources</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lieber_Code" title="Lieber Code">Lieber Code</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Petersburg_Declaration_of_1868" title="Saint Petersburg Declaration of 1868">Saint Petersburg Declaration of 1868</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hague_Conventions_of_1899_and_1907" title="Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907">Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geneva_Protocol" title="Geneva Protocol">Geneva Protocol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geneva_Conventions" title="Geneva Conventions">Geneva Conventions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1864_Geneva_Convention" class="mw-redirect" title="1864 Geneva Convention">1864</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Geneva_Convention" title="First Geneva Convention">First (1949)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Geneva_Convention" title="Second Geneva Convention">Second (1949)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Geneva_Convention" title="Third Geneva Convention">Third (1949)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Geneva_Convention" title="Fourth Geneva Convention">Fourth (1949)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protocol_I" title="Protocol I">Protocol I (1977)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protocol_II" title="Protocol II">Protocol II (1977)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Responsibility_to_protect" title="Responsibility to protect">Responsibility to protect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rome_Statute" title="Rome Statute">Rome Statute</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_Criminal_Court" title="International Criminal Court">International Criminal Court</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;">Topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civilian" title="Civilian">Civilians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Non-combatant" title="Non-combatant">non-combatants</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civilian_casualty" title="Civilian casualty">Civilian casualties</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Command_responsibility" title="Command responsibility">Command responsibility</a> / <a href="/wiki/Superior_orders" title="Superior orders">Superior orders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distinction_(law)" title="Distinction (law)">Distinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hors_de_combat" title="Hors de combat">Hors de combat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intention_(criminal_law)" title="Intention (criminal law)">Intent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joint_criminal_enterprise" title="Joint criminal enterprise">Joint criminal enterprise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_neutrality" title="Medical neutrality">Medical neutrality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_necessity" title="Military necessity">Military necessity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prisoner_of_war" title="Prisoner of war">Prisoners of war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proportionality_(law)" title="Proportionality (law)">Proportionality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protected_persons" title="Protected persons">Protected persons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruse_de_guerre" title="Ruse de guerre">Ruse de guerre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safe_conduct" title="Safe conduct">Safe conduct</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;text-align:left;">War crimes by type</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Attacks on <a href="/wiki/Attacks_on_humanitarian_workers" title="Attacks on humanitarian workers">humanitarian workers</a> / <a href="/wiki/Attacks_on_parachutists" title="Attacks on parachutists">parachutists</a>‡</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Children_in_the_military" title="Children in the military">Child soldiers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collective_punishment" title="Collective punishment">Collective punishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminal_order_(international_law)" title="Criminal order (international law)">Criminal orders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_flights" title="Death flights">Death flights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_march" title="Death march">Death marches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desecration_of_graves" class="mw-redirect" title="Desecration of graves">Desecration of graves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Destruction_of_the_healthcare_system" title="Destruction of the healthcare system">Destruction of the healthcare system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enforced_disappearance" title="Enforced disappearance">Enforced disappearances</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extrajudicial_killing" title="Extrajudicial killing">Extrajudicial killings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hostage" title="Hostage">Hostage-taking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trophy_collecting" title="Human trophy collecting">Human trophy collecting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indiscriminate_attack" title="Indiscriminate attack">Indiscriminate attacks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Looting" title="Looting">Looting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massacre" title="Massacre">Massacres</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mass_killing" title="Mass killing">Mass killings</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/No_quarter" title="No quarter">No quarter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perfidy" title="Perfidy">Perfidy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Starvation_(crime)" title="Starvation (crime)">Starvation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torture" title="Torture">Torture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_shield_(law)" title="Human shield (law)">Use of human shields</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wartime_sexual_violence" title="Wartime sexual violence">Wartime sexual violence</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;text-align:left;">War crimes committed by...</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Croatian_war_crimes" title="Croatian war crimes">Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_war_crimes" title="German war crimes">Germany</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/War_crimes_of_the_Wehrmacht" title="War crimes of the Wehrmacht">Wehrmacht</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israeli_war_crimes" title="Israeli war crimes">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_war_crimes" title="Italian war crimes">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_war_crimes" title="Japanese war crimes">Japan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Unit_731" title="Unit 731">Unit 731</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palestinian_political_violence" title="Palestinian political violence">Palestinian political violence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hamas_war_crimes" title="Hamas war crimes">Hamas</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_war_crimes" title="Russian war crimes">Russia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_war_crimes" title="Soviet war crimes">Soviet Union</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_war_crimes" title="Serbian war crimes">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_war_crimes" title="Turkish war crimes">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Arab_Emirates_war_crimes" title="United Arab Emirates war crimes">United Arab Emirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_war_crimes" title="British war crimes">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_war_crimes" title="United States war crimes">United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;text-align:left;">War crimes by war</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/War_crimes_in_Afghanistan" title="War crimes in Afghanistan">Afghanistan wars</a></li> <li>2nd <a href="/wiki/Second_Chechen_War_crimes_and_terrorism" title="Second Chechen War crimes and terrorism">Chechen War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_crimes_in_the_Iraq_War" class="mw-redirect" title="War crimes in the Iraq War">Iraq War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_crimes_in_the_Korean_War" title="War crimes in the Korean War">Korean War</a></li> <li>2006 <a href="/wiki/War_crimes_in_the_2006_Lebanon_War" title="War crimes in the 2006 Lebanon War">Lebanon War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_violations_during_the_Libyan_civil_war_(2011)" title="Human rights violations during the Libyan civil war (2011)">Libyan civil war</a> (2011)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_crimes_during_the_Myanmar_civil_war_(2021%E2%80%93present)" title="War crimes during the Myanmar civil war (2021–present)">Myanmar civil war</a> (2021–present)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nagorno-Karabakh_conflict" title="Nagorno-Karabakh conflict">Nagorno-Karabakh conflict</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/War_crimes_in_the_First_Nagorno-Karabakh_War" class="mw-redirect" title="War crimes in the First Nagorno-Karabakh War">First war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_crimes_in_the_Second_Nagorno-Karabakh_War" title="War crimes in the Second Nagorno-Karabakh War">Second war</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israeli%E2%80%93Palestinian_conflict" title="Israeli–Palestinian conflict">Israeli–Palestinian conflict</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gaza%E2%80%93Israel_conflict" title="Gaza–Israel conflict">Gaza</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/War_crimes_in_the_Gaza_War_(2008%E2%80%932009)" title="War crimes in the Gaza War (2008–2009)">2008–2009</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_crimes_in_the_Israel%E2%80%93Hamas_war" title="War crimes in the Israel–Hamas war">2023–present</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Israeli_war_crimes_in_the_Israel%E2%80%93Hamas_war" title="Israeli war crimes in the Israel–Hamas war">by Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Gaza_Strip_healthcare_collapse" title="Timeline of the Gaza Strip healthcare collapse">Destruction of the healthcare system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Destruction_of_cultural_heritage_during_the_Israeli_invasion_of_the_Gaza_Strip" title="Destruction of cultural heritage during the Israeli invasion of the Gaza Strip">Destruction of cultural heritage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Criminal_Court_arrest_warrants_for_Israeli_figures" title="International Criminal Court arrest warrants for Israeli figures">ICC arrest warrants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attacks_on_health_facilities_during_the_Israel%E2%80%93Hamas_war" title="Attacks on health facilities during the Israel–Hamas war">health facilities</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ICJ_case_on_Israel%27s_occupation_of_the_Palestinian_territories" title="ICJ case on Israel's occupation of the Palestinian territories">in the occupied Palestinian territories</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atrocity_crimes_during_the_Russo-Ukrainian_War" title="Atrocity crimes during the Russo-Ukrainian War">Russo-Ukrainian War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Humanitarian_situation_during_the_war_in_Donbas" title="Humanitarian situation during the war in Donbas">War in Donbas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_crimes_in_the_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" title="War crimes in the Russian invasion of Ukraine">Russian invasion of Ukraine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">2nd Sino-Japanese War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/War_crimes_in_Manchukuo" title="War crimes in Manchukuo">Manchukuo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_crimes_during_the_final_stages_of_the_Sri_Lankan_civil_war" title="War crimes during the final stages of the Sri Lankan civil war">Sri Lankan civil war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_crimes_during_the_Sudanese_civil_war_(2023%E2%80%93present)" title="War crimes during the Sudanese civil war (2023–present)">Sudanese civil war</a> (2023–present)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_crimes_in_the_Syrian_civil_war" title="War crimes in the Syrian civil war">Syrian civil war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_crimes_in_the_Tigray_war" title="War crimes in the Tigray war">Tigray war‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_crimes_in_World_War_I" title="War crimes in World War I">World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_crimes_in_World_War_II" title="War crimes in World War II">World War II</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allied_war_crimes_during_World_War_II" title="Allied war crimes during World War II">Allied</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axis_war_crimes" class="mw-redirect" title="Axis war crimes">Axis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_crimes_in_the_Yemeni_civil_war_(2014%E2%80%93present)" title="War crimes in the Yemeni civil war (2014–present)">Yemeni civil war</a> (2014–present)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_crimes_in_the_Yugoslav_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="War crimes in the Yugoslav Wars">Yugoslav Wars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/War_crimes_in_the_Kosovo_War" title="War crimes in the Kosovo War">Kosovo War</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;text-align:left;">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/War_crimes_trial" title="War crimes trial">War crimes trials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_crime_apologia" title="War crime apologia">War crime apologia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_global_issues" title="List of global issues">List of global issues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-conflict_reception_of_war_criminals" title="Post-conflict reception of war criminals">Post-conflict reception of war criminals</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th id="Other_international_crimes" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;">Other <a href="/wiki/International_criminal_law" title="International criminal law">international crimes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atrocity_crime" title="Atrocity crime">Atrocity crimes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crimes_against_humanity" title="Crimes against humanity">Crimes against humanity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_of_aggression" title="Crime of aggression">Crimes of aggression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">Genocide</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div>‡ Does not apply to <a href="/wiki/Airborne_forces" title="Airborne forces">airborne forces</a> (i.e. <a href="/wiki/Paratrooper" title="Paratrooper">paratroopers</a>) <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:War_crimes" title="Category:War crimes">Category</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Empire_of_Japan" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Empire_of_Japan" title="Template:Empire of Japan"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Empire_of_Japan" title="Template talk:Empire of Japan"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Empire_of_Japan" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Empire of Japan"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Empire_of_Japan" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Empire of Japan</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Overview</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_the_Empire_of_Japan" title="Agriculture in the Empire of Japan">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Censorship_in_the_Empire_of_Japan" title="Censorship in the Empire of Japan">Censorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demography_of_the_Empire_of_Japan" class="mw-redirect" title="Demography of the Empire of Japan">Demographics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_Empire_of_Japan" title="Economy of the Empire of Japan">Economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_Japan#Prewar_period" title="Economic history of Japan">Economic history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Empire_of_Japan" title="Education in the Empire of Japan">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emperor_system" title="Emperor system">System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugenics_in_Japan" title="Eugenics in Japan">Eugenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_commerce_and_shipping_of_the_Empire_of_Japan" title="Foreign commerce and shipping of the Empire of Japan">Foreign commerce and shipping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_production_in_Sh%C5%8Dwa_Japan" title="Industrial production in Shōwa Japan">Industrial production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_militarism" title="Japanese militarism">Militarism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_nationalism" title="Japanese nationalism">Nationalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_essentialism" title="National essentialism">Essentialism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_the_Empire_of_Japan_(1914%E2%80%931944)" title="Politics of the Empire of Japan (1914–1944)">Politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statism_in_Sh%C5%8Dwa_Japan" title="Statism in Shōwa Japan">Statism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_Shinto" title="State Shinto">State Shinto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kazoku" title="Kazoku">Kazoku</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="9" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Imperial_Seal_of_Japan.svg/80px-Imperial_Seal_of_Japan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Imperial_Seal_of_Japan.svg/120px-Imperial_Seal_of_Japan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Imperial_Seal_of_Japan.svg/160px-Imperial_Seal_of_Japan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="990" data-file-height="990" /></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Emperors</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emperor_Meiji" title="Emperor Meiji">Meiji (Mutsuhito)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emperor_Taish%C5%8D" title="Emperor Taishō">Taishō (Yoshihito)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hirohito" title="Hirohito">Shōwa (Hirohito)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Symbols</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Japan" title="Flag of Japan">Flag of Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rising_Sun_Flag" title="Rising Sun Flag">Rising Sun Flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_seals_of_Japan" title="National seals of Japan">National seals of Japan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Seal_of_Japan" title="Imperial Seal of Japan">Imperial Seal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_Seal_of_Japan" title="Government Seal of Japan">Government Seal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_Seal_of_Japan" title="State Seal of Japan">State Seal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privy_Seal_of_Japan" title="Privy Seal of Japan">Privy Seal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kimigayo" title="Kimigayo">Kimigayo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Policies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Meiji_Constitution" title="Meiji Constitution">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charter_Oath" title="Charter Oath">Charter Oath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Meiji_Japan" title="Foreign relations of Meiji Japan">Foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Rescript_on_Education" title="Imperial Rescript on Education">Imperial Rescript on Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Rule_Assistance_Association" title="Imperial Rule Assistance Association">Imperial Rule Assistance Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yokusan_Sonendan" title="Yokusan Sonendan">Yokusan Sonendan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Japan_Youth_Party" title="Great Japan Youth Party">Great Japan Youth Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kokutai" title="Kokutai">Kokutai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mokusatsu" title="Mokusatsu">Mokusatsu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Spiritual_Mobilization_Movement" title="National Spiritual Mobilization Movement">National Spiritual Mobilization Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_Preservation_Law" title="Peace Preservation Law">Peace Preservation Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_parties_of_the_Empire_of_Japan" title="Political parties of the Empire of Japan">Political parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Judicature_of_Japan" title="Supreme Court of Judicature of Japan">Supreme Court of Judicature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tokubetsu_K%C5%8Dt%C5%8D_Keisatsu" class="mw-redirect" title="Tokubetsu Kōtō Keisatsu">Tokkō</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tonarigumi" title="Tonarigumi">Tonarigumi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greater_East_Asia_Conference" title="Greater East Asia Conference">Greater East Asia Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Senbu" title="Senbu">Senbu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Airways" title="Imperial Japanese Airways">Imperial Japanese Airways</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Government</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Administrative_structure_of_the_Imperial_Japanese_Government" title="Administrative structure of the Imperial Japanese Government">Administration (ministries)</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_the_Imperial_Household" title="Ministry of the Imperial Household">Imperial Household</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Home_Ministry" title="Home Ministry">Home Ministry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_War_(pre-modern_Japan)" title="Ministry of War (pre-modern Japan)">War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Army_Ministry" title="Army Ministry">Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_the_Navy_(Japan)" title="Ministry of the Navy (Japan)">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_the_Treasury" title="Ministry of the Treasury">Treasury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Foreign_Affairs_(Japan)" title="Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Japan)">Foreign Affairs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Agriculture_and_Commerce" title="Ministry of Agriculture and Commerce">Agriculture and Commerce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Commerce_and_Industry_(Japan)" title="Ministry of Commerce and Industry (Japan)">Commerce and Industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Munitions_(Japan)" title="Ministry of Munitions (Japan)">Munitions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Colonial_Affairs_(Japan)" title="Ministry of Colonial Affairs (Japan)">Colonial Affairs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Greater_East_Asia" title="Ministry of Greater East Asia">Greater East Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Asia_Development_Board" title="East Asia Development Board">East Asia Development Board (Kōain)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Administrative_structure_of_the_Imperial_Japanese_Government" title="Administrative structure of the Imperial Japanese Government">Legislative and deliberative bodies</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Daij%C5%8D-kan" title="Daijō-kan">Daijō-kan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privy_Council_of_Japan" title="Privy Council of Japan">Privy Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gozen_Kaigi" title="Gozen Kaigi">Gozen Kaigi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Diet#History" title="National Diet">Imperial Diet</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Peers_(Japan)" title="House of Peers (Japan)">Peers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Representatives_(Japan)" title="House of Representatives (Japan)">Representatives</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Military</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Armed_Forces" title="Imperial Japanese Armed Forces">Armed Forces</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_General_Headquarters" title="Imperial General Headquarters">Imperial General Headquarters</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Army_General_Staff_Office" title="Imperial Japanese Army General Staff Office">Imperial Japanese Army General Staff Office</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Navy_General_Staff" title="Imperial Japanese Navy General Staff">Imperial Japanese Navy General Staff</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Rescript_to_Soldiers_and_Sailors" title="Imperial Rescript to Soldiers and Sailors">Imperial Rescript to Soldiers and Sailors</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Senjinkun_military_code" title="Senjinkun military code">Senjinkun military code</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_nuclear_weapons_program" title="Japanese nuclear weapons program">Nuclear weapons program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamikaze" title="Kamikaze">Kamikaze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_war_crimes" title="Japanese war crimes">War crimes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_War_Council_(Japan)" title="Supreme War Council (Japan)">Supreme War Council</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Conscription_in_Japan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Conscription in Japan (page does not exist)">Conscription</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Army" title="Imperial Japanese Army">Imperial Japanese Army</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Army_General_Staff_Office" title="Imperial Japanese Army General Staff Office">General Staff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Army_Air_Service" title="Imperial Japanese Army Air Service">Air Service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Army_Railways_and_Shipping_Section" title="Imperial Japanese Army Railways and Shipping Section">Railways and Shipping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Guard_(Japan)" title="Imperial Guard (Japan)">Imperial Guard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Way_Faction" title="Imperial Way Faction">Imperial Way Faction (Kōdōha)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_holdout" title="Japanese holdout">Japanese holdout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwan_Army_of_Japan" title="Taiwan Army of Japan">Taiwan Army of Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%C5%8Dseiha" title="Tōseiha">Control Faction (Tōseiha)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kempeitai" title="Kempeitai">Kempeitai</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Navy" title="Imperial Japanese Navy">Imperial Japanese Navy</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Navy_General_Staff" title="Imperial Japanese Navy General Staff">General Staff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Navy_Air_Service" title="Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service">Air Service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Marines" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial Japanese Marines">Marines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tokubetsu_Keisatsutai" title="Tokubetsu Keisatsutai">Tokkeitai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fleet_Faction" title="Fleet Faction">Fleet Faction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_Faction" title="Treaty Faction">Treaty Faction</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Meiji_era" title="Meiji era">Meiji era</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Meiji_Restoration" title="Meiji Restoration">Meiji Restoration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beipu_uprising" title="Beipu uprising">Beipu uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boshin_War" title="Boshin War">Boshin War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two_Lords_Incident" title="Two Lords Incident">Two Lords Incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satsuma_Rebellion" title="Satsuma Rebellion">Satsuma Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Sino-Japanese_War" title="First Sino-Japanese War">First Sino-Japanese War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triple_Intervention" title="Triple Intervention">Triple Intervention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boxer_Rebellion" title="Boxer Rebellion">Boxer Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo%E2%80%93Japanese_Alliance" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo–Japanese Alliance">Anglo–Japanese Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Japanese_War" title="Russo-Japanese War">Russo-Japanese War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_invasion_of_Taiwan_(1874)" title="Japanese invasion of Taiwan (1874)">Invasion of Taiwan (1874)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_invasion_of_Taiwan_(1895)" title="Japanese invasion of Taiwan (1895)">Invasion of Taiwan (1895)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Taish%C5%8D_era" title="Taishō era">Taishō era</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japan_during_World_War_I" title="Japan during World War I">World War I</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_entry_into_World_War_I" title="Japanese entry into World War I">Entry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_intervention_in_Siberia" title="Japanese intervention in Siberia">Siberian Intervention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_Election_Law" class="mw-redirect" title="General Election Law">General Election Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washington_Naval_Treaty" title="Washington Naval Treaty">Washington Naval Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchuria%E2%80%93Mongolia_problem" title="Manchuria–Mongolia problem">Manchuria–Mongolia problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taish%C5%8D_Democracy" title="Taishō Democracy">Taishō Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taish%C5%8D_Roman" title="Taishō Roman">Taishō Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tapani_incident" title="Tapani incident">Tapani incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truku_War" title="Truku War">Truku War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_Equality_Proposal" title="Racial Equality Proposal">Racial Equality Proposal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Sh%C5%8Dwa_era" title="Shōwa era">Shōwa era</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sh%C5%8Dwa_financial_crisis" title="Shōwa financial crisis">Shōwa financial crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jinan_incident" title="Jinan incident">Jinan incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/London_Naval_Treaty" title="London Naval Treaty">London Naval Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Musha_Incident" title="Musha Incident">Musha Incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacification_of_Manchukuo" title="Pacification of Manchukuo">Pacification of Manchukuo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/January_28_incident" title="January 28 incident">January 28 incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motherland_controversy" title="Motherland controversy">Motherland controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Comintern_Pact" title="Anti-Comintern Pact">Anti-Comintern Pact</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Second Sino-Japanese War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Japanese_border_conflicts" title="Soviet–Japanese border conflicts">Soviet–Japanese border conflicts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanjing_Massacre" title="Nanjing Massacre">Rape of Nanking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tripartite_Pact" title="Tripartite Pact">Tripartite Pact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Japanese_Neutrality_Pact" title="Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact">Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan_during_World_War_II" title="Japan during World War II">Japan during World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacific_War" title="Pacific War">Pacific War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Japanese_War" title="Soviet–Japanese War">Soviet–Japanese War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surrender_of_Japan" title="Surrender of Japan">Surrender</a> (<a href="/wiki/Potsdam_Declaration" title="Potsdam Declaration">Potsdam Declaration</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hirohito_surrender_broadcast" title="Hirohito surrender broadcast">Hirohito surrender broadcast</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Japan" title="Occupation of Japan">Occupation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Territories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Colonies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Karafuto_Prefecture" title="Karafuto Prefecture">Karafuto</a> (<a href="/wiki/Naichi" class="mw-redirect" title="Naichi">naichi</a> after 1943)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korea_under_Japanese_rule" title="Korea under Japanese rule">Chōsen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kwantung_Leased_Territory" title="Kwantung Leased Territory">Kantō-shū</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Seas_Mandate" title="South Seas Mandate">Nan'yō</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwan_under_Japanese_rule" title="Taiwan under Japanese rule">Taiwan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Puppet states</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Manchukuo" title="Manchukuo">Manchukuo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mengjiang" title="Mengjiang">Mengjiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Jingwei_regime" title="Wang Jingwei regime">Wang Jingwei regime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Philippine_Republic" title="Second Philippine Republic">Second Philippine Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Vietnam" title="Empire of Vietnam">Empire of Vietnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_of_Burma" title="State of Burma">State of Burma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azad_Hind" title="Azad Hind">Azad Hind</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_territories_acquired_by_the_Empire_of_Japan" title="List of territories acquired by the Empire of Japan">Occupied territories</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_British_Borneo" title="Japanese occupation of British Borneo">Borneo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Burma" title="Japanese occupation of Burma">Burma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_the_Dutch_East_Indies" title="Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies">Dutch East Indies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Indochina_in_World_War_II" title="French Indochina in World War II">French Indochina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Hong_Kong" title="Japanese occupation of Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Malaya" title="Japanese occupation of Malaya">Malaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_the_Philippines" title="Japanese occupation of the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Singapore" title="Japanese occupation of Singapore">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thailand_in_World_War_II" title="Thailand in World War II">Thailand</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Ideology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greater_East_Asia_Co-Prosperity_Sphere" title="Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere">Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yen_bloc" title="Yen bloc">Yen bloc</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sonn%C5%8D_j%C5%8Di" title="Sonnō jōi">Sonnō jōi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fukoku_ky%C5%8Dhei" title="Fukoku kyōhei">Fukoku kyōhei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hakk%C5%8D_ichiu" title="Hakkō ichiu">Hakkō ichiu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_settlers_in_Manchuria" title="Japanese settlers in Manchuria">Japanese settlers in Manchuria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Japanese-run_internment_camps_during_World_War_II" title="List of Japanese-run internment camps during World War II">Internment camps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German%E2%80%93Japanese_industrial_co-operation_before_World_War_II" class="mw-redirect" title="German–Japanese industrial co-operation before World War II">German pre–World War II industrial co-operation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shinmin_no_Michi" title="Shinmin no Michi">Shinmin no Michi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sh%C5%8Dwa_Modan" title="Shōwa Modan">Shōwa Modan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_thought_in_Imperial_Japan" title="Socialist thought in Imperial Japan">Socialist thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Imperial_Japan_Serviceman" title="Taiwanese Imperial Japan Serviceman">Taiwanese Imperial Japan Serviceman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yasukuni_Shrine" title="Yasukuni Shrine">Yasukuni Shrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Military_Tribunal_for_the_Far_East" title="International Military Tribunal for the Far East">International Military Tribunal for the Far East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_dissidence_in_the_Empire_of_Japan" title="Political dissidence in the Empire of Japan">Political dissidence</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=China&#124;link=China_China–Japan_relations_23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=Japan&#124;link=Japan" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:China%E2%80%93Japan_relations" title="Template:China–Japan relations"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:China%E2%80%93Japan_relations" title="Template talk:China–Japan relations"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:China%E2%80%93Japan_relations" title="Special:EditPage/Template:China–Japan relations"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=China&#124;link=China_China–Japan_relations_23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=Japan&#124;link=Japan" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/China" title="China"><img alt="China" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/China%E2%80%93Japan_relations" title="China–Japan relations">China–Japan relations</a> <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan"><img alt="Japan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/23px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/35px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/45px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Diplomatic posts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ambassadors_of_China_to_Japan" title="List of ambassadors of China to Japan">Ambassadors of China to Japan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Diplomacy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_missions_to_Imperial_China" title="Japanese missions to Imperial China">Japanese missions to Imperial China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ry%C5%ABky%C5%AB_Disposition" class="mw-redirect" title="Ryūkyū Disposition">Ryūkyū Disposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Japanese_Friendship_and_Trade_Treaty" title="Sino-Japanese Friendship and Trade Treaty">Sino-Japanese Friendship and Trade Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nishihara_Loans" title="Nishihara Loans">Nishihara Loans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Japanese_Joint_Defence_Agreement" title="Sino-Japanese Joint Defence Agreement">Sino-Japanese Joint Defence Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-One_Demands" title="Twenty-One Demands">Twenty-One Demands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Taipei" title="Treaty of Taipei">Treaty of Taipei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Japanese_Journalist_Exchange_Agreement" title="Sino-Japanese Journalist Exchange Agreement">Sino-Japanese Journalist Exchange Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan%E2%80%93China_Joint_Communiqu%C3%A9" title="Japan–China Joint Communiqué">Japan–China Joint Communiqué</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Peace_and_Friendship_between_Japan_and_China" title="Treaty of Peace and Friendship between Japan and China">Treaty of Peace and Friendship between Japan and China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_visit_by_Jiang_Zemin_to_Japan" title="State visit by Jiang Zemin to Japan">State visit by Jiang Zemin to Japan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japan%E2%80%93South_Korea_Joint_Declaration_of_1998" title="Japan–South Korea Joint Declaration of 1998">Japan–South Korea Joint Declaration of 1998</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China%E2%80%93Japan%E2%80%93South_Korea_Free_Trade_Agreement" title="China–Japan–South Korea Free Trade Agreement">China–Japan–South Korea Free Trade Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China%E2%80%93Japan%E2%80%93South_Korea_trilateral_summit" title="China–Japan–South Korea trilateral summit">China–Japan–South Korea trilateral summit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trilateral_Cooperation_Secretariat" title="Trilateral Cooperation Secretariat">Trilateral Cooperation Secretariat</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Conflicts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Sino-Japanese_War" title="First Sino-Japanese War">First Sino-Japanese War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Shimonoseki" title="Treaty of Shimonoseki">Treaty of Shimonoseki</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Second Sino-Japanese War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Manchukuo" title="Manchukuo">Manchukuo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_China_Buffer_State_Strategy" title="North China Buffer State Strategy">North China Buffer State Strategy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Comintern_Pact" title="Anti-Comintern Pact">Anti-Comintern Pact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ABCD_line" title="ABCD line">ABCD line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greater_East_Asia_Conference" title="Greater East Asia Conference">Greater East Asia Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/He%E2%80%93Umezu_Agreement" title="He–Umezu Agreement">He–Umezu Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chin%E2%80%93Doihara_Agreement" class="mw-redirect" title="Chin–Doihara Agreement">Chin–Doihara Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_war_crimes" title="Japanese war crimes">Japanese war crimes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanjing_Massacre" title="Nanjing Massacre">Nanjing Massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_Instrument_of_Surrender" title="Japanese Instrument of Surrender">Japanese Instrument of Surrender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_repatriation_from_Huludao" title="Japanese repatriation from Huludao">Japanese repatriation from Huludao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Association_of_Returnees_from_China" title="Association of Returnees from China">Association of Returnees from China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Controversies_surrounding_Yasukuni_Shrine" title="Controversies surrounding Yasukuni Shrine">Controversies surrounding Yasukuni Shrine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boycotts_of_Japanese_products" title="Boycotts of Japanese products">Boycotts of Japanese products</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Senkaku_Islands" title="Senkaku Islands">Senkaku Islands</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Senkaku_Islands_dispute" title="Senkaku Islands dispute">Senkaku Islands dispute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2010_Senkaku_boat_collision_incident" title="2010 Senkaku boat collision incident">2010 Senkaku boat collision incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baodiao_movement" title="Baodiao movement">Baodiao movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Action_Committee_for_Defending_the_Diaoyu_Islands" title="Action Committee for Defending the Diaoyu Islands">Action Committee for Defending the Diaoyu Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China_Federation_for_Defending_the_Diaoyu_Islands" title="China Federation for Defending the Diaoyu Islands">China Federation for Defending the Diaoyu Islands</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ry%C5%ABky%C5%AB_independence_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Ryūkyū independence movement">Ryūkyū independence movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exclusive_economic_zone_of_Japan" title="Exclusive economic zone of Japan">Exclusive economic zone of Japan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Incidents</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ningbo_incident" title="Ningbo incident">Ningbo incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jiajing_wokou_raids" title="Jiajing wokou raids">Jiajing wokou raids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mar%C3%ADa_Luz_incident" title="María Luz incident">María Luz incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imo_Incident" title="Imo Incident">Imo Incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gapsin_Coup" title="Gapsin Coup">Gapsin Coup</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Convention_of_Tientsin" title="Convention of Tientsin">Convention of Tientsin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nagasaki_incident" title="Nagasaki incident">Nagasaki incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shandong_Problem" title="Shandong Problem">Shandong Problem</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/May_Fourth_Movement" title="May Fourth Movement">May Fourth Movement</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_Equality_Proposal" title="Racial Equality Proposal">Racial Equality Proposal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lansing%E2%80%93Ishii_Agreement" title="Lansing–Ishii Agreement">Lansing–Ishii Agreement</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hankou_incident" class="mw-redirect" title="Hankou incident">Hankou incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jinan_incident" title="Jinan incident">Jinan incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong_thanking_Japan_controversy" title="Mao Zedong thanking Japan controversy">Mao Zedong thanking Japan controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_history_textbook_controversies" title="Japanese history textbook controversies">Japanese history textbook controversies</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2005_anti-Japanese_demonstrations" title="2005 anti-Japanese demonstrations">2005 anti-Japanese demonstrations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nobukatsu_Fujioka" title="Nobukatsu Fujioka">Nobukatsu Fujioka</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2012_China_anti-Japanese_demonstrations" class="mw-redirect" title="2012 China anti-Japanese demonstrations">2012 China anti-Japanese demonstrations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_China%E2%80%93Japan_relations" title="History of China–Japan relations">History of China–Japan relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan%E2%80%93Taiwan_relations" title="Japan–Taiwan relations">Japan–Taiwan relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_influence_on_Japanese_culture" title="Chinese influence on Japanese culture">Chinese influence on Japanese culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Differences_between_Shinjitai_and_Simplified_characters" title="Differences between Shinjitai and Simplified characters">Differences between Shinjitai and Simplified characters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Chinese_sentiment_in_Japan" title="Anti-Chinese sentiment in Japan">Anti-Chinese sentiment in Japan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shina_(word)" title="Shina (word)">Shina</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Japanese_sentiment_in_China" title="Anti-Japanese sentiment in China">Anti-Japanese sentiment in China</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Guizi" title="Guizi">Guizi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiritually_Japanese" title="Spiritually Japanese">Jingri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiao_Riben" title="Xiao Riben">Xiao Riben</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China%E2%80%93Japan_football_rivalry" title="China–Japan football rivalry">China–Japan football rivalry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2004_AFC_Asian_Cup_final" title="2004 AFC Asian Cup final">2004 AFC Asian Cup final</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China-Japan_Friendship_Hospital" title="China-Japan Friendship Hospital">China-Japan Friendship Hospital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bank_of_Taiwan_Building" title="Bank of Taiwan Building">Bank of Taiwan Building</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yokohama_Specie_Bank_Building" title="Yokohama Specie Bank Building">Yokohama Specie Bank Building</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan-China_Joint_History_Research_Committee" title="Japan-China Joint History Research Committee">Japan-China Joint History Research Committee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan%E2%80%93Ming_trade-ship_flag" title="Japan–Ming trade-ship flag">Japan–Ming trade-ship flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emperor_at_home,_king_abroad" title="Emperor at home, king abroad">Emperor at home, king abroad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TPE_(cable_system)" title="TPE (cable system)">TPE (cable system)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inter-Parliamentary_Alliance_on_China" title="Inter-Parliamentary Alliance on China">Inter-Parliamentary Alliance on China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pei_Shiqing" title="Pei Shiqing">Pei Shiqing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kosei_Fukunaga" title="Kosei Fukunaga">Kosei Fukunaga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yang_Shoujing" title="Yang Shoujing">Yang Shoujing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satoru_Mizushima" title="Satoru Mizushima">Satoru Mizushima</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liu_Lianren" title="Liu Lianren">Liu Lianren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhapu" title="Zhapu">Zhapu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ling_Ling_(giant_panda)" title="Ling Ling (giant panda)">Ling Ling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memoirs_of_a_Geisha_(film)" title="Memoirs of a Geisha (film)">Memoirs of a Geisha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Most_Recent_Biographies_of_Chinese_Dignitaries" title="The Most Recent Biographies of Chinese Dignitaries">The Most Recent Biographies of Chinese Dignitaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Life%2B:_Young_Again_in_Another_World" title="New Life+: Young Again in Another World">New Life+: Young Again in Another World</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:China%E2%80%93Japan_relations" title="Category:China–Japan relations">Category:China–Japan relations</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=China&#124;link=China_China–United_States_relations_23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=United_States&#124;link=United_States" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:China%E2%80%93United_States_relations" title="Template:China–United States relations"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:China%E2%80%93United_States_relations" title="Template talk:China–United States relations"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:China%E2%80%93United_States_relations" title="Special:EditPage/Template:China–United States relations"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=China&#124;link=China_China–United_States_relations_23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=United_States&#124;link=United_States" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/China" title="China"><img alt="China" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/China%E2%80%93United_States_relations" title="China–United States relations">China–United States relations</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States"><img alt="United States" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Diplomatic posts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Embassy_of_China,_Washington,_D.C." title="Embassy of China, Washington, D.C.">Embassy of China, Washington, D.C.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ambassadors_of_China_to_the_United_States" title="List of ambassadors of China to the United States">Ambassadors of China to the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embassy_of_the_United_States,_Beijing" title="Embassy of the United States, Beijing">Embassy of the United States, Beijing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ambassadors_of_the_United_States_to_China" title="List of ambassadors of the United States to China">Ambassadors of the United States to China</a></li> <li>Chinese Consulate-Generals <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consulate_General_of_China,_New_York" title="Consulate General of China, New York">New York</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Consuls-General_of_China_in_New_York" title="List of Consuls-General of China in New York">Consuls-General of China, New York</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consulate_General_of_China,_Los_Angeles" class="mw-redirect" title="Consulate General of China, Los Angeles">Los Angeles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consulate_General_of_China,_Houston" title="Consulate General of China, Houston">Houston</a></li></ul></li> <li>American Consulate-Generals <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consulate_General_of_the_United_States,_Chengdu" title="Consulate General of the United States, Chengdu">Chengdu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consulate_General_of_the_United_States,_Guangzhou" title="Consulate General of the United States, Guangzhou">Guangzhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consulate_General_of_the_United_States,_Hong_Kong_and_Macau" title="Consulate General of the United States, Hong Kong and Macau">Hong Kong and Macau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consulate_General_of_the_United_States,_Shanghai" title="Consulate General of the United States, Shanghai">Shanghai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consulate_General_of_the_United_States,_Shenyang" title="Consulate General of the United States, Shenyang">Shenyang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consulate_General_of_the_United_States,_Wuhan" title="Consulate General of the United States, Wuhan">Wuhan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_East_Asian_and_Pacific_Affairs" title="Bureau of East Asian and Pacific Affairs">Bureau of East Asian and Pacific Affairs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Office_of_China_Coordination" title="Office of China Coordination">Office of China Coordination</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/United_States_foreign_policy_toward_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="United States foreign policy toward the People's Republic of China">Diplomacy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Wanghia" title="Treaty of Wanghia">Treaty of Wanghia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Tientsin" title="Treaty of Tientsin">Treaty of Tientsin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burlingame_Treaty" title="Burlingame Treaty">Burlingame Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gresham-Yang_Treaty" title="Gresham-Yang Treaty">Gresham-Yang Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shanghai_International_Settlement" title="Shanghai International Settlement">Shanghai International Settlement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Concession_(Shanghai)" title="American Concession (Shanghai)">American Concession (Shanghai)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Court_for_China" title="United States Court for China">United States Court for China</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_between_the_United_States_and_China_for_the_Relinquishment_of_Extraterritorial_Rights_in_China" title="Treaty between the United States and China for the Relinquishment of Extraterritorial Rights in China">Treaty between the United States and China for the Relinquishment of Extraterritorial Rights in China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Friendship,_Commerce_and_Navigation_between_the_United_States_of_America_and_the_Republic_of_China" title="Treaty of Friendship, Commerce and Navigation between the United States of America and the Republic of China">Treaty of Friendship, Commerce and Navigation between the United States of America and the Republic of China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marshall_Mission" title="Marshall Mission">Marshall Mission</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Loss_of_China" title="Loss of China">Loss of China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China_White_Paper" title="China White Paper">China White Paper</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PRC-US_Ambassadorial_Talks" title="PRC-US Ambassadorial Talks">PRC-US Ambassadorial Talks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1972_visit_by_Richard_Nixon_to_China" title="1972 visit by Richard Nixon to China">1972 visit by Richard Nixon to China</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shanghai_Communiqu%C3%A9" title="Shanghai Communiqué">Shanghai Communiqué</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Communiqu%C3%A9s" title="Three Communiqués">Three Communiqués</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One-China_policy" class="mw-redirect" title="One-China policy">One-China policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nixon_goes_to_China" title="Nixon goes to China">Nixon goes to China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nixon%27s_China_Game" title="Nixon's China Game">Nixon's China Game</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvey_Feldman" title="Harvey Feldman">Harvey Feldman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ling-Ling_and_Hsing-Hsing" title="Ling-Ling and Hsing-Hsing">Ling-Ling and Hsing-Hsing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joint_Communiqu%C3%A9_on_the_Establishment_of_Diplomatic_Relations" title="Joint Communiqué on the Establishment of Diplomatic Relations">Joint Communiqué on the Establishment of Diplomatic Relations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Goldwater_v._Carter" title="Goldwater v. Carter">Goldwater v. Carter</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_visit_by_Deng_Xiaoping_to_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="State visit by Deng Xiaoping to the United States">State visit by Deng Xiaoping to the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidential_Rule_of_Law_Initiative" title="Presidential Rule of Law Initiative">Presidential Rule of Law Initiative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beijing%E2%80%93Washington_hotline" title="Beijing–Washington hotline">Beijing–Washington hotline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_visit_by_Xi_Jinping_to_the_United_States" title="State visit by Xi Jinping to the United States">State visit by Xi Jinping to the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2015_United_States%E2%80%93China_Cybersecurity_Agreement" title="2015 United States–China Cybersecurity Agreement">2015 United States–China Cybersecurity Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joint_Comprehensive_Plan_of_Action" title="Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action">Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States%E2%80%93China_talks_in_Alaska" title="United States–China talks in Alaska">United States–China talks in Alaska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States%E2%80%93China_Working_Group" title="United States–China Working Group">United States–China Working Group</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Conflicts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boxer_Rebellion" title="Boxer Rebellion">Boxer Rebellion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eight-Nation_Alliance" title="Eight-Nation Alliance">Eight-Nation Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China_Relief_Expedition" title="China Relief Expedition">China Relief Expedition</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Civil_War" title="Chinese Civil War">Chinese Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allegations_of_biological_warfare_in_the_Korean_War" title="Allegations of biological warfare in the Korean War">Allegations of biological warfare in the Korean War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-Strait_conflict" class="mw-redirect" title="Cross-Strait conflict">Cross-Strait conflict</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Taiwan_Strait_Crisis" title="First Taiwan Strait Crisis">First Taiwan Strait Crisis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Operation_King_Kong" title="Operation King Kong">Operation King Kong</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Taiwan_Strait_Crisis" title="Second Taiwan Strait Crisis">Second Taiwan Strait Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Taiwan_Strait_Crisis" title="Third Taiwan Strait Crisis">Third Taiwan Strait Crisis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CIA_Tibetan_program" title="CIA Tibetan program">CIA Tibetan program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quadrilateral_Security_Dialogue" title="Quadrilateral Security Dialogue">Quadrilateral Security Dialogue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Incidents</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rover_incident" title="Rover incident">Rover incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chy_Lung_v._Freeman" title="Chy Lung v. Freeman">Chy Lung v. Freeman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cheong_Ah_Moy_v._United_States" title="Cheong Ah Moy v. United States">Cheong Ah Moy v. United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chae_Chan_Ping_v._United_States" title="Chae Chan Ping v. United States">Chae Chan Ping v. United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twain%E2%80%93Ament_indemnities_controversy" title="Twain–Ament indemnities controversy">Twain–Ament indemnities controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1905_Chinese_boycott" title="1905 Chinese boycott">1905 Chinese boycott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USS_Monocacy_incident" title="USS Monocacy incident">USS Monocacy incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Scare" title="Red Scare">Red Scare</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Qian_Xuesen" title="Qian Xuesen">Qian Xuesen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1946_United_States_Air_Force_C-47_Crash_at_Yan%27an" title="1946 United States Air Force C-47 Crash at Yan'an">1946 United States Air Force C-47 Crash at Yan'an</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shen_Chong_case" title="Shen Chong case">Shen Chong case</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamont_v._Postmaster_General" title="Lamont v. Postmaster General">Lamont v. Postmaster General</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hu_Na" title="Hu Na">Hu Na</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_Sabre_II" title="Project Sabre II">Project Sabre II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yinhe_incident" title="Yinhe incident">Yinhe incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1996_United_States_campaign_finance_controversy" title="1996 United States campaign finance controversy">1996 United States campaign finance controversy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Johnny_Chung" title="Johnny Chung">Johnny Chung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liu_Chaoying" title="Liu Chaoying">Liu Chaoying</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_bombing_of_the_Chinese_embassy_in_Belgrade" title="United States bombing of the Chinese embassy in Belgrade">United States bombing of the Chinese embassy in Belgrade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hainan_Island_incident" title="Hainan Island incident">Hainan Island incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Shady_RAT" title="Operation Shady RAT">Operation Shady RAT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Aurora" title="Operation Aurora">Operation Aurora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contents_of_the_United_States_diplomatic_cables_leak_(China)" title="Contents of the United States diplomatic cables leak (China)">United States diplomatic cables leak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2012_China_anti-Japanese_demonstrations" class="mw-redirect" title="2012 China anti-Japanese demonstrations">2012 China anti-Japanese demonstrations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murder_of_Shao_Tong" title="Murder of Shao Tong">Murder of Shao Tong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disappearance_of_David_Louis_Sneddon" title="Disappearance of David Louis Sneddon">Disappearance of David Louis Sneddon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trump%E2%80%93Tsai_call" title="Trump–Tsai call">Trump–Tsai call</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Havana_syndrome" title="Havana syndrome">Havana syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_Science_Products_v._Hebei_Welcome_Pharmaceuticals" title="Animal Science Products v. Hebei Welcome Pharmaceuticals">Animal Science Products v. Hebei Welcome Pharmaceuticals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China_Initiative" title="China Initiative">China Initiative</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trial_of_Anming_Hu" title="Trial of Anming Hu">Trial of Anming Hu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concerns_over_Chinese_involvement_in_5G_wireless_networks" title="Concerns over Chinese involvement in 5G wireless networks">Concerns over Chinese involvement in 5G wireless networks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meng_Wanzhou" title="Meng Wanzhou">Meng Wanzhou</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Extradition_case_of_Meng_Wanzhou" title="Extradition case of Meng Wanzhou">Extradition</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TikTok_v._Trump" title="TikTok v. Trump">TikTok v. Trump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/U.S._WeChat_Users_Alliance_v._Trump" title="U.S. WeChat Users Alliance v. Trump">U.S. WeChat Users Alliance v. Trump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_misinformation" title="COVID-19 misinformation">COVID-19 misinformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Defense_China_Task_Force" title="United States Department of Defense China Task Force">United States Department of Defense China Task Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2022_visit_by_Nancy_Pelosi_to_Taiwan" title="2022 visit by Nancy Pelosi to Taiwan">2022 visit by Nancy Pelosi to Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_espionage_in_the_United_States" title="Chinese espionage in the United States">Chinese espionage in the United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cyberwarfare_by_China" title="Cyberwarfare by China">Cyberwarfare by China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_alleged_Chinese_spy_cases_persecuted_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="List of alleged Chinese spy cases persecuted in the United States">Alleged Chinese spy cases persecuted in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cox_Report" title="Cox Report">Cox Report</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Cox_Report_controversy" title="Timeline of the Cox Report controversy">Timeline of the Cox Report controversy</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_espionage_in_China" title="American espionage in China">American espionage in China</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hugh_Francis_Redmond" title="Hugh Francis Redmond">Hugh Francis Redmond</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uyghur_detainees_at_Guantanamo_Bay" title="Uyghur detainees at Guantanamo Bay">Uyghur detainees at Guantanamo Bay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2023_Chinese_balloon_incident" title="2023 Chinese balloon incident">2023 balloon incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_interference_in_the_2024_United_States_elections" title="Chinese interference in the 2024 United States elections">Chinese interference in the 2024 United States elections</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/United_States%E2%80%93China_security_cooperation" title="United States–China security cooperation">Military relations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yangtze_Patrol" title="Yangtze Patrol">Yangtze Patrol</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alice_Dollar_incident" title="Alice Dollar incident">Alice Dollar incident</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Second Sino-Japanese War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Volunteer_Group" title="American Volunteer Group">American Volunteer Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Cat_Squadron" title="Black Cat Squadron">Black Cat Squadron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_of_Chinese_Nationalist_air_force_(1937%E2%80%931945)" title="Development of Chinese Nationalist air force (1937–1945)">Development of Chinese Nationalist air force (1937–1945)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China_Air_Task_Force" title="China Air Task Force">China Air Task Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China_Marines" title="China Marines">China Marines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dixie_Mission" title="Dixie Mission">Dixie Mission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flying_Tigers" title="Flying Tigers">Flying Tigers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Beleaguer" title="Operation Beleaguer">Operation Beleaguer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-American_Cooperative_Organization" title="Sino-American Cooperative Organization">Sino-American Cooperative Organization</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RIMPAC" title="RIMPAC">RIMPAC</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Legislation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_sanctions_against_China" title="United States sanctions against China">United States sanctions against China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/U.S._immigration_policy_toward_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="U.S. immigration policy toward the People's Republic of China">U.S. immigration policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnuson_Act" title="Magnuson Act">Magnuson Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwan_Relations_Act" title="Taiwan Relations Act">Taiwan Relations Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_Order_12711" title="Executive Order 12711">Executive Order 12711</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Student_Protection_Act_of_1992" title="Chinese Student Protection Act of 1992">Chinese Student Protection Act of 1992</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States-Hong_Kong_Policy_Act" title="United States-Hong Kong Policy Act">United States-Hong Kong Policy Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States%E2%80%93Hong_Kong_Agreement_for_the_Surrender_of_Fugitive_Offenders" title="United States–Hong Kong Agreement for the Surrender of Fugitive Offenders">United States–Hong Kong Agreement for the Surrender of Fugitive Offenders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_Abortion_Condemnation_Act" title="Forced Abortion Condemnation Act">Forced Abortion Condemnation Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwan_Security_Enhancement_Act" title="Taiwan Security Enhancement Act">Taiwan Security Enhancement Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States%E2%80%93China_Relations_Act_of_2000" title="United States–China Relations Act of 2000">United States–China Relations Act of 2000</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wolf_Amendment" title="Wolf Amendment">Wolf Amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwan_Travel_Act" title="Taiwan Travel Act">Taiwan Travel Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EQUITABLE_Act" title="EQUITABLE Act">EQUITABLE Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong_Be_Water_Act" title="Hong Kong Be Water Act">Hong Kong Be Water Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong_Human_Rights_and_Democracy_Act" title="Hong Kong Human Rights and Democracy Act">Hong Kong Human Rights and Democracy Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibet_Policy_and_Support_Act" title="Tibet Policy and Support Act">Tibet Policy and Support Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwan_Allies_International_Protection_and_Enhancement_Initiative_Act" title="Taiwan Allies International Protection and Enhancement Initiative Act">Taiwan Allies International Protection and Enhancement Initiative Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proclamation_10043" title="Proclamation 10043">Proclamation 10043</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uyghur_Human_Rights_Policy_Act" title="Uyghur Human Rights Policy Act">Uyghur Human Rights Policy Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong_Autonomy_Act" title="Hong Kong Autonomy Act">Hong Kong Autonomy Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_Order_13936" title="Executive Order 13936">Executive Order 13936</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_Order_13959" title="Executive Order 13959">Executive Order 13959</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holding_Foreign_Companies_Accountable_Act" title="Holding Foreign Companies Accountable Act">Holding Foreign Companies Accountable Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_Order_14032" title="Executive Order 14032">Executive Order 14032</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Innovation_and_Competition_Act" title="United States Innovation and Competition Act">United States Innovation and Competition Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uyghur_Forced_Labor_Prevention_Act" title="Uyghur Forced Labor Prevention Act">Uyghur Forced Labor Prevention Act</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Economic relations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_China_Trade" title="Old China Trade">Old China Trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States-China_Economic_and_Security_Review_Commission" class="mw-redirect" title="United States-China Economic and Security Review Commission">United States-China Economic and Security Review Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_of_Two" title="Group of Two">Group of Two</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_Economic_Dialogue" title="Strategic Economic Dialogue">Strategic Economic Dialogue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Summer_Palace_Dialogue" title="Summer Palace Dialogue">Summer Palace Dialogue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/U.S.%E2%80%93China_Strategic_and_Economic_Dialogue" title="U.S.–China Strategic and Economic Dialogue">U.S.–China Strategic and Economic Dialogue</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Senior_Dialogue" title="Senior Dialogue">Senior Dialogue</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China%E2%80%93United_States_trade_war" title="China–United States trade war">China–United States trade war</a> (<a href="/wiki/Trump_tariffs" title="Trump tariffs">Trump tariffs</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permanent_normal_trade_relations" title="Permanent normal trade relations">Permanent normal trade relations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_China%E2%80%93United_States_relations" title="History of China–United States relations">History of China–United States relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong%E2%80%93United_States_relations" title="Hong Kong–United States relations">Hong Kong–United States relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macau%E2%80%93United_States_relations" title="Macau–United States relations">Macau–United States relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwan%E2%80%93United_States_relations" title="Taiwan–United States relations">Taiwan–United States relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Americans_in_China" title="Americans in China">Americans in China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Americans" title="Chinese Americans">Chinese Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-American_sentiment_in_mainland_China" title="Anti-American sentiment in mainland China">Anti-American sentiment in mainland China</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ruguanxue" title="Ruguanxue">Ruguanxue</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Chinese_sentiment_in_the_United_States" title="Anti-Chinese sentiment in the United States">Anti-Chinese sentiment in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chimerica" title="Chimerica">Chimerica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China_Lobby" class="mw-redirect" title="China Lobby">China Lobby</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asia_First" title="Asia First">Asia First</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Century" title="Chinese Century">Chinese Century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China_Hands" title="China Hands">China Hands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China_watcher" title="China watcher">China watcher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War_in_Asia" title="Cold War in Asia">Cold War in Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Cold_War" title="Second Cold War">Second Cold War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_Intelligence_Cold_War" title="Artificial Intelligence Cold War">Artificial Intelligence Cold War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ping-pong_diplomacy" title="Ping-pong diplomacy">Ping-pong diplomacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triangular_diplomacy" title="Triangular diplomacy">Triangular diplomacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peaceful_Evolution_theory" title="Peaceful Evolution theory">Peaceful Evolution theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linkage_(policy)" title="Linkage (policy)">Linkage (policy)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/String_of_Pearls_(Indian_Ocean)" title="String of Pearls (Indian Ocean)">String of Pearls (Indian Ocean)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thucydides_Trap" title="Thucydides Trap">Thucydides Trap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hong_(business)" title="Hong (business)">Hong (business)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_route_authority_between_the_United_States_and_China" title="Air route authority between the United States and China">Air route authority between the United States and China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blue_Team_(U.S._politics)" title="Blue Team (U.S. politics)">Blue Team</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TPE_(cable_system)" title="TPE (cable system)">TPE (cable system)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestant_missions_in_China" title="Protestant missions in China">Protestant missions in China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elijah_Coleman_Bridgman" title="Elijah Coleman Bridgman">Elijah Coleman Bridgman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divie_Bethune_McCartee" title="Divie Bethune McCartee">Divie Bethune McCartee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_1990_Institute" title="The 1990 Institute">The 1990 Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boxer_Indemnity_Scholarship" title="Boxer Indemnity Scholarship">Boxer Indemnity Scholarship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China_Aid_Society" title="China Aid Society">China Aid Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Educational_Mission" title="Chinese Educational Mission">Chinese Educational Mission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Committee_for_a_Democratic_Far_Eastern_Policy" title="Committee for a Democratic Far Eastern Policy">Committee for a Democratic Far Eastern Policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congressional-Executive_Commission_on_China" title="Congressional-Executive Commission on China">Congressional-Executive Commission on China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hua_Yuan_Science_and_Technology_Association" title="Hua Yuan Science and Technology Association">Hua Yuan Science and Technology Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inter-Parliamentary_Alliance_on_China" title="Inter-Parliamentary Alliance on China">Inter-Parliamentary Alliance on China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_House_Select_Committee_on_Strategic_Competition_between_the_United_States_and_the_Chinese_Communist_Party" title="United States House Select Committee on Strategic Competition between the United States and the Chinese Communist Party">United States House Select Committee on Strategic Competition between the United States and the Chinese Communist Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kissinger_Institute_on_China_and_the_United_States" title="Kissinger Institute on China and the United States">Kissinger Institute on China and the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Committee_on_United_States%E2%80%93China_Relations" title="National Committee on United States–China Relations">National Committee on United States–China Relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oberlin_Shansi_Memorial_Association" title="Oberlin Shansi Memorial Association">Oberlin Shansi Memorial Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-American_Joint_Commission_on_Rural_Reconstruction" title="Sino-American Joint Commission on Rural Reconstruction">Sino-American Joint Commission on Rural Reconstruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/US-China_Business_Council" title="US-China Business Council">US-China Business Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/US%E2%80%93China_Education_Trust" title="US–China Education Trust">US–China Education Trust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/US%E2%80%93China_Peoples_Friendship_Association" title="US–China Peoples Friendship Association">US–China Peoples Friendship Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_International_Academy" title="Massachusetts International Academy">Massachusetts International Academy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvard_Summit_for_Young_Leaders_in_China" title="Harvard Summit for Young Leaders in China">Harvard Summit for Young Leaders in China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_School_of_Beijing" title="International School of Beijing">International School of Beijing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SARS_conspiracy_theory" title="SARS conspiracy theory">SARS conspiracy theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yixian_glazed_pottery_luohans" title="Yixian glazed pottery luohans">Yixian glazed pottery luohans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvard_Bixi" title="Harvard Bixi">Harvard Bixi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_H._Hinton" title="William H. Hinton">William H. Hinton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_Rights_Record_of_the_United_States" title="Human Rights Record of the United States">Human Rights Record of the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USA_pavilion_at_Expo_2010" title="USA pavilion at Expo 2010">USA pavilion at Expo 2010</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Federal_State_of_China" title="New Federal State of China">New Federal State of China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China_Human_Rights_Biweekly" title="China Human Rights Biweekly">China Human Rights Biweekly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Far_East_Reporter" title="Far East Reporter">Far East Reporter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duke-UNC_China_Leadership_Summit" title="Duke-UNC China Leadership Summit">Duke-UNC China Leadership Summit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Coming_Conflict_with_China" title="The Coming Conflict with China">The Coming Conflict with China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Great_Wall:_Six_Presidents_and_China" title="A Great Wall: Six Presidents and China">A Great Wall: Six Presidents and China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_New_Chinese_Empire" title="The New Chinese Empire">The New Chinese Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Art_of_Investing_in_America" title="The Art of Investing in America">The Art of Investing in America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_China" title="On China">On China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peaceful_War" title="Peaceful War">Peaceful War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Transpacific_Experiment" title="The Transpacific Experiment">The Transpacific Experiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stealth_War:_How_China_Took_Over_While_America%27s_Elite_Slept" class="mw-redirect" title="Stealth War: How China Took Over While America's Elite Slept">Stealth War: How China Took Over While America's Elite Slept</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Chinese_Battle_Plan" title="Red Chinese Battle Plan">Red Chinese Battle Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_China_Hustle" title="The China Hustle">The China Hustle</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:China%E2%80%93United_States_relations" title="Category:China–United States relations">Category:China–United States relations</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Anti-Chinese_sentiment_(Sinophobia)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Anti-Chinese_sentiment" title="Template:Anti-Chinese sentiment"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Anti-Chinese_sentiment" title="Template talk:Anti-Chinese sentiment"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Anti-Chinese_sentiment" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Anti-Chinese sentiment"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Anti-Chinese_sentiment_(Sinophobia)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Anti-Chinese_sentiment" title="Anti-Chinese sentiment">Anti-Chinese sentiment</a> (Sinophobia)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Background</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coolie" title="Coolie">Coolie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yellow_Peril" title="Yellow Peril">Yellow Peril</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_emigration" title="Chinese emigration">Chinese emigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Unparalleled_Invasion" title="The Unparalleled Invasion">The Unparalleled Invasion</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_nationalism" title="Japanese nationalism">Japanese nationalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_nationalism_in_Japan" title="Ethnic nationalism in Japan">Minzoku</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/De-Sinicization" title="De-Sinicization">De-Sinicization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By persecutor</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adriaan_Valckenier" title="Adriaan Valckenier">Adriaan Valckenier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Jackson_Bryant" title="Andrew Jackson Bryant">Andrew Jackson Bryant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denis_Kearney" title="Denis Kearney">Denis Kearney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hideki_Tojo" title="Hideki Tojo">Hideki Tojo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suharto" title="Suharto">Suharto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pol_Pot" title="Pol Pot">Pol Pot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plaek_Phibunsongkhram" title="Plaek Phibunsongkhram">Plaek Phibunsongkhram</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By country</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong%E2%80%93Mainland_China_conflict" title="Hong Kong–Mainland China conflict">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Chinese_Indians" class="mw-redirect" title="Persecution of Chinese Indians">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_Chinese_Indonesians" title="Discrimination against Chinese Indonesians">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Chinese_sentiment_in_Japan" title="Anti-Chinese sentiment in Japan">Japan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Japan" title="Racism in Japan">Racism in Japan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Chinese_sentiment_in_Korea" title="Anti-Chinese sentiment in Korea">Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinophobia#Laos_and_Thailand" class="mw-redirect" title="Sinophobia">Laos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinophobia#Malaysia" class="mw-redirect" title="Sinophobia">Malaysia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Malaysia" title="Racism in Malaysia">Racism in Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ketuanan_Melayu" title="Ketuanan Melayu">Ketuanan Melayu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinophobia#Myanmar" class="mw-redirect" title="Sinophobia">Myanmar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Chinese_people_in_Nazi_Germany" title="Persecution of Chinese people in Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinophobia#Philippines" class="mw-redirect" title="Sinophobia">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinophobia#Singapore" class="mw-redirect" title="Sinophobia">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Chinese_sentiment#Taiwan" title="Anti-Chinese sentiment">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinophobia#Laos_and_Thailand" class="mw-redirect" title="Sinophobia">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Chinese_sentiment_in_the_United_States" title="Anti-Chinese sentiment in the United States">United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/China_Initiative" title="China Initiative">China Initiative</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinophobia#Vietnam" class="mw-redirect" title="Sinophobia">Vietnam</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By institution</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Chinese_Union" title="Anti-Chinese Union">Anti-Chinese Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asiatic_Exclusion_League" title="Asiatic Exclusion League">Asiatic Exclusion League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_Brotherhood_of_Railway_Employees" title="Canadian Brotherhood of Railway Employees">Canadian Brotherhood of Railway Employees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsagaan_Khas" title="Tsagaan Khas">Tsagaan Khas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uyoku_dantai" title="Uyoku dantai">Uyoku dantai</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By incident</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">17th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sangley_Rebellion" title="Sangley Rebellion">Sangley Rebellion</a> (1603)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2nd_Sangley_Rebellion_(1639)" class="mw-redirect" title="2nd Sangley Rebellion (1639)">2nd Sangley Rebellion (1639)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sangley_Massacre_(1662)" title="Sangley Massacre (1662)">Sangley Massacre (1662)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">18th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1740_Batavia_massacre" title="1740 Batavia massacre">1740 Batavia massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1782_Saigon_massacre" title="1782 Saigon massacre">1782 Saigon massacre</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">19th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buckland_Riot" class="mw-redirect" title="Buckland Riot">Buckland Riot</a> (1857)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lambing_Flat_riots" title="Lambing Flat riots">Lambing Flat riots</a> (1860–1861)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Coolie_Act" title="Anti-Coolie Act">Anti-Coolie Act</a> (1862)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_massacre_of_1871" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese massacre of 1871">Chinese massacre of 1871</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pigtail_Ordinance" title="Pigtail Ordinance">Pigtail Ordinance</a> (1873)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Page_Act_of_1875" title="Page Act of 1875">Page Act of 1875</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trout_Creek_Outrage" title="Trout Creek Outrage">Trout Creek Outrage</a> (1876)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/San_Francisco_riot_of_1877" title="San Francisco riot of 1877">San Francisco riot of 1877</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Zealand_head_tax" title="New Zealand head tax">New Zealand head tax</a> (1881–1944)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Exclusion_Act" title="Chinese Exclusion Act">Chinese Exclusion Act</a> (1882–1943)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Commission_on_Chinese_Immigration_(1885)" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal Commission on Chinese Immigration (1885)">Royal Commission on Chinese Immigration (1885)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Immigration_Act_of_1885" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese Immigration Act of 1885">Chinese Immigration Act of 1885</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attack_on_Squak_Valley_Chinese_laborers,_1885" title="Attack on Squak Valley Chinese laborers, 1885">Attack on Squak Valley Chinese laborers, 1885</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Issaquah_riot_of_1885" class="mw-redirect" title="Issaquah riot of 1885">Issaquah riot of 1885</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tacoma_riot_of_1885" title="Tacoma riot of 1885">Tacoma riot of 1885</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rock_Springs_massacre" title="Rock Springs massacre">Rock Springs massacre</a> (1885)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1885_Chinese_expulsion_from_Eureka" title="1885 Chinese expulsion from Eureka">1885 Chinese expulsion from Eureka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_head_tax_in_Canada" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese head tax in Canada">Chinese head tax in Canada</a> (1885–1923)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seattle_riot_of_1886" title="Seattle riot of 1886">Seattle riot of 1886</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vancouver_anti-Chinese_riots,_1886" class="mw-redirect" title="Vancouver anti-Chinese riots, 1886">Vancouver anti-Chinese riots, 1886</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hells_Canyon_Massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Hells Canyon Massacre">Hells Canyon Massacre</a> (1887)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scott_Act_(1888)" title="Scott Act (1888)">Scott Act (1888)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geary_Act" title="Geary Act">Geary Act</a> (1892–1943)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Union_Colliery_Co_of_British_Columbia_v_Bryden" title="Union Colliery Co of British Columbia v Bryden">Union Colliery Co of British Columbia v Bryden</a> (1899)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">20th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/White_Australia_policy" title="White Australia policy">White Australia policy</a> (1901–1973)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vancouver_anti-Asian_riots" class="mw-redirect" title="Vancouver anti-Asian riots">Vancouver anti-Asian riots</a> (1907)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beipu_uprising" title="Beipu uprising">Beipu uprising</a> (1907)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torre%C3%B3n_massacre" title="Torreón massacre">Torreón massacre</a> (1911)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1918_Kudus_riot" title="1918 Kudus riot">1918 Kudus riot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_deportations_of_Chinese_people" title="Soviet deportations of Chinese people">Soviet deportations of Chinese people</a> (1920s–1930s)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Immigration_Act,_1923" title="Chinese Immigration Act, 1923">Chinese Immigration Act, 1923</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wanpaoshan_Incident" title="Wanpaoshan Incident">Wanpaoshan Incident</a> (1931)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Second Sino-Japanese War</a> (1937-1945) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nanking_Massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanking Massacre">Nanking Massacre</a> (1937–1938)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanshitou_Massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanshitou Massacre">Nanshitou Massacre</a> (1942-1945)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_war_crimes" title="Japanese war crimes">Japanese war crimes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Alls_Policy" class="mw-redirect" title="Three Alls Policy">Three Alls Policy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sook_Ching_massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Sook Ching massacre">Sook Ching massacre</a> (1942)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Changkiao_massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Changkiao massacre">Changkiao massacre</a> (1943)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Home_Office_213/926" title="Home Office 213/926">Home Office 213/926</a> (1945–1946)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bersiap" title="Bersiap">Bersiap</a> (1945–1947) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mergosono_massacre" title="Mergosono massacre">Mergosono massacre</a> (1947)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legislation_on_Chinese_Indonesians" title="Legislation on Chinese Indonesians">Legislation on Chinese Indonesians</a> (1950s-)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Confession_Program" title="Chinese Confession Program">Chinese Confession Program</a> (1956–1965)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internment_of_Chinese-Indians" title="Internment of Chinese-Indians">Internment of Chinese-Indians</a> (1962)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1964_race_riots_in_Singapore" title="1964 race riots in Singapore">1964 race riots in Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_mass_killings_of_1965%E2%80%9366" title="Indonesian mass killings of 1965–66">Indonesian mass killings of 1965–66</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1967_anti-Chinese_riots_in_Burma" title="1967 anti-Chinese riots in Burma">1967 anti-Chinese riots in Burma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monosodium_glutamate#Controversy" title="Monosodium glutamate">Monosodium glutamate controversy (Chinese restaurant syndrome)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/13_May_incident_(Malaysia)" class="mw-redirect" title="13 May incident (Malaysia)">13 May incident (Malaysia)</a> (1969)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1969_race_riots_of_Singapore" title="1969 race riots of Singapore">1969 race riots of Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malari_incident" title="Malari incident">Malari incident</a> (1974)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambodian_genocide" title="Cambodian genocide">Cambodian genocide</a> (1975–1979)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1997_Banjarmasin_riot" title="1997 Banjarmasin riot">1997 Banjarmasin riot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/May_1998_riots_of_Indonesia" title="May 1998 riots of Indonesia">May 1998 riots of Indonesia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">21st century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2006_Nuku%CA%BBalofa_riots" title="2006 Nukuʻalofa riots">2006 Nukuʻalofa riots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abacus_Federal_Savings_Bank#Prosecution_and_exoneration" title="Abacus Federal Savings Bank">Abacus Bank prosecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2008_Kunming_bus_bombings" title="2008 Kunming bus bombings">2008 Kunming bus bombings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/July_2009_%C3%9Cr%C3%BCmqi_riots" title="July 2009 Ürümqi riots">July 2009 Ürümqi riots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2011_Kashgar_attacks" title="2011 Kashgar attacks">2011 Kashgar attacks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wolf_Amendment" title="Wolf Amendment">Wolf Amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2013_Tiananmen_Square_attack" title="2013 Tiananmen Square attack">2013 Tiananmen Square attack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2014_Vietnam_anti-China_protests" title="2014 Vietnam anti-China protests">2014 Vietnam anti-China protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2014_Kunming_attack" title="2014 Kunming attack">2014 Kunming attack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/April_2014_%C3%9Cr%C3%BCmqi_attack" title="April 2014 Ürümqi attack">April 2014 Ürümqi attack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/May_2014_%C3%9Cr%C3%BCmqi_attack" title="May 2014 Ürümqi attack">May 2014 Ürümqi attack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2015_Plaza_Low_Yat_riot" title="2015 Plaza Low Yat riot">2015 Plaza Low Yat riot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2015_Aksu_colliery_attack" title="2015 Aksu colliery attack">2015 Aksu colliery attack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China%E2%80%93United_States_trade_war" title="China–United States trade war">China–United States trade war</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trump_tariffs" title="Trump tariffs">Trump tariffs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_Intelligence_Cold_War" title="Artificial Intelligence Cold War">Artificial Intelligence Cold War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China_Initiative" title="China Initiative">China Initiative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophobia_and_racism_related_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic" title="Xenophobia and racism related to the COVID-19 pandemic">COVID-19 pandemic incidents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2021_Atlanta_spa_shootings" title="2021 Atlanta spa shootings">2021 Atlanta spa shootings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2021_Solomon_Islands_unrest" title="2021 Solomon Islands unrest">2021 Solomon Islands unrest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2024_Papua_New_Guinean_unrest" title="2024 Papua New Guinean unrest">2024 Papua New Guinean unrest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boycotts_of_Chinese_products" title="Boycotts of Chinese products">Boycotts of Chinese products</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By victim</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">19th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chae_Chan_Ping_v._United_States" title="Chae Chan Ping v. United States">Chae Chan Ping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fong_Yue_Ting_v._United_States" title="Fong Yue Ting v. United States">Fong Yue Ting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tape_v._Hurley" title="Tape v. Hurley">Mary Tape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Wong_Kim_Ark" title="United States v. Wong Kim Ark">Wong Kim Ark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yick_Wo_v._Hopkins" title="Yick Wo v. Hopkins">Yick Wo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">20th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Vincent_Chin" title="Killing of Vincent Chin">Vincent Chin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ita_Martadinata_Haryono" title="Ita Martadinata Haryono">Ita Martadinata Haryono</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qian_Xuesen" title="Qian Xuesen">Qian Xuesen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Velma_Demerson" title="Velma Demerson">Velma Demerson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wen_Ho_Lee" title="Wen Ho Lee">Wen Ho Lee</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">21st century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trial_of_Anming_Hu" title="Trial of Anming Hu">Anming Hu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suicide_of_Danny_Chen" title="Suicide of Danny Chen">Danny Chen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murder_of_Ee_Lee" title="Murder of Ee Lee">Ee Lee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eileen_Gu" title="Eileen Gu">Eileen Gu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_Feng_Tao" class="mw-redirect" title="Franklin Feng Tao">Franklin Feng Tao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gang_Chen_(engineer)" title="Gang Chen (engineer)">Gang Chen</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Haoyang_Yu&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Haoyang Yu (page does not exist)">Haoyang Yu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murder_of_Jiansheng_Chen" title="Murder of Jiansheng Chen">Jiansheng Chen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jiayang_Fan" title="Jiayang Fan">Jiayang Fan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immolation_of_Leung_Chi-cheung" class="mw-redirect" title="Immolation of Leung Chi-cheung">Leung Chi-cheung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murder_of_Mi_Gao_Huang_Chen" title="Murder of Mi Gao Huang Chen">Mi Gao Huang Chen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sherry_Chen_(hydrologist)" title="Sherry Chen (hydrologist)">Sherry Chen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teoh_Beng_Hock" title="Teoh Beng Hock">Teoh Beng Hock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiaoxing_Xi#False_accusation_of_spying" title="Xiaoxing Xi">Xiaoxing Xi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Yao_Pan_Ma" title="Killing of Yao Pan Ma">Yao Pan Ma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_of_Michelle_Go" class="mw-redirect" title="Death of Michelle Go">Michelle Go</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Slurs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinaman" title="Chinaman">Chinaman</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinaman%27s_chance" title="Chinaman's chance">Chinaman's chance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese,_Japanese,_dirty_knees" title="Chinese, Japanese, dirty knees">Chinese, Japanese, dirty knees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ching_chong" title="Ching chong">Ching chong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chink" title="Chink">Chink</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Locust_(ethnic_slur)" title="Locust (ethnic slur)">Locust/Wongchung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shina_(word)" title="Shina (word)">Shina/Zhina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sick_man_of_Asia" title="Sick man of Asia">Sick man of Asia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_imperialism" title="Chinese imperialism">Chinese imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong_nationalism" title="Hong Kong nationalism">Hong Kong nationalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q170314#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q170314#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q170314#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4073002-5">Germany</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85122898">United States</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119522018">France</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119522018">BnF data</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00568576">Japan</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph128195&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&authority_id=XX542556">Spain</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007546240005171">Israel</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Artists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://kulturnav.org/6b254672-cbb1-4a5b-bd33-a2267cf0319d">KulturNav</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Second_Sino-Japanese_War&oldid=1259840655">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Second_Sino-Japanese_War&oldid=1259840655</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Category:Second Sino-Japanese War">Second Sino-Japanese War</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wars_involving_Japan" title="Category:Wars involving Japan">Wars involving Japan</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wars_involving_the_Republic_of_China" title="Category:Wars involving the Republic of China">Wars involving the Republic of China</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Anti-Chinese_violence_in_Asia" title="Category:Anti-Chinese violence in Asia">Anti-Chinese violence in Asia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Anti-Japanese_sentiment_in_China" title="Category:Anti-Japanese sentiment in China">Anti-Japanese sentiment in China</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:China%E2%80%93Japan_military_relations" title="Category:China–Japan military relations">China–Japan military relations</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Invasions_by_Japan" title="Category:Invasions by Japan">Invasions by Japan</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Military_history_of_China_during_World_War_II" title="Category:Military history of China during World War II">Military history of China during World War II</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Military_history_of_the_Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Category:Military history of the Republic of China (1912–1949)">Military history of the Republic of China (1912–1949)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pacific_War" title="Category:Pacific War">Pacific War</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Tunnel_warfare" title="Category:Tunnel warfare">Tunnel warfare</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1930s_in_China" title="Category:1930s in China">1930s in China</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1940s_in_China" title="Category:1940s in China">1940s in China</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Invasions_of_China" title="Category:Invasions of China">Invasions of China</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1930s_in_Japan" title="Category:1930s in Japan">1930s in Japan</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1940s_in_Japan" title="Category:1940s in Japan">1940s in Japan</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1940s_in_Vietnam" title="Category:1940s in Vietnam">1940s in Vietnam</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1930s_conflicts" title="Category:1930s conflicts">1930s conflicts</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1940s_conflicts" title="Category:1940s conflicts">1940s conflicts</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Campaigns_of_World_War_II" title="Category:Campaigns of World War II">Campaigns of World War II</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Interwar_period" title="Category:Interwar period">Interwar period</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:China%E2%80%93Japan_relations" title="Category:China–Japan relations">China–Japan relations</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Sino-Japanese_Wars" title="Category:Sino-Japanese Wars">Sino-Japanese Wars</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_uses_Chinese-language_script_(zh)" title="Category:CS1 uses Chinese-language script (zh)">CS1 uses Chinese-language script (zh)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_Chinese-language_sources_(zh)" title="Category:CS1 Chinese-language sources (zh)">CS1 Chinese-language sources (zh)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Webarchive_template_wayback_links" title="Category:Webarchive template wayback links">Webarchive template wayback links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_Japanese-language_sources_(ja)" title="Category:CS1 Japanese-language sources (ja)">CS1 Japanese-language sources (ja)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_dead_external_links" title="Category:All articles with dead external links">All articles with dead external links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_dead_external_links_from_January_2016" title="Category:Articles with dead external links from January 2016">Articles with dead external links from January 2016</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_dead_external_links_from_December_2021" title="Category:Articles with dead external links from December 2021">Articles with dead external links from December 2021</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_permanently_dead_external_links" title="Category:Articles with permanently dead external links">Articles with permanently dead external links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1:_long_volume_value" title="Category:CS1: long volume value">CS1: long volume value</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_dead_external_links_from_August_2018" title="Category:Articles with dead external links from August 2018">Articles with dead external links from August 2018</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_dmy_dates_from_October_2020" title="Category:Use dmy dates from October 2020">Use dmy dates from October 2020</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_using_multiple_image_with_auto_scaled_images" title="Category:Pages using multiple image with auto scaled images">Pages using multiple image with auto scaled images</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Chinese-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Chinese-language text">Articles containing Chinese-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_using_infobox_templates_with_no_data_rows" title="Category:Articles using infobox templates with no data rows">Articles using infobox templates with no data rows</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Japanese-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Japanese-language text">Articles containing Japanese-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_simplified_Chinese-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing simplified Chinese-language text">Articles containing simplified Chinese-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_traditional_Chinese-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing traditional Chinese-language text">Articles containing traditional Chinese-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_factual_verification_from_January_2022" title="Category:Wikipedia articles needing factual verification from January 2022">Wikipedia articles needing factual verification from January 2022</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_unsourced_statements" title="Category:All articles with unsourced statements">All articles with unsourced statements</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_November_2018" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from November 2018">Articles with unsourced statements from November 2018</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_excerpts" title="Category:Articles with excerpts">Articles with excerpts</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_needing_additional_references_from_October_2023" title="Category:Articles needing additional references from October 2023">Articles needing additional references from October 2023</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_needing_additional_references" title="Category:All articles needing additional references">All articles needing additional references</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_October_2023" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from October 2023">Articles with unsourced statements from October 2023</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_May_2024" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from May 2024">Articles with unsourced statements from May 2024</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_December_2020" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from December 2020">Articles with unsourced statements from December 2020</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_October_2019" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from October 2019">Articles with unsourced statements from October 2019</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_November_2015" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from November 2015">Articles with unsourced statements from November 2015</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_November_2019" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from November 2019">Articles with unsourced statements from November 2019</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_French-language_sources_(fr)" title="Category:CS1 French-language sources (fr)">CS1 French-language sources (fr)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Commons_category_link_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Commons category link from Wikidata">Commons category link from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_video_clips" title="Category:Articles containing video clips">Articles containing video clips</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 27 November 2024, at 10:25 (UTC).</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Second_Sino-Japanese_War&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" loading="lazy"></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="88" height="31" loading="lazy"></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-669b4ddb54-zdk9m","wgBackendResponseTime":215,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"3.176","walltime":"3.695","ppvisitednodes":{"value":31949,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":1107128,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":52031,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":18,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":61,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":818207,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 2920.885 1 -total"," 32.33% 944.446 3 Template:Reflist"," 18.05% 527.106 95 Template:Cite_book"," 13.18% 384.994 1 Template:Infobox_military_conflict"," 8.01% 233.966 1 Template:Infobox_Chinese"," 6.57% 191.984 48 Template:Cite_web"," 5.91% 172.640 32 Template:Rp"," 5.86% 171.125 21 Template:Sfn"," 5.53% 161.622 32 Template:R/superscript"," 5.10% 148.892 2 Template:Sister_project"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"1.772","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":20692677,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"anchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFAskew2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBarbara_Wertheim_Tuchman1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBeevor2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBergin2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBix1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBlack2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrinkley2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCain2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCarter2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChanGongLittle2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChevrierChomiczewskiGarrigue2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFClodfelter2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFClodfelter2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCoble2023\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFCrawfordFoster2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCrean2024\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCroddyWirtz2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDavid_Murray_Horner2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDuiker1976\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEdwin_Palmer_Hoyt2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFElizabeth_Jane_Errington1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFenby2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFrederic_E._Wakeman2003\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFFrederick_Roelker_WulsinJoseph_Fletcher1979\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFörsterGessler2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoodman2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGrunden2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarmsen2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarmsen2018\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFHastings2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHevia2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHimeta1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHisao_KimuraScott_Berry1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHotta2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHsiao-ting_Lin2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHsiao-ting_Lin2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHsiung,_James_C.1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHsiung1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHsiungLevine1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHsu\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHuang\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFInstitute_of_Muslim_Minority_Affairs1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIriye1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJames_P._Harrison1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJanuszewski2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJowett\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKang1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKirby1958\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKristof1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFL1999–2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLarry_H._Addington2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLaureau1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLei2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLiewSung_Chiao-jen1971\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLinda_Kush2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLinebarger1941\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLiu1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLovell2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMacLaren\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMackinnon2008\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFMar2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMitter2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMitter2020\"] = 3,\n [\"CITEREFMorgans2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNihartPowell1955\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNobu2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOi2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOng2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOpper2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOscar_Chapuis2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPaine2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPederson2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPerry2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPeter_Neville2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRobert_L._Jarman2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRummel\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRummel1991\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFSaichVan_De_Ven2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchaedler2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchoppa2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFScott1934\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSlim1956\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStein_Tønnesson2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStevens\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStevens2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStéphane_A._DudoignonHisao_KomatsuYasushi_Kosugi2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTaylor\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTodd\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUnited_States._Congress._House._Committee_on_Foreign_Affairs1939\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFUnited_States._Congress._House._Foreign_AFfairs1939\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUnited_States._Congress._House1939\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUnited_States._Congress1967\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUnited_States._Joint_Chiefs_of_Staff._Historical_Division1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUnited_States._War_Department._Military_Intelligence_Division1944\"] = 3,\n [\"CITEREFUtley1939\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVan_Nguyen_Duong2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWakeman1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWang2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWestad2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWhiteheadBennett1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilliam_J._Duiker1976\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilson\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZarrow\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFvan_de_Ven2017\"] = 1,\n [\"Oil_embargo_(Sino-Japanese_War)\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"Anchor\"] = 1,\n [\"Anti-Chinese sentiment\"] = 1,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Blockquote\"] = 1,\n [\"Campaignbox Pacific War\"] = 1,\n [\"Campaignbox Second Sino-Japanese War\"] = 1,\n [\"Campaignbox World War II\"] = 1,\n [\"China–Japan relations\"] = 1,\n [\"China–United States relations\"] = 1,\n [\"Citation\"] = 3,\n [\"Citation needed\"] = 8,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 92,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 13,\n [\"Cite magazine\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 3,\n [\"Cite thesis\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 48,\n [\"Commons category\"] = 1,\n [\"Dead link\"] = 3,\n [\"Efn\"] = 4,\n [\"Excerpt\"] = 1,\n [\"Fact\"] = 1,\n [\"Flag\"] = 1,\n [\"Flagcountry\"] = 1,\n [\"Flagdeco\"] = 21,\n [\"Flagicon\"] = 4,\n [\"Flagicon image\"] = 14,\n [\"Flatlist\"] = 2,\n [\"Further\"] = 4,\n [\"ISBN\"] = 8,\n [\"Infobox Chinese\"] = 1,\n [\"Infobox military conflict\"] = 1,\n [\"JapanEmpireNavbox\"] = 1,\n [\"Japanese colonial campaigns\"] = 1,\n [\"Langx\"] = 9,\n [\"Main\"] = 21,\n [\"Multiple image\"] = 1,\n [\"Natural Causes\"] = 1,\n [\"Notelist\"] = 2,\n [\"Okina\"] = 1,\n [\"Plainlist\"] = 6,\n [\"Portal\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 1,\n [\"Refend\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"Request quotation\"] = 1,\n [\"Rp\"] = 32,\n [\"Second Sino-Japanese War\"] = 1,\n [\"See also\"] = 1,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 21,\n [\"SfnRef\"] = 8,\n [\"Sfnp\"] = 4,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Snd\"] = 2,\n [\"USS\"] = 1,\n [\"Unbulleted list\"] = 5,\n [\"Unreferenced section\"] = 1,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"War crimes\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 16,\n [\"Wikivoyage\"] = 1,\n [\"World War II\"] = 1,\n [\"World War II history by nation\"] = 1,\n [\"Zh\"] = 8,\n [\"Zhi\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\ntable#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["?","580","28.7"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","160","7.9"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","160","7.9"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::gsub","120","5.9"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::find","120","5.9"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::match","100","5.0"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getAllExpandedArguments","80","4.0"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::sub","60","3.0"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getExpandedArgument","60","3.0"],["type","60","3.0"],["[others]","520","25.7"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-669b4ddb54-mrdd7","timestamp":"20241127102555","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Second Sino-Japanese War","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Second_Sino-Japanese_War","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q170314","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q170314","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2002-08-09T20:41:04Z","dateModified":"2024-11-27T10:25:46Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/3\/39\/Japanese_Special_Naval_Landing_Forces_in_Battle_of_Shanghai_1937.jpg","headline":"Japanese invasion of China (1937\u20131945)"}</script> </body> </html>