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data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Etymology_and_origin" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Etymology_and_origin"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Etymology and origin</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Etymology_and_origin-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Parchment_and_vellum" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Parchment_and_vellum"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Parchment and vellum</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Parchment_and_vellum-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_use" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_use"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Modern use</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_use-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Manufacture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Manufacture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Manufacture</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Manufacture-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Manufacture subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Manufacture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Skinning,_soaking,_and_dehairing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Skinning,_soaking,_and_dehairing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Skinning, soaking, and dehairing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Skinning,_soaking,_and_dehairing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Stretching" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Stretching"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Stretching</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Stretching-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Treatments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Treatments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Treatments</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Treatments-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Treatments subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Treatments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Reuse" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reuse"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Reuse</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reuse-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Jewish_parchment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jewish_parchment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Jewish parchment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jewish_parchment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Additional_uses_of_the_term" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Additional_uses_of_the_term"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Additional uses of the term</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Additional_uses_of_the_term-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Additional uses of the term subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Additional_uses_of_the_term-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Plant-based_parchment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Plant-based_parchment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Plant-based parchment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Plant-based_parchment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Parchment_craft" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Parchment_craft"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Parchment craft</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Parchment_craft-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Technical_analysis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Technical_analysis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Technical analysis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Technical_analysis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.1</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.2</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Parchment</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 74 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-74" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">74 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%82_(%D8%AC%D9%84%D8%AF_%D9%83%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%A8%D8%A9)" title="رق (جلد كتابة) – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="رق (جلد كتابة)" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pergam%C3%ADn" title="Pergamín – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Pergamín" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hyw mw-list-item"><a href="https://hyw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%84%D5%A1%D5%A3%D5%A1%D5%B2%D5%A1%D5%A9" title="Մագաղաթ – Western Armenian" lang="hyw" hreflang="hyw" data-title="Մագաղաթ" data-language-autonym="Արեւմտահայերէն" data-language-local-name="Western Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Արեւմտահայերէն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pergam%C3%ADn" title="Pergamín – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Pergamín" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perqament" title="Perqament – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Perqament" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82" title="Пергамент – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Пергамент" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%8D%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%96%D0%BD" title="Пэргамін – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Пэргамін" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82" title="Пергамент – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Пергамент" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pergament" title="Pergament – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Pergament" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parch" title="Parch – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Parch" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pergam%C3%AD" title="Pergamí – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Pergamí" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pergamen" title="Pergamen – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Pergamen" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memrwn" title="Memrwn – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Memrwn" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pergament" title="Pergament – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Pergament" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pergament" title="Pergament – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Pergament" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C3%A4rgament" title="Pärgament – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Pärgament" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%B3%CE%B1%CE%BC%CE%B7%CE%BD%CE%AE" title="Περγαμηνή – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Περγαμηνή" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pergamino" title="Pergamino – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Pergamino" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pergameno" title="Pergameno – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Pergameno" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pergamino" title="Pergamino – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Pergamino" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D9%88%D8%B3%D8%AA_(%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B4%D8%AA%E2%80%8C%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%B2%D8%A7%D8%B1)" title="پوست (نوشت‌افزار) – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="پوست (نوشت‌افزار)" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parchemin" title="Parchemin – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Parchemin" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perkamint" title="Perkamint – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Perkamint" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C3%A1r" title="Pár – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Pár" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pergami%C3%B1o" title="Pergamiño – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Pergamiño" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%96%91%ED%94%BC%EC%A7%80" title="양피지 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="양피지" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%84%D5%A1%D5%A3%D5%A1%D5%B2%D5%A1%D5%A9" title="Մագաղաթ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Մագաղաթ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="चर्मपत्र – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="चर्मपत्र" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pergament" title="Pergament – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Pergament" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pergameno" title="Pergameno – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Pergameno" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kertas_puyer" title="Kertas puyer – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Kertas puyer" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%B3kfell" title="Bókfell – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Bókfell" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pergamena" title="Pergamena – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Pergamena" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A7%D7%9C%D7%A3" title="קלף – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="קלף" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%94%E1%83%A2%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98" title="ეტრატი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ეტრატი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82" title="Пергамент – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Пергамент" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82" title="Пергамент – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Пергамент" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Membrana_(ars_scribendi)" title="Membrana (ars scribendi) – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Membrana (ars scribendi)" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pergaments" title="Pergaments – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Pergaments" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pergament" title="Pergament – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Pergament" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pergamentas" title="Pergamentas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Pergamentas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pergamen" title="Pergamen – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Pergamen" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82" title="Пергамент – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Пергамент" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%82_(%D8%AC%D9%84%D8%AF_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%83%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%87)" title="رق (جلد الكتابه) – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="رق (جلد الكتابه)" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kertas_kulit" title="Kertas kulit – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Kertas kulit" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perkament" title="Perkament – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Perkament" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%BE%8A%E7%9A%AE%E7%B4%99" title="羊皮紙 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="羊皮紙" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pergament" title="Pergament – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Pergament" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nordfriisk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pergament" title="Pergament – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Pergament" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pergament" title="Pergament – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Pergament" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pergamin" title="Pergamin – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Pergamin" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pergament" title="Pergament – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Pergament" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%ABrgamin-a" title="Bërgamin-a – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Bërgamin-a" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Piemontèis</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pergamin" title="Pergamin – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Pergamin" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pergaminho" title="Pergaminho – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Pergaminho" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pergament" title="Pergament – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Pergament" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82" title="Пергамент – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Пергамент" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pergamena" title="Pergamena – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Pergamena" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pirgamena" title="Pirgamena – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Pirgamena" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parchment" title="Parchment – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Parchment" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pergamen_(ko%C5%BEa)" title="Pergamen (koža) – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Pergamen (koža)" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pergament" title="Pergament – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Pergament" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82" title="Пергамент – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Пергамент" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pergament" title="Pergament – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Pergament" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pergamentti" title="Pergamentti – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Pergamentti" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pergament" title="Pergament – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Pergament" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Par%C5%9F%C3%B6men" title="Parşömen – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Parşömen" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tk mw-list-item"><a href="https://tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pergamen" title="Pergamen – Turkmen" lang="tk" hreflang="tk" data-title="Pergamen" data-language-autonym="Türkmençe" data-language-local-name="Turkmen" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkmençe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82" title="Пергамент – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Пергамент" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li 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.mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the cellulose-based composite used in baking, see <a href="/wiki/Parchment_paper" title="Parchment paper">Parchment paper</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Parchment_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Parchment (disambiguation)">Parchment (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Parchment_from_goatskin.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Parchment_from_goatskin.jpg/220px-Parchment_from_goatskin.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Parchment_from_goatskin.jpg/330px-Parchment_from_goatskin.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Parchment_from_goatskin.jpg/440px-Parchment_from_goatskin.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1728" data-file-height="2304" /></a><figcaption>Central European (Northern) type of finished parchment made of <a href="/wiki/Goatskin_(material)" title="Goatskin (material)">goatskin</a> stretched on a wooden frame</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%D7%A7%D7%9C%D7%A3,_%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%A6%D7%94_%D7%95%D7%93%D7%99%D7%95.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/%D7%A7%D7%9C%D7%A3%2C_%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%A6%D7%94_%D7%95%D7%93%D7%99%D7%95.jpg/220px-%D7%A7%D7%9C%D7%A3%2C_%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%A6%D7%94_%D7%95%D7%93%D7%99%D7%95.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="324" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/%D7%A7%D7%9C%D7%A3%2C_%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%A6%D7%94_%D7%95%D7%93%D7%99%D7%95.jpg/330px-%D7%A7%D7%9C%D7%A3%2C_%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%A6%D7%94_%D7%95%D7%93%D7%99%D7%95.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/%D7%A7%D7%9C%D7%A3%2C_%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%A6%D7%94_%D7%95%D7%93%D7%99%D7%95.jpg/440px-%D7%A7%D7%9C%D7%A3%2C_%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%A6%D7%94_%D7%95%D7%93%D7%99%D7%95.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="5888" /></a><figcaption>Parchment with a quill and ink</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Parchment</b> is a <a href="/wiki/Writing_material" title="Writing material">writing material</a> made from specially prepared <a href="/wiki/Tanning_(leather)" title="Tanning (leather)">untanned</a> skins of animals—primarily sheep, calves, and goats. It has been used as a writing medium for over two millennia. By AD 400, most literature intended for preservation began to be transferred from <a href="/wiki/Papyrus" title="Papyrus">papyrus</a> to parchment. <i><a href="/wiki/Vellum" title="Vellum">Vellum</a></i> is a finer quality parchment made from the skins of young animals such as lambs and young calves. The generic term <i><b>animal membrane</b></i> is sometimes used by libraries and museums that wish to avoid distinguishing between parchment and vellum. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology_and_origin">Etymology and origin</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Parchment&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Etymology and origin"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The word is derived from the <a href="/wiki/Koin%C4%93_Greek" class="mw-redirect" title="Koinē Greek">Koinē Greek</a> city name, <i>Pergamum</i> (or <i>Pergamon</i>, modern <a href="/wiki/Bergama" title="Bergama">Bergama</a>) in <a href="/wiki/%C4%B0zmir_Province" title="İzmir Province">western Anatolia</a>, where parchment was supposedly first developed around the second century BCE, probably as a substitute for <a href="/wiki/Papyrus" title="Papyrus">papyrus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Parchment_and_vellum">Parchment and vellum</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Parchment&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Parchment and vellum"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Today the term <i>parchment</i> is often used in non-technical contexts to refer to any animal skin, particularly <a href="/wiki/Goat" title="Goat">goat</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sheep" title="Sheep">sheep</a> or <a href="/wiki/Cow" class="mw-redirect" title="Cow">cow</a>, that has been scraped or dried under tension. The term originally referred only to the skin of sheep and, occasionally, goats. The equivalent material made from calfskin, which was of finer quality, was known as <i><a href="/wiki/Vellum" title="Vellum">vellum</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-York-2017_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-York-2017-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (from the <a href="/wiki/Old_French" title="Old French">Old French</a> <span title="Old French (842-ca. 1400)-language text"><i lang="fro">velin</i></span> or <span title="Old French (842-ca. 1400)-language text"><i lang="fro">vellin</i></span>, and ultimately from the <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">vitulus</i></span>, meaning a calf);<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while the finest of all was <i>uterine vellum</i>, taken from a calf <a href="/wiki/Foetus" class="mw-redirect" title="Foetus">foetus</a> or <a href="/wiki/Stillbirth" title="Stillbirth">stillborn</a> calf. </p><p>Some authorities have sought to observe these distinctions strictly: for example, <a href="/wiki/Lexicographer" class="mw-redirect" title="Lexicographer">lexicographer</a> <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Johnson" title="Samuel Johnson">Samuel Johnson</a> in 1755, and master <a href="/wiki/Calligrapher" class="mw-redirect" title="Calligrapher">calligrapher</a> <a href="/wiki/Edward_Johnston" title="Edward Johnston">Edward Johnston</a> in 1906.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, when old books and documents are encountered it may be difficult, without scientific analysis, to determine the precise animal origin of a skin, either in terms of its species or in terms of the animal's age.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In practice, therefore, there has long been considerable blurring of the boundaries between the different terms. In 1519, <a href="/wiki/William_Horman" title="William Horman">William Horman</a> wrote in his <i>Vulgaria</i>: "That stouffe that we wrytte upon, and is made of beestis skynnes, is somtyme called parchement, somtyme velem, somtyme abortyve, somtyme membraan."<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/William_Shakespeare" title="William Shakespeare">Shakespeare</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Hamlet" title="Hamlet">Hamlet</a></i> (written <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr>1599–1602) the following exchange occurs: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p><i>Hamlet.</i> Is not parchment made of sheepskins?<br /> <i>Horatio.</i> Ay, my lord, and of calves' skins too.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Lee Ustick, writing in 1936, commented: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p> To-day the distinction, among collectors of manuscripts, is that <i>vellum</i> is a highly refined form of skin, <i>parchment</i> a cruder form, usually thick, harsh, less highly polished than vellum, but with no distinction between skin of calf, or sheep, or of goat.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEUstick1936440_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUstick1936440-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>It is for these reasons that many modern <a href="/wiki/Conservator-restorer" title="Conservator-restorer">conservators</a>, <a href="/wiki/Librarian" title="Librarian">librarians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Archivist" title="Archivist">archivists</a> prefer to use either the broader term <i>parchment</i>, or the neutral term <i>animal membrane</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStokesAlmagno2001114_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStokesAlmagno2001114-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClemensGraham20079–10_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClemensGraham20079–10-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Parchment&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Permennter-1568.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Permennter-1568.png/170px-Permennter-1568.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="219" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Permennter-1568.png/255px-Permennter-1568.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Permennter-1568.png/340px-Permennter-1568.png 2x" data-file-width="754" data-file-height="972" /></a><figcaption>German parchmenter, 1568</figcaption></figure> <p>The word parchment evolved (via the Latin <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">pergamenum</i></span> and the French <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">parchemin</i></span>) from the name of the city of <a href="/wiki/Pergamon" title="Pergamon">Pergamon</a>, which was a thriving center of parchment production during the <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic period</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The city so dominated the trade that a legend later arose which said that parchment had been invented in <a href="/wiki/Pergamon" title="Pergamon">Pergamon</a> to replace the use of <a href="/wiki/Papyrus" title="Papyrus">papyrus</a> which had become monopolized by the rival city of <a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a>. This account, originating in the writings of <a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Natural_History_(Pliny)" title="Natural History (Pliny)">Natural History</a></i>, Book XIII, 69–70), is almost assuredly false because parchment had been in use in <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a> and elsewhere long before the rise of Pergamon.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-metzger_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-metzger-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Herodotus" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</a> mentions writing on skins as common in his time, the 5th century BC; and in his <i>Histories</i> (v.58) he states that the Ionians of Asia Minor had been accustomed to give the name of <i>skins</i> (<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn">diphtherai</i></span>) to books; this word was adapted by Hellenized Jews to describe scrolls.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Writing on prepared animal skins had a long history in other cultures outside of the Greeks as well. <a href="/wiki/David_Diringer" title="David Diringer">David Diringer</a> noted that "the first mention of Egyptian documents written on leather goes back to the <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Fourth Dynasty of Egypt">Fourth Dynasty</a> (c. 2550–2450 BC), but the earliest of such documents extant are: a fragmentary roll of leather of the <a href="/wiki/Sixth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Sixth Dynasty of Egypt">Sixth Dynasty</a> (c. 24th century BC), unrolled by Dr. H. Ibscher, and preserved in the <a href="/wiki/Cairo_Museum" class="mw-redirect" title="Cairo Museum">Cairo Museum</a>; a roll of the <a href="/wiki/Twelfth_dynasty_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Twelfth dynasty of Egypt">Twelfth Dynasty</a> (c. 1990–1777 BC) now in Berlin; the mathematical text now in the <a href="/wiki/British_Museum" title="British Museum">British Museum</a> (MS. 10250); and a document of the reign of <a href="/wiki/Ramses_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Ramses II">Ramses II</a> (early thirteenth century BC)."<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Civilizations such as the <a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyrians</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Babylonians" class="mw-redirect" title="Babylonians">Babylonians</a> most commonly impressed their <a href="/wiki/Cuneiform" title="Cuneiform">cuneiform</a> on clay tablets, but they also wrote on parchment from the 6th century BC onward.<sup id="cite_ref-Rennicks-2022_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rennicks-2022-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint noexcerpt Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS"><span title="The current source, a blog post, is insufficiently reliable (WP:NOTRS). Additional sources should be added to back this information up. (May 2024)">better source needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>By the fourth century AD, in cultures that traditionally used papyrus for writing, parchment began to become the new standard for use in manufacturing important books, and most works which wished to be preserved were eventually moved from papyrus to parchment.<sup id="cite_ref-metzger_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-metzger-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the later <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>, especially the 15th century, parchment was largely replaced by <a href="/wiki/Paper" title="Paper">paper</a> for most uses except luxury manuscripts, some of which were also on paper.<sup id="cite_ref-Rennicks-2022_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rennicks-2022-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> New techniques in paper milling allowed it to be much cheaper than parchment; it was made of textile rags and of very high quality.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Following the arrival of <a href="/wiki/Printing" title="Printing">printing</a> in the later fifteenth century AD, the supply of animal skins for parchment could not keep up with the demands of printers.<sup id="cite_ref-Rennicks-2022_16-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rennicks-2022-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint noexcerpt Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS"><span title="The current source, a blog post, is insufficiently reliable (WP:NOTRS). Additional sources should be added to back this information up. (May 2024)">better source needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:NLW_Penrice_and_Margam_Deeds_204_front_(8634702372).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/NLW_Penrice_and_Margam_Deeds_204_front_%288634702372%29.jpg/220px-NLW_Penrice_and_Margam_Deeds_204_front_%288634702372%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="245" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/NLW_Penrice_and_Margam_Deeds_204_front_%288634702372%29.jpg/330px-NLW_Penrice_and_Margam_Deeds_204_front_%288634702372%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/NLW_Penrice_and_Margam_Deeds_204_front_%288634702372%29.jpg/440px-NLW_Penrice_and_Margam_Deeds_204_front_%288634702372%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="717" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption>Latin <a href="/wiki/Grant_(money)" title="Grant (money)">grant</a> dated 1329, written on fine parchment or <a href="/wiki/Vellum" title="Vellum">vellum</a>, with <a href="/wiki/Seal_(device)" class="mw-redirect" title="Seal (device)">seal</a></figcaption></figure> <p>There was a short period during the introduction of printing where parchment and paper were used at the same time, with parchment (in fact vellum) the more expensive luxury option, preferred by rich and conservative customers. Although most copies of the <a href="/wiki/Gutenberg_Bible" title="Gutenberg Bible">Gutenberg Bible</a> are on paper, some were printed on parchment; 12 of the 48 surviving copies, with most incomplete. In 1490, <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Trithemius" title="Johannes Trithemius">Johannes Trithemius</a> preferred the older methods, because "handwriting placed on parchment will be able to endure a thousand years. But how long will printing last, which is dependent on paper? For if ... it lasts for two hundred years that is a long time."<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In fact, high-quality paper from this period has survived 500 years or more very well, if kept in reasonable library conditions.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modern_use">Modern use</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Parchment&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Modern use"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Parchment (or vellum) continues to be use for ritual or legal reasons. <a href="/wiki/Rabbinic_literature" title="Rabbinic literature">Rabbinic literature</a> traditionally maintains that the institution of employing parchment made of animal hides for the writing of ritual objects,<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as detailed below. In the United Kingdom, Acts of Parliament are still printed on vellum.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The heyday of parchment use was during the medieval period, but there has been a growing revival of its use among artists since the late 20th century. Although parchment never stopped being used (primarily for governmental documents and diplomas) it had ceased to be a primary choice for artists' supports by the end of the 15th century <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a>. This was partly due to its expense and partly due to its unusual working properties. Parchment consists mostly of <a href="/wiki/Collagen" title="Collagen">collagen</a>. When the water in paint media touches the parchment's surface, the collagen melts slightly, forming a raised bed for the paint, a quality highly prized by some artists. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sachsenspiegel.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Sachsenspiegel.jpg/170px-Sachsenspiegel.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="213" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Sachsenspiegel.jpg/255px-Sachsenspiegel.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Sachsenspiegel.jpg/340px-Sachsenspiegel.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1198" data-file-height="1499" /></a><figcaption>A 1385 copy of the <a href="/wiki/Sachsenspiegel" title="Sachsenspiegel">Sachsenspiegel</a>, a German legal code, written on parchment with straps and clasps on the binding</figcaption></figure> <p>Parchment is also extremely affected by its environment and changes in humidity, which can cause buckling. Books with parchment pages were bound with strong wooden boards and clamped tightly shut by metal (often brass) clasps or leather straps;<sup id="cite_ref-pul_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pul-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> this acted to keep the pages pressed flat despite humidity changes. Such metal fittings continued to be found on books as decorative features even after the use of paper made them unnecessary.<sup id="cite_ref-pul_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pul-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some contemporary artists prize the changeability of parchment, noting that the material seems alive and like an active participant in making artwork. To support the needs of the revival of use by artists, a revival in the art of preparing individual skins is also underway.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Hand-prepared skins are usually preferred by artists because they are more uniform in surface and have fewer oily spots – which can cause long-term cracking of paint – than mass-produced parchment, which is usually made for lamp shades, furniture, or other interior design purposes.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Manufacture">Manufacture</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Parchment&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Manufacture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Parchment is prepared from pelt – i.e. wet, unhaired,<sup id="cite_ref-York-2017_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-York-2017-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and limed skin – by drying at ordinary temperatures under tension, most commonly on a wooden frame known as a stretching frame.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReed1972_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReed1972-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Skinning,_soaking,_and_dehairing"><span id="Skinning.2C_soaking.2C_and_dehairing"></span>Skinning, soaking, and dehairing</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Parchment&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Skinning, soaking, and dehairing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After a carcass is <a href="/wiki/Skinning" title="Skinning">skinned</a>, the hide is soaked in water for about a day. This removes blood and grime and prepares the skin for a dehairing liquor.<sup id="cite_ref-reed75_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-reed75-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The dehairing liquor was originally made of rotted, or fermented, vegetable matter, like beer or other liquors, but by the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> a dehairing bath included <a href="/wiki/Lime_(mineral)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lime (mineral)">lime</a>. Today, the lime solution is occasionally sharpened by the use of sodium sulfide. The liquor bath would have been in wooden or stone vats and the hides stirred with a long wooden pole to avoid human contact with the <a href="/wiki/Alkaline" class="mw-redirect" title="Alkaline">alkaline</a> solution. Sometimes the skins would stay in the dehairing bath for eight or more days depending how concentrated and how warm the solution was kept – dehairing could take up to twice as long in winter. The vat was stirred two or three times a day to ensure the solution's deep and uniform penetration. Replacing the lime water bath also sped the process up. However, if the skins were soaked in the liquor too long, they would be weakened and not able to stand the stretching required for parchment.<sup id="cite_ref-reed75_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-reed75-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Stretching">Stretching</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Parchment&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Stretching"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After soaking in water to make the skins workable, the skins were placed on a stretching frame. A simple frame with nails would work well in stretching the pelts. The skins could be attached by wrapping small, smooth rocks in the skins with rope or leather strips. Both sides would be left open to the air so they could be scraped with a sharp, <a href="/wiki/Blade#Patterns_of_knife_blades" title="Blade">semi-lunar knife</a> to remove the last of the hair and get the skin to the right thickness. The skins, which were made almost entirely of <a href="/wiki/Collagen" title="Collagen">collagen</a>, would form a natural glue while drying and once taken off the frame they would keep their form. The stretching aligned the fibres to be more nearly parallel to the surface. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Treatments">Treatments</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Parchment&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Treatments"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Purple_parchment" title="Purple parchment">Purple parchment</a></div> <p>To make the parchment more aesthetically pleasing or more suitable for the <a href="/wiki/Scribe" title="Scribe">scribes</a>, special treatments were used. According to Reed there were a variety of these treatments. Rubbing <a href="/wiki/Pumice" title="Pumice">pumice</a> powder into the flesh side of parchment while it was still wet on the frame was used to make it smooth and to modify the surface to enable inks to penetrate more deeply. Powders and pastes of calcium compounds were also used to help remove grease so the ink would not run. To make the parchment smooth and white, thin pastes (starchgrain or staunchgrain) of lime, flour, egg whites and milk were rubbed into the skins.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Meliora di Curci in her paper, "The History and Technology of Parchment Making", notes that parchment was not always white. "<a href="/wiki/Cennino_Cennini" title="Cennino Cennini">Cennini</a>, a 15th-century craftsman provides recipes to tint parchment a variety of colours including purple, indigo, green, red and peach."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEdi_Curci2003_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEdi_Curci2003-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Early medieval <a href="/wiki/Codex_Argenteus" title="Codex Argenteus">Codex Argenteus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Codex_Vercellensis" title="Codex Vercellensis">Codex Vercellensis</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Stockholm_Codex_Aureus" title="Stockholm Codex Aureus">Stockholm Codex Aureus</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Codex_Brixianus" title="Codex Brixianus">Codex Brixianus</a> give a range of luxuriously produced manuscripts all on <a href="/wiki/Purple_vellum" class="mw-redirect" title="Purple vellum">purple vellum</a>, in imitation of Byzantine examples, like the <a href="/wiki/Rossano_Gospels" title="Rossano Gospels">Rossano Gospels</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sinope_Gospels" title="Sinope Gospels">Sinope Gospels</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Vienna_Genesis" title="Vienna Genesis">Vienna Genesis</a>, which at least at one time are believed to have been reserved for Imperial commissions. </p><p>Many techniques for <a href="/wiki/Parchment_repair" class="mw-redirect" title="Parchment repair">parchment repair</a> exist, to restore creased, torn, or incomplete parchments. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reuse">Reuse</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Parchment&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Reuse"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Palimpsest" title="Palimpsest">Palimpsest</a></div> <p>Between the seventh and the ninth centuries, many earlier parchment manuscripts were scrubbed and scoured to be ready for rewriting, and often the earlier writing can still be read. These recycled parchments are known as <a href="/wiki/Palimpsest" title="Palimpsest">palimpsests</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Jewish_parchment">Jewish parchment</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Parchment&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Jewish parchment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Torah_and_jad.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Torah_and_jad.jpg/220px-Torah_and_jad.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Torah_and_jad.jpg/330px-Torah_and_jad.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Torah_and_jad.jpg/440px-Torah_and_jad.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1064" /></a><figcaption>A <i>Sefer <a href="/wiki/Torah" title="Torah">Torah</a></i>, the traditional form of the <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_Bible" title="Hebrew Bible">Hebrew Bible</a>, is a scroll of parchment.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Gevil" title="Gevil">Gevil</a>, <a href="/wiki/Klaf" title="Klaf">Klaf</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Duchsustus" title="Duchsustus">Duchsustus</a></div> <p>The way in which parchment was processed (from hide to parchment) has undergone a tremendous evolution based on time and location. Parchment and vellum are not the sole methods of preparing animal skins for writing. In the <a href="/wiki/Talmud" title="Talmud">Babylonian Talmud</a> (<a href="/wiki/Bava_Batra" title="Bava Batra">Bava Batra</a> 14B), Moses is described as having written the first Torah Scroll on the unsplit cow-hide called <i><a href="/wiki/Gevil" title="Gevil">gevil</a></i>. </p><p>Parchment is still the only medium used by traditional <a href="/wiki/Religious" class="mw-redirect" title="Religious">religious</a> <a href="/wiki/Jews" title="Jews">Jews</a> for <a href="/wiki/Sefer_Torah" class="mw-redirect" title="Sefer Torah">Torah scrolls</a> or <a href="/wiki/Tefilin" class="mw-redirect" title="Tefilin">tefilin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mezuzah" title="Mezuzah">mezuzahs</a>, and is produced by large companies in <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a>. This usage is <a href="/wiki/Revelation_at_Sinai" class="mw-redirect" title="Revelation at Sinai">Sinaitic</a> in origin, with special designations for different types of parchment such as <a href="/wiki/Gevil" title="Gevil">gevil</a> and <a href="/wiki/Klaf" title="Klaf">klaf</a>. For those uses, only hides of <a href="/wiki/Kosher" class="mw-redirect" title="Kosher">kosher</a> animals are permitted. Since there are many requirements for it being fit for the religious use, the liming is usually processed under supervision of a qualified <a href="/wiki/Rabbi" title="Rabbi">Rabbi</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Additional_uses_of_the_term">Additional uses of the term</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Parchment&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Additional uses of the term"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In some universities, the word parchment is still used to refer to the certificate (scroll) presented at graduation ceremonies, even though the modern document is printed on paper or thin card; although doctoral graduates may be given the option of having their scroll written by a calligrapher on vellum. <a href="/wiki/Heriot-Watt_University" title="Heriot-Watt University">Heriot-Watt University</a> still uses goatskin parchment for their degrees. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Plant-based_parchment">Plant-based parchment</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Parchment&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Plant-based parchment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Parchment_paper_(baking)" class="mw-redirect" title="Parchment paper (baking)">Parchment paper (baking)</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Parchment" title="Special:EditPage/Parchment">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">September 2018</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Vegetable (paper) parchment</b> is made by passing a waterleaf (an unsized paper like blotters) made of pulp fibers into <a href="/wiki/Sulfuric_acid" title="Sulfuric acid">sulfuric acid</a>. The sulfuric acid hydrolyses and solubilises the main natural organic polymer, cellulose, present in the pulp wood fibers. The paper web is then washed in water, which stops the hydrolysis of the cellulose and causes a kind of cellulose coating to form on the waterleaf. The final paper is dried. This coating is a natural non-porous cement, that gives to the vegetable parchment paper its resistance to grease and its semi-translucency. </p><p>Other processes can be used to obtain grease-resistant paper, such as waxing the paper or using <a href="/wiki/Fluorine" title="Fluorine">fluorine</a>-based chemicals. Highly beating the fibers gives an even more translucent paper with the same grease resistance. Silicone and other coatings may also be applied to the parchment. A <a href="/wiki/Silicone" title="Silicone">silicone</a>-coating treatment produces a cross-linked material with high density, stability and heat resistance and low surface tension which imparts good anti-stick or release properties. <a href="/wiki/Chromium" title="Chromium">Chromium</a> salts can also be used to impart moderate anti-stick properties. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Parchment_craft">Parchment craft</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Parchment&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Parchment craft"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Parchment_craft" title="Parchment craft">Parchment craft</a></div> <p>Historians believe that parchment craft originated as an art form in Europe during the fifteenth or sixteenth centuries.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Parchment craft at that time occurred principally in Catholic communities, where crafts persons created lace-like items such as devotional pictures and communion cards. The craft developed over time, with new techniques and refinements being added. Until the sixteenth century, parchment craft was a European art form. However, missionaries and other settlers relocated to South America, taking parchment craft with them. As before, the craft appeared largely among the Catholic communities. Often, young girls receiving their first communion received gifts of handmade parchment crafts. </p><p>Although the invention of the printing press led to a reduced interest in hand made cards and items, by the eighteenth century, people were regaining interest in detailed handwork. Parchment cards became larger in size and crafters began adding wavy borders and perforations. In the nineteenth century, influenced by French romanticism, parchment crafters began adding floral themes and cherubs and hand embossing. </p><p>Parchment craft today involves various techniques, including tracing a pattern with white or colored ink, embossing to create a raised effect, stippling, perforating, coloring and cutting. Parchment craft appears in hand made cards, as <a href="/wiki/Scrapbooking" title="Scrapbooking">scrapbook</a> embellishments, as bookmarks, lampshades, decorative small boxes, wall hangings and more. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Technical_analysis">Technical analysis <span class="anchor" id="DNA_testing"></span></h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Parchment&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Technical analysis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Radiocarbon_dating" title="Radiocarbon dating">radiocarbon dating</a> techniques that are used on papyrus can be applied to parchment as well. They do not date the age of the writing but the preparation of the parchment itself.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While it is feasibly possible also to radiocarbon date certain kinds of ink, it is extremely difficult to do due to the fact that they are generally present on the text only in trace amounts, and it is hard to get a carbon sample of them without the carbon in the parchment contaminating it.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An article published in 2009 considered the possibilities of tracing the origin of medieval parchment manuscripts and codices through <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a> analysis. The methodology would employ <a href="/wiki/Polymerase_chain_reaction" title="Polymerase chain reaction">polymerase chain reaction</a> to replicate a small DNA sample to a size sufficiently large for testing. The article discusses the use of DNA testing to estimate the age of the calf at the creation of the vellum parchment. A 2006 study revealed the genetic signature of several Greek manuscripts to have "goat-related sequences". Utilizing these techniques we may be able to determine whether related library materials were made from genetically related animals (perhaps from the same herd) and locate the vellum's origination.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2020, it was reported that the species of several of the animals used to provide parchment for the <a href="/wiki/Dead_Sea_Scrolls" title="Dead Sea Scrolls">Dead Sea Scrolls</a> could be identified, and the relationship between skins obtained from the same animal inferred.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnavaNeuhofGingold2020_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnavaNeuhofGingold2020-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The breakthrough was made possible by the use of <a href="/wiki/Whole_genome_sequencing" title="Whole genome sequencing">whole genome sequencing</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Parchment&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bating_(leather)" title="Bating (leather)">Bating (leather)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_and_restoration_of_parchment" title="Conservation and restoration of parchment">Conservation and restoration of parchment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manuscript_culture" title="Manuscript culture">Manuscript culture</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Parchment&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notes">Notes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Parchment&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.etymonline.com/word/parchment">"parchment (n.)"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Online_Etymology_Dictionary" title="Online Etymology Dictionary">Online Etymology Dictionary</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-05-05</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Online+Etymology+Dictionary&rft.atitle=parchment+%28n.%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.etymonline.com%2Fword%2Fparchment&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParchment" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-York-2017-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-York-2017_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-York-2017_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYork2017" class="citation book cs1">York, Karen, ed. (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/975367720"><i>The Bible Illuminated: How Art Brought the Bible to an Illiterate World</i></a>. Franklin, TN: Museum of the Bible Books. p. 5. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-945470-12-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-945470-12-7"><bdi>978-1-945470-12-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/975367720">975367720</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Bible+Illuminated%3A+How+Art+Brought+the+Bible+to+an+Illiterate+World&rft.place=Franklin%2C+TN&rft.pages=5&rft.pub=Museum+of+the+Bible+Books&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F975367720&rft.isbn=978-1-945470-12-7&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F975367720&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParchment" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomson2007" class="citation book cs1">Thomson, Roy (2007). <i>Conservation of Leather and Related Materials</i> (Repr ed.). Amsterdam: Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7506-4881-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7506-4881-3"><bdi>978-0-7506-4881-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Conservation+of+Leather+and+Related+Materials&rft.place=Amsterdam&rft.edition=Repr&rft.pub=Elsevier+Butterworth-Heinemann&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-7506-4881-3&rft.aulast=Thomson&rft.aufirst=Roy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParchment" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohnston1906" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Edward_Johnston" title="Edward Johnston">Johnston, Edward</a> (1906). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/writingillumina00john"><i>Writing & Illuminating, & Lettering</i></a>. London: John Hogg.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Writing+%26+Illuminating%2C+%26+Lettering&rft.place=London&rft.pub=John+Hogg&rft.date=1906&rft.aulast=Johnston&rft.aufirst=Edward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fwritingillumina00john&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParchment" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCains1994" class="citation book cs1">Cains, Anthony (1994). "The surface examination of skin: a binder's note on the identification of animal species used in the making of parchment". In O'Mahony, Felicity (ed.). <i>The Book of Kells: proceedings of a conference at Trinity College Dublin, 6–9 September 1992</i>. Aldershot: Scolar Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">172–</span>4. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-85967-967-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-85967-967-5"><bdi>0-85967-967-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+surface+examination+of+skin%3A+a+binder%27s+note+on+the+identification+of+animal+species+used+in+the+making+of+parchment&rft.btitle=The+Book+of+Kells%3A+proceedings+of+a+conference+at+Trinity+College+Dublin%2C+6%E2%80%939+September+1992&rft.place=Aldershot&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E172-%3C%2Fspan%3E4&rft.pub=Scolar+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=0-85967-967-5&rft.aulast=Cains&rft.aufirst=Anthony&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParchment" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">William Horman, <i>Vulgaria</i> (1519), fol. 80v; cited in <a href="#CITEREFUstick1936">Ustick 1936</a>, p. 440</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.folger.edu/explore/shakespeares-works/hamlet/read/5/1/#line-5.1.116"><i>Hamlet</i> 5.1/116–117</a>, <a href="/wiki/Folger_Shakespeare_Library" title="Folger Shakespeare Library">Folger Shakespeare Library</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEUstick1936440-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEUstick1936440_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFUstick1936">Ustick 1936</a>, p. 440.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStokesAlmagno2001114-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStokesAlmagno2001114_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStokesAlmagno2001">Stokes & Almagno 2001</a>, p. 114.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEClemensGraham20079–10-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClemensGraham20079–10_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFClemensGraham2007">Clemens & Graham 2007</a>, pp. 9–10.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/parchment">"parchment"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_Britannica" class="mw-redirect" title="Encyclopedia Britannica">Encyclopedia Britannica</a>. 2014-04-04<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-05-05</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=parchment&rft.pub=Encyclopedia+Britannica&rft.date=2014-04-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2Fparchment&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParchment" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreen1990" class="citation book cs1">Green, Peter (1990). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/alexandertoactiu0000gree"><i>Alexander to Actium: the historical evolution of the Hellenistic age</i></a></span>. Berkeley: University of California Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/alexandertoactiu0000gree/page/168">168</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0520056116" title="Special:BookSources/0520056116"><bdi>0520056116</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Alexander+to+Actium%3A+the+historical+evolution+of+the+Hellenistic+age&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.pages=168&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=0520056116&rft.aulast=Green&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Falexandertoactiu0000gree&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParchment" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-metzger-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-metzger_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-metzger_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMetzger2005" class="citation book cs1">Metzger, Bruce (2005). <i>The Text of the New Testament: Its Transmission, Corruption, and Restoration</i> (4th ed.). <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. p. 8.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Text+of+the+New+Testament%3A+Its+Transmission%2C+Corruption%2C+and+Restoration&rft.pages=8&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Metzger&rft.aufirst=Bruce&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParchment" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeir_Bar-Ilan" class="citation web cs1">Meir Bar-Ilan. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050422080330/http://faculty.biu.ac.il/~barilm/parchmen.html">"Parchment"</a>. <i>Bar-Ilan University – Faculty Members Homepages</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://faculty.biu.ac.il/~barilm/parchmen.html">the original</a> on 2005-04-22<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2005-04-24</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Bar-Ilan+University+%E2%80%93+Faculty+Members+Homepages&rft.atitle=Parchment&rft.au=Meir+Bar-Ilan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffaculty.biu.ac.il%2F~barilm%2Fparchmen.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParchment" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/David_Diringer" title="David Diringer">David Diringer</a>, <i>The Book before Printing: Ancient, Medieval and Oriental</i>, Dover Publications, New York 1982, p. 172.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rennicks-2022-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rennicks-2022_16-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rennicks-2022_16-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rennicks-2022_16-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRennicks2022" class="citation web cs1">Rennicks, Rich (2022-12-29). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230326023304/https://www.abaa.org/blog/post/the-history-of-vellum-and-parchment">"The History Of Vellum And Parchment"</a>. <i>The New Antiquarian</i>. <a href="/wiki/Antiquarian_Booksellers%27_Association_of_America" title="Antiquarian Booksellers' Association of America">Antiquarian Booksellers' Association of America</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.abaa.org/blog/post/the-history-of-vellum-and-parchment">the original</a> on 2023-03-26<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-05-05</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+New+Antiquarian&rft.atitle=The+History+Of+Vellum+And+Parchment&rft.date=2022-12-29&rft.aulast=Rennicks&rft.aufirst=Rich&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.abaa.org%2Fblog%2Fpost%2Fthe-history-of-vellum-and-parchment&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParchment" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Quoted in David McKitterick, <i>Print, Manuscript, and the Search for Order</i> <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>, 2003</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Maimonides, Hilkhoth Tefillin 1:3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation magazine cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-35569281">"Why is the UK still printing its laws on vellum?"</a>. <i>BBC News magazine</i>. 15 February 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News+magazine&rft.atitle=Why+is+the+UK+still+printing+its+laws+on+vellum%3F&rft.date=2016-02-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fmagazine-35569281&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParchment" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-pul-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-pul_20-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-pul_20-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://libweb5.princeton.edu/visual_materials/hb/cases/closures/index.html">"Clasps, Furniture, and Other Closures"</a>. <i>Hand Bookindings</i>. Princeton University Library. 2004. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111208042037/http://libweb5.princeton.edu/visual_materials/hb/cases/closures/index.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2011-12-08<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 January</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Hand+Bookindings&rft.atitle=Clasps%2C+Furniture%2C+and+Other+Closures&rft.date=2004&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flibweb5.princeton.edu%2Fvisual_materials%2Fhb%2Fcases%2Fclosures%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParchment" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEReed1972-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReed1972_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFReed1972">Reed 1972</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-reed75-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-reed75_22-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-reed75_22-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFReed1975">Reed 1975</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See for example recipes in the <a href="/wiki/Secretum_Philosophorum" title="Secretum Philosophorum">Secretum Philosophorum</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEdi_Curci2003-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEdi_Curci2003_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFdi_Curci2003">di Curci 2003</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrubaker1982" class="citation book cs1">Brubaker, Leslie (1982). "Palimpsest". In Strayer, Joseph Reese; Jordan, William C.; American Council of Learned Societies (eds.). <i>Dictionary of the Middle Ages</i>. Vol. 9. New York: Scribner. p. 355. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-684-19073-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-684-19073-0"><bdi>978-0-684-19073-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Palimpsest&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+the+Middle+Ages&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=355&rft.pub=Scribner&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=978-0-684-19073-0&rft.aulast=Brubaker&rft.aufirst=Leslie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParchment" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080410134250/http://www.ccdesigninc.com/MishmeresStam/Leaflet.pdf">"Information Leaflet by Vaad Mishmereth Staam"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>CC</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ccdesigninc.com/MishmeresStam/Leaflet.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 10 April 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=CC&rft.atitle=Information+Leaflet+by+Vaad+Mishmereth+Staam&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ccdesigninc.com%2FMishmeresStam%2FLeaflet.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParchment" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/parchment">"parchment | writing material | Britannica"</a>. <i>www.britannica.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-06-29</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.britannica.com&rft.atitle=parchment+%7C+writing+material+%7C+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2Fparchment&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParchment" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSantosGomez-MartinezGarcia-Leon" class="citation web cs1">Santos, F.J.; Gomez-Martinez, I.; Garcia-Leon, M. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://digital.csic.es/bitstream/10261/75115/4/Radiocarbon%20dating.pdf">"Radiocarbon dating of medieval manuscripts from the University of Seville"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Digital.csic.es" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital.csic.es">Digital.csic.es</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160304102317/http://digital.csic.es/bitstream/10261/75115/4/Radiocarbon%20dating.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 2016-03-04<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2015-03-23</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Digital.csic.es&rft.atitle=Radiocarbon+dating+of+medieval+manuscripts+from+the+University+of+Seville&rft.aulast=Santos&rft.aufirst=F.J.&rft.au=Gomez-Martinez%2C+I.&rft.au=Garcia-Leon%2C+M.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdigital.csic.es%2Fbitstream%2F10261%2F75115%2F4%2FRadiocarbon%2520dating.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParchment" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStolte2011" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-unfit">Stolte, D. (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150404164910/http://uanews.org/story/ua-experts-determine-age-book-nobody-can-read">"UA experts determine age of book 'nobody can read'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. Archived from the original on 2015-04-04<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2015-03-23</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=UA+experts+determine+age+of+book+%27nobody+can+read%27&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Stolte&rft.aufirst=D.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fuanews.org%2Fstory%2Fua-experts-determine-age-book-nobody-can-read&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParchment" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStinson2009" class="citation journal cs1">Stinson, Timothy L. (2009). "Knowledge of the Flesh: Using DNA Analysis to Unlock Bibliographical Secrets of Medieval Parchment". <i>The Papers of the Bibliographical Society</i>. <b>103</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">435–</span>53. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2Fpbsa.103.4.24293890">10.1086/pbsa.103.4.24293890</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20607890">20607890</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Papers+of+the+Bibliographical+Society&rft.atitle=Knowledge+of+the+Flesh%3A+Using+DNA+Analysis+to+Unlock+Bibliographical+Secrets+of+Medieval+Parchment&rft.volume=103&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E435-%3C%2Fspan%3E53&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2Fpbsa.103.4.24293890&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20607890&rft.aulast=Stinson&rft.aufirst=Timothy+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParchment" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnavaNeuhofGingold2020-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnavaNeuhofGingold2020_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAnavaNeuhofGingold2020">Anava, Neuhof & Gingold 2020</a>.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Parchment&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnavaNeuhofGingold2020" class="citation journal cs1">Anava, Sarit; Neuhof, Moran; Gingold, Moran (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cell.2020.04.046">"Illuminating Genetic Mysteries of the Dead Sea Scrolls"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Cell_(journal)" title="Cell (journal)">Cell</a></i>. <b>181</b> (6): 1218–1231.e27. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cell.2020.04.046">10.1016/j.cell.2020.04.046</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32492404">32492404</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cell&rft.atitle=Illuminating+Genetic+Mysteries+of+the+Dead+Sea+Scrolls&rft.volume=181&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=1218-1231.e27&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.cell.2020.04.046&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F32492404&rft.aulast=Anava&rft.aufirst=Sarit&rft.au=Neuhof%2C+Moran&rft.au=Gingold%2C+Moran&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%252Fj.cell.2020.04.046&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParchment" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClemensGraham2007" class="citation book cs1">Clemens, Raymond; Graham, Timothy (2007). <i>Introduction to Manuscript Studies</i>. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-3863-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-3863-9"><bdi>978-0-8014-3863-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Manuscript+Studies&rft.place=Ithaca&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-8014-3863-9&rft.aulast=Clemens&rft.aufirst=Raymond&rft.au=Graham%2C+Timothy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParchment" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFdi_Curci2003" class="citation web cs1">di Curci, Meliora (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sca.org.au/scribe/articles/parchment.htm">"The History and Technology of Parchment Making"</a>. Lochac College of Scribes.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+History+and+Technology+of+Parchment+Making&rft.pub=Lochac+College+of+Scribes&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=di+Curci&rft.aufirst=Meliora&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sca.org.au%2Fscribe%2Farticles%2Fparchment.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParchment" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReed1972" class="citation book cs1">Reed, Ronald (1972). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ancientskinsparc0000reed"><i>Ancient Skins, Parchments, and Leathers</i></a></span>. London: Seminar Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-12-903550-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-12-903550-5"><bdi>0-12-903550-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Skins%2C+Parchments%2C+and+Leathers&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Seminar+Press&rft.date=1972&rft.isbn=0-12-903550-5&rft.aulast=Reed&rft.aufirst=Ronald&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fancientskinsparc0000reed&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParchment" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReed1975" class="citation book cs1">Reed, Ronald (1975). <i>The Nature and Making of Parchment</i>. Leeds: Elmete Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0950336726" title="Special:BookSources/0950336726"><bdi>0950336726</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Nature+and+Making+of+Parchment&rft.place=Leeds&rft.pub=Elmete+Press&rft.date=1975&rft.isbn=0950336726&rft.aulast=Reed&rft.aufirst=Ronald&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParchment" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStokesAlmagno2001" class="citation book cs1">Stokes, Roy Bishop; Almagno, R. Stephen (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=faqCpauRmRcC&pg=PA114"><i>Esdaile's Manual of Bibliography</i></a> (6th ed.). London: Scarecrow Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0810839229" title="Special:BookSources/0810839229"><bdi>0810839229</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Esdaile%27s+Manual+of+Bibliography&rft.place=London&rft.edition=6th&rft.pub=Scarecrow+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0810839229&rft.aulast=Stokes&rft.aufirst=Roy+Bishop&rft.au=Almagno%2C+R.+Stephen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DfaqCpauRmRcC%26pg%3DPA114&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParchment" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUstick1936" class="citation journal cs1">Ustick, W. Lee (1936). "<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'Parchment' and 'vellum'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>". <i><a href="/wiki/The_Library_(journal)" class="mw-redirect" title="The Library (journal)">The Library</a></i>. 4th ser. <b>16</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">439–</span>443. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Flibrary%2Fs4-XVI.4.439">10.1093/library/s4-XVI.4.439</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Library&rft.atitle=%27Parchment%27+and+%27vellum%27&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E439-%3C%2Fspan%3E443&rft.date=1936&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Flibrary%2Fs4-XVI.4.439&rft.aulast=Ustick&rft.aufirst=W.+Lee&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParchment" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Parchment&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 45em;"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Bar-Ilan, Meir (1997). "Parchment". In Meyers, Eric M. (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211021132607/https://faculty.biu.ac.il/~barilm/articles/publications/publications0055.html"><i>The Oxford Encyclopedia of Archaeology in the Near East</i></a>. Vol. 4. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">247–</span>248. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0195112180" title="Special:BookSources/0195112180"><bdi>0195112180</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://faculty.biu.ac.il/~barilm/articles/publications/publications0055.html">the original</a> on 2021-10-21<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2018-10-25</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Parchment&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Encyclopedia+of+Archaeology+in+the+Near+East&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E247-%3C%2Fspan%3E248&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0195112180&rft.aulast=Bar-Ilan&rft.aufirst=Meir&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffaculty.biu.ac.il%2F~barilm%2Farticles%2Fpublications%2Fpublications0055.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParchment" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1">Dougherty, Raymond P. (1928). "Writing upon parchment and papyrus among the Babylonians and the Assyrians". <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_the_American_Oriental_Society" title="Journal of the American Oriental Society">Journal of the American Oriental Society</a></i>. <b>48</b>: <span class="nowrap">109–</span>135. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F593130">10.2307/593130</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/593130">593130</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+American+Oriental+Society&rft.atitle=Writing+upon+parchment+and+papyrus+among+the+Babylonians+and+the+Assyrians&rft.volume=48&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E109-%3C%2Fspan%3E135&rft.date=1928&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F593130&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F593130%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Dougherty&rft.aufirst=Raymond+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParchment" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Eisenlohr, Erika (1996). "Die Kunst, Pergament zu machen". In Lindgren, Uta (ed.). <i>Europäische Technik im Mittelalter: 800 bis 1400: Tradition und Innovation</i> (4th ed.). Berlin: Gebr. Mann Verlag. pp. <span class="nowrap">429–</span>432. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-7861-1748-9" title="Special:BookSources/3-7861-1748-9"><bdi>3-7861-1748-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Die+Kunst%2C+Pergament+zu+machen&rft.btitle=Europ%C3%A4ische+Technik+im+Mittelalter%3A+800+bis+1400%3A+Tradition+und+Innovation&rft.place=Berlin&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E429-%3C%2Fspan%3E432&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Gebr.+Mann+Verlag&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=3-7861-1748-9&rft.aulast=Eisenlohr&rft.aufirst=Erika&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParchment" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Holsinger, Bruce W. <i>On Parchment: Animals, Archives, and the Making of Culture from Herodotus to the Digital Age.</i> New Haven: Yale University Press, 2023.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Hunter, Dard (1978) [1947]. <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/papermakinghisto0000hunt"><i>Papermaking: the history and technique of an ancient craft</i></a></span>. New York: Dover Publications. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780486236193" title="Special:BookSources/9780486236193"><bdi>9780486236193</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Papermaking%3A+the+history+and+technique+of+an+ancient+craft&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Dover+Publications&rft.date=1978&rft.isbn=9780486236193&rft.aulast=Hunter&rft.aufirst=Dard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpapermakinghisto0000hunt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParchment" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1">Murray, Fiona (2003). "Parchment craft". <i>Australian Paper Crafts</i>. <b>23</b>: <span class="nowrap">10–</span>13.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Australian+Paper+Crafts&rft.atitle=Parchment+craft&rft.volume=23&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E10-%3C%2Fspan%3E13&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Murray&rft.aufirst=Fiona&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParchment" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Roberts, Colin H.; Skeat, T. C. (1983). <i>The Birth of the Codex</i>. London: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-726024-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-726024-1"><bdi>0-19-726024-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Birth+of+the+Codex&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=0-19-726024-1&rft.aulast=Roberts&rft.aufirst=Colin+H.&rft.au=Skeat%2C+T.+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParchment" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1">Ryder, Michael L. (1964). "Parchment: its history, manufacture and composition". <i>Journal of the Society of Archivists</i>. <b>2</b> (9): <span class="nowrap">391–</span>399. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00379816009513778">10.1080/00379816009513778</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Society+of+Archivists&rft.atitle=Parchment%3A+its+history%2C+manufacture+and+composition&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E391-%3C%2Fspan%3E399&rft.date=1964&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00379816009513778&rft.aulast=Ryder&rft.aufirst=Michael+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParchment" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1">Stinson, Timothy L. (2009). "Knowledge of the flesh: using DNA analysis to unlock bibliographical secrets of medieval parchment". <i><a href="/wiki/Papers_of_the_Bibliographical_Society_of_America" class="mw-redirect" title="Papers of the Bibliographical Society of America">Papers of the Bibliographical Society of America</a></i>. <b>103</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">435–</span>453. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2Fpbsa.103.4.24293890">10.1086/pbsa.103.4.24293890</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/24293890">24293890</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20607890">20607890</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:37203626">37203626</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Papers+of+the+Bibliographical+Society+of+America&rft.atitle=Knowledge+of+the+flesh%3A+using+DNA+analysis+to+unlock+bibliographical+secrets+of+medieval+parchment&rft.volume=103&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E435-%3C%2Fspan%3E453&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20607890&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A37203626%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F24293890%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2Fpbsa.103.4.24293890&rft.aulast=Stinson&rft.aufirst=Timothy+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParchment" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Parchment&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikisource-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/76px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has the text of the <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">1911 <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i></a> article "<span style="font-weight:bold;"><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Parchment" class="extiw" title="wikisource:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Parchment">Parchment</a></span>".</div></div> </div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span> Media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Parchments" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Parchments">Parchments</a> at Wikimedia Commons</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://blog.nyhistory.org/parchment/">Preservation of 18th Century Parchment | "From the Stacks" at New-York Historical Society</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://classes.bnf.fr/phebus/explo/index3b.htm">On-line demonstration of the preparation of vellum</a> <span class="languageicon">(in French)</span>, <a href="/wiki/Biblioth%C3%A8que_nationale_de_France" title="Bibliothèque nationale de France">Bibliothèque nationale de France</a> – Text in French, but mostly visual</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul 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href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q226697#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/1053276/">FAST</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4173751-9">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85097964">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Parchemin"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb122648397">France</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Parchemin"><a rel="nofollow" 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