How are Fullerenes Made? | Current and Emerging Techniques

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While emerging techniques promise to address current challenges." /><link rel="apple-touch-icon" sizes="180x180" href="//www.ossila.com/cdn/shop/t/303/assets/apple-touch-icon.png?v=47689890648139992551729065668"> <link rel="icon" type="image/png" sizes="32x32" href="//www.ossila.com/cdn/shop/t/303/assets/favicon-32x32.png?v=170914528706734454101729065668"> <link rel="icon" type="image/png" sizes="16x16" href="//www.ossila.com/cdn/shop/t/303/assets/favicon-16x16.png?v=162550173345868048431729065668"> <link rel="manifest" href="//www.ossila.com/cdn/shop/t/303/assets/site.webmanifest?v=100969836723433583841729065669"> <link rel="mask-icon" href="//www.ossila.com/cdn/shop/t/303/assets/safari-pinned-tab.svg?v=95647162979764929801729065669" color="#39499c"> <meta name="msapplication-TileColor" content="#418fde"> <meta name="theme-color" content="#ffffff"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://www.ossila.com/pages/how-are-fullerenes-made" />  <link rel="stylesheet" href="//www.ossila.com/cdn/shop/t/303/assets/main-style.css?v=129786468726129743101731684242">  <script>var shopifyMoneyFormat = '${{amount}}';</script> <script defer src="//www.ossila.com/cdn/shop/t/303/assets/main.js?v=120109391065215852831729088283"></script>  <meta property="og:type" content="website" /> <meta property="og:title" content="How are Fullerenes Made? | Current and Emerging Techniques" /> <meta property="og:description" content="Fullerenes such as C60 are made using three main methods: Huffman-Krätschmer, combustion and microwave. While emerging techniques promise to address current challenges." /> <meta property="og:url" content="https://www.ossila.com/pages/how-are-fullerenes-made" /> <meta property="og:site_name" content="Ossila" /> <meta name="twitter:site" content="@ossilascience"> <meta name="twitter:card" content="summary"> <meta name="twitter:title" content="How are Fullerenes Made?"> <meta name="twitter:description" content="Today, fullerenes such as C60 are made using three main methods: Huffman-Krätschmer, combustion and microwave. Chemical synthesis techniques, such as laser irradiation and pyrolysis, offer exciting possibilities for producing fullerene derivatives that were previously not accessible. These emerging techniques promise to address current challenges, including low yield and complex procedures. This will pave the way for more efficient and targeted fullerene synthesis in the future. On This Page How were Fullerenes Discovered? How are Fullerenes Made? Huffman-Krätschmer Method Combustion Method Microwave Method Making Fullerenes in the Future Chemical Synthesis of Fullerene How were Fullerenes Discovered? Kroto, Smalley, and Curl used pulsed laser beams to vaporize a graphite disk. Creating a similar environment to that of a star. When the intense laser pulses struck the graphite, they generated a high-temperature plume of carbon vapor. 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Supplies</a> <a href="/collections/spectroscopy"> <svg class="icon icon-navigate_next"><use xlink:href="#icon-navigate_next"></use></svg> Spectroscopy Equipment</a> <a href="/collections/solution-making"> <svg class="icon icon-navigate_next"><use xlink:href="#icon-navigate_next"></use></svg> Solution Making Supplies</a> <a href="/collections/equipment-accessories"> <svg class="icon icon-navigate_next"><use xlink:href="#icon-navigate_next"></use></svg> Equipment Accessories</a> <a href="/collections/general-laboratory-supplies"> <svg class="icon icon-navigate_next"><use xlink:href="#icon-navigate_next"></use></svg> General Laboratory Supplies</a> </div> </div> </ul> </li> </ul> </nav> </div> </div> </div>  <div class="container"> <div id="unsupported-browser-message" class="alert-warning"> <p>It looks like you are using an unsupported browser. You can still place orders by emailing us on <a href="mailto:info@ossila.com">info@ossila.com</a>, but you may experience issues browsing our website. Please consider upgrading to a modern browser for better security and an improved browsing experience.</p> </div> </div>  <main> <div id="informational-page"> <h1>How are Fullerenes Made?</h1> <div class="container"> <img alt="How are fullerenes made?" class="featured-image" height="280" loading="lazy" src="https://www.ossila.com/cdn/shop/files/fullerenes.jpg?crop=center&width=1340&height=280" width="1340"> <p>Today, fullerenes such as <a href="https://www.ossila.com/products/c60" title="C60, C60 fullerene, fullerene C60">C<sub>60</sub></a> are made using three main methods: Huffman-Krätschmer, combustion and microwave. Chemical synthesis techniques, such as laser irradiation and pyrolysis, offer exciting possibilities for producing fullerene derivatives that were previously not accessible. These emerging techniques promise to address current challenges, including low yield and complex procedures. This will pave the way for more efficient and targeted fullerene synthesis in the future.</p> <div class="panel panel-default"> <div class="panel-body"> <p class="h3" style="margin-top: 10px;" data-mce-style="margin-top: 10px;">On This Page</p> <hr> <ul> <li><a href="#discovery">How were Fullerenes Discovered?</a></li> <li><a href="#fullerene-now">How are Fullerenes Made?</a></li> <ul> <li><a href="#Huffman-Kratschmer">Huffman-Krätschmer Method</a></li> <li><a href="#combustion">Combustion Method</a></li> <li><a href="#microwave">Microwave Method</a></li> </ul> <li><a href="#fullerenes-future">Making Fullerenes in the Future</a></li> <ul> <li><a href="#chemical-synthesis">Chemical Synthesis of Fullerene</a></li> </ul> </ul> </div> </div> <h2 id="discovery">How were Fullerenes Discovered?</h2> <hr> <p>Kroto, Smalley, and Curl used pulsed laser beams to vaporize a graphite disk. Creating a similar environment to that of a star. When the intense laser pulses struck the graphite, they generated a high-temperature plume of carbon vapor. This vapor was then rapidly cooled within a high-density helium atmosphere, a controlled environment that facilitated the condensation of carbon atoms. The rapid cooling process allowed the carbon atoms to bond in unique configurations, resulting in the formation of a series of carbon cluster products. One of which was <a href="https://www.ossila.com/products/c60" title="C60, C60 fullerene, fullerene C60">C<sub>60</sub> fullerene</a>.</p> <figure><img alt="discovery of fullerene" loading="lazy" src="https://www.ossila.com/cdn/shop/files/fullerene_Discovery-of-fullerene.svg?v=1723023193"> <figcaption>Discovery of Fullerene</figcaption> </figure> <h2 id="fullerene-now">How are Fullerenes Made?</h2> <hr> <p>The three main methods for synthesizing <a href="https://www.ossila.com/products/c60" title="C60, C60 fullerene, fullerene C60">C<sub>60</sub> fullerene</a>:</p> <table width="100%"> <thead> <tr> <th>Method</th> <th>Advantages</th> <th>Disadvantages</th> </tr> </thead> <tbody> <tr> <td>Huffman-Krätschmer</td> <td> <p>Simple set up</p> <p>High output</p> <p>Low cost</p> <p>Safe</p> Reliable</td> <td> <p>Impurities of amorphous carbon and graphite</p> <p>Energy intensive</p> <p>Large amount of solvent required</p> Limited by length of graphite electrode</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Combustion</td> <td> <p>Long-term continuous synthesis</p> <p>Simple</p> Low energy consumption</td> <td> <p>Impurities</p> <p>Low yield</p> Difficult to control conditions</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Microwave</td> <td> <p>Energy efficient</p> <p>Rapid heating</p> </td> <td> <p>Impurities</p> Equipment costs</td> </tr> </tbody> </table> <h3 id="Huffman-Kratschmer">Huffman-Krätschmer Method</h3> <p>The Huffman-Krätschmer method for synthesising fullerene involves the evaporation and recondensation of graphite. It is also known as the arc evaporation or arc discharge method. Graphite is heated in a helium atmosphere under 100-200 Torr pressure. A soot is produced which contains fullerene. The soot is dispersed in benzene and fullerene separated using a Soxhlet extractor. C<sub>60</sub> can be produced in gram quantities per day.</p> <figure><img alt="Huffman-Krätschmer method for producing fullerene" loading="lazy" src="https://www.ossila.com/cdn/shop/files/fullerene_Huffman-Kratschmer-Method.svg?v=1723023194"> <figcaption>Huffman-Krätschmer Method for Producing Fullerene</figcaption> </figure> <p>The arc process results to be the best technique for production of carbon soot and subsequent extraction of fullerenes. Due to the poor solubility of fullerenes, large quantities of solvents are required during the purification process.</p> <h3 id="combustion">Combustion Method</h3> <figure class="float-right"><img alt="Microwave irradiation method" height="424" loading="lazy" src="https://www.ossila.com/cdn/shop/files/Microwave-MOF.svg?v=1723019344" width="424"> <figcaption>Microwave Irradiation</figcaption> </figure> <p>Another method for producing fullerenes involves the incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons in sooting flames. Fullerenes can be extracted from a laminar sooting flame of a mixture or benzene and oxygen at low pressure.</p> <p>The key influences over the amount of fullerene produced and its composition are flame conditions such as:</p> <ul> <li>Pressure</li> <li>C:O ratio</li> <li>Time the reactants spend in the flame</li> <li>Gas velocity</li> </ul> <h3 id="microwave">Microwave Method</h3> <p>Fullerene can also be made using microwave irradiation to heat reagents evenly throughout the reaction mixture. One method is to use microwaves to induce naphthalene-nitrogen plasma at atmospheric pressure in a cylindrical coaxial cavity. Toluene is then used to extract fullerene from the soot produced. Plasma conditions can be easily controlled by adjusting the microwave settings, including temperature and power.</p> <p>Microwave irradiation has also been used to transform graphite powder and fluorinated graphite to fullerenes. The key influences over yield of fullerene is the amount of carbon based starting reagent and microwave power.</p> <h2 id="fullerenes-future">Making Fullerenes in the Future</h2> <hr> <p>The current main methods for synthesizing fullerene often have uncontrolled reactions and yield unpredictable products. In contrast, chemical synthesis techniques and molecular engineering now make it possible to access fullerenes and their derivatives that were previously inaccessible.</p> <h3 id="chemical-synthesis">Chemical Synthesis of Fullerene</h3> <h4>Laser Irradiation</h4> <p>Laser irradiation at 337 nm induces hydrogen loss for the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) C<sub>60</sub>H<sub>30</sub> causing it to form C<sub>60</sub> fullerene. It is formed by molecular transformation rather than fragmentation and recombination. This is a low yielding process, and the fullerene product cannot be separated.</p> <figure><img alt="Laser irradiation of PAH to make fullerene" loading="lazy" src="https://www.ossila.com/cdn/shop/files/laser-irradiation-of-PAH-to-make-fullerene.svg?v=1723103941"> <figcaption>Laser Irradiation of PAH to make Fullerene</figcaption> </figure> <h4>Pyrolysis</h4> <p>Through molecular engineering, researchers found that chlorine substituted C<sub>60</sub>H<sub>30</sub>Cl<sub>3</sub> can also form C<sub>60</sub> via flash vacuum pyrolysis at 1100°C. The C<sub>60</sub> was able to be isolated without generating other fullerenes as by-products. This technique can be used to synthesise other fullerenes, especially those that cannot be produced by graphite vaporization.</p> <figure><img alt="Pyrolysis of PAH to make Fullerene" loading="lazy" src="https://www.ossila.com/cdn/shop/files/pyrolysis-of-PAH-to-make-fullerene.svg?v=1723103941"> <figcaption>Pyrolysis of PAH to make Fullerene</figcaption> </figure> <p>The chemical synthesis of fullerenes still has a long way to go to be competitive with the current main methods. There are still issues of low yield and complicated steps. The future is promising and we look forward to seeing what is to come!</p> <a class="green-banner" data-track-content="" href="https://www.ossila.com/products/c60"> <p data-content-name="/pages/how-are-fullerenes-made" data-content-piece="cta-c60">C60 Fullerene</p> <img alt="C60" height="120" loading="lazy" src="https://www.ossila.com/cdn/shop/files/fullerenes.jpg?v=1723455314&width=600&height=120&crop=center" width="600"> <button>Browse now</button> </a> <h2>Learn More</h2> <hr> <div class="tile-container"> <div class="card-box card-truncate"> <a href="/pages/properties-of-fullerene"><img alt="fullerene c60" height="160" loading="lazy" src="https://www.ossila.com/cdn/shop/files/FullereneAcceptors_C60_Fullerene.jpg?v=1718716198&width=160&height=160"></a> <a href="/pages/properties-of-fullerene">Properties of Fullerene</a> <p>Fullerene C<sub>60</sub> exhibits unique structural, chemical, electronic, and thermal properties. This is due to its highly symmetrical icosahedral structure that contains a mixture of single and double bonds. All fullerenes have partial electron sharing across the molecule and a high affinity for electrons.</p> <a href="/pages/properties-of-fullerene">Read more...</a> </div> <div class="card-box card-truncate"> <a href="/pages/what-are-fullerenes"><img alt="fullerene c60" height="160" loading="lazy" src="https://www.ossila.com/cdn/shop/files/FullereneAcceptors_C60_Fullerene.jpg?v=1718716198&width=160&height=160"></a> <a href="/pages/what-are-fullerenes">What are Fullerenes?</a> <p>Fullerenes are an allotrope of carbon and are known for their hollow, cage-like structures. They are composed entirely of carbon atoms that form closed, convex polyhedra. The atoms are bonded together to form hexagonal and pentagonal rings, like the pattern found on a soccer ball or geodesic dome.</p> <a href="/pages/what-are-fullerenes">Read more...</a> </div> </div> <div class="panel panel-default"> <div class="panel-body"> <h3>Further Reading</h3> <hr> <ul> <li> <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/book/edit/978-0-7503-4972-7/chapter/bk978-0-7503-4972-7ch1" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Fullerenes</a>, Lv, M. et al. Functional Carbon Materials (2022)</li> <li> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mattod.2017.03.017" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Fullerene: biomedical engineers get to revisit an old friend</a>, Goodarzi, S. et al. materialstoday (2017)</li> </ul> </div> </div> <div class="panel panel-default"> <div class="panel-body"> <h3>Contributors</h3> <hr> <p>Edited by</p> <p class="no-margin"><a href="/pages/our-writers#amelia-wood" title="Author Biography: Amelia Wood">Dr. Amelia Wood</a></p> <p class="text-muted">Application Scientist</p> <p>Diagrams by</p> <p class="no-margin"><a href="/pages/our-writers#content-team" title="Our Content Team">Sam Force</a></p> <p class="text-muted">Graphic Designer</p> </div> </div> <script type="application/ld+json"> { "@context": "https://schema.org", "@type": "Article", "abstract": "Today, fullerenes such as C60 are made using three main methods: Huffman-Krätschmer, combustion and microwave. Chemical synthesis techniques, such as laser irradiation and pyrolysis, offer exciting possibilities for producing fullerene derivatives that were previously not accessible. These emerging techniques promise to address current challenges, including low yield and complex procedures. This will pave the way for more efficient and targeted fullerene synthesis in the future.", "author": [ { "@type": "Person", "name": "Amelia Wood", "honorificPrefix": "Dr.", "jobTitle": "Application Scientist", "url": "https://www.ossila.com/pages/our-writers#amelia-wood" } ,{ "@type": "Person", "name": "Sam Force", "jobTitle": "Graphic Designer", "url": "https://www.ossila.com/pages/our-writers#content-team" } ], "headline": "How are Fullerenes Made?", "image": [ "https://www.ossila.com/cdn/shop/files/fullerene_Huffman-Kratschmer-Method.svg" ], "inLanguage": "en", "publisher": { "@type": "Organization", "name": "Ossila", "url": "https://www.ossila.com" }, "url": "https://www.ossila.com/pages/how-are-fullerenes-made" } </script> </div> </div> </main>  <div class="full-width-footer"> <footer id="footer" class="footer container"> <div class="clearfix footer-elems nav-footer" id="footer-links"> <div class="row"> <div class="col-xs-12 col-sm-3"> <span class="h2">Ossila</span> <ul class="nav-footer"> <li><a href="/pages/about">About Ossila</a></li> <li><a href="/pages/press-and-media">Press and Media</a></li> <li><a href="/pages/our-writers">Our Writing Team</a></li> <li><a href="/pages/awards-and-testimonials">Awards and Testimonials</a></li> <li><a href="/pages/feedback">Leave Feedback</a></li> <li><a href="/pages/terms-and-conditions">Terms and Conditions</a></li> <li><a href="/pages/privacy-policy">Privacy Policy</a></li> </ul> <span>Copyright © 2024 Ossila</span> </div> <div class="col-xs-12 col-sm-3"> <span class="h2">Join the Team</span> <ul class="nav-footer"> <li><a href="/pages/careers">Careers at Ossila</a></li> <li><a href="/pages/jobs-in-sheffield">Jobs in Sheffield</a></li> <li><a href="/pages/jobs-in-leiden">Jobs in Leiden</a></li> </ul> <span class="h2">Collaborate</span> <ul class="nav-footer"> <li><a href="/pages/reprinting-permissions">Free Digital Assets</a></li> <li><a href="/pages/conference-fund">Conference Sponsorship for Students</a></li> <li><a href="/pages/outreach-support">Science Outreach Support</a></li> <li><a href="/pages/graduation-awards-sponsorship">Graduation Awards</a></li> <li><a href="/pages/letters-of-support">Letters of Support</a></li> </ul> </div> <div class="col-xs-12 col-sm-3"> <span class="h2">Your Account</span> <ul class="nav-footer"> <li><a href="/account/login">Log In</a></li> <li><a href="/account/register">Create Account</a></li> </ul> <span class="h2">Order Information</span> <ul class="nav-footer"> <li><a href="/pages/how-to-order">How to Order</a></li> <li><a href="/pages/worldwide-shipping">Worldwide Shipping Charges</a></li> <li><a href="/pages/returns-and-cancellations">Returns and Cancellations</a></li> <li><a href="/pages/warranty-information">Warranty Information</a></li> <li><a href="/pages/distributors">Regional Distributors</a></li> <li><a href="/collections/deals-and-discounts">Deals and Discounts</a></li> <li><a href="/pages/price-drop-guarantee">Price Drop Guarantee</a></li> </ul> </div> <div class="col-xs-12 col-sm-3"> <span class="h2">Customer Support</span> <ul class="nav-footer"> <li><svg class="icon icon-envelope"><use xlink:href="#icon-envelope"></use></svg> <a href="/pages/contact-us">Send an Enquiry</a></li> <li><svg class="icon icon-envelope"><use xlink:href="#icon-envelope"></use></svg> <a href="mailto:info@ossila.com">info@ossila.com</a></li> <li class="no-padding-bottom"><a href="https://www.ossila.com/pages/about#our-locations" class="text-bold">Main Office</a></li> <li class="no-padding"><svg class="icon icon-phone"><use xlink:href="#icon-phone"></use></svg> +44 (0)114 2999 180</li> <li class="no-padding-top">Mon-Fri, 8:00-17:00 (GMT/BST)</li> <li class="no-padding-bottom"><a href="https://www.ossila.com/pages/about#our-locations" class="text-bold">EU Office</a></li> <li class="no-padding"><svg class="icon icon-phone"><use xlink:href="#icon-phone"></use></svg> +31 (0)718 081020</li> <li class="no-padding-top">Mon-Fri, 9:00-17:00 (CET/CEST)</li> </ul> </div> </div> <div class="text-center"> <span class="double-right-padding">Ossila Ltd</span> <span class="double-right-padding">Company Number 06920105</span> <span class="double-right-padding">VAT Number GB 978 2092 81</span> <span>EORI Number GB978209281000</span> </div> <div class="text-center"> <span class="double-right-padding">Ossila BV</span> <span class="double-right-padding">CCI number 84102241</span> <span class="double-right-padding">VAT Number NL 863097182B01</span> <span>EORI Number NL863097182</span> </div> </div> </footer> </div> <div id="bottom-banner" class="hidden"> <div id="cookie-banner" class="hidden"> <div class="container"> <div class="row"> <span class="col-xs-12 col-sm-8 no-margin pad-half-height">The Ossila website uses cookies for core functionality. 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