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class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-On_land" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#On_land"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 On land </div> </a> <ul id="toc-On_land-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-On_rivers_and_streams" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#On_rivers_and_streams"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 On rivers and streams </div> </a> <ul id="toc-On_rivers_and_streams-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-On_lakes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#On_lakes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 On lakes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-On_lakes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-As_precipitation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#As_precipitation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5 As precipitation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-As_precipitation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Snow_and_freezing_rain" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Snow_and_freezing_rain"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5.1 Snow and freezing rain </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Snow_and_freezing_rain-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hard_forms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hard_forms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5.2 Hard forms </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hard_forms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-On_surfaces" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#On_surfaces"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.6 On surfaces </div> </a> <ul id="toc-On_surfaces-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ablation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ablation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Ablation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ablation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Role_in_human_activities" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Role_in_human_activities"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Role in human activities </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Role_in_human_activities-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Role in human activities subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Role_in_human_activities-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Cooling" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cooling"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Cooling </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cooling-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Harvesting" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Harvesting"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1.1 Harvesting </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Harvesting-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Artificial_production" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Artificial_production"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1.2 Artificial production </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Artificial_production-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Land_travel" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Land_travel"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Land travel </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Land_travel-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Water-borne_travel" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Water-borne_travel"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Water-borne travel </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Water-borne_travel-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Air_travel" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Air_travel"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Air travel </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Air_travel-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Recreation_and_sports" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Recreation_and_sports"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.5 Recreation and sports </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Recreation_and_sports-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_uses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_uses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.6 Other uses </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_uses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-As_thermal_ballast" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#As_thermal_ballast"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.6.1 As thermal ballast </div> </a> <ul id="toc-As_thermal_ballast-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-As_structural_material" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#As_structural_material"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.6.2 As structural material </div> </a> <ul id="toc-As_structural_material-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Impacts_of_climate_change" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Impacts_of_climate_change"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Impacts of climate change </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Impacts_of_climate_change-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Impacts of climate change subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Impacts_of_climate_change-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Historical" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historical"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Historical </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historical-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Predictions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Predictions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Predictions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Predictions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Non-water" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Non-water"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Non-water </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Non-water-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Ice</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 155 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-155" aria-hidden="true" > 155 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ys" title="Ys – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Ys" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eis" title="Eis – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Eis" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%89%A0%E1%88%A8%E1%8B%B6" title="በረዶ – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="በረዶ" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target">አማርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ang mw-list-item"><a href="https://ang.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%AAs" title="Īs – Old English" lang="ang" hreflang="ang" data-title="Īs" data-language-autonym="Ænglisc" data-language-local-name="Old English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ænglisc</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%AF" title="جليد – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="جليد" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chelo" title="Chelo – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Chelo" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arc mw-list-item"><a href="https://arc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DC%93%DC%A0%DC%9D%DC%95%DC%90" title="ܓܠܝܕܐ – Aramaic" lang="arc" hreflang="arc" data-title="ܓܠܝܕܐ" data-language-autonym="ܐܪܡܝܐ" data-language-local-name="Aramaic" class="interlanguage-link-target">ܐܪܡܝܐ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%AB" title="বৰফ – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="বৰফ" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">অসমীয়া</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xelu" title="Xelu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Xelu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-atj mw-list-item"><a href="https://atj.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maskomi" title="Maskomi – Atikamekw" lang="atj" hreflang="atj" data-title="Maskomi" data-language-autonym="Atikamekw" data-language-local-name="Atikamekw" class="interlanguage-link-target">Atikamekw</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yrypy%27a" title="Yrypy'a – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Yrypy'a" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Avañe'ẽ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-av mw-list-item"><a href="https://av.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D3%80%D0%B5%D1%80" title="ЦӀер – Avaric" lang="av" hreflang="av" data-title="ЦӀер" data-language-autonym="Авар" data-language-local-name="Avaric" class="interlanguage-link-target">Авар</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ay mw-list-item"><a href="https://ay.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chhullunkhaya" title="Chhullunkhaya – Aymara" lang="ay" hreflang="ay" data-title="Chhullunkhaya" data-language-autonym="Aymar aru" data-language-local-name="Aymara" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aymar aru</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buz" title="Buz – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Buz" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D9%88%D8%B2" title="بوز – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="بوز" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%AB" title="বরফ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="বরফ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peng" title="Peng – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Peng" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D1%91%D0%B4" title="Лёд – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Лёд" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D1%91%D0%B4" title="Лёд – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Лёд" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AB" title="बरफ – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="बरफ" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target">भोजपुरी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yelo" title="Yelo – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Yelo" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bikol Central</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B5%D0%B4" title="Лед – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Лед" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Led" title="Led – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Led" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gla%C3%A7" title="Glaç – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Glaç" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%C4%83%D1%80" title="Пăр – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Пăр" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yelo_(butang)" title="Yelo (butang) – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Yelo (butang)" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cebuano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Led" title="Led – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Led" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/I%C3%A2" title="Iâ – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Iâ" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Is" title="Is – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Is" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pdc mw-list-item"><a href="https://pdc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eis" title="Eis – Pennsylvania German" lang="pdc" hreflang="pdc" data-title="Eis" data-language-autonym="Deitsch" data-language-local-name="Pennsylvania German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deitsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eis" title="Eis – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Eis" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dty mw-list-item"><a href="https://dty.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AB" title="बरफ – Doteli" lang="dty" hreflang="dty" data-title="बरफ" data-language-autonym="डोटेली" data-language-local-name="Doteli" class="interlanguage-link-target">डोटेली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%A4%C3%A4" title="Jää – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Jää" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CE%AC%CE%B3%CE%BF%CF%82" title="Πάγος – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Πάγος" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eml mw-list-item"><a href="https://eml.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gi%C3%A0s" title="Giàs – Emiliano-Romagnolo" lang="egl" hreflang="egl" data-title="Giàs" data-language-autonym="Emiliàn e rumagnòl" data-language-local-name="Emiliano-Romagnolo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Emiliàn e rumagnòl</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-myv mw-list-item"><a href="https://myv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%B9" title="Эй – Erzya" lang="myv" hreflang="myv" data-title="Эй" data-language-autonym="Эрзянь" data-language-local-name="Erzya" class="interlanguage-link-target">Эрзянь</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hielo" title="Hielo – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Hielo" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glacio" title="Glacio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Glacio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Izotz" title="Izotz – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Izotz" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DB%8C%D8%AE" title="یخ – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="یخ" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glace" title="Glace – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Glace" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iis" title="Iis – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Iis" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oighear" title="Oighear – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Oighear" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C3%A8igh" title="Dèigh – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Dèigh" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gàidhlig</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xeo" title="Xeo – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Xeo" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C3%AAn" title="Pên – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Pên" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%96%BC%EC%9D%8C" title="얼음 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="얼음" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C6%98an%C6%99ara_(tsananin_sanyi)" title="Ƙanƙara (tsananin sanyi) – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Ƙanƙara (tsananin sanyi)" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hausa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8D%D5%A1%D5%BC%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B5%D6%81" title="Սառույց – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Սառույց" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AB%E0%A4%BC" title="बर्फ़ – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="बर्फ़" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Led" title="Led – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Led" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glacio" title="Glacio – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Glacio" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Es" title="Es – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Es" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glacie" title="Glacie – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Glacie" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ie mw-list-item"><a href="https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glacie" title="Glacie – Interlingue" lang="ie" hreflang="ie" data-title="Glacie" data-language-autonym="Interlingue" data-language-local-name="Interlingue" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingue</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ik mw-list-item"><a href="https://ik.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siku" title="Siku – Inupiaq" lang="ik" hreflang="ik" data-title="Siku" data-language-autonym="Iñupiatun" data-language-local-name="Inupiaq" class="interlanguage-link-target">Iñupiatun</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zu mw-list-item"><a href="https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iqhwa" title="Iqhwa – Zulu" lang="zu" hreflang="zu" data-title="Iqhwa" data-language-autonym="IsiZulu" data-language-local-name="Zulu" class="interlanguage-link-target">IsiZulu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%8Ds" title="Ís – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Ís" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghiaccio" title="Ghiaccio – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Ghiaccio" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A7%D7%A8%D7%97" title="קרח – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="קרח" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%88s" title="Ès – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Ès" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AE%E0%B2%82%E0%B2%9C%E0%B3%81%E0%B2%97%E0%B2%A1%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%A1%E0%B3%86" title="ಮಂಜುಗಡ್ಡೆ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಮಂಜುಗಡ್ಡೆ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A7%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98" title="ყინული – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ყინული" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D2%B1%D0%B7" title="Мұз – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Мұз" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barafu" title="Barafu – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Barafu" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glas_(materyo)" title="Glas (materyo) – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Glas (materyo)" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D1%83%D0%B7" title="Муз – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Муз" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glacies" title="Glacies – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Glacies" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ledus" title="Ledus – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Ledus" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ledas" title="Ledas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Ledas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ies" title="Ies – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Ies" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ln mw-list-item"><a href="https://ln.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gal%C3%A1si" title="Galási – Lingala" lang="ln" hreflang="ln" data-title="Galási" data-language-autonym="Lingála" data-language-local-name="Lingala" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingála</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giazz" title="Giazz – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Giazz" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%A9g" title="Jég – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Jég" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B7" title="Мраз – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Мраз" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ranomandry" title="Ranomandry – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Ranomandry" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%90%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D" title="ഐസ് – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ഐസ്" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mi mw-list-item"><a href="https://mi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tio" title="Tio – Māori" lang="mi" hreflang="mi" data-title="Tio" data-language-autonym="Māori" data-language-local-name="Māori" class="interlanguage-link-target">Māori</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AB" title="बर्फ – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="बर्फ" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%AF" title="جليد – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="جليد" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ais" title="Ais – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Ais" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mni mw-list-item"><a href="https://mni.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%AF%8E%EA%AF%9F_(%EA%AF%83%EA%AF%84%EA%AF%AA)" title="ꯎꯟ (ꯃꯄꯪ) – Manipuri" lang="mni" hreflang="mni" data-title="ꯎꯟ (ꯃꯄꯪ)" data-language-autonym="ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ" data-language-local-name="Manipuri" class="interlanguage-link-target">ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Es" title="Es – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Es" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target">Minangkabau</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C4%ADng" title="Bĭng – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Bĭng" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mdf mw-list-item"><a href="https://mdf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%B9%D1%81%D1%8C" title="Эйсь – Moksha" lang="mdf" hreflang="mdf" data-title="Эйсь" data-language-autonym="Мокшень" data-language-local-name="Moksha" class="interlanguage-link-target">Мокшень</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D3%A9%D1%81" title="Мөс – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Мөс" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%9B%E1%80%B1%E1%80%81%E1%80%B2" title="ရေခဲ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ရေခဲ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nah mw-list-item"><a href="https://nah.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cetl" title="Cetl – Nahuatl" lang="nah" hreflang="nah" data-title="Cetl" data-language-autonym="Nāhuatl" data-language-local-name="Nahuatl" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nāhuatl</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fj mw-list-item"><a href="https://fj.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aisi" title="Aisi – Fijian" lang="fj" hreflang="fj" data-title="Aisi" data-language-autonym="Na Vosa Vakaviti" data-language-local-name="Fijian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Na Vosa Vakaviti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/IJs_(water)" title="IJs (water) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="IJs (water)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ies" title="Ies – Low Saxon" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="Ies" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="Low Saxon" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nedersaksies</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AE" title="हिम – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="हिम" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B0%B7" title="氷 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="氷" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Is" title="Is – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Is" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Is" title="Is – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Is" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nrm mw-list-item"><a href="https://nrm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gll%C3%A8che" title="Gllèche – Norman" lang="nrf" hreflang="nrf" data-title="Gllèche" data-language-autonym="Nouormand" data-language-local-name="Norman" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nouormand</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gla%C3%A7" title="Glaç – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Glaç" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or mw-list-item"><a href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%AC%E0%AC%B0%E0%AC%AB" title="ବରଫ – Odia" lang="or" hreflang="or" data-title="ବରଫ" data-language-autonym="ଓଡ଼ିଆ" data-language-local-name="Odia" class="interlanguage-link-target">ଓଡ଼ିଆ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muz" title="Muz – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Muz" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AC%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%AB%E0%A8%BC" title="ਬਰਫ਼ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਬਰਫ਼" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%81" title="برف – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="برف" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ies" title="Ies – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Ies" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%B3d" title="Lód – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Lód" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gelo" title="Gelo – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Gelo" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghea%C8%9B%C4%83" title="Gheață – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Gheață" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chullunku" title="Chullunku – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Chullunku" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Runa Simi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D1%91%D0%B4" title="Лёд – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Лёд" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D1%83%D1%83%D1%81" title="Муус – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Муус" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target">Саха тыла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ice" title="Ice – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Ice" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akulli" title="Akulli – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Akulli" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghiacciu" title="Ghiacciu – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Ghiacciu" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%85%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%92%E0%B7%83%E0%B7%8A" title="අයිස් – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="අයිස්" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ice" title="Ice – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Ice" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%81" title="برف – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="برف" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">سنڌي</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%BDad" title="Ľad – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Ľad" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Led" title="Led – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Led" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szl mw-list-item"><a href="https://szl.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C5%8Dd" title="Lōd – Silesian" lang="szl" hreflang="szl" data-title="Lōd" data-language-autonym="Ślůnski" data-language-local-name="Silesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ślůnski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baraf" title="Baraf – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Baraf" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target">Soomaaliga</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%DB%95%DA%BE%DB%86%DA%B5" title="سەھۆڵ – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="سەھۆڵ" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B5%D0%B4" title="Лед – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Лед" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Led" title="Led – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Led" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89s" title="És – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="És" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sunda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%A4%C3%A4" title="Jää – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Jää" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Is" title="Is – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Is" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yelo" title="Yelo – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Yelo" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%A9%E0%AE%BF" title="பனி – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="பனி" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agris" title="Agris – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Agris" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target">Taqbaylit</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tay mw-list-item"><a href="https://tay.wikipedia.org/wiki/tlaka%E2%80%99" title="tlaka’ – Atayal" lang="tay" hreflang="tay" data-title="tlaka’" data-language-autonym="Tayal" data-language-local-name="Atayal" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tayal</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%AE%E0%B0%82%E0%B0%9A%E0%B1%81" title="మంచు – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="మంచు" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%99%E0%B9%89%E0%B8%B3%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%82%E0%B9%87%E0%B8%87" title="น้ำแข็ง – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="น้ำแข็ง" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AF%D1%85" title="Ях – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Ях" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-chr mw-list-item"><a href="https://chr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8E%A4%E1%8F%81%E1%8F%8D%E1%8F%93%E1%8E%B3" title="ᎤᏁᏍᏓᎳ – Cherokee" lang="chr" hreflang="chr" data-title="ᎤᏁᏍᏓᎳ" data-language-autonym="ᏣᎳᎩ" data-language-local-name="Cherokee" class="interlanguage-link-target">ᏣᎳᎩ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-chy mw-list-item"><a href="https://chy.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A1%27ome" title="Má'ome – Cheyenne" lang="chy" hreflang="chy" data-title="Má'ome" data-language-autonym="Tsetsêhestâhese" data-language-local-name="Cheyenne" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tsetsêhestâhese</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buz" title="Buz – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Buz" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D1%96%D0%B4" title="Лід – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Лід" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%81" title="برف – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="برف" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-za mw-list-item"><a href="https://za.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naehang" title="Naehang – Zhuang" lang="za" hreflang="za" data-title="Naehang" data-language-autonym="Vahcuengh" data-language-local-name="Zhuang" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vahcuengh</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaso" title="Jaso – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Jaso" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vèneto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vep mw-list-item"><a href="https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%A4" title="Jä – Veps" lang="vep" hreflang="vep" data-title="Jä" data-language-autonym="Vepsän kel’" data-language-local-name="Veps" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vepsän kel’</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C4%83ng" title="Băng – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Băng" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vo mw-list-item"><a href="https://vo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glad" title="Glad – Volapük" lang="vo" hreflang="vo" data-title="Glad" data-language-autonym="Volapük" data-language-local-name="Volapük" class="interlanguage-link-target">Volapük</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glaece" title="Glaece – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="Glaece" data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="Walloon" class="interlanguage-link-target">Walon</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%86%B0" title="冰 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="冰" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">文言</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vls mw-list-item"><a href="https://vls.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ys" title="Ys – West Flemish" lang="vls" hreflang="vls" data-title="Ys" data-language-autonym="West-Vlams" data-language-local-name="West Flemish" class="interlanguage-link-target">West-Vlams</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yilu" title="Yilu – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Yilu" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%86%B0" title="冰 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="冰" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%99%D7%99%D7%96" title="אייז – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="אייז" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target">ייִדיש</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%86%B0" title="冰 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="冰" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cemed" title="Cemed – Dimli" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Cemed" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Dimli" class="interlanguage-link-target">Zazaki</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leds" title="Leds – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Leds" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Žemaitėška</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%86%B0" title="冰 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="冰" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bdr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bdr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ais" title="Ais – West Coast Bajau" lang="bdr" hreflang="bdr" data-title="Ais" data-language-autonym="Bajau Sama" data-language-local-name="West Coast Bajau" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bajau Sama</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bew mw-list-item"><a href="https://bew.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%88s" title="Ès – Betawi" lang="bew" hreflang="bew" data-title="Ès" data-language-autonym="Betawi" data-language-local-name="Betawi" 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Click here for more information." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/19px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/29px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/39px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></div></div> <div id="mw-indicator-pp-default" class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Protection_policy#semi" title="This article is semi-protected due to vandalism"><img alt="Page semi-protected" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/20px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/30px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/40px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Frozen water: the solid state of water</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about water ice. For the broader concept of "ices" as used in the planetary sciences, see <a href="/wiki/Volatile_(astrogeology)" title="Volatile (astrogeology)">Volatile (astrogeology)</a>. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Ice_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Ice (disambiguation)">Ice (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox" style="width:25em"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background:#ccc">Ice</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Ice_Block,_Canal_Park,_Duluth_(32752478892).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A picture of ice" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Ice_Block%2C_Canal_Park%2C_Duluth_%2832752478892%29.jpg/220px-Ice_Block%2C_Canal_Park%2C_Duluth_%2832752478892%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Ice_Block%2C_Canal_Park%2C_Duluth_%2832752478892%29.jpg/330px-Ice_Block%2C_Canal_Park%2C_Duluth_%2832752478892%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Ice_Block%2C_Canal_Park%2C_Duluth_%2832752478892%29.jpg/440px-Ice_Block%2C_Canal_Park%2C_Duluth_%2832752478892%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4361" data-file-height="2907" /></a><div class="infobox-caption">An ice block</div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background:#ddd">Physical properties</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Density" title="Density">Density</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style>(ρ)</th><td class="infobox-data">0.9167<a href="#cite_note-CRC-1">[1]</a>–0.9168<a href="#cite_note-Voitkovskii-2">[2]</a> g/cm3</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Refractive_index" title="Refractive index">Refractive index</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488">(n)</th><td class="infobox-data">1.309</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background:#ddd">Chemical properties</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Chemical formula</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1123817410">.mw-parser-output .template-chem2-su{display:inline-block;font-size:80%;line-height:1;vertical-align:-0.35em}.mw-parser-output .template-chem2-su>span{display:block;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output sub.template-chem2-sub{font-size:80%;vertical-align:-0.35em}.mw-parser-output sup.template-chem2-sup{font-size:80%;vertical-align:0.65em}</style>H2O</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background:#ddd">Mechanical properties</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Young%27s_modulus" title="Young's modulus">Young's modulus</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488">(E)</th><td class="infobox-data">3400 to 37,500 <a href="/wiki/Kilogram-force" title="Kilogram-force">kg-force</a>/cm3<a href="#cite_note-Voitkovskii-2">[2]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Ultimate_tensile_strength" title="Ultimate tensile strength">Tensile strength</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488">(σt)</th><td class="infobox-data">5 to 18 kg-force/cm2<a href="#cite_note-Voitkovskii-2">[2]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Compressive_strength" title="Compressive strength">Compressive strength</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488">(σc)</th><td class="infobox-data">24 to 60 kg-force/cm2<a href="#cite_note-Voitkovskii-2">[2]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Poisson%27s_ratio" title="Poisson's ratio">Poisson's ratio</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488">(ν)</th><td class="infobox-data">0.36±0.13<a href="#cite_note-Voitkovskii-2">[2]</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background:#ddd">Thermal properties</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Thermal_conductivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermal conductivity">Thermal conductivity</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488">(k)</th><td class="infobox-data">0.0053(1 + 0.0015 θ) cal/(cm s K), θ = temperature in °C<a href="#cite_note-Voitkovskii-2">[2]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Coefficient_of_thermal_expansion#Linear_thermal_expansion_coefficient" class="mw-redirect" title="Coefficient of thermal expansion">Linear thermal expansion coefficient</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488">(α)</th><td class="infobox-data">5.5×10−5<a href="#cite_note-Voitkovskii-2">[2]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Specific_heat_capacity" title="Specific heat capacity">Specific heat capacity</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488">(c)</th><td class="infobox-data">0.5057 − 0.001863 θ cal/(g K), θ = absolute value of temperature in °C<a href="#cite_note-Voitkovskii-2">[2]</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background:#ddd">Electrical properties</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Dielectric_constant" class="mw-redirect" title="Dielectric constant">Dielectric constant</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488">(εr)</th><td class="infobox-data">~95<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below" style="text-align:left; border-top:#aaa 2px solid">The properties of ice vary substantially with temperature, purity and other factors.</td></tr></tbody></table> Ice is <a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">water</a> that is <a href="/wiki/Freezing" title="Freezing">frozen</a> into a <a href="/wiki/Solid" title="Solid">solid</a> state, typically forming at or below temperatures of 0 °<a href="/wiki/Celsius" title="Celsius">C</a>, 32 °<a href="/wiki/Fahrenheit" title="Fahrenheit">F</a>, or 273.15 <a href="/wiki/Kelvin" title="Kelvin">K</a>. It occurs naturally on <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a>, on other planets, in <a href="/wiki/Oort_cloud" title="Oort cloud">Oort cloud</a> objects, and as <a href="/wiki/Interstellar_ice" title="Interstellar ice">interstellar ice</a>. As a naturally occurring crystalline inorganic solid with an ordered structure, ice is considered to be a <a href="/wiki/Mineral" title="Mineral">mineral</a>. Depending on the presence of <a href="/wiki/Impurity" class="mw-redirect" title="Impurity">impurities</a> such as particles of <a href="/wiki/Soil" title="Soil">soil</a> or bubbles of <a href="/wiki/Air" class="mw-redirect" title="Air">air</a>, it can appear transparent or a more or less <a href="/wiki/Opacity_(optics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Opacity (optics)">opaque</a> bluish-white color. Virtually all of the ice on Earth is of a <a href="/wiki/Hexagonal_crystal_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Hexagonal crystal system">hexagonal</a> <a href="/wiki/Crystal_structure" title="Crystal structure">crystalline structure</a> denoted as ice Ih (spoken as "ice one h"). Depending on temperature and pressure, at least nineteen <a href="/wiki/Phases_of_ice" title="Phases of ice">phases</a> (<a href="/wiki/Sphere_packing" title="Sphere packing">packing geometries</a>) can exist. The most common <a href="/wiki/Phase_transition" title="Phase transition">phase transition</a> to ice Ih occurs when liquid water is cooled below 0 <a href="/wiki/Celsius" title="Celsius">°C</a> (273.15 <a href="/wiki/Kelvin" title="Kelvin">K</a>, 32 <a href="/wiki/Fahrenheit" title="Fahrenheit">°F</a>) at <a href="/wiki/Standard_atmospheric_pressure" class="mw-redirect" title="Standard atmospheric pressure">standard atmospheric pressure</a>. When water is cooled rapidly (<a href="/wiki/Quenching" title="Quenching">quenching</a>), up to three types of amorphous ice can form. Interstellar ice is overwhelmingly low-density amorphous ice (LDA), which likely makes LDA ice the most abundant type in the universe. When cooled slowly, correlated proton tunneling occurs below −253.15 <a href="/wiki/Celsius" title="Celsius">°C</a> (20 <a href="/wiki/Kelvin" title="Kelvin">K</a>, −423.67 <a href="/wiki/Fahrenheit" title="Fahrenheit">°F</a>) giving rise to <a href="/wiki/Macroscopic_quantum_phenomena" title="Macroscopic quantum phenomena">macroscopic quantum phenomena</a>. Ice is abundant on the Earth's surface, particularly <a href="/wiki/Polar_ice_cap" title="Polar ice cap">in the polar regions</a> and above the <a href="/wiki/Snow_line" title="Snow line">snow line</a>, where it can aggregate from snow to form <a href="/wiki/Glaciers" class="mw-redirect" title="Glaciers">glaciers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ice_sheet" title="Ice sheet">ice sheets</a>. As <a href="/wiki/Snowflakes" class="mw-redirect" title="Snowflakes">snowflakes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hail" title="Hail">hail</a>, ice is a common form of <a href="/wiki/Precipitation" title="Precipitation">precipitation</a>, and it may also be <a href="/wiki/Deposition_(phase_transition)" title="Deposition (phase transition)">deposited</a> directly by <a href="/wiki/Water_vapor" title="Water vapor">water vapor</a> as <a href="/wiki/Frost" title="Frost">frost</a>. The transition from ice to water is melting and from ice directly to water vapor is <a href="/wiki/Sublimation_(phase_transition)" title="Sublimation (phase transition)">sublimation</a>. These processes plays a key role in Earth's <a href="/wiki/Water_cycle" title="Water cycle">water cycle</a> and <a href="/wiki/Climate" title="Climate">climate</a>. In the recent decades, ice volume on Earth has been decreasing due to <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a>. The largest declines have occurred in the <a href="/wiki/Arctic" title="Arctic">Arctic</a> and in the mountains located outside of the polar regions. The loss of grounded ice (as opposed to floating <a href="/wiki/Sea_ice" title="Sea ice">sea ice</a>) is the primary contributor to <a href="/wiki/Sea_level_rise" title="Sea level rise">sea level rise</a>. Humans have been using ice for various purposes for thousands of years. Some historic structures designed to hold ice to provide cooling are over 2,000 years old. Before the invention of <a href="/wiki/Refrigeration" title="Refrigeration">refrigeration</a> technology, the only way to safely store food without modifying it through <a href="/wiki/Preservative" title="Preservative">preservatives</a> was to use ice. Sufficiently solid surface ice makes <a href="/wiki/Waterway" title="Waterway">waterways</a> accessible to land transport during winter, and dedicated <a href="/wiki/Ice_road" title="Ice road">ice roads</a> may be maintained. Ice also plays a major role in <a href="/wiki/Winter_sport" class="mw-redirect" title="Winter sport">winter sports</a>. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Physical_properties">Physical properties</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Water_(properties)#Density_of_water_and_ice" class="mw-redirect" title="Water (properties)">Water (properties) § Density of water and ice</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ice_Ih_Crystal_Lattice.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Ice_Ih_Crystal_Lattice.png/220px-Ice_Ih_Crystal_Lattice.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Ice_Ih_Crystal_Lattice.png/330px-Ice_Ih_Crystal_Lattice.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Ice_Ih_Crystal_Lattice.png/440px-Ice_Ih_Crystal_Lattice.png 2x" data-file-width="3113" data-file-height="2027" /></a><figcaption>The three-dimensional crystal structure of H2O ice Ih (c) is composed of bases of H2O ice molecules (b) located on lattice points within the two-dimensional hexagonal space lattice (a).<a href="#cite_note-Physics_of_Ice-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a></figcaption></figure> Ice possesses a regular <a href="/wiki/Crystalline" class="mw-redirect" title="Crystalline">crystalline</a> structure based on the <a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">molecule</a> of water, which consists of a single <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a> atom <a href="/wiki/Covalently" class="mw-redirect" title="Covalently">covalently</a> bonded to two <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_atom" title="Hydrogen atom">hydrogen atoms</a>, or H–O–H. However, many of the physical properties of water and ice are controlled by the formation of <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_bond" title="Hydrogen bond">hydrogen bonds</a> between adjacent oxygen and hydrogen atoms; while it is a weak bond, it is nonetheless critical in controlling the structure of both water and ice.<a href="#cite_note-bjerrum-6">[6]</a> An unusual property of water is that its solid form—ice frozen at <a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_pressure" title="Atmospheric pressure">atmospheric pressure</a>—is approximately 8.3% less dense than its liquid form; this is equivalent to a volumetric expansion of 9%. The <a href="/wiki/Density" title="Density">density</a> of ice is 0.9167<a href="#cite_note-CRC-1">[1]</a>–0.9168<a href="#cite_note-Voitkovskii-2">[2]</a> g/cm3 at 0 °C and standard atmospheric pressure (101,325 Pa), whereas water has a density of 0.9998<a href="#cite_note-CRC-1">[1]</a>–0.999863<a href="#cite_note-Voitkovskii-2">[2]</a> g/cm3 at the same temperature and pressure. Liquid water is densest, essentially 1.00 g/cm3, at 4 °C and begins to lose its density as the water molecules begin to form the <a href="/wiki/Hexagonal_(crystal_system)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hexagonal (crystal system)">hexagonal</a> <a href="/wiki/Crystal" title="Crystal">crystals</a> of <a href="/wiki/Ice_crystals" class="mw-redirect" title="Ice crystals">ice</a> as the freezing point is reached. This is due to hydrogen bonding dominating the intermolecular forces, which results in a packing of molecules less compact in the solid. The density of ice increases slightly with decreasing temperature and has a value of 0.9340 g/cm3 at −180 °C (93 K).<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> When water freezes, it increases in volume (about 9% for fresh water).<a href="#cite_note-LibreTexts-8">[8]</a> The effect of expansion during freezing can be dramatic, and ice expansion is a basic cause of <a href="/wiki/Freeze-thaw" class="mw-redirect" title="Freeze-thaw">freeze-thaw</a> weathering of rock in nature and damage to building foundations and roadways from <a href="/wiki/Frost_heaving" title="Frost heaving">frost heaving</a>. It is also a common cause of the flooding of houses when water pipes burst due to the pressure of expanding water when it freezes.<a href="#cite_note-Akyurt2002-9">[9]</a> Because ice is less dense than liquid water, it floats, and this prevents bottom-up freezing of the bodies of water. Instead, a sheltered environment for animal and plant life is formed beneath the floating ice, which protects the underside from short-term weather extremes such as <a href="/wiki/Wind_chill" title="Wind chill">wind chill</a>. Sufficiently thin floating ice allows light to pass through, supporting the <a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthesis</a> of bacterial and algal colonies.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> When sea water freezes, the ice is riddled with brine-filled channels which sustain <a href="/wiki/Sympagic_ecology" title="Sympagic ecology">sympagic organisms</a> such as bacteria, algae, <a href="/wiki/Copepod" title="Copepod">copepods</a> and <a href="/wiki/Annelid" title="Annelid">annelids</a>. In turn, they provide food for animals such as <a href="/wiki/Krill" title="Krill">krill</a> and specialized fish like the <a href="/wiki/Bald_notothen" title="Bald notothen">bald notothen</a>, fed upon in turn by larger animals such as <a href="/wiki/Emperor_penguins" class="mw-redirect" title="Emperor penguins">emperor penguins</a> and <a href="/wiki/Minke_whales" class="mw-redirect" title="Minke whales">minke whales</a>.<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Frozen_Wappinger_Creek.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Frozen_Wappinger_Creek.JPG/220px-Frozen_Wappinger_Creek.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Frozen_Wappinger_Creek.JPG/330px-Frozen_Wappinger_Creek.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Frozen_Wappinger_Creek.JPG/440px-Frozen_Wappinger_Creek.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3872" data-file-height="2592" /></a><figcaption>Frozen waterfall in southeast <a href="/wiki/New_York_(state)" title="New York (state)">New York</a></figcaption></figure> When ice melts, it absorbs as much <a href="/wiki/Heat" title="Heat">energy</a> as it would take to heat an equivalent mass of water by 80 °C (176 °F).<a href="#cite_note-ESA-12">[12]</a> During the melting process, the temperature remains constant at 0 °C (32 °F). While melting, any energy added breaks the hydrogen bonds between ice (water) molecules. Energy becomes available to increase the thermal energy (temperature) only after enough hydrogen bonds are broken that the ice can be considered liquid water. The amount of energy consumed in breaking hydrogen bonds in the transition from ice to water is known as the <a href="/wiki/Heat_of_fusion" class="mw-redirect" title="Heat of fusion">heat of fusion</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ESA-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-LibreTexts-8">[8]</a> As with water, ice absorbs light at the red end of the spectrum preferentially as the result of an overtone of an oxygen–hydrogen (O–H) bond stretch. Compared with water, this absorption is shifted toward slightly lower energies. Thus, ice appears blue, with a slightly greener tint than liquid water. Since absorption is cumulative, the color effect intensifies with increasing thickness or if internal reflections cause the light to take a longer path through the ice.<a href="#cite_note-color-13">[13]</a> Other colors can appear in the presence of light absorbing impurities, where the impurity is dictating the color rather than the ice itself. For instance, <a href="/wiki/Iceberg" title="Iceberg">icebergs</a> containing impurities (e.g., sediments, algae, air bubbles) can appear brown, grey or green.<a href="#cite_note-color-13">[13]</a> Because ice in natural environments is usually close to its melting temperature, its hardness shows pronounced temperature variations. At its melting point, ice has a <a href="/wiki/Mohs_hardness" class="mw-redirect" title="Mohs hardness">Mohs hardness</a> of 2 or less, but the hardness increases to about 4 at a temperature of −44 °C (−47 °F) and to 6 at a temperature of −78.5 °C (−109.3 °F), the vaporization point of solid <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> (dry ice).<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Phases">Phases</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Phases_of_ice" title="Phases of ice">Phases of ice</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Phase_diagram_of_water.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Phase_diagram_of_water.svg/220px-Phase_diagram_of_water.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="183" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Phase_diagram_of_water.svg/330px-Phase_diagram_of_water.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Phase_diagram_of_water.svg/440px-Phase_diagram_of_water.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="427" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Semi-log_plot" title="Semi-log plot">Log-lin</a> pressure-temperature <a href="/wiki/Phase_diagram" title="Phase diagram">phase diagram</a> of water. The <a href="/wiki/Roman_numeral" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman numeral">Roman numerals</a> correspond to some ice phases listed below.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:3D_representation_of_several_phases_of_water.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/3D_representation_of_several_phases_of_water.jpg/220px-3D_representation_of_several_phases_of_water.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="208" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/3D_representation_of_several_phases_of_water.jpg/330px-3D_representation_of_several_phases_of_water.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/3D_representation_of_several_phases_of_water.jpg/440px-3D_representation_of_several_phases_of_water.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1812" data-file-height="1717" /></a><figcaption>An alternative formulation of the phase diagram for certain ices and other phases of water<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a></figcaption></figure> Most liquids under increased pressure freeze at higher temperatures because the pressure helps to hold the molecules together. However, the strong hydrogen bonds in water make it different: for some pressures higher than 1 atm (0.10 MPa), water freezes at a temperature below 0 °C (32 °F). Ice, water, and <a href="/wiki/Water_vapour" class="mw-redirect" title="Water vapour">water vapour</a> can coexist at the <a href="/wiki/Triple_point" title="Triple point">triple point</a>, which is exactly 273.16 K (0.01 °C) at a pressure of 611.657 <a href="/wiki/Pascal_(unit)" title="Pascal (unit)">Pa</a>.<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Kelvin" title="Kelvin">kelvin</a> was defined as <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1214402035">.mw-parser-output .sfrac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .sfrac.tion,.mw-parser-output .sfrac .tion{display:inline-block;vertical-align:-0.5em;font-size:85%;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sfrac .num{display:block;line-height:1em;margin:0.0em 0.1em;border-bottom:1px solid}.mw-parser-output .sfrac .den{display:block;line-height:1em;margin:0.1em 0.1em}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}</style>⁠1/273.16⁠ of the difference between this triple point and <a href="/wiki/Absolute_zero" title="Absolute zero">absolute zero</a>,<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> though this definition <a href="/wiki/2019_revision_of_the_SI" title="2019 revision of the SI">changed</a> in May 2019.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> Unlike most other solids, ice is difficult to <a href="/wiki/Superheating" title="Superheating">superheat</a>. In an experiment, ice at −3 °C was superheated to about 17 °C for about 250 <a href="/wiki/Picosecond" title="Picosecond">picoseconds</a>.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> Subjected to higher pressures and varying temperatures, ice can form in nineteen separate known crystalline phases at various densities, along with hypothetical proposed phases of ice that have not been observed.<a href="#cite_note-Metcalfe-2021-21">[21]</a> With care, at least fifteen of these phases (one of the known exceptions being ice X) can be recovered at ambient pressure and low temperature in <a href="/wiki/Metastable" class="mw-redirect" title="Metastable">metastable</a> form.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> The types are differentiated by their crystalline structure, proton ordering,<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> and density. There are also two metastable phases of ice under pressure, both fully hydrogen-disordered; these are Ice IV and Ice XII. Ice XII was discovered in 1996. In 2006, Ice XIII and Ice XIV were discovered.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> Ices XI, XIII, and XIV are hydrogen-ordered forms of ices Ih, V, and XII respectively. In 2009, ice XV was found at extremely high pressures and −143 °C.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> At even higher pressures, ice is predicted to become a <a href="/wiki/Metal" title="Metal">metal</a>; this has been variously estimated to occur at 1.55 TPa<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> or 5.62 TPa.<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> As well as crystalline forms, solid water can exist in amorphous states as <a href="/wiki/Amorphous_solid_water" class="mw-redirect" title="Amorphous solid water">amorphous solid water</a> (ASW) of varying densities. In outer space, hexagonal crystalline ice is present in the <a href="/wiki/Ice_volcano" title="Ice volcano">ice volcanoes</a>,<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> but is extremely rare otherwise. Even icy moons like <a href="/wiki/Ganymede_(moon)" title="Ganymede (moon)">Ganymede</a> are expected to mainly consist of other crystalline forms of ice.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-showman1997-31">[31]</a> Water in the <a href="/wiki/Interstellar_medium" title="Interstellar medium">interstellar medium</a> is dominated by amorphous ice, making it likely the most common form of water in the universe.<a href="#cite_note-stanley-32">[32]</a> Low-density ASW (LDA), also known as hyperquenched glassy water, may be responsible for <a href="/wiki/Noctilucent_clouds" class="mw-redirect" title="Noctilucent clouds">noctilucent clouds</a> on Earth and is usually formed by <a href="/wiki/Vapor_deposition" class="mw-redirect" title="Vapor deposition">deposition</a> of water vapor in cold or vacuum conditions.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> High-density ASW (HDA) is formed by compression of ordinary ice Ih or LDA at GPa pressures. Very-high-density ASW (VHDA) is HDA slightly warmed to 160 K under 1–2 GPa pressures.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> Ice from a theorized superionic water may possess two crystalline structures. At pressures in excess of 500,000 bars (7,300,000 psi) such superionic ice would take on a <a href="/wiki/Body-centered_cubic" class="mw-redirect" title="Body-centered cubic">body-centered cubic</a> structure. However, at pressures in excess of 1,000,000 bars (15,000,000 psi) the structure may shift to a more stable <a href="/wiki/Face-centered_cubic" class="mw-redirect" title="Face-centered cubic">face-centered cubic</a> lattice. It is speculated that superionic ice could compose the interior of ice giants such as Uranus and Neptune.<a href="#cite_note-Phys.org-2013-04-25-35">[35]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Friction_properties">Friction properties</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:2011_Figure_Skating_WC_Takahiko_Kozuka.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/2011_Figure_Skating_WC_Takahiko_Kozuka.jpg/220px-2011_Figure_Skating_WC_Takahiko_Kozuka.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="191" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/2011_Figure_Skating_WC_Takahiko_Kozuka.jpg/330px-2011_Figure_Skating_WC_Takahiko_Kozuka.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/2011_Figure_Skating_WC_Takahiko_Kozuka.jpg/440px-2011_Figure_Skating_WC_Takahiko_Kozuka.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1379" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Takahiko_Kozuka" title="Takahiko Kozuka">Takahiko Kozuka</a> figure skating - an act which is only possible due to ice's low frictional properties</figcaption></figure> Ice is "<a href="/wiki/Slipperiness" title="Slipperiness">slippery</a>" because it has a low coefficient of friction. This subject was first scientifically investigated in the 19th century. The preferred explanation at the time was "<a href="/wiki/Pressure_melting_point" title="Pressure melting point">pressure melting</a>" -i.e. the blade of an ice skate, upon exerting pressure on the ice, would melt a thin layer, providing sufficient lubrication for the blade to glide across the ice.<a href="#cite_note-Rosenberg-2005-36">[36]</a> Yet, 1939 research by Frank P. Bowden and T. P. Hughes found that skaters would experience a lot more friction than they actually do if it were the only explanation. Further, the optimum temperature for figure skating is −5.5 °C (22 °F; 268 K) and −9 °C (16 °F; 264 K) for hockey; yet, according to pressure melting theory, skating below −4 °C (25 °F; 269 K) would be outright impossible.<a href="#cite_note-Chang2006-37">[37]</a> Instead, Bowden and Hughes argued that heating and melting of the ice layer is caused by friction. However, this theory does not sufficiently explain why ice is slippery when standing still even at below-zero temperatures.<a href="#cite_note-Rosenberg-2005-36">[36]</a> Subsequent research suggested that ice molecules at the interface cannot properly bond with the molecules of the mass of ice beneath (and thus are free to move like molecules of liquid water). These molecules remain in a semi-liquid state, providing lubrication regardless of pressure against the ice exerted by any object. However, the significance of this hypothesis is disputed by experiments showing a high <a href="/wiki/Coefficient_of_friction" class="mw-redirect" title="Coefficient of friction">coefficient of friction</a> for ice using <a href="/wiki/Atomic_force_microscopy" title="Atomic force microscopy">atomic force microscopy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Chang2006-37">[37]</a> Thus, the mechanism controlling the frictional properties of ice is still an active area of scientific study.<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> A comprehensive theory of ice friction must take into account all of the aforementioned mechanisms to estimate friction coefficient of ice against various materials as a function of temperature and sliding speed. 2014 research suggests that frictional heating is the most important process under most typical conditions.<a href="#cite_note-Makkonen2014-39">[39]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Natural_formation">Natural formation</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tsu_Lake_Ice_Circle.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Tsu_Lake_Ice_Circle.jpg/220px-Tsu_Lake_Ice_Circle.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Tsu_Lake_Ice_Circle.jpg/330px-Tsu_Lake_Ice_Circle.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Tsu_Lake_Ice_Circle.jpg/440px-Tsu_Lake_Ice_Circle.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3200" data-file-height="2400" /></a><figcaption>Frozen landscape in the <a href="/wiki/Northwest_Territories" title="Northwest Territories">Northwest Territories</a> of <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a>. A large ice circle can be clearly seen floating on water.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a></figcaption></figure> The term that collectively describes all of the parts of the Earth's surface where water is in frozen form is the <a href="/wiki/Cryosphere" title="Cryosphere">cryosphere</a>. Ice is an important component of the global climate, particularly in regard to the water cycle. Glaciers and <a href="/wiki/Snowpack" title="Snowpack">snowpacks</a> are an important storage mechanism for fresh water; over time, they may sublimate or melt. <a href="/wiki/Snowmelt" title="Snowmelt">Snowmelt</a> is an important source of seasonal fresh water.<a href="#cite_note-HKH2019Cryo-42">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-HKH2019Water-43">[43]</a> The <a href="/wiki/World_Meteorological_Organization" title="World Meteorological Organization">World Meteorological Organization</a> defines several kinds of ice depending on origin, size, shape, influence and so on.<a href="#cite_note-wmo-44">[44]</a> <a href="/wiki/Clathrate_hydrate" title="Clathrate hydrate">Clathrate hydrates</a> are forms of ice that contain gas molecules trapped within its crystal lattice.<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_the_oceans">In the oceans</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sea_ice" title="Sea ice">Sea ice</a></div> Ice that is found at sea may be in the form of <a href="/wiki/Drift_ice" title="Drift ice">drift ice</a> floating in the water, <a href="/wiki/Fast_ice" title="Fast ice">fast ice</a> fixed to a shoreline or <a href="/wiki/Anchor_ice" title="Anchor ice">anchor ice</a> if attached to the seafloor.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> Ice which <a href="/wiki/Ice_calving" title="Ice calving">calves</a> (breaks off) from an <a href="/wiki/Ice_shelf" title="Ice shelf">ice shelf</a> or a coastal glacier may become an iceberg.<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> The aftermath of calving events produces a loose mixture of snow and ice known as <a href="/wiki/Ice_m%C3%A9lange" title="Ice mélange">Ice mélange</a>.<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> Sea ice forms in several stages. At first, small, millimeter-scale crystals accumulate on the water surface in what is known as <a href="/wiki/Frazil_ice" title="Frazil ice">frazil ice</a>. As they become somewhat larger and more consistent in shape and cover, the water surface begins to look "oily" from above, so this stage is called <a href="/wiki/Grease_ice" title="Grease ice">grease ice</a>.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> Then, ice continues to clump together, and solidify into flat cohesive pieces known as <a href="/wiki/Ice_floe" title="Ice floe">ice floes</a>. Ice floes are the basic building blocks of sea ice cover, and their horizontal size (defined as half of their <a href="/wiki/Diameter" title="Diameter">diameter</a>) varies dramatically, with the smallest measured in centimeters and the largest in hundreds of kilometers.<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> An area which is over 70% ice on its surface is said to be covered by pack ice.<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> Fully formed sea ice can be forced together by currents and winds to form <a href="/wiki/Pressure_ridge_(ice)" title="Pressure ridge (ice)">pressure ridges</a> up to 12 metres (39 ft) tall.<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> On the other hand, active wave activity can reduce sea ice to small, regularly shaped pieces, known as <a href="/wiki/Pancake_ice" title="Pancake ice">pancake ice</a>.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> Sometimes, wind and wave activity "polishes" sea ice to perfectly spherical pieces known as <a href="/wiki/Ice_eggs" title="Ice eggs">ice eggs</a>.<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 102px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 100px;"><a href="/wiki/File:GreaseIce2.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Grease ice in the Bering Sea"><img alt="Grease ice in the Bering Sea" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/GreaseIce2.jpg/150px-GreaseIce2.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/GreaseIce2.jpg/225px-GreaseIce2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/GreaseIce2.jpg/300px-GreaseIce2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="433" data-file-height="650" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Grease ice in the <a href="/wiki/Bering_Sea" title="Bering Sea">Bering Sea</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 233.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 231.33333333333px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Greenland_East_Coast_7.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Loose drift ice on the east coast of Greenland"><img alt="Loose drift ice on the east coast of Greenland" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Greenland_East_Coast_7.jpg/347px-Greenland_East_Coast_7.jpg" decoding="async" width="232" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Greenland_East_Coast_7.jpg/522px-Greenland_East_Coast_7.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Greenland_East_Coast_7.jpg/694px-Greenland_East_Coast_7.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="830" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Loose drift ice on the east coast of Greenland</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 152px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:J%C3%A4%C3%A4_on_kulmunud_pallideks_(Looduse_veidrused)._05.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Ice eggs (diameter 5–10 cm) on Stroomi Beach, Tallinn, Estonia"><img alt="Ice eggs (diameter 5–10 cm) on Stroomi Beach, Tallinn, Estonia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/J%C3%A4%C3%A4_on_kulmunud_pallideks_%28Looduse_veidrused%29._05.jpg/225px-J%C3%A4%C3%A4_on_kulmunud_pallideks_%28Looduse_veidrused%29._05.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/J%C3%A4%C3%A4_on_kulmunud_pallideks_%28Looduse_veidrused%29._05.jpg/338px-J%C3%A4%C3%A4_on_kulmunud_pallideks_%28Looduse_veidrused%29._05.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/J%C3%A4%C3%A4_on_kulmunud_pallideks_%28Looduse_veidrused%29._05.jpg/450px-J%C3%A4%C3%A4_on_kulmunud_pallideks_%28Looduse_veidrused%29._05.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4917" data-file-height="4917" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Ice eggs (diameter 5–10 cm) on Stroomi Beach, Tallinn, Estonia</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 213.33333333333px;"><a href="/wiki/File:IceNomenclature-2LightPack.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Ice floes in Antarctica, 1919"><img alt="Ice floes in Antarctica, 1919" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/eb/IceNomenclature-2LightPack.jpg/320px-IceNomenclature-2LightPack.jpg" decoding="async" width="214" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/e/eb/IceNomenclature-2LightPack.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="430" data-file-height="303" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Ice floes in Antarctica, 1919</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 227.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 225.33333333333px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Ridge_MOSAiC.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="A first-year sea ice ridge in the Central Arctic, photographed by the MOSAiC expedition on July 4, 2020"><img alt="A first-year sea ice ridge in the Central Arctic, photographed by the MOSAiC expedition on July 4, 2020" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Ridge_MOSAiC.jpg/338px-Ridge_MOSAiC.jpg" decoding="async" width="226" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Ridge_MOSAiC.jpg/507px-Ridge_MOSAiC.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Ridge_MOSAiC.jpg/675px-Ridge_MOSAiC.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="1280" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">A first-year sea ice ridge in the Central Arctic, photographed by the <a href="/wiki/MOSAiC_Expedition" title="MOSAiC Expedition">MOSAiC expedition</a> on July 4, 2020</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 227.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 225.33333333333px;"><a href="/wiki/File:A_M%C3%A9lange_of_Ice_-_NASA_Earth_Observatory.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Ice mélange on Greenland's western coast, 2012"><img alt="Ice mélange on Greenland's western coast, 2012" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/A_M%C3%A9lange_of_Ice_-_NASA_Earth_Observatory.jpg/338px-A_M%C3%A9lange_of_Ice_-_NASA_Earth_Observatory.jpg" decoding="async" width="226" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/A_M%C3%A9lange_of_Ice_-_NASA_Earth_Observatory.jpg/507px-A_M%C3%A9lange_of_Ice_-_NASA_Earth_Observatory.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/A_M%C3%A9lange_of_Ice_-_NASA_Earth_Observatory.jpg/675px-A_M%C3%A9lange_of_Ice_-_NASA_Earth_Observatory.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2200" data-file-height="1467" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Ice mélange on Greenland's western coast, 2012</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 202px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 200px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Anchor_ice_under_sea_ice.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Anchor ice on the seafloor at McMurdo Sound, Antarctica."><img alt="Anchor ice on the seafloor at McMurdo Sound, Antarctica." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Anchor_ice_under_sea_ice.JPG/300px-Anchor_ice_under_sea_ice.JPG" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Anchor_ice_under_sea_ice.JPG/451px-Anchor_ice_under_sea_ice.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Anchor_ice_under_sea_ice.JPG/600px-Anchor_ice_under_sea_ice.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Anchor ice on the seafloor at <a href="/wiki/McMurdo_Sound" title="McMurdo Sound">McMurdo Sound</a>, Antarctica.</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="On_land">On land</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:AA_bedrock_surface.4960.tif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/AA_bedrock_surface.4960.tif/lossy-page1-220px-AA_bedrock_surface.4960.tif.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/AA_bedrock_surface.4960.tif/lossy-page1-330px-AA_bedrock_surface.4960.tif.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/AA_bedrock_surface.4960.tif/lossy-page1-440px-AA_bedrock_surface.4960.tif.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="1080" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a> image of the Antarctic ice sheet</figcaption></figure> The largest ice formations on Earth are the two <a href="/wiki/Ice_sheet" title="Ice sheet">ice sheets</a> which almost completely cover the world's largest island, <a href="/wiki/Greenland" title="Greenland">Greenland</a>, and the continent of <a href="/wiki/Antarctica" title="Antarctica">Antarctica</a>. These ice sheets have an average thickness of over 1 km (0.6 mi) and have existed for millions of years.<a href="#cite_note-BBC2017-57">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-Fretwell2013-58">[58]</a> Other major ice formations on land include <a href="/wiki/Ice_cap" title="Ice cap">ice caps</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ice_field" title="Ice field">ice fields</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ice_stream" title="Ice stream">ice streams</a> and <a href="/wiki/Glacier" title="Glacier">glaciers</a>. In particular, the <a href="/wiki/Hindu_Kush" title="Hindu Kush">Hindu Kush</a> region is known as the Earth's "Third Pole" due to the large number of glaciers it contains. They cover an area of around 80,000 km2 (31,000 sq mi), and have a combined volume of between 3,000-4,700 km3.<a href="#cite_note-HKH2019Cryo-42">[42]</a> These glaciers are nicknamed "Asian water towers", because their meltwater run-off feeds into rivers which provide water for an estimated two billion people.<a href="#cite_note-HKH2019Water-43">[43]</a> <a href="/wiki/Permafrost" title="Permafrost">Permafrost</a> refers to <a href="/wiki/Soil" title="Soil">soil</a> or underwater <a href="/wiki/Sediment" title="Sediment">sediment</a> which continuously remains below 0 °C (32 °F) for two years or more.<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> The ice within permafrost is divided into four categories: pore ice, vein ice (also known as ice wedges), buried surface ice and intrasedimental ice (from the freezing of underground waters).<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> One example of ice formation in permafrost areas is <a href="/wiki/Aufeis" title="Aufeis">aufeis</a> - layered ice that forms in Arctic and subarctic stream valleys. Ice, frozen in the stream bed, blocks normal groundwater discharge, and causes the local water table to rise, resulting in water discharge on top of the frozen layer. This water then freezes, causing the water table to rise further and repeat the cycle. The result is a stratified ice deposit, often several meters thick.<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> <a href="/wiki/Snow_line" title="Snow line">Snow line</a> and <a href="/wiki/Snow_field" title="Snow field">snow fields</a> are two related concepts, in that snow fields accumulate on top of and ablate away to the equilibrium point (the snow line) in an ice deposit.<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="On_rivers_and_streams">On rivers and streams</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Frozen_rivulet_in_Pennsylvania.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Frozen_rivulet_in_Pennsylvania.JPG/220px-Frozen_rivulet_in_Pennsylvania.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Frozen_rivulet_in_Pennsylvania.JPG/330px-Frozen_rivulet_in_Pennsylvania.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Frozen_rivulet_in_Pennsylvania.JPG/440px-Frozen_rivulet_in_Pennsylvania.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2304" data-file-height="1728" /></a><figcaption>A small frozen <a href="/wiki/Rivulet" class="mw-redirect" title="Rivulet">rivulet</a></figcaption></figure> Ice which forms on moving water tends to be less uniform and stable than ice which forms on calm water. <a href="/wiki/Ice_jam" title="Ice jam">Ice jams</a> (sometimes called "ice dams"), when broken chunks of ice pile up, are the greatest ice hazard on rivers. Ice jams can cause flooding, damage structures in or near the river, and damage vessels on the river. Ice jams can cause some <a href="/wiki/Hydropower" title="Hydropower">hydropower</a> industrial facilities to completely shut down. An ice dam is a blockage from the movement of a glacier which may produce a <a href="/wiki/Proglacial_lake" title="Proglacial lake">proglacial lake</a>. Heavy ice flows in rivers can also damage vessels and require the use of an <a href="/wiki/Icebreaker" title="Icebreaker">icebreaker</a> vessel to keep navigation possible.<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a><a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ice_disc" class="mw-redirect" title="Ice disc">Ice discs</a> are circular formations of ice floating on river water. They form within <a href="/wiki/Eddy_(fluid_dynamics)" title="Eddy (fluid dynamics)">eddy currents</a>, and their position results in asymmetric melting, which makes them continuously rotate at a low speed.<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a><a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="On_lakes">On lakes</h3></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Candle_Ice.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Candle_Ice.jpg/300px-Candle_Ice.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="204" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Candle_Ice.jpg/450px-Candle_Ice.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Candle_Ice.jpg/600px-Candle_Ice.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3568" data-file-height="2426" /></a><figcaption>Candle ice in Lake Otelnuk, <a href="/wiki/Quebec,_Canada" class="mw-redirect" title="Quebec, Canada">Quebec, Canada</a></figcaption></figure> Ice forms on calm water from the shores, a thin layer spreading across the surface, and then downward. Ice on lakes is generally four types: primary, secondary, superimposed and agglomerate.<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> Primary ice forms first. Secondary ice forms below the primary ice in a direction parallel to the direction of the heat flow. Superimposed ice forms on top of the ice surface from rain or water which seeps up through cracks in the ice which often settles when loaded with snow. An <a href="/wiki/Ice_shove" title="Ice shove">ice shove</a> occurs when ice movement, caused by ice expansion and/or wind action, occurs to the extent that ice pushes onto the shores of lakes, often displacing sediment that makes up the shoreline.<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> <a href="/wiki/Shelf_ice" title="Shelf ice">Shelf ice</a> is formed when floating pieces of ice are driven by the wind piling up on the windward shore. This kind of ice may contain large air pockets under a thin surface layer, which makes it particularly hazardous to walk across it.<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> Another dangerous form of <a href="/wiki/Rotten_ice" title="Rotten ice">rotten ice</a> to traverse on foot is candle ice, which develops in columns perpendicular to the surface of a lake. Because it lacks a firm horizontal structure, a person who has fallen through has nothing to hold onto to pull themselves out.<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="As_precipitation">As precipitation</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Precipitation" title="Precipitation">Precipitation</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Snow_and_freezing_rain">Snow and freezing rain</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Snow" title="Snow">Snow</a> and <a href="/wiki/Snowflake" title="Snowflake">Snowflake</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:SnowflakesWilsonBentley.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/SnowflakesWilsonBentley.jpg/220px-SnowflakesWilsonBentley.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="281" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/SnowflakesWilsonBentley.jpg/330px-SnowflakesWilsonBentley.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/SnowflakesWilsonBentley.jpg/440px-SnowflakesWilsonBentley.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1124" data-file-height="1437" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Snowflake" title="Snowflake">Snowflakes</a> by <a href="/wiki/Wilson_Bentley" title="Wilson Bentley">Wilson Bentley</a>, 1902</figcaption></figure> Snow crystals form when tiny <a href="/wiki/Supercool" class="mw-redirect" title="Supercool">supercooled</a> cloud droplets (about 10 <a href="/wiki/%CE%9Cm" class="mw-redirect" title="Μm">μm</a> in diameter) <a href="/wiki/Freezing" title="Freezing">freeze</a>. These droplets are able to remain liquid at temperatures lower than −18 °C (255 K; 0 °F), because to freeze, a few molecules in the droplet need to get together by chance to form an arrangement similar to that in an ice lattice; then the droplet freezes around this "nucleus". Experiments show that this "homogeneous" nucleation of cloud droplets only occurs at temperatures lower than −35 °C (238 K; −31 °F).<a href="#cite_note-Mason-72">[72]</a> In warmer clouds an aerosol particle or "ice nucleus" must be present in (or in contact with) the droplet to act as a nucleus. Our understanding of what particles make efficient ice nuclei is poor – what we do know is they are very rare compared to that cloud condensation nuclei on which liquid droplets form. Clays, desert dust and biological particles may be effective,<a href="#cite_note-Christner2008-73">[73]</a> although to what extent is unclear. Artificial nuclei are used in <a href="/wiki/Cloud_seeding" title="Cloud seeding">cloud seeding</a>.<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> The droplet then grows by condensation of water vapor onto the ice surfaces.<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ice_storm" title="Ice storm">Ice storm</a> is a type of winter storm characterized by <a href="/wiki/Freezing_rain" title="Freezing rain">freezing rain</a>, which produces a <a href="/wiki/Glaze_ice" class="mw-redirect" title="Glaze ice">glaze</a> of ice on surfaces, including roads and <a href="/wiki/Power_line" class="mw-redirect" title="Power line">power lines</a>. In the United States, a quarter of winter weather events produce glaze ice, and utilities need to be prepared to minimize damages.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Hard_forms">Hard forms</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Ice_crystal" title="Ice crystal">Ice crystal</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Granizo.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Granizo.jpg/220px-Granizo.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Granizo.jpg/330px-Granizo.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Granizo.jpg/440px-Granizo.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1840" data-file-height="1192" /></a><figcaption>A large hailstone, about 6 cm (2.4 in) in diameter</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Hail" title="Hail">Hail</a> forms in storm <a href="/wiki/Cloud" title="Cloud">clouds</a> when <a href="/wiki/Supercooled" class="mw-redirect" title="Supercooled">supercooled</a> water droplets freeze on contact with <a href="/wiki/Condensation_nuclei" class="mw-redirect" title="Condensation nuclei">condensation nuclei</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Dust" title="Dust">dust</a> or <a href="/wiki/Dirt" title="Dirt">dirt</a>. The storm's <a href="/wiki/Updraft" class="mw-redirect" title="Updraft">updraft</a> blows the hailstones to the upper part of the cloud. The updraft dissipates and the hailstones fall down, back into the updraft, and are lifted up again. Hail has a diameter of 5 millimetres (0.20 in) or more.<a href="#cite_note-gloss-77">[77]</a> Within <a href="/wiki/METAR" title="METAR">METAR</a> code, GR is used to indicate larger hail, of a diameter of at least 6.4 millimetres (0.25 in) and GS for smaller.<a href="#cite_note-METAR-78">[78]</a> Stones of 19 millimetres (0.75 in), 25 millimetres (1.0 in) and 44 millimetres (1.75 in) are the most frequently reported hail sizes in North America.<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> Hailstones can grow to 15 centimetres (6 in) and weigh more than 0.5 kilograms (1.1 lb).<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> In large hailstones, <a href="/wiki/Latent_heat" title="Latent heat">latent heat</a> released by further freezing may melt the outer shell of the hailstone. The hailstone then may undergo 'wet growth', where the liquid outer shell collects other smaller hailstones.<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a> The hailstone gains an ice layer and grows increasingly larger with each ascent. Once a hailstone becomes too heavy to be supported by the storm's updraft, it falls from the cloud.<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:2013-02-23_03_59_28_Graupel_(snow_pellets)_in_Elko,_Nevada.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/2013-02-23_03_59_28_Graupel_%28snow_pellets%29_in_Elko%2C_Nevada.JPG/220px-2013-02-23_03_59_28_Graupel_%28snow_pellets%29_in_Elko%2C_Nevada.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/2013-02-23_03_59_28_Graupel_%28snow_pellets%29_in_Elko%2C_Nevada.JPG/330px-2013-02-23_03_59_28_Graupel_%28snow_pellets%29_in_Elko%2C_Nevada.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/2013-02-23_03_59_28_Graupel_%28snow_pellets%29_in_Elko%2C_Nevada.JPG/440px-2013-02-23_03_59_28_Graupel_%28snow_pellets%29_in_Elko%2C_Nevada.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="2448" /></a><figcaption>Soft hail, or graupel, in <a href="/wiki/Nevada" title="Nevada">Nevada</a></figcaption></figure> Hail forms in strong <a href="/wiki/Thunderstorm" title="Thunderstorm">thunderstorm</a> clouds, particularly those with intense updrafts, high liquid water content, great vertical extent, large water droplets, and where a good portion of the cloud layer is below freezing 0 °C (32 °F).<a href="#cite_note-gloss-77">[77]</a> Hail-producing clouds are often identifiable by their green coloration.<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a><a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> The growth rate is maximized at about −13 °C (9 °F), and becomes vanishingly small much below −30 °C (−22 °F) as supercooled water droplets become rare. For this reason, hail is most common within continental interiors of the mid-latitudes, as hail formation is considerably more likely when the freezing level is below the altitude of 11,000 feet (3,400 m).<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a> <a href="/wiki/Entrainment_(meteorology)" title="Entrainment (meteorology)">Entrainment</a> of dry air into strong thunderstorms over continents can increase the frequency of hail by promoting evaporative cooling which lowers the freezing level of thunderstorm clouds giving hail a larger volume to grow in. Accordingly, hail is actually less common in the tropics despite a much higher frequency of thunderstorms than in the mid-latitudes because the <a href="/wiki/Atmosphere" title="Atmosphere">atmosphere</a> over the tropics tends to be warmer over a much greater depth. Hail in the tropics occurs mainly at higher elevations.<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sleet_on_the_ground.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Sleet_on_the_ground.jpg/220px-Sleet_on_the_ground.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Sleet_on_the_ground.jpg/330px-Sleet_on_the_ground.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Sleet_on_the_ground.jpg/440px-Sleet_on_the_ground.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>An accumulation of ice pellets</figcaption></figure> Ice pellets (<a href="/wiki/METAR" title="METAR">METAR</a> code PL<a href="#cite_note-METAR-78">[78]</a>) are a form of precipitation consisting of small, <a href="/wiki/Translucent" class="mw-redirect" title="Translucent">translucent</a> balls of ice, which are usually smaller than hailstones.<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a> This form of precipitation is also referred to as "sleet" by the United States <a href="/wiki/National_Weather_Service" title="National Weather Service">National Weather Service</a>.<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a> (In <a href="/wiki/British_English" title="British English">British English</a> "sleet" refers to <a href="/wiki/Rain_and_snow_mixed" title="Rain and snow mixed">a mixture of rain and snow</a>.) Ice pellets typically form alongside freezing rain, when a wet <a href="/wiki/Warm_front" title="Warm front">warm front</a> ends up between colder and drier atmospheric layers. There, raindrops would both freeze and shrink in size due to evaporative cooling.<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a> So-called snow pellets, or <a href="/wiki/Graupel" title="Graupel">graupel</a>, form when multiple water droplets freeze onto snowflakes until a soft ball-like shape is formed.<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> So-called "<a href="/wiki/Diamond_dust" title="Diamond dust">diamond dust</a>", (METAR code IC<a href="#cite_note-METAR-78">[78]</a>) also known as ice needles or ice crystals, forms at temperatures approaching −40 °C (−40 °F) due to air with slightly higher moisture from aloft mixing with colder, surface-based air.<a href="#cite_note-glossdia-91">[91]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="On_surfaces">On surfaces</h3></div> As water drips and re-freezes, it can form hanging <a href="/wiki/Icicle" title="Icicle">icicles</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Stalagmite" title="Stalagmite">stalagmite</a>-like structures on the ground.<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a> On sloped roofs, buildup of ice can produce an <a href="/wiki/Ice_dam_(roof)" title="Ice dam (roof)">ice dam</a>, which stops melt water from draining properly and potentially leads to damaging leaks.<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> More generally, <a href="/wiki/Water_vapor" title="Water vapor">water vapor</a> depositing onto surfaces due to high <a href="/wiki/Relative_humidity" class="mw-redirect" title="Relative humidity">relative humidity</a> and then freezing results in various forms of <a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_icing" title="Atmospheric icing">atmospheric icing</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Frost" title="Frost">frost</a>. Inside buildings, this can be seen as ice on the surface of un-insulated windows.<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> Hoar frost is common in the environment, particularly in the low-lying areas such as <a href="/wiki/Valley" title="Valley">valleys</a>.<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a> In Antarctica, the temperatures can be so low that <a href="/wiki/Electrostatic_attraction" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrostatic attraction">electrostatic attraction</a> is increased to the point hoarfrost on snow sticks together when blown by wind into <a href="/wiki/Tumbleweed" title="Tumbleweed">tumbleweed</a>-like balls known as <a href="/wiki/Yukimarimo" title="Yukimarimo">yukimarimo</a>.<a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a> Sometimes, drops of water crystallize on cold objects as <a href="/wiki/Rime_ice" title="Rime ice">rime</a> instead of glaze. Soft rime has a density between a quarter and two thirds that of pure ice,<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> due to a high proportion of trapped air, which also makes soft rime appear white. Hard rime is denser, more transparent, and more likely to appear on ships and aircraft.<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a><a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a> Cold wind specifically causes what is known as advection frost when it collides with objects. When it occurs on plants, it often causes damage to them.<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> Various methods exist to protect agricultural crops from frost - from simply covering them to using wind machines.<a href="#cite_note-Pan2023-101">[101]</a><a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a> In recent decades, <a href="/wiki/Irrigation_sprinkler" title="Irrigation sprinkler">irrigation sprinklers</a> have been calibrated to spray just enough water to preemptively create a layer of ice that would form slowly and so avoid a sudden temperature shock to the plant, and not be so thick as to cause damage with its weight.<a href="#cite_note-Pan2023-101">[101]</a> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 227.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 225.33333333333px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Saint-Amant_16_Gel%C3%A9e_blanche_2008.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Grass partially covered in hoarfrost, 2008"><img alt="Grass partially covered in hoarfrost, 2008" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Saint-Amant_16_Gel%C3%A9e_blanche_2008.jpg/338px-Saint-Amant_16_Gel%C3%A9e_blanche_2008.jpg" decoding="async" width="226" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Saint-Amant_16_Gel%C3%A9e_blanche_2008.jpg/507px-Saint-Amant_16_Gel%C3%A9e_blanche_2008.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Saint-Amant_16_Gel%C3%A9e_blanche_2008.jpg/675px-Saint-Amant_16_Gel%C3%A9e_blanche_2008.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3325" data-file-height="2216" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Grass partially covered in hoarfrost, 2008</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 202px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 200px;"><a href="/wiki/File:D%C3%BClmen,_Hausd%C3%BClmen,_Distel_--_2021_--_5079.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Frost on a thistle in Hausdülmen, North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany"><img alt="Frost on a thistle in Hausdülmen, North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/D%C3%BClmen%2C_Hausd%C3%BClmen%2C_Distel_--_2021_--_5079.jpg/300px-D%C3%BClmen%2C_Hausd%C3%BClmen%2C_Distel_--_2021_--_5079.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/D%C3%BClmen%2C_Hausd%C3%BClmen%2C_Distel_--_2021_--_5079.jpg/451px-D%C3%BClmen%2C_Hausd%C3%BClmen%2C_Distel_--_2021_--_5079.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/D%C3%BClmen%2C_Hausd%C3%BClmen%2C_Distel_--_2021_--_5079.jpg/600px-D%C3%BClmen%2C_Hausd%C3%BClmen%2C_Distel_--_2021_--_5079.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5863" data-file-height="4397" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Frost on a thistle in <a href="/wiki/D%C3%BClmen" title="Dülmen">Hausdülmen</a>, <a href="/wiki/North_Rhine-Westphalia" title="North Rhine-Westphalia">North Rhine-Westphalia</a>, Germany</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 114.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 112.66666666667px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Frostweb.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="A spiderweb covered in frost"><img alt="A spiderweb covered in frost" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Frostweb.jpg/169px-Frostweb.jpg" decoding="async" width="113" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Frostweb.jpg/253px-Frostweb.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Frostweb.jpg/337px-Frostweb.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1536" data-file-height="2048" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">A <a href="/wiki/Spiderweb" class="mw-redirect" title="Spiderweb">spiderweb</a> covered in frost</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 196.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 194.66666666667px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Icy_Japanese_Maple_branch,_Boxborough,_Massachusetts,_2008.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Ice on deciduous tree after freezing rain"><img alt="Ice on deciduous tree after freezing rain" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Icy_Japanese_Maple_branch%2C_Boxborough%2C_Massachusetts%2C_2008.jpg/292px-Icy_Japanese_Maple_branch%2C_Boxborough%2C_Massachusetts%2C_2008.jpg" decoding="async" width="195" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Icy_Japanese_Maple_branch%2C_Boxborough%2C_Massachusetts%2C_2008.jpg/438px-Icy_Japanese_Maple_branch%2C_Boxborough%2C_Massachusetts%2C_2008.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Icy_Japanese_Maple_branch%2C_Boxborough%2C_Massachusetts%2C_2008.jpg/584px-Icy_Japanese_Maple_branch%2C_Boxborough%2C_Massachusetts%2C_2008.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3008" data-file-height="2320" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Ice on <a href="/wiki/Deciduous_tree" class="mw-redirect" title="Deciduous tree">deciduous tree</a> after freezing rain</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 120.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 118.66666666667px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Ice_on_stairway,_1968_(32085554416).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Icicles on a stairway in Seattle, 1968"><img alt="Icicles on a stairway in Seattle, 1968" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Ice_on_stairway%2C_1968_%2832085554416%29.jpg/178px-Ice_on_stairway%2C_1968_%2832085554416%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="119" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Ice_on_stairway%2C_1968_%2832085554416%29.jpg/268px-Ice_on_stairway%2C_1968_%2832085554416%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Ice_on_stairway%2C_1968_%2832085554416%29.jpg/357px-Ice_on_stairway%2C_1968_%2832085554416%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="952" data-file-height="1200" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Icicles on a <a href="/wiki/Stairway" class="mw-redirect" title="Stairway">stairway</a> in <a href="/wiki/Seattle" title="Seattle">Seattle</a>, 1968</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 233.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 231.33333333333px;"><a href="/wiki/File:WindowFrostNewmarketOntario1986.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Fern frost on a window"><img alt="Fern frost on a window" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/WindowFrostNewmarketOntario1986.jpg/347px-WindowFrostNewmarketOntario1986.jpg" decoding="async" width="232" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/WindowFrostNewmarketOntario1986.jpg/522px-WindowFrostNewmarketOntario1986.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/WindowFrostNewmarketOntario1986.jpg/695px-WindowFrostNewmarketOntario1986.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5184" data-file-height="3360" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Fern frost on a window</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 202px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 200px;"><a href="/wiki/File:HoarFrost.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Hoar frost atop snow"><img alt="Hoar frost atop snow" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/HoarFrost.jpg/300px-HoarFrost.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/HoarFrost.jpg/451px-HoarFrost.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/HoarFrost.jpg/600px-HoarFrost.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4032" data-file-height="3024" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Hoar frost atop snow</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 228px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 226px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Yukimarimo_south_pole_dawn_2009.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Yukimarimo at South Pole Station, Antarctica, in 2008"><img alt="Yukimarimo at South Pole Station, Antarctica, in 2008" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Yukimarimo_south_pole_dawn_2009.jpg/339px-Yukimarimo_south_pole_dawn_2009.jpg" decoding="async" width="226" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Yukimarimo_south_pole_dawn_2009.jpg/509px-Yukimarimo_south_pole_dawn_2009.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Yukimarimo_south_pole_dawn_2009.jpg/678px-Yukimarimo_south_pole_dawn_2009.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1946" data-file-height="1293" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Yukimarimo at <a href="/wiki/South_Pole_Station" class="mw-redirect" title="South Pole Station">South Pole Station</a>, Antarctica, in 2008</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ablation">Ablation</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ablation" title="Ablation">Ablation</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Melting_ice,_pond.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Melting_ice%2C_pond.jpg/220px-Melting_ice%2C_pond.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Melting_ice%2C_pond.jpg/330px-Melting_ice%2C_pond.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Melting_ice%2C_pond.jpg/440px-Melting_ice%2C_pond.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4288" data-file-height="2848" /></a><figcaption>Different stages of ice melt in a pond</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aufbrechendes_Eis_auf_dem_Silvaplaner_See_bei_Tauwetter_April_2014_(1).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Aufbrechendes_Eis_auf_dem_Silvaplaner_See_bei_Tauwetter_April_2014_%281%29.jpg/220px-Aufbrechendes_Eis_auf_dem_Silvaplaner_See_bei_Tauwetter_April_2014_%281%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Aufbrechendes_Eis_auf_dem_Silvaplaner_See_bei_Tauwetter_April_2014_%281%29.jpg/330px-Aufbrechendes_Eis_auf_dem_Silvaplaner_See_bei_Tauwetter_April_2014_%281%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Aufbrechendes_Eis_auf_dem_Silvaplaner_See_bei_Tauwetter_April_2014_%281%29.jpg/440px-Aufbrechendes_Eis_auf_dem_Silvaplaner_See_bei_Tauwetter_April_2014_%281%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption>The melting of floating ice</figcaption></figure> Ablation of ice refers to both its <a href="/wiki/Melting" title="Melting">melting</a> and its <a href="/wiki/Dissolution_(chemistry)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dissolution (chemistry)">dissolution</a>.<a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a> The melting of ice entails the breaking of <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_bonds" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrogen bonds">hydrogen bonds</a> between the water molecules. The ordering of the molecules in the solid breaks down to a less ordered state and the solid melts to become a liquid. This is achieved by increasing the internal energy of the ice beyond the <a href="/wiki/Melting_point" title="Melting point">melting point</a>. When ice melts it absorbs as much energy as would be required to heat an equivalent amount of water by 80 °C. While melting, the temperature of the ice surface remains constant at 0 °C. The rate of the melting process depends on the efficiency of the energy exchange process. An ice surface in <a href="/wiki/Fresh_water" title="Fresh water">fresh water</a> melts solely by <a href="/wiki/Free_convection" class="mw-redirect" title="Free convection">free convection</a> with a rate that depends linearly on the water temperature, T∞, when T∞ is less than 3.98 °C, and superlinearly when T∞ is equal to or greater than 3.98 °C, with the rate being proportional to (T∞ − 3.98 °C)α, with α = <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214402035">⁠5/3⁠ for T∞ much greater than 8 °C, and α = <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214402035">⁠4/3⁠ for in between temperatures T∞.<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a> In salty ambient conditions, dissolution rather than melting often causes the ablation of ice. For example, the temperature of the <a href="/wiki/Arctic_Ocean" title="Arctic Ocean">Arctic Ocean</a> is generally below the melting point of ablating sea ice. The phase transition from solid to liquid is achieved by mixing <a href="/wiki/Salt" title="Salt">salt</a> and water molecules, similar to the dissolution of <a href="/wiki/Sugar" title="Sugar">sugar</a> in water, even though the water temperature is far below the melting point of the sugar. However, the dissolution rate is limited by salt concentration and is therefore slower than melting.<a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Role_in_human_activities">Role in human activities</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cooling">Cooling</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Yakhchal_radiative_cooling.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Yakhchal_radiative_cooling.svg/220px-Yakhchal_radiative_cooling.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="226" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Yakhchal_radiative_cooling.svg/330px-Yakhchal_radiative_cooling.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Yakhchal_radiative_cooling.svg/440px-Yakhchal_radiative_cooling.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="526" /></a><figcaption>A schematic showing how the ancient yakhchals used ice to provide radiative cooling</figcaption></figure> Ice has long been valued as a means of cooling. In 400 BC Iran, <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Persian</a> engineers had already developed techniques for ice storage in the desert through the summer months. During the winter, ice was transported from harvesting pools and nearby mountains in large quantities to be stored in specially designed, naturally cooled refrigerators, called <a href="/wiki/Yakhchal" class="mw-redirect" title="Yakhchal">yakhchal</a> (meaning ice storage). Yakhchals were large underground spaces (up to 5000 m3) that had thick walls (at least two meters at the base) made of a specific type of mortar called <a href="/wiki/Sarooj" title="Sarooj">sarooj</a> made from sand, clay, egg whites, lime, goat hair, and ash. The mortar was resistant to heat transfer, helping to keep the ice cool enough not to melt; it was also impenetrable by water. Yakhchals often included a <a href="/wiki/Qanat" title="Qanat">qanat</a> and a system of <a href="/wiki/Windcatcher" title="Windcatcher">windcatchers</a> that could lower internal temperatures to frigid levels, even during the heat of the summer. One use for the ice was to create chilled treats for royalty.<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a><a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Harvesting">Harvesting</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Ice_cutting" title="Ice cutting">Ice cutting</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ice_trade" title="Ice trade">Ice trade</a></div> There were thriving industries in 16th–17th century England whereby low-lying areas along the <a href="/wiki/Thames_Estuary" title="Thames Estuary">Thames Estuary</a> were flooded during the winter, and ice harvested in carts and stored inter-seasonally in insulated wooden houses as a provision to an icehouse often located in large country houses, and widely used to keep fish fresh when caught in distant waters. This was allegedly copied by an Englishman who had seen the same activity in China. Ice was imported into England from Norway on a considerable scale as early as 1823.<a href="#cite_note-cne-108">[108]</a> In the United States, the first cargo of ice was sent from New York City to <a href="/wiki/Charleston,_South_Carolina" title="Charleston, South Carolina">Charleston, South Carolina</a>, in 1799,<a href="#cite_note-cne-108">[108]</a> and by the first half of the 19th century, ice harvesting had become a big business. <a href="/wiki/Frederic_Tudor" title="Frederic Tudor">Frederic Tudor</a>, who became known as the "Ice King", worked on developing better insulation products for long distance shipments of ice, especially to the tropics; this became known as the ice trade.<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ice_Harvesting_on_Lake_St_Clair_Michigan_circa_1905--photograph_courtesy_Detroit_Publishing_Company.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Ice_Harvesting_on_Lake_St_Clair_Michigan_circa_1905--photograph_courtesy_Detroit_Publishing_Company.jpg/240px-Ice_Harvesting_on_Lake_St_Clair_Michigan_circa_1905--photograph_courtesy_Detroit_Publishing_Company.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="186" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6b/Ice_Harvesting_on_Lake_St_Clair_Michigan_circa_1905--photograph_courtesy_Detroit_Publishing_Company.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="232" /></a><figcaption>Harvesting ice on <a href="/wiki/Lake_St._Clair" title="Lake St. Clair">Lake St. Clair</a> in <a href="/wiki/Michigan" title="Michigan">Michigan</a>, c. 1905</figcaption></figure> Between 1812 and 1822, under <a href="/wiki/Lloyd_Hesketh_Bamford-Hesketh" title="Lloyd Hesketh Bamford-Hesketh">Lloyd Hesketh Bamford Hesketh</a>'s instruction, <a href="/wiki/Gwrych_Castle" title="Gwrych Castle">Gwrych Castle</a> was built with 18 large towers, one of those towers is called the 'Ice Tower'. Its sole purpose was to store Ice.<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a> <a href="/wiki/Trieste" title="Trieste">Trieste</a> sent ice to <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Corfu" title="Corfu">Corfu</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Zante" class="mw-redirect" title="Zante">Zante</a>; Switzerland, to France; and Germany sometimes was supplied from <a href="/wiki/Bavaria" title="Bavaria">Bavarian</a> lakes.<a href="#cite_note-cne-108">[108]</a> From 1930s and up until 1994, the <a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Parliament" class="mw-redirect" title="Hungarian Parliament">Hungarian Parliament</a> building used ice harvested in the winter from <a href="/wiki/Lake_Balaton" title="Lake Balaton">Lake Balaton</a> for air conditioning.<a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ice_house_(building)" title="Ice house (building)">Ice houses</a> were used to store ice formed in the winter, to make ice available all year long, and an early type of <a href="/wiki/Refrigerator" title="Refrigerator">refrigerator</a> known as an <a href="/wiki/Icebox" title="Icebox">icebox</a> was cooled using a block of ice placed inside it. Many cities had a regular ice <a href="/wiki/Delivery_(commerce)" title="Delivery (commerce)">delivery</a> service during the summer. The advent of artificial refrigeration technology made the delivery of ice obsolete.<a href="#cite_note-Prewitt2023-112">[112]</a> Ice is still harvested for <a href="/wiki/List_of_ice_and_snow_sculpture_events" title="List of ice and snow sculpture events">ice and snow sculpture events</a>. For example, a <a href="/wiki/Swing_saw" class="mw-redirect" title="Swing saw">swing saw</a> is used to get ice for the <a href="/wiki/Harbin_International_Ice_and_Snow_Sculpture_Festival" title="Harbin International Ice and Snow Sculpture Festival">Harbin International Ice and Snow Sculpture Festival</a> each year from the frozen surface of the <a href="/wiki/Songhua_River" title="Songhua River">Songhua River</a>.<a href="#cite_note-coldestcity-113">[113]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Artificial_production">Artificial production</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Icemaker" title="Icemaker">Icemaker</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:PSM_V39_D031_Interior_of_an_ice_factory.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/PSM_V39_D031_Interior_of_an_ice_factory.jpg/220px-PSM_V39_D031_Interior_of_an_ice_factory.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/PSM_V39_D031_Interior_of_an_ice_factory.jpg/330px-PSM_V39_D031_Interior_of_an_ice_factory.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/PSM_V39_D031_Interior_of_an_ice_factory.jpg/440px-PSM_V39_D031_Interior_of_an_ice_factory.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3013" data-file-height="1703" /></a><figcaption>Layout of a late 19th-century ice factory</figcaption></figure> The earliest known written process to artificially make ice is by the 13th-century writings of Arab historian <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Abu_Usaybia" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn Abu Usaybia">Ibn Abu Usaybia</a> in his book Kitab Uyun al-anba fi tabaqat-al-atibba concerning medicine in which Ibn Abu Usaybia attributes the process to an even older author, Ibn Bakhtawayhi, of whom nothing is known.<a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a> Ice is now produced on an industrial scale, for uses including food storage and processing, chemical manufacturing, concrete mixing and curing, and consumer or packaged ice.<a href="#cite_note-ashrae-115">[115]</a> Most commercial <a href="/wiki/Icemaker" title="Icemaker">icemakers</a> produce three basic types of fragmentary ice: flake, tubular and plate, using a variety of techniques.<a href="#cite_note-ashrae-115">[115]</a> Large batch ice makers can produce up to 75 tons of ice per day.<a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a> In 2002, there were 426 commercial ice-making companies in the United States, with a combined value of shipments of $595,487,000.<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a> Home refrigerators can also make ice with a built in <a href="/wiki/Icemaker" title="Icemaker">icemaker</a>, which will typically make <a href="/wiki/Ice_cube" title="Ice cube">ice cubes</a> or crushed ice. The first such device was presented in 1965 by <a href="/wiki/Frigidaire" title="Frigidaire">Frigidaire</a>.<a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Land_travel">Land travel</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:2015-10-18_07_36_28_Frost_on_a_car_windshield_on_Tranquility_Court_in_the_Franklin_Farm_section_of_Oak_Hill,_Virginia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/2015-10-18_07_36_28_Frost_on_a_car_windshield_on_Tranquility_Court_in_the_Franklin_Farm_section_of_Oak_Hill%2C_Virginia.jpg/220px-2015-10-18_07_36_28_Frost_on_a_car_windshield_on_Tranquility_Court_in_the_Franklin_Farm_section_of_Oak_Hill%2C_Virginia.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/2015-10-18_07_36_28_Frost_on_a_car_windshield_on_Tranquility_Court_in_the_Franklin_Farm_section_of_Oak_Hill%2C_Virginia.jpg/330px-2015-10-18_07_36_28_Frost_on_a_car_windshield_on_Tranquility_Court_in_the_Franklin_Farm_section_of_Oak_Hill%2C_Virginia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/2015-10-18_07_36_28_Frost_on_a_car_windshield_on_Tranquility_Court_in_the_Franklin_Farm_section_of_Oak_Hill%2C_Virginia.jpg/440px-2015-10-18_07_36_28_Frost_on_a_car_windshield_on_Tranquility_Court_in_the_Franklin_Farm_section_of_Oak_Hill%2C_Virginia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="2448" /></a><figcaption>Ice formation on exterior of vehicle windshield</figcaption></figure> Ice forming on <a href="/wiki/Road" title="Road">roads</a> is a common winter hazard, and <a href="/wiki/Black_ice" title="Black ice">black ice</a> particularly dangerous because it is very difficult to see. It is both very transparent, and often forms specifically in shaded (and therefore cooler and darker) areas, i.e. beneath <a href="/wiki/Overpass" title="Overpass">overpasses</a>.<a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a> Whenever there is freezing rain or snow which occurs at a temperature near the melting point, it is common for ice to build up on the <a href="/wiki/Window" title="Window">windows</a> of vehicles. Often, snow melts, re-freezes, and forms a fragmented layer of ice which effectively "glues" snow to the window. In this case, the frozen mass is commonly removed with <a href="/wiki/Ice_scraper" title="Ice scraper">ice scrapers</a>.<a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a> A thin layer of ice crystals can also form on the inside surface of car windows during sufficiently cold weather. In the 1970s and 1980s, some vehicles such as <a href="/wiki/Ford_Thunderbird" title="Ford Thunderbird">Ford Thunderbird</a> could be upgraded with heated windshields as the result. This technology fell out of style as it was too expensive and prone to damage, but rear-window <a href="/wiki/Defroster" class="mw-redirect" title="Defroster">defrosters</a> are cheaper to maintain and so are more widespread.<a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/CaminoDeLaVidaLeningrado.ogv/220px--CaminoDeLaVidaLeningrado.ogv.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="165" data-durationhint="176" data-mwtitle="CaminoDeLaVidaLeningrado.ogv" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:CaminoDeLaVidaLeningrado.ogv"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/d/d7/CaminoDeLaVidaLeningrado.ogv/CaminoDeLaVidaLeningrado.ogv.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="320" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/d/d7/CaminoDeLaVidaLeningrado.ogv/CaminoDeLaVidaLeningrado.ogv.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="320" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d7/CaminoDeLaVidaLeningrado.ogv" type="video/ogg; codecs="theora, vorbis"" data-width="320" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/d/d7/CaminoDeLaVidaLeningrado.ogv/CaminoDeLaVidaLeningrado.ogv.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="192" data-height="144" /></video><figcaption>1943 <a href="/wiki/American_propaganda_during_World_War_II" title="American propaganda during World War II">US propaganda</a> film explaining how the ice of Lake Ladoga became the Road of Life during <a href="/wiki/WWII" class="mw-redirect" title="WWII">WWII</a></figcaption></figure> In sufficiently cold places, the layers of ice on water surfaces can get thick enough for <a href="/wiki/Ice_road" title="Ice road">ice roads</a> to be built. Some regulations specify that the minimum safe thickness is 4 in (10 cm) for a person, 7 in (18 cm) for a <a href="/wiki/Snowmobile" title="Snowmobile">snowmobile</a> and 15 in (38 cm) for an <a href="/wiki/Automobile" class="mw-redirect" title="Automobile">automobile</a> lighter than 5 tonnes. For <a href="/wiki/Truck" title="Truck">trucks</a>, effective thickness varies with load - i.e. a vehicle with 9-ton total weight requires a thickness of 20 in (51 cm). Notably, the speed limit for a vehicle moving at a road which meets its minimum safe thickness is 25 km/h (15 mph), going up to 35 km/h (25 mph) if the road's thickness is 2 or more times larger than the minimum safe value.<a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a> There is a known instance where a railroad has been built on ice.<a href="#cite_note-Makkonen,_L._1994-123">[123]</a> The most famous ice road had been the <a href="/wiki/Road_of_Life" title="Road of Life">Road of Life</a> across <a href="/wiki/Lake_Ladoga" title="Lake Ladoga">Lake Ladoga</a>. It operated in the winters of 1941–1942 and 1942–1943, when it was the only land route available to the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> to relieve the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Leningrad" title="Siege of Leningrad">Siege of Leningrad</a> by the German <a href="/wiki/Army_Group_North" title="Army Group North">Army Group North</a>.<a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a> : 76–80  The trucks moved hundreds of thousands tonnes of supplies into the city, and hundreds of thousands of civilians were evacuated.<a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a> It is now a <a href="/wiki/Historic_Centre_of_Saint_Petersburg_and_Related_Groups_of_Monuments" title="Historic Centre of Saint Petersburg and Related Groups of Monuments">World Heritage Site</a>.<a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Water-borne_travel">Water-borne travel</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Frozen_Lake_Huron-_icebreakers_and_commercial_vessels.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Frozen_Lake_Huron-_icebreakers_and_commercial_vessels.jpg/220px-Frozen_Lake_Huron-_icebreakers_and_commercial_vessels.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Frozen_Lake_Huron-_icebreakers_and_commercial_vessels.jpg/330px-Frozen_Lake_Huron-_icebreakers_and_commercial_vessels.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Frozen_Lake_Huron-_icebreakers_and_commercial_vessels.jpg/440px-Frozen_Lake_Huron-_icebreakers_and_commercial_vessels.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2499" data-file-height="1785" /></a><figcaption>Channel through ice for ship traffic on <a href="/wiki/Lake_Huron" title="Lake Huron">Lake Huron</a> with <a href="/wiki/Ice_breaker" class="mw-redirect" title="Ice breaker">ice breakers</a> in background</figcaption></figure> For ships, ice presents two distinct hazards. Firstly, spray and freezing rain can produce an ice build-up on the superstructure of a vessel sufficient to make it unstable, potentially to the point of <a href="/wiki/Capsizing" title="Capsizing">capsizing</a>.<a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a> Earlier, crewmembers were regularly forced to manually hack off ice build-up. After 1980s, spraying de-icing chemicals or melting the ice through hot water/steam hoses became more common.<a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a> Secondly, <a href="/wiki/Iceberg" title="Iceberg">icebergs</a> – large masses of ice floating in water (typically created when glaciers reach the sea) – can be dangerous if struck by a ship when underway. Icebergs have been responsible for the sinking of many ships, the most famous being the <a href="/wiki/RMS_Titanic" class="mw-redirect" title="RMS Titanic">Titanic</a>.<a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a> For <a href="/wiki/Harbor" title="Harbor">harbors</a> near the <a href="/wiki/Geographical_pole" title="Geographical pole">poles</a>, being ice-free, ideally all year long, is an important advantage. Examples are <a href="/wiki/Murmansk" title="Murmansk">Murmansk</a> (Russia), <a href="/wiki/Pechengsky_District" title="Pechengsky District">Petsamo</a> (Russia, formerly Finland), and <a href="/wiki/Vard%C3%B8_(town)" title="Vardø (town)">Vardø</a> (Norway). Harbors which are not ice-free are opened up using specialized vessels, called icebreakers.<a href="#cite_note-Sahari2021-130">[130]</a> Icebreakers are also used to open routes through the sea ice for other vessels, as the only alternative is to find the openings called "<a href="/wiki/Polynya" title="Polynya">polynyas</a>" or "<a href="/wiki/Lead_(sea_ice)" title="Lead (sea ice)">leads</a>". A widespread production of icebreakers began during the 19th century. Earlier designs simply had reinforced <a href="/wiki/Bow_(watercraft)" title="Bow (watercraft)">bows</a> in a spoon-like or diagonal shape to effectively crush the ice. Later designs attached a forward <a href="/wiki/Propeller" title="Propeller">propeller</a> underneath the protruding bow, as the typical rear propellers were incapable of effectively steering the ship through the ice <a href="#cite_note-Sahari2021-130">[130]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Air_travel">Air travel</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Icing_conditions" class="mw-redirect" title="Icing conditions">Icing conditions</a> and <a href="/wiki/Carburetor_icing" title="Carburetor icing">Carburetor icing</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Some_Ice_on_the_boots_(1527659244).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Some_Ice_on_the_boots_%281527659244%29.jpg/220px-Some_Ice_on_the_boots_%281527659244%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Some_Ice_on_the_boots_%281527659244%29.jpg/330px-Some_Ice_on_the_boots_%281527659244%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Some_Ice_on_the_boots_%281527659244%29.jpg/440px-Some_Ice_on_the_boots_%281527659244%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2272" data-file-height="1704" /></a><figcaption>Rime ice on the leading edge of an aircraft wing. When the build-up is too large, the black <a href="/wiki/Deicing_boot" title="Deicing boot">deicing boot</a> inflates to shake it off <a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a><a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a></figcaption></figure> For aircraft, ice can cause a number of dangers. As an aircraft climbs, it passes through air layers of different temperature and humidity, some of which may be conducive to ice formation. If ice forms on the wings or control surfaces, this may adversely affect the flying qualities of the aircraft. In 1919, during the <a href="/wiki/Transatlantic_flight_of_Alcock_and_Brown" title="Transatlantic flight of Alcock and Brown">first non-stop flight across the Atlantic</a>, the British aviators Captain <a href="/wiki/John_Alcock_(RAF_officer)" title="John Alcock (RAF officer)">John Alcock</a> and Lieutenant <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Whitten_Brown" title="Arthur Whitten Brown">Arthur Whitten Brown</a> encountered such icing conditions – Brown left the cockpit and climbed onto the wing several times to remove ice which was covering the engine air intakes of the <a href="/wiki/Vickers_Vimy" title="Vickers Vimy">Vickers Vimy</a> aircraft they were flying.<a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a> One vulnerability effected by icing that is associated with reciprocating internal combustion engines is the <a href="/wiki/Carburetor" title="Carburetor">carburetor</a>. As air is sucked through the carburetor into the engine, the local air pressure is lowered, which causes <a href="/wiki/Adiabatic" class="mw-redirect" title="Adiabatic">adiabatic</a> cooling. Thus, in humid near-freezing conditions, the carburetor will be colder, and tend to ice up. This will block the supply of air to the engine, and cause it to fail. Between 1969 and 1975, 468 such instances were recorded, causing 75 aircraft losses, 44 fatalities and 202 serious injuries.<a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a> Thus, <a href="/wiki/Carburetor_heat" title="Carburetor heat">carburetor air intake heaters</a> were developed. Further, reciprocating engines with <a href="/wiki/Fuel_injection" title="Fuel injection">fuel injection</a> do not require carburetors in the first place.<a href="#cite_note-135">[135]</a> Jet engines do not experience carb icing, but they can be affected by the moisture inherently present in <a href="/wiki/Jet_fuel" title="Jet fuel">jet fuel</a> freezing and forming ice crystals, which can potentially clog up fuel intake to the engine. Fuel heaters and/or de-icing additives are used to address the issue.<a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Recreation_and_sports">Recreation and sports</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ice_sports" class="mw-redirect" title="Ice sports">Ice sports</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:SCENEONICE.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/SCENEONICE.jpg/220px-SCENEONICE.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/SCENEONICE.jpg/330px-SCENEONICE.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/SCENEONICE.jpg/440px-SCENEONICE.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1044" data-file-height="645" /></a><figcaption>Skating fun by 17th century Dutch painter <a href="/wiki/Hendrick_Avercamp" title="Hendrick Avercamp">Hendrick Avercamp</a></figcaption></figure> Ice plays a central role in winter recreation and in many sports such as <a href="/wiki/Ice_skating" title="Ice skating">ice skating</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tour_skating" title="Tour skating">tour skating</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ice_hockey" title="Ice hockey">ice hockey</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bandy" title="Bandy">bandy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ice_fishing" title="Ice fishing">ice fishing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ice_climbing" title="Ice climbing">ice climbing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Curling" title="Curling">curling</a>, <a href="/wiki/Broomball" title="Broomball">broomball</a> and sled racing on <a href="/wiki/Bobsled" class="mw-redirect" title="Bobsled">bobsled</a>, <a href="/wiki/Luge" title="Luge">luge</a> and <a href="/wiki/Skeleton_(sport)" title="Skeleton (sport)">skeleton</a>. Many of the different sports played on ice get international attention every four years during the <a href="/wiki/Winter_Olympic_Games" title="Winter Olympic Games">Winter Olympic Games</a>.<a href="#cite_note-137">[137]</a> Small boat-like craft can be mounted on blades and be driven across the ice by <a href="/wiki/Sails" class="mw-redirect" title="Sails">sails</a>. This sport is known as <a href="/wiki/Ice_yachting" class="mw-redirect" title="Ice yachting">ice yachting</a>, and it had been practiced for centuries.<a href="#cite_note-138">[138]</a><a href="#cite_note-139">[139]</a> Another vehicular sport is <a href="/wiki/Ice_racing" title="Ice racing">ice racing</a>, where drivers must speed on lake ice, while also controlling the skid of their vehicle (similar in some ways to <a href="/wiki/Dirt_track_racing" title="Dirt track racing">dirt track racing</a>). The sport has even been modified for <a href="/wiki/Ice_rink" title="Ice rink">ice rinks</a>.<a href="#cite_note-140">[140]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_uses">Other uses</h3></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="As_thermal_ballast">As thermal ballast</h4></div> <ul><li>Ice is still used to cool and preserve food in portable <a href="/wiki/Cooler" title="Cooler">coolers</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Prewitt2023-112">[112]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_cube" title="Ice cube">Ice cubes</a> or <a href="/wiki/Crushed_ice" class="mw-redirect" title="Crushed ice">crushed ice</a> can be used to cool drinks. As the ice melts, it absorbs heat and keeps the drink near 0 °C (32 °F).<a href="#cite_note-141">[141]</a></li> <li>Ice can be used as part of an <a href="/wiki/Ice_storage_air_conditioning" title="Ice storage air conditioning">air conditioning system</a>, using battery- or <a href="/wiki/Solar_power" title="Solar power">solar-powered</a> fans to blow hot air over the ice. This is especially useful during <a href="/wiki/Heat_wave" title="Heat wave">heat waves</a> when power is out and standard (electrically powered) air conditioners do not work.<a href="#cite_note-142">[142]</a></li> <li>Ice can be used (like other <a href="/wiki/Cold_pack" class="mw-redirect" title="Cold pack">cold packs</a>) to reduce swelling (by decreasing blood flow) and pain by pressing it against an area of the body.<a href="#cite_note-143">[143]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="As_structural_material">As structural material</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:USNS_Southern_Cross_at_the_ice_pier_in_1983.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/USNS_Southern_Cross_at_the_ice_pier_in_1983.jpg/220px-USNS_Southern_Cross_at_the_ice_pier_in_1983.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/USNS_Southern_Cross_at_the_ice_pier_in_1983.jpg/330px-USNS_Southern_Cross_at_the_ice_pier_in_1983.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/USNS_Southern_Cross_at_the_ice_pier_in_1983.jpg/440px-USNS_Southern_Cross_at_the_ice_pier_in_1983.jpg 2x" data-file-width="918" data-file-height="643" /></a><figcaption>Ice pier during 1983 cargo operations. <a href="/wiki/McMurdo_Station" title="McMurdo Station">McMurdo Station</a>, Antarctica.</figcaption></figure> <ul><li>Engineers used the substantial strength of pack ice when they constructed Antarctica's first floating <a href="/wiki/Ice_pier" title="Ice pier">ice pier</a> in 1973.<a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a> Such ice piers are used during cargo operations to load and offload ships. Fleet operations personnel make the floating pier during the winter. They build upon naturally occurring frozen seawater in <a href="/wiki/McMurdo_Sound" title="McMurdo Sound">McMurdo Sound</a> until the dock reaches a depth of about 22 feet (6.7 m). Ice piers are inherently temporary structures, although some can last as long as 10 years. Once a pier is no longer usable, it is towed to sea with an icebreaker.<a href="#cite_note-145">[145]</a></li></ul> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Castello_di_neve_in_lapponia_02_(2108559776).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Castello_di_neve_in_lapponia_02_%282108559776%29.jpg/220px-Castello_di_neve_in_lapponia_02_%282108559776%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Castello_di_neve_in_lapponia_02_%282108559776%29.jpg/330px-Castello_di_neve_in_lapponia_02_%282108559776%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Castello_di_neve_in_lapponia_02_%282108559776%29.jpg/440px-Castello_di_neve_in_lapponia_02_%282108559776%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2272" data-file-height="1704" /></a><figcaption>An ice-made dining room of the <a href="/wiki/Kemi" title="Kemi">Kemi</a>'s <a href="/wiki/SnowCastle_of_Kemi" title="SnowCastle of Kemi">SnowCastle</a> <a href="/wiki/Ice_hotel" title="Ice hotel">ice hotel</a> in <a href="/wiki/Finland" title="Finland">Finland</a></figcaption></figure> <ul><li>Structures and <a href="/wiki/Ice_sculpture" title="Ice sculpture">ice sculptures</a> are built out of large chunks of ice or by spraying water<a href="#cite_note-Makkonen,_L._1994-123">[123]</a> The structures are mostly ornamental (as in the case with <a href="/wiki/Ice_palace" title="Ice palace">ice castles</a>), and not practical for long-term habitation. <a href="/wiki/Ice_hotel" title="Ice hotel">Ice hotels</a> exist on a seasonal basis in a few cold areas.<a href="#cite_note-146">[146]</a> <a href="/wiki/Igloo" title="Igloo">Igloos</a> are another example of a temporary structure, made primarily from snow.<a href="#cite_note-147">[147]</a></li> <li>Engineers can also use ice to destroy. In <a href="/wiki/Mining" title="Mining">mining</a>, drilling holes in rock structures and then pouring water during cold weather is an accepted alternative to using <a href="/wiki/Dynamite" title="Dynamite">dynamite</a>, as the rock cracks when the water expands as ice.<a href="#cite_note-Akyurt2002-9">[9]</a></li> <li>During World War II, <a href="/wiki/Project_Habbakuk" class="mw-redirect" title="Project Habbakuk">Project Habbakuk</a> was an Allied programme which investigated the use of <a href="/wiki/Pykrete" title="Pykrete">pykrete</a> (wood fibers mixed with ice) as a possible material for warships, especially aircraft carriers, due to the ease with which a vessel immune to torpedoes, and a large deck, could be constructed by ice. A small-scale prototype was built,<a href="#cite_note-148">[148]</a> but it soon turned out the project would cost far more than a conventional aircraft carrier while being many times slower and also vulnerable to melting.<a href="#cite_note-149">[149]</a></li> <li>Ice has even been used as the material for a variety of musical instruments, for example by percussionist <a href="/wiki/Terje_Isungset" title="Terje Isungset">Terje Isungset</a>.<a href="#cite_note-150">[150]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Impacts_of_climate_change">Impacts of climate change</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_Arctic" title="Climate change in the Arctic">Climate change in the Arctic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Antarctica" title="Climate change in Antarctica">Climate change in Antarctica</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historical">Historical</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:20210125_The_Cryosphere_-_Floating_and_grounded_ice_-_imbalance_-_climate_change.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/20210125_The_Cryosphere_-_Floating_and_grounded_ice_-_imbalance_-_climate_change.png/300px-20210125_The_Cryosphere_-_Floating_and_grounded_ice_-_imbalance_-_climate_change.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="205" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/20210125_The_Cryosphere_-_Floating_and_grounded_ice_-_imbalance_-_climate_change.png/450px-20210125_The_Cryosphere_-_Floating_and_grounded_ice_-_imbalance_-_climate_change.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/20210125_The_Cryosphere_-_Floating_and_grounded_ice_-_imbalance_-_climate_change.png/600px-20210125_The_Cryosphere_-_Floating_and_grounded_ice_-_imbalance_-_climate_change.png 2x" data-file-width="1889" data-file-height="1288" /></a><figcaption> Earth lost 28 trillion tonnes of ice between 1994 and 2017, with melting grounded ice (ice sheets and glaciers) raising the global sea level by 34.6 ±3.1 mm.<a href="#cite_note-Slater2021-151">[151]</a> The rate of ice loss has risen by 57% since the 1990s−from 0.8 to 1.2 trillion tonnes per year.<a href="#cite_note-Slater2021-151">[151]</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Slater_2021_global_ice_loss.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Slater_2021_global_ice_loss.png/220px-Slater_2021_global_ice_loss.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="121" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Slater_2021_global_ice_loss.png/330px-Slater_2021_global_ice_loss.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Slater_2021_global_ice_loss.png/440px-Slater_2021_global_ice_loss.png 2x" data-file-width="2067" data-file-height="1133" /></a><figcaption>On average, climate change has lowered the thickness of land ice with every year, and reduced the extent of sea ice cover.<a href="#cite_note-Slater2021-151">[151]</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions" title="Greenhouse gas emissions">Greenhouse gas emissions</a> from human activities unbalance the <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_energy_budget" title="Earth's energy budget">Earth's energy budget</a> and so cause an accumulation of <a href="/wiki/Heat" title="Heat">heat</a>.<a href="#cite_note-vonSchuckmann2023-152">[152]</a> About 90% of that heat is added to <a href="/wiki/Ocean_heat_content" title="Ocean heat content">ocean heat content</a>, 1% is retained in the atmosphere and 3-4% goes to melt major parts of the cryosphere.<a href="#cite_note-vonSchuckmann2023-152">[152]</a> Between 1994 and 2017, 28 trillion tonnes of ice were lost around the globe as the result.<a href="#cite_note-Slater2021-151">[151]</a> <a href="/wiki/Arctic_sea_ice_decline" title="Arctic sea ice decline">Arctic sea ice decline</a> accounted for the single largest loss (7.6 trillion tonnes), followed by the melting of Antarctica's <a href="/wiki/Ice_shelves" class="mw-redirect" title="Ice shelves">ice shelves</a> (6.5 trillion tonnes), the <a href="/wiki/Retreat_of_glaciers_since_1850" title="Retreat of glaciers since 1850">retreat of mountain glaciers</a> (6.1 trillion tonnes), the melting of the <a href="/wiki/Greenland_ice_sheet" title="Greenland ice sheet">Greenland ice sheet</a> (3.8 trillion tonnes) and finally the melting of the <a href="/wiki/Antarctic_ice_sheet" title="Antarctic ice sheet">Antarctic ice sheet</a> (2.5 trillion tonnes) and the limited losses of the sea ice in the <a href="/wiki/Southern_Ocean" title="Southern Ocean">Southern Ocean</a> (0.9 trillion tonnes).<a href="#cite_note-Slater2021-151">[151]</a> Other than the sea ice (which already displaces water due to <a href="/wiki/Archimedes%27_principle" title="Archimedes' principle">Archimedes' principle</a>), these losses are a major cause of <a href="/wiki/Sea_level_rise" title="Sea level rise">sea level rise</a> (SLR) and they are expected to intensify in the future. In particular, the melting of the <a href="/wiki/West_Antarctic_ice_sheet" class="mw-redirect" title="West Antarctic ice sheet">West Antarctic ice sheet</a> may accelerate substantially as the floating <a href="/wiki/Ice_shelf" title="Ice shelf">ice shelves</a> are lost and can no longer buttress the glaciers. This would trigger poorly understood <a href="/wiki/Marine_ice_sheet_instability" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine ice sheet instability">marine ice sheet instability</a> processes, which could then increase the SLR expected for the end of the century (between 30 cm (1 ft) and <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1154941027">.mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}</style>1 m (3+1⁄2 ft), depending on future warming), by tens of centimeters more.<a href="#cite_note-IPCC_AR6_WG1_Ch.9-153">[153]</a>: 1302  Ice loss in Greenland and Antarctica also produces large quantities of fresh <a href="/wiki/Meltwater" title="Meltwater">meltwater</a>, which disrupts the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_meridional_overturning_circulation" title="Atlantic meridional overturning circulation">Atlantic meridional overturning circulation</a> (AMOC) and the <a href="/wiki/Southern_Ocean_overturning_circulation" title="Southern Ocean overturning circulation">Southern Ocean overturning circulation</a>, respectively.<a href="#cite_note-GTPR2023-154">[154]</a> These two halves of the <a href="/wiki/Thermohaline_circulation" title="Thermohaline circulation">thermohaline circulation</a> are very important for the global climate. A continuation of high meltwater flows may cause a severe disruption (up to a point of a "collapse") of either circulation, or even both of them. Either event would be considered an example of <a href="/wiki/Tipping_points_in_the_climate_system" title="Tipping points in the climate system">tipping points in the climate system</a>, because it would be extremely difficult to reverse.<a href="#cite_note-GTPR2023-154">[154]</a> AMOC is generally not expected to collapse during the 21st century, while there is only limited knowledge about the Southern Ocean circulation.<a href="#cite_note-IPCC_AR6_WG1_Ch.9-153">[153]</a>: 1214  Another example of ice-related tipping point is permafrost thaw. While the organic content in the permafrost causes CO2 and methane emissions once it thaws and begins to decompose,<a href="#cite_note-GTPR2023-154">[154]</a> ice melting liqufies the ground, causing anything built above the former permafrost to collapse. By 2050, the economic damages from such infrastructure loss are expected to cost tens of billions of dollars.<a href="#cite_note-Hjort2022-155">[155]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Predictions">Predictions</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wunderling_2020_regional_impact.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Wunderling_2020_regional_impact.jpg/220px-Wunderling_2020_regional_impact.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Wunderling_2020_regional_impact.jpg/330px-Wunderling_2020_regional_impact.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Wunderling_2020_regional_impact.jpg/440px-Wunderling_2020_regional_impact.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="494" /></a><figcaption>Potential regional warming caused by the loss of all land ice outside of East Antarctica, and by the disappearance of Arctic sea ice every year starting from June.<a href="#cite_note-Wunderling2020-156">[156]</a> While plausible, consistent sea ice loss would likely require relatively high warming,<a href="#cite_note-Sigmond2018-157">[157]</a> and the loss of all ice in Greenland would require multiple millennia.<a href="#cite_note-ArmstrongMcKay2022-158">[158]</a><a href="#cite_note-ArmstrongMcKayExplainer-159">[159]</a></figcaption></figure> In the future, the <a href="/wiki/Arctic_Ocean" title="Arctic Ocean">Arctic Ocean</a> is likely to lose effectively all of its sea ice during at least some Septembers (the end of the ice melting season), although some of the ice would refreeze during the winter. I.e. an ice-free September is likely to occur once in every 40 years if global warming is at 1.5 °C (2.7 °F), but would occur once in every 8 years at 2 °C (3.6 °F) and once in every 1.5 years at 3 °C (5.4 °F).<a href="#cite_note-Sigmond2018-157">[157]</a> This would affect the regional and global climate due to the <a href="/wiki/Ice-albedo_feedback" class="mw-redirect" title="Ice-albedo feedback">ice-albedo feedback</a>. Because ice is highly reflective of solar energy, persistent sea ice cover lowers local temperatures. Once that ice cover melts, the darker ocean waters begin to absorb more heat, which also helps to melt the remaining ice.<a href="#cite_note-Dai2019-160">[160]</a> Global losses of sea ice between 1992 and 2018, almost all of them in the Arctic, have already had the same impact as 10% of <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas" title="Greenhouse gas">greenhouse gas</a> emissions over the same period.<a href="#cite_note-Riihelä2021-161">[161]</a> If all the Arctic sea ice was gone every year between June and September (<a href="/wiki/Polar_day" class="mw-redirect" title="Polar day">polar day</a>, when the Sun is constantly shining), temperatures in the Arctic would increase by over 1.5 °C (2.7 °F), while the global temperatures would increase by around 0.19 °C (0.34 °F).<a href="#cite_note-Wunderling2020-156">[156]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:H%C3%B6ning_2023_GIS_thresholds.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/H%C3%B6ning_2023_GIS_thresholds.jpg/260px-H%C3%B6ning_2023_GIS_thresholds.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="202" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/H%C3%B6ning_2023_GIS_thresholds.jpg/390px-H%C3%B6ning_2023_GIS_thresholds.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/H%C3%B6ning_2023_GIS_thresholds.jpg/520px-H%C3%B6ning_2023_GIS_thresholds.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2128" data-file-height="1656" /></a><figcaption>Possible equilibrium states of the Greenland ice sheet in response to different equilibrium carbon dioxide concentrations in <a href="/wiki/Parts_per_million" class="mw-redirect" title="Parts per million">parts per million</a>. Second and third states would result in 1.8 m (6 ft) and 2.4 m (8 ft) of sea level rise, while the fourth state is equivalent to 6.9 m (23 ft).<a href="#cite_note-Höning2023-162">[162]</a></figcaption></figure> By 2100, at least a quarter of mountain glaciers outside of Greenland and Antarctica would melt,<a href="#cite_note-163">[163]</a> and effectively all ice caps on non-polar mountains are likely to be lost around 200 years after global warming reaches 2 °C (3.6 °F).<a href="#cite_note-ArmstrongMcKay2022-158">[158]</a><a href="#cite_note-ArmstrongMcKayExplainer-159">[159]</a> The West Antarctic ice sheet is highly vulnerable and will likely disappear even if the warming does not progress further,<a href="#cite_note-164">[164]</a><a href="#cite_note-Carlson2018-165">[165]</a><a href="#cite_note-Naughten2023-166">[166]</a><a href="#cite_note-Lau2023-167">[167]</a> although it could take around 2,000 years before its loss is complete.<a href="#cite_note-ArmstrongMcKay2022-158">[158]</a><a href="#cite_note-ArmstrongMcKayExplainer-159">[159]</a> The Greenland ice sheet will most likely be lost with the sustained warming between 1.7 °C (3.1 °F) and 2.3 °C (4.1 °F),<a href="#cite_note-Bochow2023-168">[168]</a> although its total loss requires around 10,000 years.<a href="#cite_note-ArmstrongMcKay2022-158">[158]</a><a href="#cite_note-ArmstrongMcKayExplainer-159">[159]</a> Finally, the <a href="/wiki/East_Antarctic_ice_sheet" class="mw-redirect" title="East Antarctic ice sheet">East Antarctic ice sheet</a> will take at least 10,000 years to melt entirely, which requires a warming of between 5 °C (9.0 °F) and 10 °C (18 °F).<a href="#cite_note-ArmstrongMcKay2022-158">[158]</a><a href="#cite_note-ArmstrongMcKayExplainer-159">[159]</a> If all the ice on Earth melted, it would result in about 70 m (229 ft 8 in) of sea level rise,<a href="#cite_note-169">[169]</a> with some 53.3 m (174 ft 10 in) coming from East Antarctica.<a href="#cite_note-Fretwell2013-58">[58]</a> Due to <a href="/wiki/Isostatic_rebound" class="mw-redirect" title="Isostatic rebound">isostatic rebound</a>, the ice-free land would eventually become 301 m (987 ft 6 in) higher in Greenland and 494 m (1,620 ft 9 in) in Antarctica, on average. Areas in the center of each landmass would become up to 783 m (2,568 ft 11 in) and 936 m (3,070 ft 10 in) higher, respectively.<a href="#cite_note-170">[170]</a> The impact on global temperatures from losing West Antartica, mountain glaciers and the Greenland ice sheet is estimated at 0.05 °C (0.090 °F), 0.08 °C (0.14 °F) and 0.13 °C (0.23 °F), respectively,<a href="#cite_note-Wunderling2020-156">[156]</a> while the lack of the East Antarctic ice sheet would increase the temperatures by 0.6 °C (1.1 °F).<a href="#cite_note-ArmstrongMcKay2022-158">[158]</a><a href="#cite_note-ArmstrongMcKayExplainer-159">[159]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Non-water">Non-water</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Volatile_(astrogeology)" title="Volatile (astrogeology)">Volatile (astrogeology)</a></div> The solid phases of several other volatile substances are also referred to as ices; generally a volatile is classed as an ice if its melting or <a href="/wiki/Sublimation_(chemistry)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sublimation (chemistry)">sublimation</a> point lies above or around 100 K (−173 °C; −280 °F) (assuming standard atmospheric pressure). The best known example is <a href="/wiki/Dry_ice" title="Dry ice">dry ice</a>, the solid form of <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a>. Its sublimation/deposition point occurs at 194.7 K (−78.5 °C; −109.2 °F).<a href="#cite_note-171">[171]</a> A "magnetic analogue" of ice is also realized in some insulating magnetic materials in which the magnetic moments mimic the position of protons in water ice and obey energetic constraints similar to the Bernal-Fowler <a href="/wiki/Ice_rules" title="Ice rules">ice rules</a> arising from the <a href="/wiki/Geometrical_frustration" title="Geometrical frustration">geometrical frustration</a> of the proton configuration in water ice. These materials are called <a href="/wiki/Spin_ice" title="Spin ice">spin ice</a>.<a href="#cite_note-172">[172]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><a href="/wiki/File:Drinking_water.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Drinking_water.jpg/18px-Drinking_water.jpg" decoding="async" width="18" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Drinking_water.jpg/28px-Drinking_water.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Drinking_water.jpg/37px-Drinking_water.jpg 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="450" /></a><a href="/wiki/Portal:Water" title="Portal:Water">Water portal</a></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ice_famine" title="Ice famine">Ice famine</a> – Historical scarcity of commercial ice</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_jacking" title="Ice jacking">Ice jacking</a> – Structural damage caused by freezing water</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jumble_ice" title="Jumble ice">Jumble ice</a> – Irregular jagged ice formed over water</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pumpable_ice_technology" title="Pumpable ice technology">Pumpable ice technology</a> – Type of technology to produce and use fluids or secondary refrigerants</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-CRC-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-CRC_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-CRC_1-1">b</a> <a 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no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output 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The Hindu Kush Himalaya Assessment. pp. 209–255. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-319-92288-1_7">10.1007/978-3-319-92288-1_7</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-92287-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-319-92287-4"><bdi>978-3-319-92287-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:134814572">134814572</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Status+and+Change+of+the+Cryosphere+in+the+Extended+Hindu+Kush+Himalaya+Region&rft.btitle=The+Hindu+Kush+Himalaya+Assessment&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E209-%3C%2Fspan%3E255&rft.date=2019-01-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A134814572%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-3-319-92288-1_7&rft.isbn=978-3-319-92287-4&rft.aulast=Bolch&rft.aufirst=Tobias&rft.au=Shea%2C+Joseph+M.&rft.au=Liu%2C+Shiyin&rft.au=Azam%2C+Farooq+M.&rft.au=Gao%2C+Yang&rft.au=Gruber%2C+Stephan&rft.au=Immerzeel%2C+Walter+W.&rft.au=Kulkarni%2C+Anil&rft.au=Li%2C+Huilin&rft.au=Tahir%2C+Adnan+A.&rft.au=Zhang%2C+Guoqing&rft.au=Zhang%2C+Yinsheng&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2Fchapter%2F10.1007%2F978-3-319-92288-1_7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIce" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-HKH2019Water-43">^ <a href="#cite_ref-HKH2019Water_43-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-HKH2019Water_43-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScottZhangMukherjiImmerzeel2019" class="citation book cs1">Scott, Christopher A.; Zhang, Fan; Mukherji, Aditi; Immerzeel, Walter; Mustafa, Daanish; Bharati, Luna (5 January 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-92288-1_8">"Water in the Hindu Kush Himalaya"</a>. 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Nature. 399 (3): 333–335. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1999Natur.399..333R">1999Natur.399..333R</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F20619">10.1038/20619</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Zero-point+entropy+in+%27spin+ice%27&rft.volume=399&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E333-%3C%2Fspan%3E335&rft.date=1999-05-27&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F20619&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1999Natur.399..333R&rft.aulast=Ramirez&rft.aufirst=A.+P.&rft.au=Hayashi%2C+A.&rft.au=Cava%2C+R.J.&rft.au=Siddharthan%2C+R.&rft.au=Shastry%2C+B.+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIce" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <ul><li>Brady, Amy. Ice: From Mixed Drinks to Skating Rinks--A Cool History of a Hot Commodity (G. P. Putnam's Sons, 2023).</li> <li>Hogge, Fred. Of Ice and Men: How We've Used Cold to Transform Humanity (Pegasus Books, 2022)</li> <li>Leonard, Max. A Cold Spell: A Human History of Ice (Bloomsbury, 2023) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=60582">online review of this book</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/ice" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Special:Search/ice">ice</a> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Ice" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Ice">Ice</a>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikisource-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/76px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></a></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has the text of <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_New_Student%27s_Reference_Work" class="extiw" title="s:The New Student's Reference Work">The New Student's Reference Work</a> article "<a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_New_Student%27s_Reference_Work/Ice" class="extiw" title="s:The New Student's Reference Work/Ice">Ice</a>".</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.webmineral.com/data/Ice.shtml">Webmineral listing for Ice</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mindat.org/min-2001.html">MinDat.org listing and location data for Ice</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sciencebits.com/StandingOnIce">Estimating the bearing capacity of ice</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://phys.org/news/2007-03-sandia-machine-ice-nanoseconds.html">High-temperature, high-pressure ice</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090318135129/http://blogs.static.mentalfloss.com/blogs/archives/20311.html">The Surprisingly Cool History of Ice</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": 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.navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ice503" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible expanded navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ice" title="Template:Ice"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ice" title="Template talk:Ice"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ice" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ice"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ice503" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Ice</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>The <a href="/wiki/Solid" title="Solid">solid</a> <a href="/wiki/State_of_matter" title="State of matter">state</a> of <a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">water</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Major phases</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phases_of_ice#Amorphous_ice" title="Phases of ice">Amorphous solid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phases_of_ice#Known_phases" title="Phases of ice">Crystalline phases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phases_of_ice#Ice_XVIII_(superionic_water)" title="Phases of ice">Superionic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Formations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anchor_ice" title="Anchor ice">Anchor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_cap" title="Ice cap">Cap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_cave" title="Ice cave">Cave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_dune" title="Ice dune">Dune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_field" title="Ice field">Field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glacier" title="Glacier">Glacier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iceberg" title="Iceberg">Iceberg</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ice_calving" title="Ice calving">calving</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Icicle" title="Icicle">Icicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_jam" title="Ice jam">Jam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_ice" title="Sea ice">Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_sheet" title="Ice sheet">Sheet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_spike" title="Ice spike">Spike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stalactite#Ice_stalactites" title="Stalactite">Stalactites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_volcano" title="Ice volcano">Volcano</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Phenomena</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ice%E2%80%93albedo_feedback" title="Ice–albedo feedback">Albedo feedback</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_ice" title="Black ice">Black</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_circle" title="Ice circle">Circle or disc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clear_ice" title="Clear ice">Clear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_crystals" class="mw-redirect" title="Ice crystals">Crystals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Firn" title="Firn">Firn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_fog" class="mw-redirect" title="Ice fog">Fog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frazil_ice" title="Frazil ice">Frazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frost" title="Frost">Frost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frost_heaving" title="Frost heaving">Frost heave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frost_flower" title="Frost flower">Frost flower</a> (<a href="/wiki/Frost_flower_(sea_ice)" title="Frost flower (sea ice)">sea ice</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glaze_(ice)" title="Glaze (ice)">Glaze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hail" title="Hail">Hail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hair_ice" title="Hair ice">Hair ice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_jacking" title="Ice jacking">Jacking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N%C3%A9v%C3%A9" title="Névé">Névé</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Needle_ice" title="Needle ice">Needle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_nucleus" title="Ice nucleus">Nucleus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rime_ice" title="Rime ice">Rime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_shove" title="Ice shove">Shove</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shuga_(ice)" title="Shuga (ice)">Shuga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slurry_ice" title="Slurry ice">Slurry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slush" title="Slush">Slush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snow" title="Snow">Snow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_storm" title="Ice storm">Storm</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ice-related activities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ice_bath" title="Ice bath">Bathing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_blasting" title="Ice blasting">Blasting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_blocking" title="Ice blocking">Blocking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_climbing" title="Ice climbing">Climbing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_fishing" title="Ice fishing">Fishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_rafting" title="Ice rafting">Rafting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_sculpture" title="Ice sculpture">Sculpture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_skating" title="Ice skating">Skating</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Winter_sports" title="Winter sports">Sports</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bandy" title="Bandy">Bandy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iceboat" title="Iceboat">Iceboating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_cricket" title="Ice cricket">Cricket</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Curling" title="Curling">Curling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Icetrack_cycling" title="Icetrack cycling">Cycling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Figure_skating" title="Figure skating">Figure skating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_hockey" title="Ice hockey">Ice hockey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_racing" title="Ice racing">Ice racing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speed_skating" title="Speed skating">Speed skating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Short-track_speed_skating" title="Short-track speed skating">Short-track speed skating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tour_skating" title="Tour skating">Tour skating</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Constructions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ice_bar" title="Ice bar">Bar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_bridge" title="Ice bridge">Bridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_hotel" title="Ice hotel">Hotel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Igloo" title="Igloo">Igloo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_palace" title="Ice palace">Palace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_pier" title="Ice pier">Pier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pykrete" title="Pykrete">Pykrete</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_rink" title="Ice rink">Rink</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_road" title="Ice road">Road</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Work</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ice_cutting" title="Ice cutting">Cutting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Icebox" title="Icebox">Icebox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_house_(building)" title="Ice house (building)">Icehouse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iceman_(occupation)" title="Iceman (occupation)">Iceman (occupation)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_pick" title="Ice pick">Pick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_trade" title="Ice trade">Trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yakhch%C4%81l" title="Yakhchāl">Yakhchāl</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other uses</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ice_chips" class="mw-redirect" title="Ice chips">Chips</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_core" title="Ice core">Core</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_cream" title="Ice cream">Cream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_cube" title="Ice cube">Cube</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_pack" title="Ice pack">Pack</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ice_age" title="Ice age">Ice ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glaciology" title="Glaciology">Glaciology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Little_Ice_Age" title="Little Ice Age">Little Ice Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pleistocene" title="Pleistocene">Pleistocene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snowball_Earth" title="Snowball Earth">Snowball Earth</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li> <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Water_ice" title="Category:Water ice">Category</a></li> <li> <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Ice" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Ice">Wikimedia Commons</a></li> <li> <a href="/wiki/File:Wiktionary-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Wiktionary page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Wiktionary-logo.svg/16px-Wiktionary-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Wiktionary-logo.svg/24px-Wiktionary-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Wiktionary-logo.svg/32px-Wiktionary-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="370" data-file-height="350" /></a> <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/ice" class="extiw" title="wikt:ice">Wiktionary</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Natural_resources210" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Natural_resources" title="Template:Natural resources"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Natural_resources" title="Template talk:Natural resources"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Natural_resources" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Natural resources"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Natural_resources210" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Natural_resource" title="Natural resource">Natural resources</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Atmosphere_of_Earth" title="Atmosphere of Earth">Air</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.0em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Air_pollution" title="Air pollution">Pollution / quality</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Ambient_Air_Quality_Standards" title="National Ambient Air Quality Standards">Ambient standards (US)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_quality_index" title="Air quality index">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indoor_air_quality" title="Indoor air quality">Indoor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_quality_law" title="Air quality law">Law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clean_Air_Act_(United_States)" title="Clean Air Act (United States)">Clean Air Act (US)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ozone_depletion" title="Ozone depletion">Ozone depletion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.0em;font-weight:normal;">Emissions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Airshed" title="Airshed">Airshed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emissions_trading" title="Emissions trading">Trading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reducing_emissions_from_deforestation_and_forest_degradation" class="mw-redirect" title="Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation">Deforestation (REDD)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Energy" title="Energy">Energy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bioenergy" title="Bioenergy">Bio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_law" title="Energy law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_resources" class="mw-redirect" title="Energy resources">Resources</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel" title="Fossil fuel">Fossil fuels</a> (<a href="/wiki/Fuel_gas" title="Fuel gas">gas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peak_coal" title="Peak coal">peak coal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peak_gas" title="Peak gas">peak gas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peak_oil" title="Peak oil">peak oil</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geothermal_energy" title="Geothermal energy">Geothermal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydropower" title="Hydropower">Hydro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear power">Nuclear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_energy" title="Solar energy">Solar</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sunlight" title="Sunlight">sunlight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shade_(shadow)" title="Shade (shadow)">shade</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_power" title="Wind power">Wind</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Land" title="Land">Land</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_land" title="Agricultural land">Agricultural</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arable_land" title="Arable land">arable</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peak_farmland" title="Peak farmland">peak farmland</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_degradation" title="Land degradation">Degradation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Field_(agriculture)" title="Field (agriculture)">Field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape" title="Landscape">Landscape</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cityscape" title="Cityscape">cityscape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seascape" title="Seascape">seascape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soundscape" title="Soundscape">soundscape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viewshed" title="Viewshed">viewshed</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_law" title="Land law">Law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Property_law" title="Property law">property</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_management" title="Land management">Management</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Habitat_conservation" title="Habitat conservation">habitat conservation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mineral" title="Mineral">Minerals</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gemstone" title="Gemstone">gemstone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_mineral" title="Industrial mineral">industrial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ore" title="Ore">ore</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Metal" title="Metal">metal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mining" title="Mining">mining</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mining_law" title="Mining law">law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sand_mining" title="Sand mining">sand</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peak_minerals" title="Peak minerals">peak</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peak_copper" class="mw-redirect" title="Peak copper">copper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peak_phosphorus" class="mw-redirect" title="Peak phosphorus">phosphorus</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mineral_rights" title="Mineral rights">rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil" title="Soil">Soil</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soil_conservation" title="Soil conservation">conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_fertility" title="Soil fertility">fertility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_health" title="Soil health">health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_resilience" title="Soil resilience">resilience</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_use" title="Land use">Use</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Land-use_planning" title="Land-use planning">planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_space_reserve" title="Open space reserve">reserve</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Life" title="Life">Life</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">Biodiversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioprospecting" title="Bioprospecting">Bioprospecting</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biopiracy" title="Biopiracy">biopiracy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosphere" title="Biosphere">Biosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bushfood" class="mw-redirect" title="Bushfood">Bushfood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bushmeat" title="Bushmeat">Bushmeat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fishery" title="Fishery">Fisheries</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_fisheries" title="Climate change and fisheries">climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fisheries_law" title="Fisheries law">law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fisheries_management" title="Fisheries management">management</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest" title="Forest">Forests</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Forest_genetic_resources" title="Forest genetic resources">genetic resources</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forestry_law" title="Forestry law">law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_management" title="Forest management">management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-timber_forest_product" title="Non-timber forest product">non-timber products</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Game_(food)" class="mw-redirect" title="Game (food)">Game</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Game_law" title="Game law">law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_conservation" title="Marine conservation">Marine conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meadow" title="Meadow">Meadow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pasture" title="Pasture">Pasture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">Plants</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plant_Treaty" class="mw-redirect" title="Plant Treaty">FAO Plant Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food" title="Food">food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_genetic_resources" title="Plant genetic resources">genetic resources</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gene_bank" title="Gene bank">gene banks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_plants_used_in_herbalism" title="List of plants used in herbalism">herbal medicines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UPOV" class="mw-redirect" title="UPOV">UPOV Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wood" title="Wood">wood</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rangeland" title="Rangeland">Rangeland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seed_bank" title="Seed bank">Seed bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife" title="Wildlife">Wildlife</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_conservation" title="Wildlife conservation">conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_management" title="Wildlife management">management</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">Water</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.0em;font-weight:normal;">Types / location</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aquifer" title="Aquifer">Aquifer</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aquifer_storage_and_recovery" title="Aquifer storage and recovery">storage and recovery</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drinking_water" title="Drinking water">Drinking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fresh_water" title="Fresh water">Fresh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groundwater" title="Groundwater">Groundwater</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Groundwater_pollution" title="Groundwater pollution">pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groundwater_recharge" title="Groundwater recharge">recharge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groundwater_remediation" title="Groundwater remediation">remediation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrosphere" title="Hydrosphere">Hydrosphere</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Ice</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iceberg" title="Iceberg">bergs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glacier" title="Glacier">glacial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polar_ice_cap" title="Polar ice cap">polar</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irrigation" title="Irrigation">Irrigation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Huerta" title="Huerta">huerta</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_resources" title="Marine resources">Marine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rain" title="Rain">Rain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rainwater_harvesting" title="Rainwater harvesting">harvesting</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stormwater" title="Stormwater">Stormwater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_water" title="Surface water">Surface water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sewage" title="Sewage">Sewage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reclaimed_water" title="Reclaimed water">reclaimed water</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drainage_basin" title="Drainage basin">Watershed</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.0em;font-weight:normal;">Aspects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Desalination" title="Desalination">Desalination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flood" title="Flood">Floods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Water law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leaching_(agriculture)" title="Leaching (agriculture)">Leaching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanitation" title="Sanitation">Sanitation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Improved_sanitation" title="Improved sanitation">improved</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_scarcity" title="Water scarcity">Scarcity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_security" title="Water security">Security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply" title="Water supply">Supply</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_efficiency" title="Water efficiency">Efficiency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_conflict" title="Water conflict">Conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_conservation" title="Water conservation">Conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peak_water" title="Peak water">Peak water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">Pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_privatization" title="Water privatization">Privatization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_quality" title="Water quality">Quality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_right" title="Water right">Right</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_resources" title="Water resources">Resources</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Improved_water_source" title="Improved water source">improved</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_resource_policy" title="Water resource policy">policy</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commons" title="Commons">Commons</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Enclosure" title="Enclosure">enclosure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_commons" title="Global commons">global</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_land" title="Common land">land</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tragedy_of_the_commons" title="Tragedy of the commons">tragedy of</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_resource_economics" title="Natural resource economics">Economics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_economics" title="Ecological economics">ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_(economics)" title="Land (economics)">land</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_services" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecosystem services">Ecosystem services</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exploitation_of_natural_resources" title="Exploitation of natural resources">Exploitation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Overexploitation" title="Overexploitation">overexploitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_Overshoot_Day" title="Earth Overshoot Day">Earth Overshoot Day</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_resource_management" title="Natural resource management">Management</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adaptive_management" title="Adaptive management">adaptive</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_capital" title="Natural capital">Natural capital</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natural_capital_accounting" title="Natural capital accounting">accounting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_good" title="Environmental good">good</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_heritage" title="Natural heritage">Natural heritage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_reserve" title="Nature reserve">Nature reserve</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Remnant_natural_area" title="Remnant natural area">remnant natural area</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_ecology" title="Systems ecology">Systems ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_ecology" title="Urban ecology">Urban ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilderness" title="Wilderness">Wilderness</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.0em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Resource" title="Resource">Resource</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Common-pool_resource" title="Common-pool resource">Common-pool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_resource" class="mw-redirect" title="Conflict resource">Conflict (perpetuation)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_curse" title="Resource curse">Curse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_depletion" title="Resource depletion">Depletion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_extraction" class="mw-redirect" title="Resource extraction">Extraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_nationalism" title="Resource nationalism">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_resource" title="Renewable resource">Renewable</a> / <a href="/wiki/Non-renewable_resource" title="Non-renewable resource">Non-renewable</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.0em;font-weight:normal;">Politics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oil_war" title="Oil war">Oil war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrostate" title="Petrostate">Petrostate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_war" title="Resource war">Resource war</a></li></ul> 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