Multivariate normal distribution

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id="toc-Notation_and_parametrization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notation_and_parametrization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Notation and parametrization</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notation_and_parametrization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Standard_normal_random_vector" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Standard_normal_random_vector"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Standard normal random vector</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Standard_normal_random_vector-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Centered_normal_random_vector" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Centered_normal_random_vector"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Centered normal random vector</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Centered_normal_random_vector-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Normal_random_vector" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Normal_random_vector"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Normal random vector</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Normal_random_vector-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Equivalent_definitions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Equivalent_definitions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Equivalent definitions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Equivalent_definitions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Density_function" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Density_function"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.6</span> <span>Density function</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Density_function-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Non-degenerate_case" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Non-degenerate_case"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.6.1</span> <span>Non-degenerate case</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Non-degenerate_case-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bivariate_case" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bivariate_case"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.6.2</span> <span>Bivariate case</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bivariate_case-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Degenerate_case" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Degenerate_case"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.6.3</span> <span>Degenerate case</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Degenerate_case-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cumulative_distribution_function" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cumulative_distribution_function"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.7</span> <span>Cumulative distribution function</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cumulative_distribution_function-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Interval" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Interval"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.7.1</span> <span>Interval</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Interval-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Complementary_cumulative_distribution_function_(tail_distribution)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Complementary_cumulative_distribution_function_(tail_distribution)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.8</span> <span>Complementary cumulative distribution function (tail distribution)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Complementary_cumulative_distribution_function_(tail_distribution)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Properties" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Properties"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Properties</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Properties-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Properties subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Properties-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Probability_in_different_domains" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Probability_in_different_domains"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Probability in different domains</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Probability_in_different_domains-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Higher_moments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Higher_moments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Higher moments</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Higher_moments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Functions_of_a_normal_vector" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Functions_of_a_normal_vector"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Functions of a normal vector</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Functions_of_a_normal_vector-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Likelihood_function" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Likelihood_function"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.1</span> <span>Likelihood function</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Likelihood_function-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Differential_entropy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Differential_entropy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Differential entropy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Differential_entropy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kullback–Leibler_divergence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kullback–Leibler_divergence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Kullback–Leibler divergence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kullback–Leibler_divergence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mutual_information" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mutual_information"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Mutual information</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mutual_information-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Joint_normality" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Joint_normality"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7</span> <span>Joint normality</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Joint_normality-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Normally_distributed_and_independent" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Normally_distributed_and_independent"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7.1</span> <span>Normally distributed and independent</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Normally_distributed_and_independent-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Two_normally_distributed_random_variables_need_not_be_jointly_bivariate_normal" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Two_normally_distributed_random_variables_need_not_be_jointly_bivariate_normal"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7.2</span> <span>Two normally distributed random variables need not be jointly bivariate normal</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Two_normally_distributed_random_variables_need_not_be_jointly_bivariate_normal-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Correlations_and_independence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Correlations_and_independence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7.3</span> <span>Correlations and independence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Correlations_and_independence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conditional_distributions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conditional_distributions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.8</span> <span>Conditional distributions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conditional_distributions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Bivariate_case_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bivariate_case_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.8.1</span> <span>Bivariate case</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bivariate_case_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bivariate_conditional_expectation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bivariate_conditional_expectation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.8.2</span> <span>Bivariate conditional expectation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bivariate_conditional_expectation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-In_the_general_case" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_the_general_case"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.8.2.1</span> <span>In the general case</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_the_general_case-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_the_centered_case_with_unit_variances" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_the_centered_case_with_unit_variances"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.8.2.2</span> <span>In the centered case with unit variances</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_the_centered_case_with_unit_variances-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Marginal_distributions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Marginal_distributions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.9</span> <span>Marginal distributions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Marginal_distributions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Affine_transformation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Affine_transformation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.10</span> <span>Affine transformation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Affine_transformation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Geometric_interpretation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Geometric_interpretation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.11</span> <span>Geometric interpretation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Geometric_interpretation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Statistical_inference" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Statistical_inference"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Statistical inference</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Statistical_inference-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Statistical inference subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Statistical_inference-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Parameter_estimation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Parameter_estimation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Parameter estimation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Parameter_estimation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bayesian_inference" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bayesian_inference"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Bayesian inference</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bayesian_inference-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Multivariate_normality_tests" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Multivariate_normality_tests"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Multivariate normality tests</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Multivariate_normality_tests-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Classification_into_multivariate_normal_classes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classification_into_multivariate_normal_classes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Classification into multivariate normal classes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Classification_into_multivariate_normal_classes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Gaussian_Discriminant_Analysis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gaussian_Discriminant_Analysis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4.1</span> <span>Gaussian Discriminant Analysis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gaussian_Discriminant_Analysis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Computational_methods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Computational_methods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Computational methods</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Computational_methods-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Computational methods subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Computational_methods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Drawing_values_from_the_distribution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Drawing_values_from_the_distribution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Drawing values from the distribution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Drawing_values_from_the_distribution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Literature</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Multivariate normal distribution</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" 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Available in 25 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-25" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">25 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B2%D9%8A%D8%B9_%D8%B7%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%B9%D9%8A_%D9%85%D8%AA%D8%B9%D8%AF%D8%AF_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%AA%D8%BA%D9%8A%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="توزيع طبيعي متعدد المتغيرات – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="توزيع طبيعي متعدد المتغيرات" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distribuci%C3%B3n_normal_multivariante" title="Distribución normal multivariante – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Distribución normal multivariante" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%8B%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B5_%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B5_%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B5" title="Многавымернае нармальнае размеркаванне – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Многавымернае нармальнае размеркаванне" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distribuci%C3%B3_normal_multivariable" title="Distribució normal multivariable – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Distribució normal multivariable" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flerdimensional_normalfordeling" title="Flerdimensional normalfordeling – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Flerdimensional normalfordeling" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mehrdimensionale_Normalverteilung" title="Mehrdimensionale Normalverteilung – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Mehrdimensionale Normalverteilung" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distribuci%C3%B3n_normal_multivariada" title="Distribución normal multivariada – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Distribución normal multivariada" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aldagai_anitzeko_banaketa_normal" title="Aldagai anitzeko banaketa normal – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Aldagai anitzeko banaketa normal" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B2%DB%8C%D8%B9_%D9%86%D8%B1%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%84_%DA%86%D9%86%D8%AF%D9%85%D8%AA%D8%BA%DB%8C%D8%B1%D9%87" title="توزیع نرمال چندمتغیره – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="توزیع نرمال چندمتغیره" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loi_normale_multidimensionnelle" title="Loi normale multidimensionnelle – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Loi normale multidimensionnelle" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distribuci%C3%B3n_normal_multivariante" title="Distribución normal multivariante – 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</div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Generalization of the one-dimensional normal distribution to higher dimensions</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1247679731">.mw-parser-output .ib-prob-dist{border-collapse:collapse;width:20em}.mw-parser-output .ib-prob-dist td,.mw-parser-output .ib-prob-dist th{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1)}.mw-parser-output .ib-prob-dist .infobox-subheader{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .ib-prob-dist-image{background:var(--background-color-neutral,#eaecf0);font-weight:bold;text-align:center}</style><table class="infobox infobox-table ib-prob-dist"><caption class="infobox-title">Multivariate normal</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="4" class="infobox-image"> <div class="ib-prob-dist-image">Probability density function</div><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:MultivariateNormal.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/MultivariateNormal.png/220px-MultivariateNormal.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/MultivariateNormal.png/330px-MultivariateNormal.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/MultivariateNormal.png/440px-MultivariateNormal.png 2x" data-file-width="842" data-file-height="637" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption"><small>Many sample points from a multivariate normal distribution with <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\mu }}=\left[{\begin{smallmatrix}0\\0\end{smallmatrix}}\right]}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">μ</mi> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mrow> <mo>[</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle scriptlevel="1"> <mtable rowspacing=".2em" columnspacing="0.333em" displaystyle="false"> <mtr> <mtd> <mn>0</mn> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd> <mn>0</mn> </mtd> </mtr> </mtable> </mstyle> </mrow> <mo>]</mo> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\mu }}=\left[{\begin{smallmatrix}0\\0\end{smallmatrix}}\right]}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/288f20c89fee827ad086cec03369439ba3615d7f" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.171ex; width:8.257ex; height:3.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\mu }}=\left[{\begin{smallmatrix}0\\0\end{smallmatrix}}\right]}"></span> and <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}=\left[{\begin{smallmatrix}1&3/5\\3/5&2\end{smallmatrix}}\right]}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">Σ</mi> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mrow> <mo>[</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle scriptlevel="1"> <mtable rowspacing=".2em" columnspacing="0.333em" displaystyle="false"> <mtr> <mtd> <mn>1</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>3</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mn>5</mn> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd> <mn>3</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mn>5</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>2</mn> </mtd> </mtr> </mtable> </mstyle> </mrow> <mo>]</mo> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}=\left[{\begin{smallmatrix}1&3/5\\3/5&2\end{smallmatrix}}\right]}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/ee3a76f734b37fcce91f30617152fe104b2782bc" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.838ex; width:13.681ex; height:4.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}=\left[{\begin{smallmatrix}1&3/5\\3/5&2\end{smallmatrix}}\right]}"></span>, shown along with the 3-sigma ellipse, the two marginal distributions, and the two 1-d histograms.</small></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Notation</th><td colspan="3" class="infobox-data"> <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\mathcal {N}}({\boldsymbol {\mu }},\,{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }})}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi class="MJX-tex-caligraphic" mathvariant="script">N</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">μ</mi> </mrow> <mo>,</mo> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">Σ</mi> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\mathcal {N}}({\boldsymbol {\mu }},\,{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }})}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/51f85b7c3baa266d803645c5c7169406f56d2cce" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; margin-left: -0.062ex; width:9.144ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\mathcal {N}}({\boldsymbol {\mu }},\,{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }})}"></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Statistical_parameter" title="Statistical parameter">Parameters</a></th><td colspan="3" class="infobox-data"> <i><b>μ</b></i> ∈ <b>R</b><sup><i>k</i></sup> — <a href="/wiki/Location_parameter" title="Location parameter">location</a><br /><b>Σ</b> ∈ <b>R</b><sup><i>k</i> × <i>k</i></sup> — <a href="/wiki/Covariance_matrix" title="Covariance matrix">covariance</a> (<a href="/wiki/Positive_semi-definite_matrix" class="mw-redirect" title="Positive semi-definite matrix">positive semi-definite matrix</a>)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Support_(mathematics)" title="Support (mathematics)">Support</a></th><td colspan="3" class="infobox-data"> <i><b>x</b></i> ∈ <i><b>μ</b></i> + span(<b>Σ</b>) ⊆ <b>R</b><sup><i>k</i></sup></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Probability_density_function" title="Probability density function">PDF</a></th><td colspan="3" class="infobox-data"> <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle (2\pi )^{-k/2}\det({\boldsymbol {\Sigma }})^{-1/2}\,\exp \left(-{\frac {1}{2}}(\mathbf {x} -{\boldsymbol {\mu }})^{\mathrm {T} }{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}^{-1}(\mathbf {x} -{\boldsymbol {\mu }})\right),}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mn>2</mn> <mi>π</mi> <msup> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <mi>k</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mo movablelimits="true" form="prefix">det</mo> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">Σ</mi> </mrow> <msup> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mi>exp</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mn>2</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">x</mi> </mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">μ</mi> </mrow> <msup> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">T</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msup> <msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">Σ</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">x</mi> </mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">μ</mi> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> <mo>,</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle (2\pi )^{-k/2}\det({\boldsymbol {\Sigma }})^{-1/2}\,\exp \left(-{\frac {1}{2}}(\mathbf {x} -{\boldsymbol {\mu }})^{\mathrm {T} }{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}^{-1}(\mathbf {x} -{\boldsymbol {\mu }})\right),}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/f3a102964c209f3a7da54d70068e68cf226a9a23" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.505ex; width:52.946ex; height:6.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle (2\pi )^{-k/2}\det({\boldsymbol {\Sigma }})^{-1/2}\,\exp \left(-{\frac {1}{2}}(\mathbf {x} -{\boldsymbol {\mu }})^{\mathrm {T} }{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}^{-1}(\mathbf {x} -{\boldsymbol {\mu }})\right),}"></span><br />exists only when <b>Σ</b> is <a href="/wiki/Positive-definite_matrix" class="mw-redirect" title="Positive-definite matrix">positive-definite</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Expected_value" title="Expected value">Mean</a></th><td colspan="3" class="infobox-data"> <i><b>μ</b></i></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Mode_(statistics)" title="Mode (statistics)">Mode</a></th><td colspan="3" class="infobox-data"> <i><b>μ</b></i></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Covariance_matrix" title="Covariance matrix">Variance</a></th><td colspan="3" class="infobox-data"> <b>Σ</b></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Information_entropy" class="mw-redirect" title="Information entropy">Entropy</a></th><td colspan="3" class="infobox-data"> <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\frac {k}{2}}\log {\mathord {\left(2\pi \mathrm {e} \right)}}+{\frac {1}{2}}\log \det {\mathord {\left({\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}\right)}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mi>k</mi> <mn>2</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> <mi>log</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow> <mn>2</mn> <mi>π</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">e</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> </mrow> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mn>2</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> <mi>log</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mo movablelimits="true" form="prefix">det</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">Σ</mi> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> </mrow> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\frac {k}{2}}\log {\mathord {\left(2\pi \mathrm {e} \right)}}+{\frac {1}{2}}\log \det {\mathord {\left({\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}\right)}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/d49300fb71c5c07378d9b55daad75da1f98274f3" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.838ex; width:27.072ex; height:5.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\frac {k}{2}}\log {\mathord {\left(2\pi \mathrm {e} \right)}}+{\frac {1}{2}}\log \det {\mathord {\left({\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}\right)}}}"></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Moment-generating_function" title="Moment-generating function">MGF</a></th><td colspan="3" class="infobox-data"> <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \exp \!{\Big (}{\boldsymbol {\mu }}^{\mathrm {T} }\mathbf {t} +{\tfrac {1}{2}}\mathbf {t} ^{\mathrm {T} }{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}\mathbf {t} {\Big )}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>exp</mi> <mspace width="negativethinmathspace" /> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo maxsize="1.623em" minsize="1.623em">(</mo> </mrow> </mrow> <msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">μ</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">T</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">t</mi> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mn>2</mn> </mfrac> </mstyle> </mrow> <msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">t</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">T</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">Σ</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">t</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo maxsize="1.623em" minsize="1.623em">)</mo> </mrow> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \exp \!{\Big (}{\boldsymbol {\mu }}^{\mathrm {T} }\mathbf {t} +{\tfrac {1}{2}}\mathbf {t} ^{\mathrm {T} }{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}\mathbf {t} {\Big )}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/0d5615c12f6a481d6f325881701b0e01df190f2d" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.838ex; width:20.359ex; height:4.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \exp \!{\Big (}{\boldsymbol {\mu }}^{\mathrm {T} }\mathbf {t} +{\tfrac {1}{2}}\mathbf {t} ^{\mathrm {T} }{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}\mathbf {t} {\Big )}}"></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Characteristic_function_(probability_theory)" title="Characteristic function (probability theory)">CF</a></th><td colspan="3" class="infobox-data"> <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \exp \!{\Big (}i{\boldsymbol {\mu }}^{\mathrm {T} }\mathbf {t} -{\tfrac {1}{2}}\mathbf {t} ^{\mathrm {T} }{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}\mathbf {t} {\Big )}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>exp</mi> <mspace width="negativethinmathspace" /> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo maxsize="1.623em" minsize="1.623em">(</mo> </mrow> </mrow> <mi>i</mi> <msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">μ</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">T</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">t</mi> </mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mn>2</mn> </mfrac> </mstyle> </mrow> <msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">t</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">T</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">Σ</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">t</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo maxsize="1.623em" minsize="1.623em">)</mo> </mrow> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \exp \!{\Big (}i{\boldsymbol {\mu }}^{\mathrm {T} }\mathbf {t} -{\tfrac {1}{2}}\mathbf {t} ^{\mathrm {T} }{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}\mathbf {t} {\Big )}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/46c49f9fabad48391319ef342ecaa92cebc506eb" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.838ex; width:21.161ex; height:4.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \exp \!{\Big (}i{\boldsymbol {\mu }}^{\mathrm {T} }\mathbf {t} -{\tfrac {1}{2}}\mathbf {t} ^{\mathrm {T} }{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}\mathbf {t} {\Big )}}"></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Kullback%E2%80%93Leibler_divergence" title="Kullback–Leibler divergence">Kullback–Leibler divergence</a></th><td colspan="3" class="infobox-data"> <i>See <a href="#Kullback–Leibler_divergence">§ Kullback–Leibler divergence</a></i></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Probability_theory" title="Probability theory">probability theory</a> and <a href="/wiki/Statistics" title="Statistics">statistics</a>, the <b>multivariate normal distribution</b>, <b>multivariate Gaussian distribution</b>, or <b>joint normal distribution</b> is a generalization of the one-dimensional (<a href="/wiki/Univariate" title="Univariate">univariate</a>) <a href="/wiki/Normal_distribution" title="Normal distribution">normal distribution</a> to higher <a href="/wiki/Dimension" title="Dimension">dimensions</a>. One definition is that a <a href="/wiki/Random_vector" class="mw-redirect" title="Random vector">random vector</a> is said to be <i>k</i>-variate normally distributed if every <a href="/wiki/Linear_combination" title="Linear combination">linear combination</a> of its <i>k</i> components has a univariate normal distribution. Its importance derives mainly from the <a href="/wiki/Central_limit_theorem#Multidimensional_CLT" title="Central limit theorem">multivariate central limit theorem</a>. The multivariate normal distribution is often used to describe, at least approximately, any set of (possibly) <a href="/wiki/Correlation_(statistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Correlation (statistics)">correlated</a> real-valued <a href="/wiki/Random_variable" title="Random variable">random variables</a>, each of which clusters around a mean value. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definitions">Definitions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Multivariate_normal_distribution&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Definitions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notation_and_parametrization">Notation and parametrization</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Multivariate_normal_distribution&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Notation and parametrization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The multivariate normal distribution of a <i>k</i>-dimensional random vector <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbf {X} =(X_{1},\ldots ,X_{k})^{\mathrm {T} }}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">X</mi> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo>,</mo> <mo>…</mo> <mo>,</mo> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>k</mi> </mrow> </msub> <msup> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">T</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbf {X} =(X_{1},\ldots ,X_{k})^{\mathrm {T} }}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/1723767f86fdfb4c556bfca7a85346e07b250335" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:19.516ex; height:3.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbf {X} =(X_{1},\ldots ,X_{k})^{\mathrm {T} }}"></span> can be written in the following notation: </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbf {X} \ \sim \ {\mathcal {N}}({\boldsymbol {\mu }},\,{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}),}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">X</mi> </mrow> <mtext> </mtext> <mo>∼</mo> <mtext> </mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi class="MJX-tex-caligraphic" mathvariant="script">N</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">μ</mi> </mrow> <mo>,</mo> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">Σ</mi> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>,</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbf {X} \ \sim \ {\mathcal {N}}({\boldsymbol {\mu }},\,{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}),}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/327e1dce233b5bc551928948de2977165cc2567b" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:16.008ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbf {X} \ \sim \ {\mathcal {N}}({\boldsymbol {\mu }},\,{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}),}"></span></dd></dl> <p>or to make it explicitly known that <i>X</i> is <i>k</i>-dimensional, </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbf {X} \ \sim \ {\mathcal {N}}_{k}({\boldsymbol {\mu }},\,{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}),}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">X</mi> </mrow> <mtext> </mtext> <mo>∼</mo> <mtext> </mtext> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi class="MJX-tex-caligraphic" mathvariant="script">N</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>k</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">μ</mi> </mrow> <mo>,</mo> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">Σ</mi> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>,</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbf {X} \ \sim \ {\mathcal {N}}_{k}({\boldsymbol {\mu }},\,{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}),}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/077ce56cfd65f0e193c01e8f6e849811ed4bf98c" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:16.728ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbf {X} \ \sim \ {\mathcal {N}}_{k}({\boldsymbol {\mu }},\,{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}),}"></span></dd></dl> <p>with <i>k</i>-dimensional <a href="/wiki/Mean_vector" class="mw-redirect" title="Mean vector">mean vector</a> </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\mu }}=\operatorname {E} [\mathbf {X} ]=(\operatorname {E} [X_{1}],\operatorname {E} [X_{2}],\ldots ,\operatorname {E} [X_{k}])^{\mathrm {T} },}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">μ</mi> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mi mathvariant="normal">E</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mo stretchy="false">[</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">X</mi> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">]</mo> <mo>=</mo> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi mathvariant="normal">E</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mo stretchy="false">[</mo> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">]</mo> <mo>,</mo> <mi mathvariant="normal">E</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mo stretchy="false">[</mo> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">]</mo> <mo>,</mo> <mo>…</mo> <mo>,</mo> <mi mathvariant="normal">E</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mo stretchy="false">[</mo> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>k</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">]</mo> <msup> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">T</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msup> <mo>,</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\mu }}=\operatorname {E} [\mathbf {X} ]=(\operatorname {E} [X_{1}],\operatorname {E} [X_{2}],\ldots ,\operatorname {E} [X_{k}])^{\mathrm {T} },}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/a0ff77227bef5ec255a816fbb1a31d5c1e0fba21" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:40.425ex; height:3.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\mu }}=\operatorname {E} [\mathbf {X} ]=(\operatorname {E} [X_{1}],\operatorname {E} [X_{2}],\ldots ,\operatorname {E} [X_{k}])^{\mathrm {T} },}"></span></dd></dl> <p>and <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle k\times k}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>k</mi> <mo>×</mo> <mi>k</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle k\times k}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/77bcf9346bcb189917b6b49c4331b4483f4a4a2c" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:5.263ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle k\times k}"></span> <a href="/wiki/Covariance_matrix" title="Covariance matrix">covariance matrix</a> </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \Sigma _{i,j}=\operatorname {E} [(X_{i}-\mu _{i})(X_{j}-\mu _{j})]=\operatorname {Cov} [X_{i},X_{j}]}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi mathvariant="normal">Σ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> <mo>,</mo> <mi>j</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mi mathvariant="normal">E</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mo stretchy="false">[</mo> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>−</mo> <msub> <mi>μ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>j</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>−</mo> <msub> <mi>μ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>j</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo stretchy="false">]</mo> <mo>=</mo> <mi>Cov</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mo stretchy="false">[</mo> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>,</mo> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>j</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">]</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \Sigma _{i,j}=\operatorname {E} [(X_{i}-\mu _{i})(X_{j}-\mu _{j})]=\operatorname {Cov} [X_{i},X_{j}]}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/c970083f8469366521881996464f23d376b7c40b" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:44.01ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \Sigma _{i,j}=\operatorname {E} [(X_{i}-\mu _{i})(X_{j}-\mu _{j})]=\operatorname {Cov} [X_{i},X_{j}]}"></span></dd></dl> <p>such that <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle 1\leq i\leq k}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mn>1</mn> <mo>≤</mo> <mi>i</mi> <mo>≤</mo> <mi>k</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 1\leq i\leq k}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/83de74da899efbafa01ec98ebf478e9ce5679fc6" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.505ex; width:9.373ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle 1\leq i\leq k}"></span> and <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle 1\leq j\leq k}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mn>1</mn> <mo>≤</mo> <mi>j</mi> <mo>≤</mo> <mi>k</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 1\leq j\leq k}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/fe6213470ed1ea7817e7bec06ffa56be9f5e7721" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:9.529ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle 1\leq j\leq k}"></span>. The <a href="/wiki/Matrix_inverse" class="mw-redirect" title="Matrix inverse">inverse</a> of the covariance matrix is called the <a href="/wiki/Precision_(statistics)" title="Precision (statistics)">precision matrix</a>, denoted by <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {Q}}={\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}^{-1}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">Q</mi> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">Σ</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {Q}}={\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}^{-1}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/1722aded9bdbdebed7b67a3b5e2a97b8fdec530b" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:9.382ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {Q}}={\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}^{-1}}"></span>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Standard_normal_random_vector">Standard normal random vector</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Multivariate_normal_distribution&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Standard normal random vector"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A real <a href="/wiki/Random_vector" class="mw-redirect" title="Random vector">random vector</a> <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbf {X} =(X_{1},\ldots ,X_{k})^{\mathrm {T} }}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">X</mi> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo>,</mo> <mo>…</mo> <mo>,</mo> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>k</mi> </mrow> </msub> <msup> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">T</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbf {X} =(X_{1},\ldots ,X_{k})^{\mathrm {T} }}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/1723767f86fdfb4c556bfca7a85346e07b250335" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:19.516ex; height:3.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbf {X} =(X_{1},\ldots ,X_{k})^{\mathrm {T} }}"></span> is called a <b>standard normal random vector</b> if all of its components <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle X_{i}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle X_{i}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/af4a0955af42beb5f85aa05fb8c07abedc13990d" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.724ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle X_{i}}"></span> are independent and each is a zero-mean unit-variance normally distributed random variable, i.e. if <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle X_{i}\sim \ {\mathcal {N}}(0,1)}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>∼</mo> <mtext> </mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi class="MJX-tex-caligraphic" mathvariant="script">N</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mn>0</mn> <mo>,</mo> <mn>1</mn> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle X_{i}\sim \ {\mathcal {N}}(0,1)}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/e3625b91821524ba96a6bbabce1eaf971f2ed56a" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:13.846ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle X_{i}\sim \ {\mathcal {N}}(0,1)}"></span> for all <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle i=1\ldots k}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>i</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>1</mn> <mo>…</mo> <mi>k</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle i=1\ldots k}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/14192f3f16857696c029a345eac101ae04d08995" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:9.772ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle i=1\ldots k}"></span>.<sup id="cite_ref-Lapidoth_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lapidoth-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: p. 454">: p. 454 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Centered_normal_random_vector">Centered normal random vector</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Multivariate_normal_distribution&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Centered normal random vector"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A real random vector <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbf {X} =(X_{1},\ldots ,X_{k})^{\mathrm {T} }}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">X</mi> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo>,</mo> <mo>…</mo> <mo>,</mo> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>k</mi> </mrow> </msub> <msup> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">T</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbf {X} =(X_{1},\ldots ,X_{k})^{\mathrm {T} }}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/1723767f86fdfb4c556bfca7a85346e07b250335" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:19.516ex; height:3.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbf {X} =(X_{1},\ldots ,X_{k})^{\mathrm {T} }}"></span> is called a <b>centered normal random vector</b> if there exists a deterministic <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle k\times \ell }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>k</mi> <mo>×</mo> <mi>ℓ</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle k\times \ell }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/7b0f3483f7ffc9ab75c99ae02f1fee5ef75c4566" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:5.021ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle k\times \ell }"></span> matrix <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {A}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">A</mi> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {A}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/5a8b5a6d1dbadead8b1dc48719c888e6cac5f861" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.019ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {A}}}"></span> such that <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {A}}\mathbf {Z} }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">A</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">Z</mi> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {A}}\mathbf {Z} }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/95e0539415843d2ed6088d28f89826334e373c87" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:3.653ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {A}}\mathbf {Z} }"></span> has the same distribution as <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbf {X} }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">X</mi> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbf {X} }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/9f75966a2f9d5672136fa9401ee1e75008f95ffd" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.019ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbf {X} }"></span> where <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbf {Z} }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">Z</mi> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbf {Z} }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/b776aaf12c2da4b78ca777cb8295c2000bfd51f5" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.634ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbf {Z} }"></span> is a standard normal random vector with <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \ell }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>ℓ</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \ell }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/f066e981e530bacc07efc6a10fa82deee985929e" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:0.97ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \ell }"></span> components.<sup id="cite_ref-Lapidoth_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lapidoth-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: p. 454">: p. 454 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Normal_random_vector">Normal random vector</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Multivariate_normal_distribution&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Normal random vector"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A real random vector <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbf {X} =(X_{1},\ldots ,X_{k})^{\mathrm {T} }}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">X</mi> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo>,</mo> <mo>…</mo> <mo>,</mo> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>k</mi> </mrow> </msub> <msup> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">T</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbf {X} =(X_{1},\ldots ,X_{k})^{\mathrm {T} }}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/1723767f86fdfb4c556bfca7a85346e07b250335" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:19.516ex; height:3.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbf {X} =(X_{1},\ldots ,X_{k})^{\mathrm {T} }}"></span> is called a <b>normal random vector</b> if there exists a random <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \ell }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>ℓ</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \ell }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/f066e981e530bacc07efc6a10fa82deee985929e" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:0.97ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \ell }"></span>-vector <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbf {Z} }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">Z</mi> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbf {Z} }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/b776aaf12c2da4b78ca777cb8295c2000bfd51f5" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.634ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbf {Z} }"></span>, which is a standard normal random vector, a <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle k}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>k</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle k}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/c3c9a2c7b599b37105512c5d570edc034056dd40" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.211ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle k}"></span>-vector <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbf {\mu } }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>μ</mi> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbf {\mu } }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/e407f1e8e83fffbed7e61f4112b7eef6b22b9e67" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:1.402ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbf {\mu } }"></span>, and a <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle k\times \ell }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>k</mi> <mo>×</mo> <mi>ℓ</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle k\times \ell }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/7b0f3483f7ffc9ab75c99ae02f1fee5ef75c4566" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:5.021ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle k\times \ell }"></span> matrix <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {A}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">A</mi> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {A}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/5a8b5a6d1dbadead8b1dc48719c888e6cac5f861" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.019ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {A}}}"></span>, such that <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbf {X} ={\boldsymbol {A}}\mathbf {Z} +\mathbf {\mu } }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">X</mi> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">A</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">Z</mi> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>μ</mi> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbf {X} ={\boldsymbol {A}}\mathbf {Z} +\mathbf {\mu } }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/340d49489361389f27f1630bc39b62d7be48b9e0" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:13.013ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbf {X} ={\boldsymbol {A}}\mathbf {Z} +\mathbf {\mu } }"></span>.<sup id="cite_ref-Gut_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gut-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: p. 454">: p. 454 </span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Lapidoth_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lapidoth-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: p. 455">: p. 455 </span></sup> </p><p>Formally: </p> <div class="equation-box" style="margin: ;padding: 6px; border-width:2px; border-style: solid; border-color: #0073CF; color: inherit;text-align: center; display: table"> <p><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbf {X} \ \sim \ {\mathcal {N}}(\mathbf {\mu } ,{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }})\quad \iff \quad {\text{there exist }}\mathbf {\mu } \in \mathbb {R} ^{k},{\boldsymbol {A}}\in \mathbb {R} ^{k\times \ell }{\text{ such that }}\mathbf {X} ={\boldsymbol {A}}\mathbf {Z} +\mathbf {\mu } {\text{ and }}\forall n=1,\ldots ,\ell :Z_{n}\sim \ {\mathcal {N}}(0,1),{\text{i.i.d.}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">X</mi> </mrow> <mtext> </mtext> <mo>∼</mo> <mtext> </mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi class="MJX-tex-caligraphic" mathvariant="script">N</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>μ</mi> </mrow> <mo>,</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">Σ</mi> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mspace width="1em" /> <mspace width="thickmathspace" /> <mo stretchy="false">⟺</mo> <mspace width="thickmathspace" /> <mspace width="1em" /> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>there exist </mtext> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>μ</mi> </mrow> <mo>∈</mo> <msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="double-struck">R</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>k</mi> </mrow> </msup> <mo>,</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">A</mi> </mrow> <mo>∈</mo> <msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="double-struck">R</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>k</mi> <mo>×</mo> <mi>ℓ</mi> </mrow> </msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext> such that </mtext> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">X</mi> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">A</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">Z</mi> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>μ</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext> and </mtext> </mrow> <mi mathvariant="normal">∀</mi> <mi>n</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>1</mn> <mo>,</mo> <mo>…</mo> <mo>,</mo> <mi>ℓ</mi> <mo>:</mo> <msub> <mi>Z</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>n</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>∼</mo> <mtext> </mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi class="MJX-tex-caligraphic" mathvariant="script">N</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mn>0</mn> <mo>,</mo> <mn>1</mn> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>,</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>i.i.d.</mtext> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbf {X} \ \sim \ {\mathcal {N}}(\mathbf {\mu } ,{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }})\quad \iff \quad {\text{there exist }}\mathbf {\mu } \in \mathbb {R} ^{k},{\boldsymbol {A}}\in \mathbb {R} ^{k\times \ell }{\text{ such that }}\mathbf {X} ={\boldsymbol {A}}\mathbf {Z} +\mathbf {\mu } {\text{ and }}\forall n=1,\ldots ,\ell :Z_{n}\sim \ {\mathcal {N}}(0,1),{\text{i.i.d.}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/b7db95679ded8429ad4a52d285176779a5884b7f" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:117.954ex; height:3.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbf {X} \ \sim \ {\mathcal {N}}(\mathbf {\mu } ,{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }})\quad \iff \quad {\text{there exist }}\mathbf {\mu } \in \mathbb {R} ^{k},{\boldsymbol {A}}\in \mathbb {R} ^{k\times \ell }{\text{ such that }}\mathbf {X} ={\boldsymbol {A}}\mathbf {Z} +\mathbf {\mu } {\text{ and }}\forall n=1,\ldots ,\ell :Z_{n}\sim \ {\mathcal {N}}(0,1),{\text{i.i.d.}}}"></span> </p> </div> <p>Here the <a href="/wiki/Covariance_matrix" title="Covariance matrix">covariance matrix</a> is <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}={\boldsymbol {A}}{\boldsymbol {A}}^{\mathrm {T} }}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">Σ</mi> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">A</mi> </mrow> <msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">A</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">T</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}={\boldsymbol {A}}{\boldsymbol {A}}^{\mathrm {T} }}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/8d4a1733f5f5ffa9a80ab1f02a570a433f9e72b5" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:10.488ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}={\boldsymbol {A}}{\boldsymbol {A}}^{\mathrm {T} }}"></span>. </p><p>In the <a href="/wiki/Degeneracy_(mathematics)" title="Degeneracy (mathematics)">degenerate</a> case where the covariance matrix is <a href="/wiki/Singular_matrix" class="mw-redirect" title="Singular matrix">singular</a>, the corresponding distribution has no density; see the <a href="#Degenerate_case">section below</a> for details. This case arises frequently in <a href="/wiki/Statistics" title="Statistics">statistics</a>; for example, in the distribution of the vector of <a href="/wiki/Errors_and_residuals_in_statistics" class="mw-redirect" title="Errors and residuals in statistics">residuals</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Ordinary_least_squares" title="Ordinary least squares">ordinary least squares</a> regression. The <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle X_{i}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle X_{i}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/af4a0955af42beb5f85aa05fb8c07abedc13990d" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.724ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle X_{i}}"></span> are in general <i>not</i> independent; they can be seen as the result of applying the matrix <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {A}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">A</mi> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {A}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/5a8b5a6d1dbadead8b1dc48719c888e6cac5f861" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.019ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {A}}}"></span> to a collection of independent Gaussian variables <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbf {Z} }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">Z</mi> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbf {Z} }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/b776aaf12c2da4b78ca777cb8295c2000bfd51f5" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.634ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbf {Z} }"></span>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Equivalent_definitions">Equivalent definitions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Multivariate_normal_distribution&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Equivalent definitions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The following definitions are equivalent to the definition given above. A random vector <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbf {X} =(X_{1},\ldots ,X_{k})^{\mathrm {T} }}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">X</mi> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo>,</mo> <mo>…</mo> <mo>,</mo> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>k</mi> </mrow> </msub> <msup> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">T</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbf {X} =(X_{1},\ldots ,X_{k})^{\mathrm {T} }}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/1723767f86fdfb4c556bfca7a85346e07b250335" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:19.516ex; height:3.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbf {X} =(X_{1},\ldots ,X_{k})^{\mathrm {T} }}"></span> has a multivariate normal distribution if it satisfies one of the following equivalent conditions. </p> <ul><li>Every linear combination <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle Y=a_{1}X_{1}+\cdots +a_{k}X_{k}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>Y</mi> <mo>=</mo> <msub> <mi>a</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo>+</mo> <mo>⋯</mo> <mo>+</mo> <msub> <mi>a</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>k</mi> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>k</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle Y=a_{1}X_{1}+\cdots +a_{k}X_{k}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/7a2ca2f36c4969385b422fae21fa690609bf7e07" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:23.87ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle Y=a_{1}X_{1}+\cdots +a_{k}X_{k}}"></span> of its components is <a href="/wiki/Normal_distribution" title="Normal distribution">normally distributed</a>. That is, for any constant vector <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbf {a} \in \mathbb {R} ^{k}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">a</mi> </mrow> <mo>∈</mo> <msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="double-struck">R</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>k</mi> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbf {a} \in \mathbb {R} ^{k}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/00d6cdbd31867261bfbb502e687b6bf5ed0fa92b" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:6.907ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbf {a} \in \mathbb {R} ^{k}}"></span>, the random variable <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle Y=\mathbf {a} ^{\mathrm {T} }\mathbf {X} }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>Y</mi> <mo>=</mo> <msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">a</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">T</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">X</mi> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle Y=\mathbf {a} ^{\mathrm {T} }\mathbf {X} }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/b9eacc5ee1f4f851f385566f57975f02543e4d0c" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:9.61ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle Y=\mathbf {a} ^{\mathrm {T} }\mathbf {X} }"></span> has a univariate normal distribution, where a univariate normal distribution with zero variance is a point mass on its mean.</li> <li>There is a <i>k</i>-vector <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbf {\mu } }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>μ</mi> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbf {\mu } }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/e407f1e8e83fffbed7e61f4112b7eef6b22b9e67" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:1.402ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbf {\mu } }"></span> and a symmetric, <a href="/wiki/Positive-definite_matrix#Negative-definite.2C_semidefinite_and_indefinite_matrices" class="mw-redirect" title="Positive-definite matrix">positive semidefinite</a> <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle k\times k}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>k</mi> <mo>×</mo> <mi>k</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle k\times k}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/77bcf9346bcb189917b6b49c4331b4483f4a4a2c" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:5.263ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle k\times k}"></span> matrix <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">Σ</mi> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/8532511177f5a2d2dc2b8c1ea37d483c70266911" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.931ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}}"></span>, such that the <a href="/wiki/Characteristic_function_(probability_theory)" title="Characteristic function (probability theory)">characteristic function</a> of <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbf {X} }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">X</mi> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbf {X} }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/9f75966a2f9d5672136fa9401ee1e75008f95ffd" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.019ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbf {X} }"></span> is <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-display mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math display="block" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \varphi _{\mathbf {X} }(\mathbf {u} )=\exp {\Big (}i\mathbf {u} ^{\mathrm {T} }{\boldsymbol {\mu }}-{\tfrac {1}{2}}\mathbf {u} ^{\mathrm {T} }{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}\mathbf {u} {\Big )}.}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>φ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">X</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">u</mi> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>=</mo> <mi>exp</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo maxsize="1.623em" minsize="1.623em">(</mo> </mrow> </mrow> <mi>i</mi> <msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">u</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">T</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">μ</mi> </mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mn>2</mn> </mfrac> </mstyle> </mrow> <msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">u</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">T</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">Σ</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">u</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo maxsize="1.623em" minsize="1.623em">)</mo> </mrow> </mrow> <mo>.</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \varphi _{\mathbf {X} }(\mathbf {u} )=\exp {\Big (}i\mathbf {u} ^{\mathrm {T} }{\boldsymbol {\mu }}-{\tfrac {1}{2}}\mathbf {u} ^{\mathrm {T} }{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}\mathbf {u} {\Big )}.}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/495b36063e5272a47eb1e1a9618b666ed47b34ba" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-display mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.838ex; width:33.107ex; height:4.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \varphi _{\mathbf {X} }(\mathbf {u} )=\exp {\Big (}i\mathbf {u} ^{\mathrm {T} }{\boldsymbol {\mu }}-{\tfrac {1}{2}}\mathbf {u} ^{\mathrm {T} }{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}\mathbf {u} {\Big )}.}"></span></li></ul> <p>The spherical normal distribution can be characterised as the unique distribution where components are independent in any orthogonal coordinate system.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Density_function">Density function</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Multivariate_normal_distribution&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Density function"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Multivariate_Gaussian.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Multivariate_Gaussian.png/324px-Multivariate_Gaussian.png" decoding="async" width="324" height="203" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Multivariate_Gaussian.png/486px-Multivariate_Gaussian.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Multivariate_Gaussian.png/648px-Multivariate_Gaussian.png 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption>Bivariate normal <a href="/wiki/Joint_probability_distribution#Density_function_or_mass_function" title="Joint probability distribution">joint density</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Non-degenerate_case">Non-degenerate case</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Multivariate_normal_distribution&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Non-degenerate case"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The multivariate normal distribution is said to be "non-degenerate" when the symmetric <a href="/wiki/Covariance_matrix" title="Covariance matrix">covariance matrix</a> <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">Σ</mi> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/8532511177f5a2d2dc2b8c1ea37d483c70266911" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.931ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}}"></span> is <a href="/wiki/Positive-definite_matrix" class="mw-redirect" title="Positive-definite matrix">positive definite</a>. In this case the distribution has <a href="/wiki/Probability_density_function" title="Probability density function">density</a><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="equation-box" style="margin: ;padding: 6px; border-width:2px; border-style: solid; border-color: #0073CF; color: inherit;text-align: center; display: table"> <p><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle f_{\mathbf {X} }(x_{1},\ldots ,x_{k})={\frac {\exp \left(-{\frac {1}{2}}\left({\mathbf {x} }-{\boldsymbol {\mu }}\right)^{\mathrm {T} }{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}^{-1}\left({\mathbf {x} }-{\boldsymbol {\mu }}\right)\right)}{\sqrt {(2\pi )^{k}|{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}|}}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>f</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">X</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msub> <mi>x</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo>,</mo> <mo>…</mo> <mo>,</mo> <msub> <mi>x</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>k</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi>exp</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mn>2</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> <msup> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">x</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">μ</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">T</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msup> <msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">Σ</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">x</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">μ</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> </mrow> <msqrt> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mn>2</mn> <mi>π</mi> <msup> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>k</mi> </mrow> </msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">|</mo> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">Σ</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">|</mo> </mrow> </msqrt> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle f_{\mathbf {X} }(x_{1},\ldots ,x_{k})={\frac {\exp \left(-{\frac {1}{2}}\left({\mathbf {x} }-{\boldsymbol {\mu }}\right)^{\mathrm {T} }{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}^{-1}\left({\mathbf {x} }-{\boldsymbol {\mu }}\right)\right)}{\sqrt {(2\pi )^{k}|{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}|}}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/418f7f0a42778c344e9bff0876adb348655cd367" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -3.171ex; width:49.8ex; height:8.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle f_{\mathbf {X} }(x_{1},\ldots ,x_{k})={\frac {\exp \left(-{\frac {1}{2}}\left({\mathbf {x} }-{\boldsymbol {\mu }}\right)^{\mathrm {T} }{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}^{-1}\left({\mathbf {x} }-{\boldsymbol {\mu }}\right)\right)}{\sqrt {(2\pi )^{k}|{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}|}}}}"></span> </p> </div> <p>where <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\mathbf {x} }}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">x</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\mathbf {x} }}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/750a6daa7582187413b3d235642845b024a24f81" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.411ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\mathbf {x} }}"></span> is a real <i>k</i>-dimensional column vector and <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle |{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}|\equiv \det {\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">|</mo> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">Σ</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">|</mo> </mrow> <mo>≡</mo> <mo movablelimits="true" form="prefix">det</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">Σ</mi> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle |{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}|\equiv \det {\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/34a871e768f6958b8b366e1312f68c09b17c617b" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:11.871ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle |{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}|\equiv \det {\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}}"></span> is the <a href="/wiki/Determinant" title="Determinant">determinant</a> of <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">Σ</mi> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/8532511177f5a2d2dc2b8c1ea37d483c70266911" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.931ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}}"></span>, also known as the <a href="/wiki/Generalized_variance" title="Generalized variance">generalized variance</a>. The equation above reduces to that of the univariate normal distribution if <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">Σ</mi> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/8532511177f5a2d2dc2b8c1ea37d483c70266911" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.931ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}}"></span> is a <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle 1\times 1}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mn>1</mn> <mo>×</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 1\times 1}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/2b4bf91a527dc01af9ef6ace81199becf1308e00" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:5.165ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle 1\times 1}"></span> matrix (i.e. a single real number). </p><p>The circularly symmetric version of the <a href="/wiki/Complex_normal_distribution" title="Complex normal distribution">complex normal distribution</a> has a slightly different form. </p><p>Each iso-density <a href="/wiki/Locus_(mathematics)" title="Locus (mathematics)">locus</a> — the locus of points in <i>k</i>-dimensional space each of which gives the same particular value of the density — is an <a href="/wiki/Ellipse" title="Ellipse">ellipse</a> or its higher-dimensional generalization; hence the multivariate normal is a special case of the <a href="/wiki/Elliptical_distribution" title="Elliptical distribution">elliptical distributions</a>. </p><p>The quantity <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\sqrt {({\mathbf {x} }-{\boldsymbol {\mu }})^{\mathrm {T} }{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}^{-1}({\mathbf {x} }-{\boldsymbol {\mu }})}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msqrt> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">x</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">μ</mi> </mrow> <msup> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">T</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msup> <msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">Σ</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">x</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">μ</mi> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </msqrt> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\sqrt {({\mathbf {x} }-{\boldsymbol {\mu }})^{\mathrm {T} }{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}^{-1}({\mathbf {x} }-{\boldsymbol {\mu }})}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/43edb721630e68d20d82c40e6c0bfd3b0465fd17" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.671ex; width:23.419ex; height:4.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\sqrt {({\mathbf {x} }-{\boldsymbol {\mu }})^{\mathrm {T} }{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}^{-1}({\mathbf {x} }-{\boldsymbol {\mu }})}}}"></span> is known as the <a href="/wiki/Mahalanobis_distance" title="Mahalanobis distance">Mahalanobis distance</a>, which represents the distance of the test point <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\mathbf {x} }}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">x</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\mathbf {x} }}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/750a6daa7582187413b3d235642845b024a24f81" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.411ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\mathbf {x} }}"></span> from the mean <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\mu }}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">μ</mi> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\mu }}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/a1aee7d7b4a36d96dfb35bfee9c7751bba1fdfbe" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:1.646ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\mu }}}"></span>. The squared Mahalanobis distance <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle ({\mathbf {x} }-{\boldsymbol {\mu }})^{\mathrm {T} }{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}^{-1}({\mathbf {x} }-{\boldsymbol {\mu }})}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">x</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">μ</mi> </mrow> <msup> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">T</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msup> <msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">Σ</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">x</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">μ</mi> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle ({\mathbf {x} }-{\boldsymbol {\mu }})^{\mathrm {T} }{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}^{-1}({\mathbf {x} }-{\boldsymbol {\mu }})}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/67bc3008f4e70beca1f3a48e3c66bc8a720b780b" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:21.095ex; height:3.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle ({\mathbf {x} }-{\boldsymbol {\mu }})^{\mathrm {T} }{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}^{-1}({\mathbf {x} }-{\boldsymbol {\mu }})}"></span> is decomposed into a sum of <i>k</i> terms, each term being a product of three meaningful components.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Note that in the case when <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle k=1}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>k</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle k=1}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/6c035ffa69b5bca8bf2d16c3da3aaad79a8bcbfa" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:5.472ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle k=1}"></span>, the distribution reduces to a univariate normal distribution and the Mahalanobis distance reduces to the absolute value of the <a href="/wiki/Standard_score" title="Standard score">standard score</a>. See also <a href="#Interval">Interval</a> below. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Bivariate_case">Bivariate case</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Multivariate_normal_distribution&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Bivariate case"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the 2-dimensional nonsingular case (<span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle k=\operatorname {rank} \left(\Sigma \right)=2}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>k</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mi>rank</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mi mathvariant="normal">Σ</mi> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mn>2</mn> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle k=\operatorname {rank} \left(\Sigma \right)=2}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/9d51cd9a394644c7afbeed4d04bfa52c627f1c24" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:16.652ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle k=\operatorname {rank} \left(\Sigma \right)=2}"></span>), the <a href="/wiki/Probability_density_function" title="Probability density function">probability density function</a> of a vector <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\text{[XY]}}\prime }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>[XY]</mtext> </mrow> <mi class="MJX-variant" mathvariant="normal">′</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\text{[XY]}}\prime }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/faffc663dc20d1db9845a496c725e6b07029f263" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:5.42ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\text{[XY]}}\prime }"></span> is: <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-display mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math display="block" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle f(x,y)={\frac {1}{2\pi \sigma _{X}\sigma _{Y}{\sqrt {1-\rho ^{2}}}}}\exp \left(-{\frac {1}{2\left[1-\rho ^{2}\right]}}\left[\left({\frac {x-\mu _{X}}{\sigma _{X}}}\right)^{2}-2\rho \left({\frac {x-\mu _{X}}{\sigma _{X}}}\right)\left({\frac {y-\mu _{Y}}{\sigma _{Y}}}\right)+\left({\frac {y-\mu _{Y}}{\sigma _{Y}}}\right)^{2}\right]\right)}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>f</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo>,</mo> <mi>y</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mrow> <mn>2</mn> <mi>π</mi> <msub> <mi>σ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>X</mi> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>σ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>Y</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msqrt> <mn>1</mn> <mo>−</mo> <msup> <mi>ρ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> </msqrt> </mrow> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mi>exp</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mrow> <mn>2</mn> <mrow> <mo>[</mo> <mrow> <mn>1</mn> <mo>−</mo> <msup> <mi>ρ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> <mo>]</mo> </mrow> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mrow> <mo>[</mo> <mrow> <msup> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi>x</mi> <mo>−</mo> <msub> <mi>μ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>X</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> <msub> <mi>σ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>X</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mo>−</mo> <mn>2</mn> <mi>ρ</mi> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi>x</mi> <mo>−</mo> <msub> <mi>μ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>X</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> <msub> <mi>σ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>X</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi>y</mi> <mo>−</mo> <msub> <mi>μ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>Y</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> <msub> <mi>σ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>Y</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <msup> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi>y</mi> <mo>−</mo> <msub> <mi>μ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>Y</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> <msub> <mi>σ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>Y</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> <mo>]</mo> </mrow> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle f(x,y)={\frac {1}{2\pi \sigma _{X}\sigma _{Y}{\sqrt {1-\rho ^{2}}}}}\exp \left(-{\frac {1}{2\left[1-\rho ^{2}\right]}}\left[\left({\frac {x-\mu _{X}}{\sigma _{X}}}\right)^{2}-2\rho \left({\frac {x-\mu _{X}}{\sigma _{X}}}\right)\left({\frac {y-\mu _{Y}}{\sigma _{Y}}}\right)+\left({\frac {y-\mu _{Y}}{\sigma _{Y}}}\right)^{2}\right]\right)}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/bf91aebe806d84bb97ab95715e8e10e619387356" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-display mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -3.171ex; width:105.99ex; height:7.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle f(x,y)={\frac {1}{2\pi \sigma _{X}\sigma _{Y}{\sqrt {1-\rho ^{2}}}}}\exp \left(-{\frac {1}{2\left[1-\rho ^{2}\right]}}\left[\left({\frac {x-\mu _{X}}{\sigma _{X}}}\right)^{2}-2\rho \left({\frac {x-\mu _{X}}{\sigma _{X}}}\right)\left({\frac {y-\mu _{Y}}{\sigma _{Y}}}\right)+\left({\frac {y-\mu _{Y}}{\sigma _{Y}}}\right)^{2}\right]\right)}"></span> where <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \rho }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>ρ</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \rho }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/1f7d439671d1289b6a816e6af7a304be40608d64" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:1.202ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \rho }"></span> is the <a href="/wiki/Pearson_product-moment_correlation_coefficient" class="mw-redirect" title="Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient">correlation</a> between <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle X}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>X</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle X}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/68baa052181f707c662844a465bfeeb135e82bab" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.98ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle X}"></span> and <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle Y}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>Y</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle Y}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/961d67d6b454b4df2301ac571808a3538b3a6d3f" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.171ex; width:1.773ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle Y}"></span> and where <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \sigma _{X}>0}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>σ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>X</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>></mo> <mn>0</mn> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \sigma _{X}>0}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/e209947e13286f3764965272fa808a340df68df8" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:7.221ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \sigma _{X}>0}"></span> and <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \sigma _{Y}>0}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>σ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>Y</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>></mo> <mn>0</mn> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \sigma _{Y}>0}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/f2336675539c0381f1368b6607c79be611c97ee2" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:7.074ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \sigma _{Y}>0}"></span>. In this case, </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\mu }}={\begin{pmatrix}\mu _{X}\\\mu _{Y}\end{pmatrix}},\quad {\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}={\begin{pmatrix}\sigma _{X}^{2}&\rho \sigma _{X}\sigma _{Y}\\\rho \sigma _{X}\sigma _{Y}&\sigma _{Y}^{2}\end{pmatrix}}.}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">μ</mi> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mtable rowspacing="4pt" columnspacing="1em"> <mtr> <mtd> <msub> <mi>μ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>X</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd> <msub> <mi>μ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>Y</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mtd> </mtr> </mtable> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> </mrow> <mo>,</mo> <mspace width="1em" /> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">Σ</mi> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mtable rowspacing="4pt" columnspacing="1em"> <mtr> <mtd> <msubsup> <mi>σ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>X</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msubsup> </mtd> <mtd> <mi>ρ</mi> <msub> <mi>σ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>X</mi> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>σ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>Y</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd> <mi>ρ</mi> <msub> <mi>σ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>X</mi> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>σ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>Y</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mtd> <mtd> <msubsup> <mi>σ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>Y</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msubsup> </mtd> </mtr> </mtable> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> </mrow> <mo>.</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\mu }}={\begin{pmatrix}\mu _{X}\\\mu _{Y}\end{pmatrix}},\quad {\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}={\begin{pmatrix}\sigma _{X}^{2}&\rho \sigma _{X}\sigma _{Y}\\\rho \sigma _{X}\sigma _{Y}&\sigma _{Y}^{2}\end{pmatrix}}.}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/1d6238c86bf561c952e0560e6f6ad3591278fb82" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.523ex; margin-bottom: -0.315ex; width:41.429ex; height:6.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\mu }}={\begin{pmatrix}\mu _{X}\\\mu _{Y}\end{pmatrix}},\quad {\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}={\begin{pmatrix}\sigma _{X}^{2}&\rho \sigma _{X}\sigma _{Y}\\\rho \sigma _{X}\sigma _{Y}&\sigma _{Y}^{2}\end{pmatrix}}.}"></span></dd></dl> <p>In the bivariate case, the first equivalent condition for multivariate reconstruction of normality can be made less restrictive as it is sufficient to verify that a <a href="/wiki/Countably_infinite" class="mw-redirect" title="Countably infinite">countably infinite</a> set of distinct linear combinations of <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle X}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>X</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle X}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/68baa052181f707c662844a465bfeeb135e82bab" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.98ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle X}"></span> and <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle Y}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>Y</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle Y}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/961d67d6b454b4df2301ac571808a3538b3a6d3f" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.171ex; width:1.773ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle Y}"></span> are normal in order to conclude that the vector of <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\text{[XY]}}\prime }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>[XY]</mtext> </mrow> <mi class="MJX-variant" mathvariant="normal">′</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\text{[XY]}}\prime }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/faffc663dc20d1db9845a496c725e6b07029f263" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:5.42ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\text{[XY]}}\prime }"></span> is bivariate normal.<sup id="cite_ref-HT_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HT-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The bivariate iso-density loci plotted in the <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle x,y}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>x</mi> <mo>,</mo> <mi>y</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle x,y}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/5ea0abffd33a692ded22accc104515a032851dff" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:3.519ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle x,y}"></span>-plane are <a href="/wiki/Ellipse" title="Ellipse">ellipses</a>, whose <a href="/wiki/Semi-major_and_semi-minor_axes" title="Semi-major and semi-minor axes">principal axes</a> are defined by the <a href="/wiki/Eigenvectors" class="mw-redirect" title="Eigenvectors">eigenvectors</a> of the covariance matrix <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">Σ</mi> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/8532511177f5a2d2dc2b8c1ea37d483c70266911" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.931ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}}"></span> (the major and minor <a href="/wiki/Semidiameter" title="Semidiameter">semidiameters</a> of the ellipse equal the square-root of the ordered eigenvalues). </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:GaussianScatterPCA.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/GaussianScatterPCA.png/220px-GaussianScatterPCA.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="206" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/GaussianScatterPCA.png/330px-GaussianScatterPCA.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/GaussianScatterPCA.png/440px-GaussianScatterPCA.png 2x" data-file-width="1152" data-file-height="1081" /></a><figcaption>Bivariate normal distribution centered at <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle (1,3)}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mn>1</mn> <mo>,</mo> <mn>3</mn> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle (1,3)}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/8c80e593e3953231c56d0887f5b247bbe517461f" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:5.168ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle (1,3)}"></span> with a standard deviation of 3 in roughly the <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle (0.878,0.478)}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mn>0.878</mn> <mo>,</mo> <mn>0.478</mn> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle (0.878,0.478)}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/669ce2eb0449e640131848951e86653f1e13153c" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:13.437ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle (0.878,0.478)}"></span> direction and of 1 in the orthogonal direction.</figcaption></figure> <p>As the absolute value of the correlation parameter <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \rho }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>ρ</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \rho }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/1f7d439671d1289b6a816e6af7a304be40608d64" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:1.202ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \rho }"></span> increases, these loci are squeezed toward the following line : </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle y(x)=\operatorname {sgn}(\rho ){\frac {\sigma _{Y}}{\sigma _{X}}}(x-\mu _{X})+\mu _{Y}.}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>y</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>=</mo> <mi>sgn</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>ρ</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <msub> <mi>σ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>Y</mi> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>σ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>X</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo>−</mo> <msub> <mi>μ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>X</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>+</mo> <msub> <mi>μ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>Y</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>.</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle y(x)=\operatorname {sgn}(\rho ){\frac {\sigma _{Y}}{\sigma _{X}}}(x-\mu _{X})+\mu _{Y}.}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/138f40c3f30383907b0b3d5d2b6e7c3461fe6369" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.171ex; width:32.96ex; height:5.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle y(x)=\operatorname {sgn}(\rho ){\frac {\sigma _{Y}}{\sigma _{X}}}(x-\mu _{X})+\mu _{Y}.}"></span></dd></dl> <p>This is because this expression, with <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \operatorname {sgn}(\rho )}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>sgn</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>ρ</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \operatorname {sgn}(\rho )}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/1c736f28a4c8195b2ec355d801d603b5d9ff596a" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:6.382ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \operatorname {sgn}(\rho )}"></span> (where sgn is the <a href="/wiki/Sign_function" title="Sign function">sign function</a>) replaced by <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \rho }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>ρ</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \rho }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/1f7d439671d1289b6a816e6af7a304be40608d64" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:1.202ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \rho }"></span>, is the <a href="/wiki/Best_linear_unbiased_prediction" title="Best linear unbiased prediction">best linear unbiased prediction</a> of <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle Y}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>Y</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle Y}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/961d67d6b454b4df2301ac571808a3538b3a6d3f" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.171ex; width:1.773ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle Y}"></span> given a value of <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle X}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>X</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle X}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/68baa052181f707c662844a465bfeeb135e82bab" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.98ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle X}"></span>.<sup id="cite_ref-wyattlms_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wyattlms-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Degenerate_case">Degenerate case</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Multivariate_normal_distribution&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Degenerate case"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>If the covariance matrix <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">Σ</mi> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/8532511177f5a2d2dc2b8c1ea37d483c70266911" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.931ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}}"></span> is not full rank, then the multivariate normal distribution is degenerate and does not have a density. More precisely, it does not have a density with respect to <i>k</i>-dimensional <a href="/wiki/Lebesgue_measure" title="Lebesgue measure">Lebesgue measure</a> (which is the usual measure assumed in calculus-level probability courses). Only random vectors whose distributions are <a href="/wiki/Absolute_continuity#Absolute_continuity_of_measures" title="Absolute continuity">absolutely continuous</a> with respect to a measure are said to have densities (with respect to that measure). To talk about densities but avoid dealing with measure-theoretic complications it can be simpler to restrict attention to a subset of <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \operatorname {rank} ({\boldsymbol {\Sigma }})}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>rank</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">Σ</mi> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \operatorname {rank} ({\boldsymbol {\Sigma }})}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/b6578516e7d49f3dbb3c303efb44f3da0164080e" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:8.335ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \operatorname {rank} ({\boldsymbol {\Sigma }})}"></span> of the coordinates of <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbf {x} }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">x</mi> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbf {x} }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/32adf004df5eb0a8c7fd8c0b6b7405183c5a5ef2" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.411ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbf {x} }"></span> such that the covariance matrix for this subset is positive definite; then the other coordinates may be thought of as an <a href="/wiki/Affine_function" class="mw-redirect" title="Affine function">affine function</a> of these selected coordinates.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>To talk about densities meaningfully in singular cases, then, we must select a different base measure. Using the <a href="/wiki/Disintegration_theorem" title="Disintegration theorem">disintegration theorem</a> we can define a restriction of Lebesgue measure to the <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \operatorname {rank} ({\boldsymbol {\Sigma }})}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>rank</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">Σ</mi> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \operatorname {rank} ({\boldsymbol {\Sigma }})}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/b6578516e7d49f3dbb3c303efb44f3da0164080e" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:8.335ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \operatorname {rank} ({\boldsymbol {\Sigma }})}"></span>-dimensional affine subspace of <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{k}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="double-struck">R</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>k</mi> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{k}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/1bcd8908c9fa46eb979ef7b67d1bb65eb3692cbb" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.767ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{k}}"></span> where the Gaussian distribution is supported, i.e. <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \left\{{\boldsymbol {\mu }}+{\boldsymbol {\Sigma ^{1/2}}}\mathbf {v} :\mathbf {v} \in \mathbb {R} ^{k}\right\}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow> <mo>{</mo> <mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">μ</mi> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msup> <mi mathvariant="bold">Σ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn mathvariant="bold">1</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mn mathvariant="bold">2</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">v</mi> </mrow> <mo>:</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">v</mi> </mrow> <mo>∈</mo> <msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="double-struck">R</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>k</mi> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> <mo>}</mo> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \left\{{\boldsymbol {\mu }}+{\boldsymbol {\Sigma ^{1/2}}}\mathbf {v} :\mathbf {v} \in \mathbb {R} ^{k}\right\}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/a98229c82f4b06b9ab8a019ee9d829b4e4b8da9a" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.838ex; width:22.829ex; height:4.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \left\{{\boldsymbol {\mu }}+{\boldsymbol {\Sigma ^{1/2}}}\mathbf {v} :\mathbf {v} \in \mathbb {R} ^{k}\right\}}"></span>. With respect to this measure the distribution has the density of the following motif: </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle f(\mathbf {x} )={\frac {\exp \left(-{\frac {1}{2}}\left(\mathbf {x} -{\boldsymbol {\mu }}\right)^{\mathrm {T} }{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}^{+}\left(\mathbf {x} -{\boldsymbol {\mu }}\right)\right)}{\sqrt {\det \nolimits ^{*}(2\pi {\boldsymbol {\Sigma }})}}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>f</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">x</mi> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi>exp</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mn>2</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> <msup> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">x</mi> </mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">μ</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">T</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msup> <msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">Σ</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>+</mo> </mrow> </msup> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">x</mi> </mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">μ</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> </mrow> <msqrt> <msup> <mo form="prefix">det</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>∗</mo> </mrow> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mn>2</mn> <mi>π</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">Σ</mi> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </msqrt> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle f(\mathbf {x} )={\frac {\exp \left(-{\frac {1}{2}}\left(\mathbf {x} -{\boldsymbol {\mu }}\right)^{\mathrm {T} }{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}^{+}\left(\mathbf {x} -{\boldsymbol {\mu }}\right)\right)}{\sqrt {\det \nolimits ^{*}(2\pi {\boldsymbol {\Sigma }})}}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/9b7d70970250bbc0db1e77ee3c5b4d216ab3ac5c" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -3.171ex; width:38.888ex; height:8.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle f(\mathbf {x} )={\frac {\exp \left(-{\frac {1}{2}}\left(\mathbf {x} -{\boldsymbol {\mu }}\right)^{\mathrm {T} }{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}^{+}\left(\mathbf {x} -{\boldsymbol {\mu }}\right)\right)}{\sqrt {\det \nolimits ^{*}(2\pi {\boldsymbol {\Sigma }})}}}}"></span></dd></dl> <p>where <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}^{+}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">Σ</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>+</mo> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}^{+}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/f9ae05ac46748b97488880a75c9d3d31b2d0f99f" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:3.442ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}^{+}}"></span> is the <a href="/wiki/Generalized_inverse" title="Generalized inverse">generalized inverse</a> and <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \det \nolimits ^{*}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msup> <mo form="prefix">det</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>∗</mo> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \det \nolimits ^{*}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/8b5e1af14d0fef75422f693a52b1ce69848b0ddc" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:4.284ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \det \nolimits ^{*}}"></span> is the <a href="/wiki/Pseudo-determinant" title="Pseudo-determinant">pseudo-determinant</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-rao_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rao-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cumulative_distribution_function">Cumulative distribution function</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Multivariate_normal_distribution&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Cumulative distribution function"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The notion of <a href="/wiki/Cumulative_distribution_function" title="Cumulative distribution function">cumulative distribution function</a> (cdf) in dimension 1 can be extended in two ways to the multidimensional case, based on rectangular and ellipsoidal regions. </p><p>The first way is to define the cdf <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle F(\mathbf {x} )}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>F</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">x</mi> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle F(\mathbf {x} )}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/0774265d2ef34bedcc0fd41464b73c42decfdbe0" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:4.961ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle F(\mathbf {x} )}"></span> of a random vector <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbf {X} }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">X</mi> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbf {X} }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/9f75966a2f9d5672136fa9401ee1e75008f95ffd" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.019ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbf {X} }"></span> as the probability that all components of <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbf {X} }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">X</mi> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbf {X} }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/9f75966a2f9d5672136fa9401ee1e75008f95ffd" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.019ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbf {X} }"></span> are less than or equal to the corresponding values in the vector <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbf {x} }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">x</mi> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbf {x} }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/32adf004df5eb0a8c7fd8c0b6b7405183c5a5ef2" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.411ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbf {x} }"></span>:<sup id="cite_ref-bo16_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bo16-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle F(\mathbf {x} )=\mathbb {P} (\mathbf {X} \leq \mathbf {x} ),\quad {\text{where }}\mathbf {X} \sim {\mathcal {N}}({\boldsymbol {\mu }},\,{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}).}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>F</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">x</mi> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="double-struck">P</mi> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">X</mi> </mrow> <mo>≤</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">x</mi> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>,</mo> <mspace width="1em" /> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>where </mtext> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">X</mi> </mrow> <mo>∼</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi class="MJX-tex-caligraphic" mathvariant="script">N</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">μ</mi> </mrow> <mo>,</mo> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">Σ</mi> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>.</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle F(\mathbf {x} )=\mathbb {P} (\mathbf {X} \leq \mathbf {x} ),\quad {\text{where }}\mathbf {X} \sim {\mathcal {N}}({\boldsymbol {\mu }},\,{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}).}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/0419e8dfce55996f3efb73303e4080ae4ad39de4" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:42.549ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle F(\mathbf {x} )=\mathbb {P} (\mathbf {X} \leq \mathbf {x} ),\quad {\text{where }}\mathbf {X} \sim {\mathcal {N}}({\boldsymbol {\mu }},\,{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}).}"></span></dd></dl> <p>Though there is no closed form for <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle F(\mathbf {x} )}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>F</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">x</mi> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle F(\mathbf {x} )}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/0774265d2ef34bedcc0fd41464b73c42decfdbe0" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:4.961ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle F(\mathbf {x} )}"></span>, there are a number of algorithms that <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cran.r-project.org/package=TruncatedNormal">estimate it numerically</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-bo16_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bo16-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Genz_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Genz-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another way is to define the cdf <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle F(r)}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>F</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>r</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle F(r)}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/00c291246c498df91cb717d1c4b7211b2016f7db" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:4.599ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle F(r)}"></span> as the probability that a sample lies inside the ellipsoid determined by its <a href="/wiki/Mahalanobis_distance" title="Mahalanobis distance">Mahalanobis distance</a> <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle r}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>r</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle r}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/0d1ecb613aa2984f0576f70f86650b7c2a132538" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.049ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle r}"></span> from the Gaussian, a direct generalization of the standard deviation.<sup id="cite_ref-Bensimhoun_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bensimhoun-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In order to compute the values of this function, closed analytic formula exist,<sup id="cite_ref-Bensimhoun_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bensimhoun-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as follows. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Interval">Interval</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Multivariate_normal_distribution&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Interval"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Confidence_region" title="Confidence region">Confidence region</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hotelling_t-squared_statistic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hotelling t-squared statistic">Hotelling t-squared statistic</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Interval_estimation" title="Interval estimation">interval</a> for the multivariate normal distribution yields a region consisting of those vectors <b>x</b> satisfying </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle ({\mathbf {x} }-{\boldsymbol {\mu }})^{\mathrm {T} }{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}^{-1}({\mathbf {x} }-{\boldsymbol {\mu }})\leq \chi _{k}^{2}(p).}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">x</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">μ</mi> </mrow> <msup> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">T</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msup> <msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">Σ</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">x</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">μ</mi> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>≤</mo> <msubsup> <mi>χ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>k</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msubsup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>p</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>.</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle ({\mathbf {x} }-{\boldsymbol {\mu }})^{\mathrm {T} }{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}^{-1}({\mathbf {x} }-{\boldsymbol {\mu }})\leq \chi _{k}^{2}(p).}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/57465b870c0440a4f6c873d0486eaf4dddc2cef8" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:30.363ex; height:3.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle ({\mathbf {x} }-{\boldsymbol {\mu }})^{\mathrm {T} }{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}^{-1}({\mathbf {x} }-{\boldsymbol {\mu }})\leq \chi _{k}^{2}(p).}"></span></dd></dl> <p>Here <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\mathbf {x} }}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">x</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\mathbf {x} }}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/750a6daa7582187413b3d235642845b024a24f81" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.411ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\mathbf {x} }}"></span> is a <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle k}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>k</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle k}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/c3c9a2c7b599b37105512c5d570edc034056dd40" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.211ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle k}"></span>-dimensional vector, <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\mu }}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">μ</mi> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\mu }}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/a1aee7d7b4a36d96dfb35bfee9c7751bba1fdfbe" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:1.646ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\mu }}}"></span> is the known <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle k}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>k</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle k}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/c3c9a2c7b599b37105512c5d570edc034056dd40" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.211ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle k}"></span>-dimensional mean vector, <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">Σ</mi> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/8532511177f5a2d2dc2b8c1ea37d483c70266911" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.931ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}}"></span> is the known <a href="/wiki/Covariance_matrix" title="Covariance matrix">covariance matrix</a> and <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \chi _{k}^{2}(p)}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msubsup> <mi>χ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>k</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msubsup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>p</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \chi _{k}^{2}(p)}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/33d98e0f9b1ef699ed921f4bf88ab1db51d91f18" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:5.523ex; height:3.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \chi _{k}^{2}(p)}"></span> is the <a href="/wiki/Quantile_function" title="Quantile function">quantile function</a> for probability <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle p}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>p</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle p}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/81eac1e205430d1f40810df36a0edffdc367af36" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; margin-left: -0.089ex; width:1.259ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle p}"></span> of the <a href="/wiki/Chi-squared_distribution" title="Chi-squared distribution">chi-squared distribution</a> with <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle k}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>k</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle k}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/c3c9a2c7b599b37105512c5d570edc034056dd40" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.211ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle k}"></span> degrees of freedom.<sup id="cite_ref-Siotani_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Siotani-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle k=2,}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>k</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>2</mn> <mo>,</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle k=2,}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/c62da2ce9248eaf6420c0b7b830669decbf88360" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:6.119ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle k=2,}"></span> the expression defines the interior of an ellipse and the chi-squared distribution simplifies to an <a href="/wiki/Exponential_distribution" title="Exponential distribution">exponential distribution</a> with mean equal to two (rate equal to half). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Complementary_cumulative_distribution_function_(tail_distribution)"><span id="Complementary_cumulative_distribution_function_.28tail_distribution.29"></span>Complementary cumulative distribution function (tail distribution)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Multivariate_normal_distribution&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Complementary cumulative distribution function (tail distribution)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Cumulative_distribution_function#Derived_functions" title="Cumulative distribution function">complementary cumulative distribution function</a> (ccdf) or the <b>tail distribution</b> is defined as <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\overline {F}}(\mathbf {x} )=1-\mathbb {P} \left(\mathbf {X} \leq \mathbf {x} \right)}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mover> <mi>F</mi> <mo accent="false">¯</mo> </mover> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">x</mi> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>=</mo> <mn>1</mn> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="double-struck">P</mi> </mrow> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">X</mi> </mrow> <mo>≤</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">x</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\overline {F}}(\mathbf {x} )=1-\mathbb {P} \left(\mathbf {X} \leq \mathbf {x} \right)}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/33508841238b6c20551420d6299a94165efc041c" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:22.483ex; height:3.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\overline {F}}(\mathbf {x} )=1-\mathbb {P} \left(\mathbf {X} \leq \mathbf {x} \right)}"></span>. When <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbf {X} \sim {\mathcal {N}}({\boldsymbol {\mu }},\,{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }})}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">X</mi> </mrow> <mo>∼</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi class="MJX-tex-caligraphic" mathvariant="script">N</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">μ</mi> </mrow> <mo>,</mo> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">Σ</mi> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbf {X} \sim {\mathcal {N}}({\boldsymbol {\mu }},\,{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }})}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/9eb54679651f644c6a763f4db75b6d00709c974d" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:14.2ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbf {X} \sim {\mathcal {N}}({\boldsymbol {\mu }},\,{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }})}"></span>, then the ccdf can be written as a probability the maximum of dependent Gaussian variables:<sup id="cite_ref-bmr15_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bmr15-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\overline {F}}(\mathbf {x} )=\mathbb {P} \left(\bigcup _{i}\{X_{i}\geq x_{i}\}\right)=\mathbb {P} \left(\max _{i}Y_{i}\geq 0\right),\quad {\text{where }}\mathbf {Y} \sim {\mathcal {N}}\left({\boldsymbol {\mu }}-\mathbf {x} ,\,{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}\right).}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mover> <mi>F</mi> <mo accent="false">¯</mo> </mover> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">x</mi> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="double-struck">P</mi> </mrow> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow> <munder> <mo>⋃</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> </munder> <mo fence="false" stretchy="false">{</mo> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>≥</mo> <msub> <mi>x</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo fence="false" stretchy="false">}</mo> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="double-struck">P</mi> </mrow> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow> <munder> <mo movablelimits="true" form="prefix">max</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> </munder> <msub> <mi>Y</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>≥</mo> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> <mo>,</mo> <mspace width="1em" /> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>where </mtext> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">Y</mi> </mrow> <mo>∼</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi class="MJX-tex-caligraphic" mathvariant="script">N</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">μ</mi> </mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">x</mi> </mrow> <mo>,</mo> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">Σ</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> <mo>.</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\overline {F}}(\mathbf {x} )=\mathbb {P} \left(\bigcup _{i}\{X_{i}\geq x_{i}\}\right)=\mathbb {P} \left(\max _{i}Y_{i}\geq 0\right),\quad {\text{where }}\mathbf {Y} \sim {\mathcal {N}}\left({\boldsymbol {\mu }}-\mathbf {x} ,\,{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}\right).}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/5fc0dfba19fb6a02ef6b2a9ad10764a7724e13db" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -3.171ex; width:76.276ex; height:7.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\overline {F}}(\mathbf {x} )=\mathbb {P} \left(\bigcup _{i}\{X_{i}\geq x_{i}\}\right)=\mathbb {P} \left(\max _{i}Y_{i}\geq 0\right),\quad {\text{where }}\mathbf {Y} \sim {\mathcal {N}}\left({\boldsymbol {\mu }}-\mathbf {x} ,\,{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}\right).}"></span></dd></dl> <p>While no simple closed formula exists for computing the ccdf, the maximum of dependent Gaussian variables can be estimated accurately via the <a href="/wiki/Monte_Carlo_method" title="Monte Carlo method">Monte Carlo method</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-bmr15_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bmr15-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-abl08_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-abl08-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Properties">Properties</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Multivariate_normal_distribution&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Properties"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Probability_in_different_domains">Probability in different domains</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Multivariate_normal_distribution&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Probability in different domains"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Multivariate_normal_probability_in_different_domains.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Multivariate_normal_probability_in_different_domains.png/220px-Multivariate_normal_probability_in_different_domains.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="672" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Multivariate_normal_probability_in_different_domains.png/330px-Multivariate_normal_probability_in_different_domains.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Multivariate_normal_probability_in_different_domains.png/440px-Multivariate_normal_probability_in_different_domains.png 2x" data-file-width="943" data-file-height="2882" /></a><figcaption>Top: the probability of a bivariate normal in the domain <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle x\sin y-y\cos x>1}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>x</mi> <mi>sin</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mi>y</mi> <mo>−</mo> <mi>y</mi> <mi>cos</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo>></mo> <mn>1</mn> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle x\sin y-y\cos x>1}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/2698b1d8759659c46b8217658d56ed9576e47901" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:19.587ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle x\sin y-y\cos x>1}"></span> (blue regions). Middle: the probability of a trivariate normal in a toroidal domain. Bottom: converging Monte-Carlo integral of the probability of a 4-variate normal in the 4d regular polyhedral domain defined by <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \sum _{i=1}^{4}\vert x_{i}\vert <1}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <munderover> <mo>∑</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>4</mn> </mrow> </munderover> <mo fence="false" stretchy="false">|</mo> <msub> <mi>x</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo fence="false" stretchy="false">|</mo> <mo><</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \sum _{i=1}^{4}\vert x_{i}\vert <1}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/65ffd4e76dcbe8de3451751dcae142869d4c5369" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -3.005ex; width:11.426ex; height:7.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \sum _{i=1}^{4}\vert x_{i}\vert <1}"></span>. These are all computed by the numerical method of ray-tracing.<sup id="cite_ref-Das_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Das-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>The probability content of the multivariate normal in a quadratic domain defined by <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle q({\boldsymbol {x}})={\boldsymbol {x}}'\mathbf {Q_{2}} {\boldsymbol {x}}+{\boldsymbol {q_{1}}}'{\boldsymbol {x}}+q_{0}>0}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>q</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">x</mi> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>=</mo> <msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">x</mi> </mrow> <mo>′</mo> </msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msub> <mi mathvariant="bold">Q</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn mathvariant="bold">2</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">x</mi> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msub> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">q</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn mathvariant="bold">1</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> <mo>′</mo> </msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">x</mi> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <msub> <mi>q</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo>></mo> <mn>0</mn> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle q({\boldsymbol {x}})={\boldsymbol {x}}'\mathbf {Q_{2}} {\boldsymbol {x}}+{\boldsymbol {q_{1}}}'{\boldsymbol {x}}+q_{0}>0}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/6eccc2aac36745cf1cce7cda97585a5cecb923a6" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:31.129ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle q({\boldsymbol {x}})={\boldsymbol {x}}'\mathbf {Q_{2}} {\boldsymbol {x}}+{\boldsymbol {q_{1}}}'{\boldsymbol {x}}+q_{0}>0}"></span> (where <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbf {Q_{2}} }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msub> <mi mathvariant="bold">Q</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn mathvariant="bold">2</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbf {Q_{2}} }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/a08cc71fe2b1c2f08ccdb454113b5f7db569d418" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:3.185ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbf {Q_{2}} }"></span> is a matrix, <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {q_{1}}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msub> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">q</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn mathvariant="bold">1</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {q_{1}}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/8014eeb2f58e359a3b7f4116c8bd0372cb09743e" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.437ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {q_{1}}}}"></span> is a vector, and <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle q_{0}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>q</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle q_{0}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/9d68d37de188ac61f0c0e3f31d5322d1c486f2f4" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.091ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle q_{0}}"></span> is a scalar), which is relevant for Bayesian classification/decision theory using Gaussian discriminant analysis, is given by the <a href="/wiki/Generalized_chi-squared_distribution" title="Generalized chi-squared distribution">generalized chi-squared distribution</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Das_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Das-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The probability content within any general domain defined by <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle f({\boldsymbol {x}})>0}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>f</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">x</mi> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>></mo> <mn>0</mn> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle f({\boldsymbol {x}})>0}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/942393068ee6ec2cf76b93e04fa9a1a04733c462" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:8.881ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle f({\boldsymbol {x}})>0}"></span> (where <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle f({\boldsymbol {x}})}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>f</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">x</mi> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle f({\boldsymbol {x}})}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/63286363e334e9bedd72d688f8c3c3405aa1d939" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:4.62ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle f({\boldsymbol {x}})}"></span> is a general function) can be computed using the numerical method of ray-tracing <sup id="cite_ref-Das_17-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Das-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mathworks.com/matlabcentral/fileexchange/84973-integrate-and-classify-normal-distributions">Matlab code</a>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Higher_moments">Higher moments</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Multivariate_normal_distribution&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Higher moments"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Isserlis%27_theorem" title="Isserlis' theorem">Isserlis' theorem</a></div> <p>The <i>k</i>th-order <a href="/wiki/Moment_(mathematics)" title="Moment (mathematics)">moments</a> of <b>x</b> are given by </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mu _{1,\ldots ,N}(\mathbf {x} )\mathrel {\stackrel {\mathrm {def} }{=}} \mu _{r_{1},\ldots ,r_{N}}(\mathbf {x} )\mathrel {\stackrel {\mathrm {def} }{=}} \operatorname {E} \left[\prod _{j=1}^{N}X_{j}^{r_{j}}\right]}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>μ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> <mo>,</mo> <mo>…</mo> <mo>,</mo> <mi>N</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">x</mi> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-REL"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-REL"> <mover> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-OP MJX-fixedlimits"> <mo>=</mo> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">d</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">e</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">f</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </mover> </mrow> </mrow> <msub> <mi>μ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msub> <mi>r</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo>,</mo> <mo>…</mo> <mo>,</mo> <msub> <mi>r</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>N</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">x</mi> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-REL"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-REL"> <mover> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-OP MJX-fixedlimits"> <mo>=</mo> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">d</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">e</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">f</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </mover> </mrow> </mrow> <mi mathvariant="normal">E</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mrow> <mo>[</mo> <mrow> <munderover> <mo>∏</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>j</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>N</mi> </mrow> </munderover> <msubsup> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>j</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msub> <mi>r</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>j</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> </msubsup> </mrow> <mo>]</mo> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mu _{1,\ldots ,N}(\mathbf {x} )\mathrel {\stackrel {\mathrm {def} }{=}} \mu _{r_{1},\ldots ,r_{N}}(\mathbf {x} )\mathrel {\stackrel {\mathrm {def} }{=}} \operatorname {E} \left[\prod _{j=1}^{N}X_{j}^{r_{j}}\right]}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/e19f7eec8adb98477e74dd88285ec1a07ce29aef" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -3.338ex; width:39.761ex; height:7.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mu _{1,\ldots ,N}(\mathbf {x} )\mathrel {\stackrel {\mathrm {def} }{=}} \mu _{r_{1},\ldots ,r_{N}}(\mathbf {x} )\mathrel {\stackrel {\mathrm {def} }{=}} \operatorname {E} \left[\prod _{j=1}^{N}X_{j}^{r_{j}}\right]}"></span></dd></dl> <p>where <span class="texhtml"><i>r</i><sub>1</sub> + <i>r</i><sub>2</sub> + ⋯ + <i>r<sub>N</sub></i> = <i>k</i>.</span> </p><p>The <i>k</i>th-order central moments are as follows </p> <div><ol style="list-style-type:lower-alpha"><li>If <i>k</i> is odd, <span class="texhtml"><i>μ</i><sub>1, ..., <i>N</i></sub>(<b>x</b> − <i><b>μ</b></i>) = 0</span>.</li><li>If <i>k</i> is even with <span class="texhtml"><i>k</i> = 2<i>λ</i></span>, then<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="Unclear notation (November 2022)">ambiguous</span></a></i>]</sup> <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-display mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math display="block" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mu _{1,\dots ,2\lambda }(\mathbf {x} -{\boldsymbol {\mu }})=\sum \left(\sigma _{ij}\sigma _{k\ell }\cdots \sigma _{XZ}\right)}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>μ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> <mo>,</mo> <mo>…</mo> <mo>,</mo> <mn>2</mn> <mi>λ</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">x</mi> </mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">μ</mi> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>=</mo> <mo>∑</mo> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow> <msub> <mi>σ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> <mi>j</mi> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>σ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>k</mi> <mi>ℓ</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>⋯</mo> <msub> <mi>σ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>X</mi> <mi>Z</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mu _{1,\dots ,2\lambda }(\mathbf {x} -{\boldsymbol {\mu }})=\sum \left(\sigma _{ij}\sigma _{k\ell }\cdots \sigma _{XZ}\right)}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/0881127e1983c3dc4087d494eb966dce14ca2d11" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-display mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.338ex; width:36.984ex; height:3.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mu _{1,\dots ,2\lambda }(\mathbf {x} -{\boldsymbol {\mu }})=\sum \left(\sigma _{ij}\sigma _{k\ell }\cdots \sigma _{XZ}\right)}"></span></li></ol></div> <p>where the sum is taken over all allocations of the set <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \left\{1,\ldots ,2\lambda \right\}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow> <mo>{</mo> <mrow> <mn>1</mn> <mo>,</mo> <mo>…</mo> <mo>,</mo> <mn>2</mn> <mi>λ</mi> </mrow> <mo>}</mo> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \left\{1,\ldots ,2\lambda \right\}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/c6968c409b07d9597cd08cd45dc102b884fd588c" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:11.183ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \left\{1,\ldots ,2\lambda \right\}}"></span> into <i>λ</i> (unordered) pairs. That is, for a <i>k</i>th <span class="texhtml"> (= 2<i>λ</i> = 6)</span> central moment, one sums the products of <span class="nowrap"><i>λ</i> = 3</span> covariances (the expected value <i><b>μ</b></i> is taken to be 0 in the interests of parsimony): </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}&\operatorname {E} [X_{1}X_{2}X_{3}X_{4}X_{5}X_{6}]\\[8pt]={}&\operatorname {E} [X_{1}X_{2}]\operatorname {E} [X_{3}X_{4}]\operatorname {E} [X_{5}X_{6}]+\operatorname {E} [X_{1}X_{2}]\operatorname {E} [X_{3}X_{5}]\operatorname {E} [X_{4}X_{6}]+\operatorname {E} [X_{1}X_{2}]\operatorname {E} [X_{3}X_{6}]\operatorname {E} [X_{4}X_{5}]\\[4pt]&{}+\operatorname {E} [X_{1}X_{3}]\operatorname {E} [X_{2}X_{4}]\operatorname {E} [X_{5}X_{6}]+\operatorname {E} [X_{1}X_{3}]\operatorname {E} [X_{2}X_{5}]\operatorname {E} [X_{4}X_{6}]+\operatorname {E} [X_{1}X_{3}]\operatorname {E} [X_{2}X_{6}]\operatorname {E} [X_{4}X_{5}]\\[4pt]&{}+\operatorname {E} [X_{1}X_{4}]\operatorname {E} [X_{2}X_{3}]\operatorname {E} [X_{5}X_{6}]+\operatorname {E} [X_{1}X_{4}]\operatorname {E} [X_{2}X_{5}]\operatorname {E} [X_{3}X_{6}]+\operatorname {E} [X_{1}X_{4}]\operatorname {E} [X_{2}X_{6}]\operatorname {E} [X_{3}X_{5}]\\[4pt]&{}+\operatorname {E} [X_{1}X_{5}]\operatorname {E} [X_{2}X_{3}]\operatorname {E} [X_{4}X_{6}]+\operatorname {E} [X_{1}X_{5}]\operatorname {E} [X_{2}X_{4}]\operatorname {E} [X_{3}X_{6}]+\operatorname {E} [X_{1}X_{5}]\operatorname {E} [X_{2}X_{6}]\operatorname {E} [X_{3}X_{4}]\\[4pt]&{}+\operatorname {E} [X_{1}X_{6}]\operatorname {E} [X_{2}X_{3}]\operatorname {E} [X_{4}X_{5}]+\operatorname {E} [X_{1}X_{6}]\operatorname {E} [X_{2}X_{4}]\operatorname {E} [X_{3}X_{5}]+\operatorname {E} [X_{1}X_{6}]\operatorname {E} [X_{2}X_{5}]\operatorname {E} [X_{3}X_{4}].\end{aligned}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtable columnalign="right left right left right left right left right left right left" rowspacing="1.1em 0.7em 0.7em 0.7em 0.7em 0.3em" columnspacing="0em 2em 0em 2em 0em 2em 0em 2em 0em 2em 0em" displaystyle="true"> <mtr> <mtd /> <mtd> <mi mathvariant="normal">E</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mo stretchy="false">[</mo> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>3</mn> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>4</mn> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>5</mn> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>6</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">]</mo> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> </mrow> </mtd> <mtd> <mi mathvariant="normal">E</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mo stretchy="false">[</mo> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">]</mo> <mi mathvariant="normal">E</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mo stretchy="false">[</mo> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>3</mn> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>4</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">]</mo> <mi mathvariant="normal">E</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mo stretchy="false">[</mo> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>5</mn> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>6</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">]</mo> <mo>+</mo> <mi mathvariant="normal">E</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mo stretchy="false">[</mo> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo 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<mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>5</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">]</mo> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd /> <mtd> <mi></mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mi mathvariant="normal">E</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mo stretchy="false">[</mo> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>5</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">]</mo> <mi mathvariant="normal">E</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mo stretchy="false">[</mo> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>3</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">]</mo> <mi mathvariant="normal">E</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mo stretchy="false">[</mo> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>4</mn> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>6</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">]</mo> <mo>+</mo> <mi mathvariant="normal">E</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mo stretchy="false">[</mo> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>5</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">]</mo> <mi mathvariant="normal">E</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mo stretchy="false">[</mo> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>4</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">]</mo> <mi mathvariant="normal">E</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mo stretchy="false">[</mo> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>3</mn> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>6</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">]</mo> <mo>+</mo> <mi mathvariant="normal">E</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mo stretchy="false">[</mo> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>5</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">]</mo> <mi mathvariant="normal">E</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mo stretchy="false">[</mo> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>6</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">]</mo> <mi mathvariant="normal">E</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mo stretchy="false">[</mo> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>3</mn> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>4</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">]</mo> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd /> <mtd> <mi></mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mi mathvariant="normal">E</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mo stretchy="false">[</mo> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>6</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">]</mo> <mi mathvariant="normal">E</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mo stretchy="false">[</mo> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>3</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">]</mo> <mi mathvariant="normal">E</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mo stretchy="false">[</mo> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>4</mn> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>5</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">]</mo> <mo>+</mo> <mi mathvariant="normal">E</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mo stretchy="false">[</mo> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>6</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">]</mo> <mi mathvariant="normal">E</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mo stretchy="false">[</mo> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>4</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">]</mo> <mi mathvariant="normal">E</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mo stretchy="false">[</mo> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>3</mn> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>5</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">]</mo> <mo>+</mo> <mi mathvariant="normal">E</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mo stretchy="false">[</mo> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>6</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">]</mo> <mi mathvariant="normal">E</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mo stretchy="false">[</mo> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>5</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">]</mo> <mi mathvariant="normal">E</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mo stretchy="false">[</mo> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>3</mn> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>4</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">]</mo> <mo>.</mo> </mtd> </mtr> </mtable> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}&\operatorname {E} [X_{1}X_{2}X_{3}X_{4}X_{5}X_{6}]\\[8pt]={}&\operatorname {E} [X_{1}X_{2}]\operatorname {E} [X_{3}X_{4}]\operatorname {E} [X_{5}X_{6}]+\operatorname {E} [X_{1}X_{2}]\operatorname {E} [X_{3}X_{5}]\operatorname {E} [X_{4}X_{6}]+\operatorname {E} [X_{1}X_{2}]\operatorname {E} [X_{3}X_{6}]\operatorname {E} [X_{4}X_{5}]\\[4pt]&{}+\operatorname {E} [X_{1}X_{3}]\operatorname {E} [X_{2}X_{4}]\operatorname {E} [X_{5}X_{6}]+\operatorname {E} [X_{1}X_{3}]\operatorname {E} [X_{2}X_{5}]\operatorname {E} [X_{4}X_{6}]+\operatorname {E} [X_{1}X_{3}]\operatorname {E} [X_{2}X_{6}]\operatorname {E} [X_{4}X_{5}]\\[4pt]&{}+\operatorname {E} [X_{1}X_{4}]\operatorname {E} [X_{2}X_{3}]\operatorname {E} [X_{5}X_{6}]+\operatorname {E} [X_{1}X_{4}]\operatorname {E} [X_{2}X_{5}]\operatorname {E} [X_{3}X_{6}]+\operatorname {E} [X_{1}X_{4}]\operatorname {E} [X_{2}X_{6}]\operatorname {E} [X_{3}X_{5}]\\[4pt]&{}+\operatorname {E} [X_{1}X_{5}]\operatorname {E} [X_{2}X_{3}]\operatorname {E} [X_{4}X_{6}]+\operatorname {E} [X_{1}X_{5}]\operatorname {E} [X_{2}X_{4}]\operatorname {E} [X_{3}X_{6}]+\operatorname {E} [X_{1}X_{5}]\operatorname {E} [X_{2}X_{6}]\operatorname {E} [X_{3}X_{4}]\\[4pt]&{}+\operatorname {E} [X_{1}X_{6}]\operatorname {E} [X_{2}X_{3}]\operatorname {E} [X_{4}X_{5}]+\operatorname {E} [X_{1}X_{6}]\operatorname {E} [X_{2}X_{4}]\operatorname {E} [X_{3}X_{5}]+\operatorname {E} [X_{1}X_{6}]\operatorname {E} [X_{2}X_{5}]\operatorname {E} [X_{3}X_{4}].\end{aligned}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/0517839a9528128fa6d69cedfe4f5003a34716f4" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -11.505ex; width:94.197ex; height:24.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}&\operatorname {E} [X_{1}X_{2}X_{3}X_{4}X_{5}X_{6}]\\[8pt]={}&\operatorname {E} [X_{1}X_{2}]\operatorname {E} [X_{3}X_{4}]\operatorname {E} [X_{5}X_{6}]+\operatorname {E} [X_{1}X_{2}]\operatorname {E} [X_{3}X_{5}]\operatorname {E} [X_{4}X_{6}]+\operatorname {E} [X_{1}X_{2}]\operatorname {E} [X_{3}X_{6}]\operatorname {E} [X_{4}X_{5}]\\[4pt]&{}+\operatorname {E} [X_{1}X_{3}]\operatorname {E} [X_{2}X_{4}]\operatorname {E} [X_{5}X_{6}]+\operatorname {E} [X_{1}X_{3}]\operatorname {E} [X_{2}X_{5}]\operatorname {E} [X_{4}X_{6}]+\operatorname {E} [X_{1}X_{3}]\operatorname {E} [X_{2}X_{6}]\operatorname {E} [X_{4}X_{5}]\\[4pt]&{}+\operatorname {E} [X_{1}X_{4}]\operatorname {E} [X_{2}X_{3}]\operatorname {E} [X_{5}X_{6}]+\operatorname {E} [X_{1}X_{4}]\operatorname {E} [X_{2}X_{5}]\operatorname {E} [X_{3}X_{6}]+\operatorname {E} [X_{1}X_{4}]\operatorname {E} [X_{2}X_{6}]\operatorname {E} [X_{3}X_{5}]\\[4pt]&{}+\operatorname {E} [X_{1}X_{5}]\operatorname {E} [X_{2}X_{3}]\operatorname {E} [X_{4}X_{6}]+\operatorname {E} [X_{1}X_{5}]\operatorname {E} [X_{2}X_{4}]\operatorname {E} [X_{3}X_{6}]+\operatorname {E} [X_{1}X_{5}]\operatorname {E} [X_{2}X_{6}]\operatorname {E} [X_{3}X_{4}]\\[4pt]&{}+\operatorname {E} [X_{1}X_{6}]\operatorname {E} [X_{2}X_{3}]\operatorname {E} [X_{4}X_{5}]+\operatorname {E} [X_{1}X_{6}]\operatorname {E} [X_{2}X_{4}]\operatorname {E} [X_{3}X_{5}]+\operatorname {E} [X_{1}X_{6}]\operatorname {E} [X_{2}X_{5}]\operatorname {E} [X_{3}X_{4}].\end{aligned}}}"></span></dd></dl> <p>This yields <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\tfrac {(2\lambda -1)!}{2^{\lambda -1}(\lambda -1)!}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mn>2</mn> <mi>λ</mi> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>!</mo> </mrow> <mrow> <msup> <mn>2</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>λ</mi> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>λ</mi> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>!</mo> </mrow> </mfrac> </mstyle> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\tfrac {(2\lambda -1)!}{2^{\lambda -1}(\lambda -1)!}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/fa23789948445b54612913b0650aebc84e27b49d" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.005ex; width:9.101ex; height:5.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\tfrac {(2\lambda -1)!}{2^{\lambda -1}(\lambda -1)!}}}"></span> terms in the sum (15 in the above case), each being the product of <i>λ</i> (in this case 3) covariances. For fourth order moments (four variables) there are three terms. For sixth-order moments there are <span class="texhtml">3 × 5 = 15</span> terms, and for eighth-order moments there are <span class="texhtml">3 × 5 × 7 = 105</span> terms. </p><p>The covariances are then determined by replacing the terms of the list <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle [1,\ldots ,2\lambda ]}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mo stretchy="false">[</mo> <mn>1</mn> <mo>,</mo> <mo>…</mo> <mo>,</mo> <mn>2</mn> <mi>λ</mi> <mo stretchy="false">]</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle [1,\ldots ,2\lambda ]}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/a605bf32a38577fe9df1bc5715a4a3cac5869832" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:10.152ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle [1,\ldots ,2\lambda ]}"></span> by the corresponding terms of the list consisting of <i>r</i><sub>1</sub> ones, then <i>r</i><sub>2</sub> twos, etc.. To illustrate this, examine the following 4th-order central moment case: </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\operatorname {E} \left[X_{i}^{4}\right]&=3\sigma _{ii}^{2}\\[4pt]\operatorname {E} \left[X_{i}^{3}X_{j}\right]&=3\sigma _{ii}\sigma _{ij}\\[4pt]\operatorname {E} \left[X_{i}^{2}X_{j}^{2}\right]&=\sigma _{ii}\sigma _{jj}+2\sigma _{ij}^{2}\\[4pt]\operatorname {E} \left[X_{i}^{2}X_{j}X_{k}\right]&=\sigma _{ii}\sigma _{jk}+2\sigma _{ij}\sigma _{ik}\\[4pt]\operatorname {E} \left[X_{i}X_{j}X_{k}X_{n}\right]&=\sigma _{ij}\sigma _{kn}+\sigma _{ik}\sigma _{jn}+\sigma _{in}\sigma _{jk}.\end{aligned}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtable columnalign="right left right left right left right left right left right left" rowspacing="0.7em 0.7em 0.7em 0.7em 0.3em" columnspacing="0em 2em 0em 2em 0em 2em 0em 2em 0em 2em 0em" displaystyle="true"> <mtr> <mtd> <mi mathvariant="normal">E</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mrow> <mo>[</mo> <msubsup> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>4</mn> </mrow> </msubsup> <mo>]</mo> </mrow> </mtd> <mtd> <mi></mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>3</mn> <msubsup> <mi>σ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msubsup> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd> <mi mathvariant="normal">E</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mrow> <mo>[</mo> <mrow> <msubsup> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>3</mn> </mrow> </msubsup> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>j</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> <mo>]</mo> </mrow> </mtd> <mtd> <mi></mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>3</mn> <msub> <mi>σ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>σ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> <mi>j</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd> <mi mathvariant="normal">E</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mrow> <mo>[</mo> <mrow> <msubsup> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msubsup> <msubsup> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>j</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msubsup> </mrow> <mo>]</mo> </mrow> </mtd> <mtd> <mi></mi> <mo>=</mo> <msub> <mi>σ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>σ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>j</mi> <mi>j</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>+</mo> <mn>2</mn> <msubsup> <mi>σ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> <mi>j</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msubsup> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd> <mi mathvariant="normal">E</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mrow> <mo>[</mo> <mrow> <msubsup> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msubsup> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>j</mi> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>k</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> <mo>]</mo> </mrow> </mtd> <mtd> <mi></mi> <mo>=</mo> <msub> <mi>σ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>σ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>j</mi> <mi>k</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>+</mo> <mn>2</mn> <msub> <mi>σ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> <mi>j</mi> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>σ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> <mi>k</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd> <mi mathvariant="normal">E</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mrow> <mo>[</mo> <mrow> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>j</mi> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>k</mi> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>n</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> <mo>]</mo> </mrow> </mtd> <mtd> <mi></mi> <mo>=</mo> <msub> <mi>σ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> <mi>j</mi> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>σ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>k</mi> <mi>n</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>+</mo> <msub> <mi>σ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> <mi>k</mi> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>σ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>j</mi> <mi>n</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>+</mo> <msub> <mi>σ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> <mi>n</mi> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>σ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>j</mi> <mi>k</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>.</mo> </mtd> </mtr> </mtable> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\operatorname {E} \left[X_{i}^{4}\right]&=3\sigma _{ii}^{2}\\[4pt]\operatorname {E} \left[X_{i}^{3}X_{j}\right]&=3\sigma _{ii}\sigma _{ij}\\[4pt]\operatorname {E} \left[X_{i}^{2}X_{j}^{2}\right]&=\sigma _{ii}\sigma _{jj}+2\sigma _{ij}^{2}\\[4pt]\operatorname {E} \left[X_{i}^{2}X_{j}X_{k}\right]&=\sigma _{ii}\sigma _{jk}+2\sigma _{ij}\sigma _{ik}\\[4pt]\operatorname {E} \left[X_{i}X_{j}X_{k}X_{n}\right]&=\sigma _{ij}\sigma _{kn}+\sigma _{ik}\sigma _{jn}+\sigma _{in}\sigma _{jk}.\end{aligned}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/4e08f5bc180e3f1f4379c1026100e833ea85de97" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -10.505ex; width:43.388ex; height:22.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\operatorname {E} \left[X_{i}^{4}\right]&=3\sigma _{ii}^{2}\\[4pt]\operatorname {E} \left[X_{i}^{3}X_{j}\right]&=3\sigma _{ii}\sigma _{ij}\\[4pt]\operatorname {E} \left[X_{i}^{2}X_{j}^{2}\right]&=\sigma _{ii}\sigma _{jj}+2\sigma _{ij}^{2}\\[4pt]\operatorname {E} \left[X_{i}^{2}X_{j}X_{k}\right]&=\sigma _{ii}\sigma _{jk}+2\sigma _{ij}\sigma _{ik}\\[4pt]\operatorname {E} \left[X_{i}X_{j}X_{k}X_{n}\right]&=\sigma _{ij}\sigma _{kn}+\sigma _{ik}\sigma _{jn}+\sigma _{in}\sigma _{jk}.\end{aligned}}}"></span></dd></dl> <p>where <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \sigma _{ij}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>σ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> <mi>j</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \sigma _{ij}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/43acbf52cc4d4f83f187ceaa49f045114b71772e" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:2.804ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \sigma _{ij}}"></span> is the covariance of <i>X<sub>i</sub></i> and <i>X<sub>j</sub></i>. With the above method one first finds the general case for a <i>k</i>th moment with <i>k</i> different <i>X</i> variables, <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle E\left[X_{i}X_{j}X_{k}X_{n}\right]}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>E</mi> <mrow> <mo>[</mo> <mrow> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>j</mi> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>k</mi> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>n</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> <mo>]</mo> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle E\left[X_{i}X_{j}X_{k}X_{n}\right]}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/0b4bbbf2becaf15b246898e928a37e7d0ab6f93a" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:15.17ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle E\left[X_{i}X_{j}X_{k}X_{n}\right]}"></span>, and then one simplifies this accordingly. For example, for <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \operatorname {E} [X_{i}^{2}X_{k}X_{n}]}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi mathvariant="normal">E</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mo stretchy="false">[</mo> <msubsup> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msubsup> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>k</mi> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>n</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">]</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \operatorname {E} [X_{i}^{2}X_{k}X_{n}]}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/f7bc1920d0e524aa567ca471bdb54dcf7ef7e673" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:12.083ex; height:3.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \operatorname {E} [X_{i}^{2}X_{k}X_{n}]}"></span>, one lets <span class="texhtml"><i>X<sub>i</sub></i> = <i>X</i><sub><i>j</i></sub></span> and one uses the fact that <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \sigma _{ii}=\sigma _{i}^{2}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>σ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <msubsup> <mi>σ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msubsup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \sigma _{ii}=\sigma _{i}^{2}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/0d24ac4bbc5490b68440c67c508703dfb04df0a7" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:8.178ex; height:3.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \sigma _{ii}=\sigma _{i}^{2}}"></span>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Functions_of_a_normal_vector">Functions of a normal vector</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Multivariate_normal_distribution&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Functions of a normal vector"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Probabilities_of_functions_of_normal_vectors.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Probabilities_of_functions_of_normal_vectors.png/220px-Probabilities_of_functions_of_normal_vectors.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="797" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Probabilities_of_functions_of_normal_vectors.png/330px-Probabilities_of_functions_of_normal_vectors.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Probabilities_of_functions_of_normal_vectors.png/440px-Probabilities_of_functions_of_normal_vectors.png 2x" data-file-width="828" data-file-height="3001" /></a><figcaption><b>a:</b> Probability density of a function <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \cos x^{2}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>cos</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <msup> <mi>x</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \cos x^{2}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/dc4e83e19d1c2de49bf5ce2d31395f1e0a04815d" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:5.882ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \cos x^{2}}"></span> of a single normal variable <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle x}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>x</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle x}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/87f9e315fd7e2ba406057a97300593c4802b53e4" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.33ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle x}"></span> with <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mu =-2}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>μ</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mo>−</mo> <mn>2</mn> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mu =-2}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/8692ed3f07108ef682277ee64f17a81d49c74123" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:7.471ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mu =-2}"></span> and <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \sigma =3}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>σ</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>3</mn> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \sigma =3}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/6e868ad89842a9260535a342bca7cda8592b7e77" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:5.591ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \sigma =3}"></span>. <b>b:</b> Probability density of a function <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle x^{y}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msup> <mi>x</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>y</mi> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle x^{y}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/c8561c712e86598255e8434a70affa18ffd7e0dd" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.379ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle x^{y}}"></span> of a normal vector <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle (x,y)}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo>,</mo> <mi>y</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle (x,y)}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/41cf50e4a314ca8e2c30964baa8d26e5be7a9386" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:5.328ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle (x,y)}"></span>, with mean <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\mu }}=(1,2)}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">μ</mi> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mn>1</mn> <mo>,</mo> <mn>2</mn> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\mu }}=(1,2)}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/2fbd1a17ba1c0a709b283fdb97302c50735c209c" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:9.912ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\mu }}=(1,2)}"></span>, and covariance <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbf {\Sigma } ={\begin{bmatrix}.01&.016\\.016&.04\end{bmatrix}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">Σ</mi> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow> <mo>[</mo> <mtable rowspacing="4pt" columnspacing="1em"> <mtr> <mtd> <mn>.01</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>.016</mn> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd> <mn>.016</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>.04</mn> </mtd> </mtr> </mtable> <mo>]</mo> </mrow> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbf {\Sigma } ={\begin{bmatrix}.01&.016\\.016&.04\end{bmatrix}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/aa515430733209b14a2cb694805f86e3d169ec1b" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.505ex; width:18.827ex; height:6.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbf {\Sigma } ={\begin{bmatrix}.01&.016\\.016&.04\end{bmatrix}}}"></span>. <b>c:</b> Heat map of the joint probability density of two functions of a normal vector <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle (x,y)}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo>,</mo> <mi>y</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle (x,y)}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/41cf50e4a314ca8e2c30964baa8d26e5be7a9386" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:5.328ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle (x,y)}"></span>, with mean <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\mu }}=(-2,5)}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">μ</mi> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mo>−</mo> <mn>2</mn> <mo>,</mo> <mn>5</mn> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\mu }}=(-2,5)}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/f424a90dbb6fce7927b6845a8092d6f2bf8cf107" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:11.72ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\mu }}=(-2,5)}"></span>, and covariance <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbf {\Sigma } ={\begin{bmatrix}10&-7\\-7&10\end{bmatrix}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">Σ</mi> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow> <mo>[</mo> <mtable rowspacing="4pt" columnspacing="1em"> <mtr> <mtd> <mn>10</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mo>−</mo> <mn>7</mn> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd> <mo>−</mo> <mn>7</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>10</mn> </mtd> </mtr> </mtable> <mo>]</mo> </mrow> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbf {\Sigma } ={\begin{bmatrix}10&-7\\-7&10\end{bmatrix}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/57c5a2e8477c8b83061f20b83eea1f21d86c4fe0" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.505ex; width:16.5ex; height:6.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbf {\Sigma } ={\begin{bmatrix}10&-7\\-7&10\end{bmatrix}}}"></span>. <b>d:</b> Probability density of a function <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \sum _{i=1}^{4}\vert x_{i}\vert }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <munderover> <mo>∑</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>4</mn> </mrow> </munderover> <mo fence="false" stretchy="false">|</mo> <msub> <mi>x</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo fence="false" stretchy="false">|</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \sum _{i=1}^{4}\vert x_{i}\vert }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/6f1315941b29ba40c6cc5fa80e8e35e2c500ab07" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -3.005ex; width:7.165ex; height:7.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \sum _{i=1}^{4}\vert x_{i}\vert }"></span> of 4 iid standard normal variables. These are computed by the numerical method of ray-tracing.<sup id="cite_ref-Das_17-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Das-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>A <a href="/wiki/Quadratic_form" title="Quadratic form">quadratic form</a> of a normal vector <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {x}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">x</mi> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {x}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/606b7680d510560a505937143775ea80fa958051" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.532ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {x}}}"></span>, <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle q({\boldsymbol {x}})={\boldsymbol {x}}'\mathbf {Q_{2}} {\boldsymbol {x}}+{\boldsymbol {q_{1}}}'{\boldsymbol {x}}+q_{0}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>q</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">x</mi> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>=</mo> <msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">x</mi> </mrow> <mo>′</mo> </msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msub> <mi mathvariant="bold">Q</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn mathvariant="bold">2</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">x</mi> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msub> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">q</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn mathvariant="bold">1</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> <mo>′</mo> </msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">x</mi> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <msub> <mi>q</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle q({\boldsymbol {x}})={\boldsymbol {x}}'\mathbf {Q_{2}} {\boldsymbol {x}}+{\boldsymbol {q_{1}}}'{\boldsymbol {x}}+q_{0}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/ae0453de6ce6c6fd1464ea9fc02b870aa68e0054" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:26.869ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle q({\boldsymbol {x}})={\boldsymbol {x}}'\mathbf {Q_{2}} {\boldsymbol {x}}+{\boldsymbol {q_{1}}}'{\boldsymbol {x}}+q_{0}}"></span> (where <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbf {Q_{2}} }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msub> <mi mathvariant="bold">Q</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn mathvariant="bold">2</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbf {Q_{2}} }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/a08cc71fe2b1c2f08ccdb454113b5f7db569d418" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:3.185ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbf {Q_{2}} }"></span> is a matrix, <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {q_{1}}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msub> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">q</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn mathvariant="bold">1</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {q_{1}}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/8014eeb2f58e359a3b7f4116c8bd0372cb09743e" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.437ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {q_{1}}}}"></span> is a vector, and <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle q_{0}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>q</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle q_{0}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/9d68d37de188ac61f0c0e3f31d5322d1c486f2f4" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.091ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle q_{0}}"></span> is a scalar), is a <a href="/wiki/Generalized_chi-squared_distribution" title="Generalized chi-squared distribution">generalized chi-squared</a> variable.<sup id="cite_ref-Das_17-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Das-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The direction of a normal vector follows a <a href="/wiki/Projected_normal_distribution" title="Projected normal distribution">projected normal distribution</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Hernandez-Stumpfhauser_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hernandez-Stumpfhauser-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>If <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle f({\boldsymbol {x}})}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>f</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">x</mi> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle f({\boldsymbol {x}})}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/63286363e334e9bedd72d688f8c3c3405aa1d939" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:4.62ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle f({\boldsymbol {x}})}"></span> is a general scalar-valued function of a normal vector, its <a href="/wiki/Probability_density_function" title="Probability density function">probability density function</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cumulative_distribution_function" title="Cumulative distribution function">cumulative distribution function</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Inverse_cumulative_distribution_function" class="mw-redirect" title="Inverse cumulative distribution function">inverse cumulative distribution function</a> can be computed with the numerical method of ray-tracing (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mathworks.com/matlabcentral/fileexchange/84973-integrate-and-classify-normal-distributions">Matlab code</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-Das_17-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Das-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Likelihood_function">Likelihood function</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Multivariate_normal_distribution&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Likelihood function"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>If the mean and covariance matrix are known, the log likelihood of an observed vector <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {x}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">x</mi> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {x}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/606b7680d510560a505937143775ea80fa958051" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.532ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {x}}}"></span> is simply the log of the <a href="/wiki/Probability_density_function" title="Probability density function">probability density function</a>: </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \ln L({\boldsymbol {x}})=-{\frac {1}{2}}\left[\ln(|{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}|\,)+({\boldsymbol {x}}-{\boldsymbol {\mu }})'{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}^{-1}({\boldsymbol {x}}-{\boldsymbol {\mu }})+k\ln(2\pi )\right]}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>ln</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mi>L</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">x</mi> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>=</mo> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mn>2</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> <mrow> <mo>[</mo> <mrow> <mi>ln</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">|</mo> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">Σ</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">|</mo> </mrow> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>+</mo> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">x</mi> </mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">μ</mi> </mrow> <msup> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>′</mo> </msup> <msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">Σ</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">x</mi> </mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">μ</mi> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>+</mo> <mi>k</mi> <mi>ln</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mn>2</mn> <mi>π</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> <mo>]</mo> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \ln L({\boldsymbol {x}})=-{\frac {1}{2}}\left[\ln(|{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}|\,)+({\boldsymbol {x}}-{\boldsymbol {\mu }})'{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}^{-1}({\boldsymbol {x}}-{\boldsymbol {\mu }})+k\ln(2\pi )\right]}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/4ad05643016bbf6ac76a826320bea00704b50982" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.838ex; width:57.968ex; height:5.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \ln L({\boldsymbol {x}})=-{\frac {1}{2}}\left[\ln(|{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}|\,)+({\boldsymbol {x}}-{\boldsymbol {\mu }})'{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}^{-1}({\boldsymbol {x}}-{\boldsymbol {\mu }})+k\ln(2\pi )\right]}"></span>,</dd></dl> <p>The circularly symmetric version of the noncentral complex case, where <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {z}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">z</mi> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {z}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/bfd80493f0fd8b383e270b7b5297fc11ef2459c0" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.29ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {z}}}"></span> is a vector of complex numbers, would be </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \ln L({\boldsymbol {z}})=-\ln(|{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}|\,)-({\boldsymbol {z}}-{\boldsymbol {\mu }})^{\dagger }{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}^{-1}({\boldsymbol {z}}-{\boldsymbol {\mu }})-k\ln(\pi )}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>ln</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mi>L</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">z</mi> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>=</mo> <mo>−</mo> <mi>ln</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">|</mo> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">Σ</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">|</mo> </mrow> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>−</mo> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">z</mi> </mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">μ</mi> </mrow> <msup> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>†</mo> </mrow> </msup> <msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">Σ</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">z</mi> </mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">μ</mi> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>−</mo> <mi>k</mi> <mi>ln</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>π</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \ln L({\boldsymbol {z}})=-\ln(|{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}|\,)-({\boldsymbol {z}}-{\boldsymbol {\mu }})^{\dagger }{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}^{-1}({\boldsymbol {z}}-{\boldsymbol {\mu }})-k\ln(\pi )}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/264e074fb7055036b580de28a5f6906b1056624a" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:52.42ex; height:3.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \ln L({\boldsymbol {z}})=-\ln(|{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}|\,)-({\boldsymbol {z}}-{\boldsymbol {\mu }})^{\dagger }{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}^{-1}({\boldsymbol {z}}-{\boldsymbol {\mu }})-k\ln(\pi )}"></span></dd></dl> <p>i.e. with the <a href="/wiki/Conjugate_transpose" title="Conjugate transpose">conjugate transpose</a> (indicated by <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \dagger }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mo>†</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \dagger }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/2fbce70d5be6fec538cd30d8bc7b7bb2d3ed2d3e" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:1.032ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \dagger }"></span>) replacing the normal <a href="/wiki/Transpose" title="Transpose">transpose</a> (indicated by <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle '}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msup> <mi></mi> <mo>′</mo> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle '}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/761bf83727fb142497cfbee036fd61b368d4fbf0" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.171ex; width:0.685ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle '}"></span>). This is slightly different than in the real case, because the circularly symmetric version of the <a href="/wiki/Complex_normal_distribution" title="Complex normal distribution">complex normal distribution</a> has a slightly different form for the <a href="/wiki/Normalization_constant" class="mw-redirect" title="Normalization constant">normalization constant</a>. </p><p>A similar notation is used for <a href="/wiki/Multiple_linear_regression" class="mw-redirect" title="Multiple linear regression">multiple linear regression</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Since the log likelihood of a normal vector is a <a href="/wiki/Quadratic_form" title="Quadratic form">quadratic form</a> of the normal vector, it is distributed as a <a href="/wiki/Generalized_chi-squared_distribution" title="Generalized chi-squared distribution">generalized chi-squared</a> variable.<sup id="cite_ref-Das_17-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Das-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Differential_entropy">Differential entropy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Multivariate_normal_distribution&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Differential entropy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Differential_entropy" title="Differential entropy">differential entropy</a> of the multivariate normal distribution is<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}h\left(f\right)&=-\int _{-\infty }^{\infty }\int _{-\infty }^{\infty }\cdots \int _{-\infty }^{\infty }f(\mathbf {x} )\ln f(\mathbf {x} )\,d\mathbf {x} \\&={\frac {1}{2}}\ln {}\left|2\pi e{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}\right|={\frac {k}{2}}+{\frac {k}{2}}\ln {}2\pi +{\frac {1}{2}}\ln {}\left|{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}\right|\\\end{aligned}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtable columnalign="right left right left right left right left right left right left" rowspacing="3pt" columnspacing="0em 2em 0em 2em 0em 2em 0em 2em 0em 2em 0em" displaystyle="true"> <mtr> <mtd> <mi>h</mi> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mi>f</mi> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> </mtd> <mtd> <mi></mi> <mo>=</mo> <mo>−</mo> <msubsup> <mo>∫</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <mi mathvariant="normal">∞</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">∞</mi> </mrow> </msubsup> <msubsup> <mo>∫</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <mi mathvariant="normal">∞</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">∞</mi> </mrow> </msubsup> <mo>⋯</mo> <msubsup> <mo>∫</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <mi mathvariant="normal">∞</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">∞</mi> </mrow> </msubsup> <mi>f</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">x</mi> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mi>ln</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mi>f</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">x</mi> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mi>d</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">x</mi> </mrow> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd /> <mtd> <mi></mi> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mn>2</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> <mi>ln</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> </mrow> <mrow> <mo>|</mo> <mrow> <mn>2</mn> <mi>π</mi> <mi>e</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">Σ</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <mo>|</mo> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mi>k</mi> <mn>2</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mi>k</mi> <mn>2</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> <mi>ln</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> </mrow> <mn>2</mn> <mi>π</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mn>2</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> <mi>ln</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> </mrow> <mrow> <mo>|</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">Σ</mi> </mrow> <mo>|</mo> </mrow> </mtd> </mtr> </mtable> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}h\left(f\right)&=-\int _{-\infty }^{\infty }\int _{-\infty }^{\infty }\cdots \int _{-\infty }^{\infty }f(\mathbf {x} )\ln f(\mathbf {x} )\,d\mathbf {x} \\&={\frac {1}{2}}\ln {}\left|2\pi e{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}\right|={\frac {k}{2}}+{\frac {k}{2}}\ln {}2\pi +{\frac {1}{2}}\ln {}\left|{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}\right|\\\end{aligned}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/3cf9ffb9f60d2b7cab918c4d45d8742a0392c0e5" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -5.171ex; width:46.972ex; height:11.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}h\left(f\right)&=-\int _{-\infty }^{\infty }\int _{-\infty }^{\infty }\cdots \int _{-\infty }^{\infty }f(\mathbf {x} )\ln f(\mathbf {x} )\,d\mathbf {x} \\&={\frac {1}{2}}\ln {}\left|2\pi e{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}\right|={\frac {k}{2}}+{\frac {k}{2}}\ln {}2\pi +{\frac {1}{2}}\ln {}\left|{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}\right|\\\end{aligned}}}"></span>, </p><p>where the bars denote the <a href="/wiki/Determinant" title="Determinant">matrix determinant</a>, <span class="texhtml"><i>k</i></span> is the dimensionality of the vector space, and the result has units of <a href="/wiki/Nat_(unit)" title="Nat (unit)">nats</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kullback–Leibler_divergence"><span id="Kullback.E2.80.93Leibler_divergence"></span>Kullback–Leibler divergence</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Multivariate_normal_distribution&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Kullback–Leibler divergence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Kullback%E2%80%93Leibler_divergence" title="Kullback–Leibler divergence">Kullback–Leibler divergence</a> from <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\mathcal {N}}_{1}({\boldsymbol {\mu }}_{1},{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}_{1})}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi class="MJX-tex-caligraphic" mathvariant="script">N</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">μ</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo>,</mo> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">Σ</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\mathcal {N}}_{1}({\boldsymbol {\mu }}_{1},{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}_{1})}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/0bec3b81912123df530658f64c6916f38de8f2d5" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; margin-left: -0.062ex; width:11.55ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\mathcal {N}}_{1}({\boldsymbol {\mu }}_{1},{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}_{1})}"></span> to <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\mathcal {N}}_{0}({\boldsymbol {\mu }}_{0},{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}_{0})}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi class="MJX-tex-caligraphic" mathvariant="script">N</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">μ</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo>,</mo> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">Σ</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\mathcal {N}}_{0}({\boldsymbol {\mu }}_{0},{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}_{0})}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/d2c156e8c84e1a307bc5e85e409384eeba88fe01" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; margin-left: -0.062ex; width:11.55ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\mathcal {N}}_{0}({\boldsymbol {\mu }}_{0},{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}_{0})}"></span>, for non-singular matrices Σ<sub>1</sub> and Σ<sub>0</sub>, is:<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle D_{\text{KL}}({\mathcal {N}}_{0}\parallel {\mathcal {N}}_{1})={1 \over 2}\left\{\operatorname {tr} \left({\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}_{1}^{-1}{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}_{0}\right)+\left({\boldsymbol {\mu }}_{1}-{\boldsymbol {\mu }}_{0}\right)^{\rm {T}}{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}_{1}^{-1}({\boldsymbol {\mu }}_{1}-{\boldsymbol {\mu }}_{0})-k+\ln {|{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}_{1}| \over |{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}_{0}|}\right\},}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>D</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>KL</mtext> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi class="MJX-tex-caligraphic" mathvariant="script">N</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo>∥</mo> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi class="MJX-tex-caligraphic" mathvariant="script">N</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mn>2</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> <mrow> <mo>{</mo> <mrow> <mi>tr</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow> <msubsup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">Σ</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msubsup> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">Σ</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <msup> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">μ</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo>−</mo> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">μ</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">T</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msup> <msubsup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">Σ</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msubsup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">μ</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo>−</mo> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">μ</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>−</mo> <mi>k</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mi>ln</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">|</mo> </mrow> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">Σ</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">|</mo> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">|</mo> </mrow> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">Σ</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">|</mo> </mrow> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> </mrow> <mo>}</mo> </mrow> <mo>,</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle D_{\text{KL}}({\mathcal {N}}_{0}\parallel {\mathcal {N}}_{1})={1 \over 2}\left\{\operatorname {tr} \left({\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}_{1}^{-1}{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}_{0}\right)+\left({\boldsymbol {\mu }}_{1}-{\boldsymbol {\mu }}_{0}\right)^{\rm {T}}{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}_{1}^{-1}({\boldsymbol {\mu }}_{1}-{\boldsymbol {\mu }}_{0})-k+\ln {|{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}_{1}| \over |{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}_{0}|}\right\},}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/a23ee59de6ddcfdb77ae00945ea79d3840a9b3ca" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.671ex; width:78.8ex; height:6.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle D_{\text{KL}}({\mathcal {N}}_{0}\parallel {\mathcal {N}}_{1})={1 \over 2}\left\{\operatorname {tr} \left({\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}_{1}^{-1}{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}_{0}\right)+\left({\boldsymbol {\mu }}_{1}-{\boldsymbol {\mu }}_{0}\right)^{\rm {T}}{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}_{1}^{-1}({\boldsymbol {\mu }}_{1}-{\boldsymbol {\mu }}_{0})-k+\ln {|{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}_{1}| \over |{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}_{0}|}\right\},}"></span></dd></dl> <p>where <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle |\cdot |}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">|</mo> </mrow> <mo>⋅</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">|</mo> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle |\cdot |}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/4570d0a1c9fb8f2f413f0b73ce846dd1eb1dca3f" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:2.973ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle |\cdot |}"></span> denotes the <a href="/wiki/Determinant" title="Determinant">matrix determinant</a>, <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle tr(\cdot )}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>t</mi> <mi>r</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mo>⋅</mo> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle tr(\cdot )}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/47c66ef2df22c1406b0f7d0578427cd28586bdb5" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:4.344ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle tr(\cdot )}"></span> is the <a href="/wiki/Trace_(linear_algebra)" title="Trace (linear algebra)">trace</a>, <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle ln(\cdot )}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>l</mi> <mi>n</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mo>⋅</mo> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle ln(\cdot )}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/1ec0f8f0de1cb4084d3c92070429f20f8a9e2ea2" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:4.544ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle ln(\cdot )}"></span> is the <a href="/wiki/Natural_logarithm" title="Natural logarithm">natural logarithm</a> and <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle k}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>k</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle k}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/c3c9a2c7b599b37105512c5d570edc034056dd40" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.211ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle k}"></span> is the dimension of the vector space. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Logarithm" title="Logarithm">logarithm</a> must be taken to base <i><a href="/wiki/E_(mathematical_constant)" title="E (mathematical constant)">e</a></i> since the two terms following the logarithm are themselves base-<i>e</i> logarithms of expressions that are either factors of the density function or otherwise arise naturally. The equation therefore gives a result measured in <a href="/wiki/Nat_(unit)" title="Nat (unit)">nats</a>. Dividing the entire expression above by log<sub><i>e</i></sub> 2 yields the divergence in <a href="/wiki/Bit" title="Bit">bits</a>. </p><p>When <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\mu }}_{1}={\boldsymbol {\mu }}_{0}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">μ</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">μ</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\mu }}_{1}={\boldsymbol {\mu }}_{0}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/268e8da7e1f4c65dd1680e448f95973474bdb62d" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:8.498ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\mu }}_{1}={\boldsymbol {\mu }}_{0}}"></span>, </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle D_{\text{KL}}({\mathcal {N}}_{0}\parallel {\mathcal {N}}_{1})={1 \over 2}\left\{\operatorname {tr} \left({\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}_{1}^{-1}{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}_{0}\right)-k+\ln {|{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}_{1}| \over |{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}_{0}|}\right\}.}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>D</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>KL</mtext> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi class="MJX-tex-caligraphic" mathvariant="script">N</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo>∥</mo> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi class="MJX-tex-caligraphic" mathvariant="script">N</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mn>2</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> <mrow> <mo>{</mo> <mrow> <mi>tr</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow> <msubsup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">Σ</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msubsup> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">Σ</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mi>k</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mi>ln</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">|</mo> </mrow> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">Σ</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">|</mo> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">|</mo> </mrow> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">Σ</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">|</mo> </mrow> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> </mrow> <mo>}</mo> </mrow> <mo>.</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle D_{\text{KL}}({\mathcal {N}}_{0}\parallel {\mathcal {N}}_{1})={1 \over 2}\left\{\operatorname {tr} \left({\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}_{1}^{-1}{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}_{0}\right)-k+\ln {|{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}_{1}| \over |{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}_{0}|}\right\}.}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/0f605064e690ad658159c34bede3e0fb14901e09" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.671ex; width:50.178ex; height:6.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle D_{\text{KL}}({\mathcal {N}}_{0}\parallel {\mathcal {N}}_{1})={1 \over 2}\left\{\operatorname {tr} \left({\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}_{1}^{-1}{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}_{0}\right)-k+\ln {|{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}_{1}| \over |{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}_{0}|}\right\}.}"></span></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mutual_information">Mutual information</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Multivariate_normal_distribution&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Mutual information"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Mutual_information" title="Mutual information">mutual information</a> of a distribution is a special case of the <a href="/wiki/Kullback%E2%80%93Leibler_divergence" title="Kullback–Leibler divergence">Kullback–Leibler divergence</a> in which <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle P}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>P</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle P}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/b4dc73bf40314945ff376bd363916a738548d40a" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.745ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle P}"></span> is the full multivariate distribution and <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle Q}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>Q</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle Q}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/8752c7023b4b3286800fe3238271bbca681219ed" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:1.838ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle Q}"></span> is the product of the 1-dimensional marginal distributions. In the notation of the <a href="#Kullback–Leibler_divergence">Kullback–Leibler divergence section</a> of this article, <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}_{1}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">Σ</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}_{1}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/c11dedaca04978ee6343cd5d3e4cd6d07003e878" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.985ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}_{1}}"></span> is a <a href="/wiki/Diagonal_matrix" title="Diagonal matrix">diagonal matrix</a> with the diagonal entries of <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}_{0}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">Σ</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}_{0}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/ac4a1bd676c859534077b2afe686533f3dd2349f" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.985ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}_{0}}"></span>, and <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\mu }}_{1}={\boldsymbol {\mu }}_{0}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">μ</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">μ</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\mu }}_{1}={\boldsymbol {\mu }}_{0}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/268e8da7e1f4c65dd1680e448f95973474bdb62d" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:8.498ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\mu }}_{1}={\boldsymbol {\mu }}_{0}}"></span>. The resulting formula for mutual information is: </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle I({\boldsymbol {X}})=-{1 \over 2}\ln |{\boldsymbol {\rho }}_{0}|,}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>I</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">X</mi> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>=</mo> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mn>2</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> <mi>ln</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">|</mo> </mrow> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">ρ</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">|</mo> </mrow> <mo>,</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle I({\boldsymbol {X}})=-{1 \over 2}\ln |{\boldsymbol {\rho }}_{0}|,}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/06147f0349ebec067e987952b11ccbc82b884b69" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.838ex; width:19.232ex; height:5.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle I({\boldsymbol {X}})=-{1 \over 2}\ln |{\boldsymbol {\rho }}_{0}|,}"></span></dd></dl> <p>where <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\rho }}_{0}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">ρ</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\rho }}_{0}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/fe61e0520f3c6a84e8a364c0f86df864ddb4e094" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:2.477ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\rho }}_{0}}"></span> is the <a href="/wiki/Covariance_matrix#Correlation_matrix" title="Covariance matrix">correlation matrix</a> constructed from <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}_{0}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">Σ</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}_{0}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/ac4a1bd676c859534077b2afe686533f3dd2349f" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.985ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}_{0}}"></span>.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the bivariate case the expression for the mutual information is: </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle I(x;y)=-{1 \over 2}\ln(1-\rho ^{2}).}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>I</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo>;</mo> <mi>y</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>=</mo> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mn>2</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> <mi>ln</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mn>1</mn> <mo>−</mo> <msup> <mi>ρ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>.</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle I(x;y)=-{1 \over 2}\ln(1-\rho ^{2}).}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/5c1d5c53278cfdadc0a1ca900f8cb394c98b68fa" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.838ex; width:24.447ex; height:5.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle I(x;y)=-{1 \over 2}\ln(1-\rho ^{2}).}"></span></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Joint_normality">Joint normality</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Multivariate_normal_distribution&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Joint normality"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Normally_distributed_and_independent">Normally distributed and independent</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Multivariate_normal_distribution&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Normally distributed and independent"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>If <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle X}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>X</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle X}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/68baa052181f707c662844a465bfeeb135e82bab" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.98ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle X}"></span> and <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle Y}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>Y</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle Y}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/961d67d6b454b4df2301ac571808a3538b3a6d3f" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.171ex; width:1.773ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle Y}"></span> are normally distributed and <a href="/wiki/Statistical_independence" class="mw-redirect" title="Statistical independence">independent</a>, this implies they are "jointly normally distributed", i.e., the pair <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle (X,Y)}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>X</mi> <mo>,</mo> <mi>Y</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle (X,Y)}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/41f29b9537685f499713112d6802e811cbf51bba" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:6.597ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle (X,Y)}"></span> must have multivariate normal distribution. However, a pair of jointly normally distributed variables need not be independent (would only be so if uncorrelated, <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \rho =0}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>ρ</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>0</mn> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \rho =0}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/2ba6310b27df5f9c9b0b1732e08cce27b99d68cf" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:5.463ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \rho =0}"></span> ). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Two_normally_distributed_random_variables_need_not_be_jointly_bivariate_normal">Two normally distributed random variables need not be jointly bivariate normal</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Multivariate_normal_distribution&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Two normally distributed random variables need not be jointly bivariate normal"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Normally_distributed_and_uncorrelated_does_not_imply_independent" class="mw-redirect" title="Normally distributed and uncorrelated does not imply independent">normally distributed and uncorrelated does not imply independent</a></div> <p>The fact that two random variables <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle X}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>X</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle X}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/68baa052181f707c662844a465bfeeb135e82bab" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.98ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle X}"></span> and <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle Y}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>Y</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle Y}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/961d67d6b454b4df2301ac571808a3538b3a6d3f" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.171ex; width:1.773ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle Y}"></span> both have a normal distribution does not imply that the pair <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle (X,Y)}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>X</mi> <mo>,</mo> <mi>Y</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle (X,Y)}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/41f29b9537685f499713112d6802e811cbf51bba" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:6.597ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle (X,Y)}"></span> has a joint normal distribution. A simple example is one in which X has a normal distribution with expected value 0 and variance 1, and <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle Y=X}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>Y</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mi>X</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle Y=X}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/213f9e0bf2b88042d7d90cf9e765ae8201743d77" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:6.852ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle Y=X}"></span> if <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle |X|>c}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">|</mo> </mrow> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">|</mo> </mrow> <mo>></mo> <mi>c</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle |X|>c}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/825d1a42d60e57a90038c361d85a1f80622d282c" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:7.379ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle |X|>c}"></span> and <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle Y=-X}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>Y</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mo>−</mo> <mi>X</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle Y=-X}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/cee8f386ff6d45b4efef361f402f6630d7622892" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.505ex; width:8.66ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle Y=-X}"></span> if <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle |X|<c}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">|</mo> </mrow> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">|</mo> </mrow> <mo><</mo> <mi>c</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle |X|<c}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/a95e03f891f3dd81e3a34fb0265f2799912a5cb1" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:7.379ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle |X|<c}"></span>, where <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle c>0}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>c</mi> <mo>></mo> <mn>0</mn> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle c>0}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/2ba126f626d61752f62eaacaf11761a54de4dc84" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:5.268ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle c>0}"></span>. There are similar counterexamples for more than two random variables. In general, they sum to a <a href="/wiki/Mixture_model" title="Mixture model">mixture model</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Correlations_and_independence">Correlations and independence</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Multivariate_normal_distribution&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Correlations and independence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In general, random variables may be uncorrelated but statistically dependent. But if a random vector has a multivariate normal distribution then any two or more of its components that are uncorrelated are <a href="/wiki/Statistical_independence" class="mw-redirect" title="Statistical independence">independent</a>. This implies that any two or more of its components that are <a href="/wiki/Pairwise_independence" title="Pairwise independence">pairwise independent</a> are independent. But, as pointed out just above, it is <i>not</i> true that two random variables that are (<i>separately</i>, marginally) normally distributed and uncorrelated are independent. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Conditional_distributions">Conditional distributions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Multivariate_normal_distribution&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Conditional distributions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>If <i>N</i>-dimensional <b>x</b> is partitioned as follows </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbf {x} ={\begin{bmatrix}\mathbf {x} _{1}\\\mathbf {x} _{2}\end{bmatrix}}{\text{ with sizes }}{\begin{bmatrix}q\times 1\\(N-q)\times 1\end{bmatrix}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">x</mi> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow> <mo>[</mo> <mtable rowspacing="4pt" columnspacing="1em"> <mtr> <mtd> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">x</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">x</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mtd> </mtr> </mtable> <mo>]</mo> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext> with sizes </mtext> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow> <mo>[</mo> <mtable rowspacing="4pt" columnspacing="1em"> <mtr> <mtd> <mi>q</mi> <mo>×</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>N</mi> <mo>−</mo> <mi>q</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>×</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mtd> </mtr> </mtable> <mo>]</mo> </mrow> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbf {x} ={\begin{bmatrix}\mathbf {x} _{1}\\\mathbf {x} _{2}\end{bmatrix}}{\text{ with sizes }}{\begin{bmatrix}q\times 1\\(N-q)\times 1\end{bmatrix}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/bd377230b33c1a111892e45e79fcfd7de4c8362c" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.505ex; width:35.981ex; height:6.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbf {x} ={\begin{bmatrix}\mathbf {x} _{1}\\\mathbf {x} _{2}\end{bmatrix}}{\text{ with sizes }}{\begin{bmatrix}q\times 1\\(N-q)\times 1\end{bmatrix}}}"></span></dd></dl> <p>and accordingly <i><b>μ</b></i> and <b>Σ</b> are partitioned as follows </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\mu }}={\begin{bmatrix}{\boldsymbol {\mu }}_{1}\\{\boldsymbol {\mu }}_{2}\end{bmatrix}}{\text{ with sizes }}{\begin{bmatrix}q\times 1\\(N-q)\times 1\end{bmatrix}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">μ</mi> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow> <mo>[</mo> <mtable rowspacing="4pt" columnspacing="1em"> <mtr> <mtd> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">μ</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">μ</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mtd> </mtr> </mtable> <mo>]</mo> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext> with sizes </mtext> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow> <mo>[</mo> <mtable rowspacing="4pt" columnspacing="1em"> <mtr> <mtd> <mi>q</mi> <mo>×</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>N</mi> <mo>−</mo> <mi>q</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>×</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mtd> </mtr> </mtable> <mo>]</mo> </mrow> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\mu }}={\begin{bmatrix}{\boldsymbol {\mu }}_{1}\\{\boldsymbol {\mu }}_{2}\end{bmatrix}}{\text{ with sizes }}{\begin{bmatrix}q\times 1\\(N-q)\times 1\end{bmatrix}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/732cff3284494eaee53a1153970a23161c71aa3f" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.505ex; width:36.451ex; height:6.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\mu }}={\begin{bmatrix}{\boldsymbol {\mu }}_{1}\\{\boldsymbol {\mu }}_{2}\end{bmatrix}}{\text{ with sizes }}{\begin{bmatrix}q\times 1\\(N-q)\times 1\end{bmatrix}}}"></span></dd></dl> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}={\begin{bmatrix}{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}_{11}&{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}_{12}\\{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}_{21}&{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}_{22}\end{bmatrix}}{\text{ with sizes }}{\begin{bmatrix}q\times q&q\times (N-q)\\(N-q)\times q&(N-q)\times (N-q)\end{bmatrix}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">Σ</mi> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow> <mo>[</mo> <mtable rowspacing="4pt" columnspacing="1em"> <mtr> <mtd> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">Σ</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>11</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mtd> <mtd> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">Σ</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>12</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">Σ</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>21</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mtd> <mtd> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">Σ</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>22</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mtd> </mtr> </mtable> <mo>]</mo> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext> with sizes </mtext> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow> <mo>[</mo> <mtable rowspacing="4pt" columnspacing="1em"> <mtr> <mtd> <mi>q</mi> <mo>×</mo> <mi>q</mi> </mtd> <mtd> <mi>q</mi> <mo>×</mo> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>N</mi> <mo>−</mo> <mi>q</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>N</mi> <mo>−</mo> <mi>q</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>×</mo> <mi>q</mi> </mtd> <mtd> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>N</mi> <mo>−</mo> <mi>q</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>×</mo> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>N</mi> <mo>−</mo> <mi>q</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mtd> </mtr> </mtable> <mo>]</mo> </mrow> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}={\begin{bmatrix}{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}_{11}&{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}_{12}\\{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}_{21}&{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}_{22}\end{bmatrix}}{\text{ with sizes }}{\begin{bmatrix}q\times q&q\times (N-q)\\(N-q)\times q&(N-q)\times (N-q)\end{bmatrix}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/221c3f05cf82b6e6c304b80531caee63bcb965ba" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.505ex; width:64.61ex; height:6.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}={\begin{bmatrix}{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}_{11}&{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}_{12}\\{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}_{21}&{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}_{22}\end{bmatrix}}{\text{ with sizes }}{\begin{bmatrix}q\times q&q\times (N-q)\\(N-q)\times q&(N-q)\times (N-q)\end{bmatrix}}}"></span></dd></dl> <p>then the distribution of <b>x</b><sub>1</sub> conditional on <b>x</b><sub>2</sub> = <b>a</b> is multivariate normal<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <span class="nowrap">(<b>x</b><sub>1</sub> | <b>x</b><sub>2</sub> = <b>a</b>) ~ <i>N</i>(<span style="text-decoration:overline;"><i><b>μ</b></i></span>, <span style="text-decoration:overline;"><b>Σ</b></span>)</span> where </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\bar {\boldsymbol {\mu }}}={\boldsymbol {\mu }}_{1}+{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}_{12}{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}_{22}^{-1}\left(\mathbf {a} -{\boldsymbol {\mu }}_{2}\right)}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mover> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">μ</mi> <mo stretchy="false">¯</mo> </mover> </mrow> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">μ</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo>+</mo> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">Σ</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>12</mn> </mrow> </msub> <msubsup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">Σ</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>22</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msubsup> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">a</mi> </mrow> <mo>−</mo> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">μ</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\bar {\boldsymbol {\mu }}}={\boldsymbol {\mu }}_{1}+{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}_{12}{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}_{22}^{-1}\left(\mathbf {a} -{\boldsymbol {\mu }}_{2}\right)}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/fe1e882ee02d2542a04ccbb493a8b875dd0dc8d4" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:27.392ex; height:3.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\bar {\boldsymbol {\mu }}}={\boldsymbol {\mu }}_{1}+{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}_{12}{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}_{22}^{-1}\left(\mathbf {a} -{\boldsymbol {\mu }}_{2}\right)}"></span></dd></dl> <p>and covariance matrix </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\overline {\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}}={\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}_{11}-{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}_{12}{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}_{22}^{-1}{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}_{21}.}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mover> <mi mathvariant="bold">Σ</mi> <mo accent="false">¯</mo> </mover> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">Σ</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>11</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo>−</mo> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">Σ</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>12</mn> </mrow> </msub> <msubsup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">Σ</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>22</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msubsup> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">Σ</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>21</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo>.</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\overline {\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}}={\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}_{11}-{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}_{12}{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}_{22}^{-1}{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}_{21}.}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/835c7898b08938036d011c9b0f5526368e256cb8" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:24.318ex; height:3.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\overline {\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}}={\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}_{11}-{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}_{12}{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}_{22}^{-1}{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}_{21}.}"></span><sup id="cite_ref-eaton_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eaton-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <p>Here <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}_{22}^{-1}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msubsup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">Σ</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>22</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msubsup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}_{22}^{-1}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/5645b3cb0e657d54c5fda043cb0d614b4c740031" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:4.264ex; height:3.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}_{22}^{-1}}"></span> is the <a href="/wiki/Generalized_inverse" title="Generalized inverse">generalized inverse</a> of <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}_{22}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">Σ</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>22</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}_{22}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/ca4db07fe094d511441a1b4611cb69152ce91c65" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:3.807ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}_{22}}"></span>. The matrix <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\overline {\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mover> <mi mathvariant="bold">Σ</mi> <mo accent="false">¯</mo> </mover> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\overline {\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/ae17a7d5c367f2471bcc9bb58257974650f9e9d9" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.046ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\overline {\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}}}"></span> is the <a href="/wiki/Schur_complement" title="Schur complement">Schur complement</a> of <b>Σ</b><sub>22</sub> in <b>Σ</b>. That is, the equation above is equivalent to inverting the overall covariance matrix, dropping the rows and columns corresponding to the variables being conditioned upon, and inverting back to get the conditional covariance matrix. </p><p>Note that knowing that <span class="nowrap"><b>x</b><sub>2</sub> = <b>a</b></span> alters the variance, though the new variance does not depend on the specific value of <b>a</b>; perhaps more surprisingly, the mean is shifted by <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}_{12}{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}_{22}^{-1}\left(\mathbf {a} -{\boldsymbol {\mu }}_{2}\right)}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">Σ</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>12</mn> </mrow> </msub> <msubsup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">Σ</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>22</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msubsup> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">a</mi> </mrow> <mo>−</mo> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">μ</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}_{12}{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}_{22}^{-1}\left(\mathbf {a} -{\boldsymbol {\mu }}_{2}\right)}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/726b6938433f864953a3d4fb6b5344811e597039" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:17.108ex; height:3.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}_{12}{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}_{22}^{-1}\left(\mathbf {a} -{\boldsymbol {\mu }}_{2}\right)}"></span>; compare this with the situation of not knowing the value of <b>a</b>, in which case <b>x</b><sub>1</sub> would have distribution <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\mathcal {N}}_{q}\left({\boldsymbol {\mu }}_{1},{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}_{11}\right)}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi class="MJX-tex-caligraphic" mathvariant="script">N</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>q</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">μ</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo>,</mo> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">Σ</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>11</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\mathcal {N}}_{q}\left({\boldsymbol {\mu }}_{1},{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}_{11}\right)}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/404816ae481c4af4c168c1c3bdef6a88c557c273" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; margin-left: -0.062ex; width:12.693ex; height:3.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\mathcal {N}}_{q}\left({\boldsymbol {\mu }}_{1},{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}_{11}\right)}"></span>. </p><p>An interesting fact derived in order to prove this result, is that the random vectors <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbf {x} _{2}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">x</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbf {x} _{2}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/1274d8a5c59d33efd3639a4137c7f91598038d1b" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.465ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbf {x} _{2}}"></span> and <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbf {y} _{1}=\mathbf {x} _{1}-{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}_{12}{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}_{22}^{-1}\mathbf {x} _{2}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">y</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">x</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo>−</mo> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">Σ</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>12</mn> </mrow> </msub> <msubsup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">Σ</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>22</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msubsup> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">x</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbf {y} _{1}=\mathbf {x} _{1}-{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}_{12}{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}_{22}^{-1}\mathbf {x} _{2}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/f002cb9426a25d432f65ca159aa58184286ddd2d" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:21.406ex; height:3.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbf {y} _{1}=\mathbf {x} _{1}-{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}_{12}{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}_{22}^{-1}\mathbf {x} _{2}}"></span> are independent. </p><p>The matrix <b>Σ</b><sub>12</sub><b>Σ</b><sub>22</sub><sup>−1</sup> is known as the matrix of <a href="/wiki/Regression_analysis" title="Regression analysis">regression</a> coefficients. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Bivariate_case_2">Bivariate case</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Multivariate_normal_distribution&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Bivariate case"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the bivariate case where <b>x</b> is partitioned into <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle X_{1}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle X_{1}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/f70b2694445a5901b24338a2e7a7e58f02a72a32" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.979ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle X_{1}}"></span> and <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle X_{2}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle X_{2}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/2ad47c14b8a092f182512e76c96638aea6e3bea1" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.979ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle X_{2}}"></span>, the conditional distribution of <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle X_{1}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle X_{1}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/f70b2694445a5901b24338a2e7a7e58f02a72a32" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.979ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle X_{1}}"></span> given <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle X_{2}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle X_{2}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/2ad47c14b8a092f182512e76c96638aea6e3bea1" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.979ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle X_{2}}"></span> is<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle X_{1}\mid X_{2}=a\ \sim \ {\mathcal {N}}\left(\mu _{1}+{\frac {\sigma _{1}}{\sigma _{2}}}\rho (a-\mu _{2}),\,(1-\rho ^{2})\sigma _{1}^{2}\right)}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo>∣</mo> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mi>a</mi> <mtext> </mtext> <mo>∼</mo> <mtext> </mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi class="MJX-tex-caligraphic" mathvariant="script">N</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow> <msub> <mi>μ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo>+</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <msub> <mi>σ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>σ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mfrac> </mrow> <mi>ρ</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>a</mi> <mo>−</mo> <msub> <mi>μ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>,</mo> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mn>1</mn> <mo>−</mo> <msup> <mi>ρ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <msubsup> <mi>σ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msubsup> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle X_{1}\mid X_{2}=a\ \sim \ {\mathcal {N}}\left(\mu _{1}+{\frac {\sigma _{1}}{\sigma _{2}}}\rho (a-\mu _{2}),\,(1-\rho ^{2})\sigma _{1}^{2}\right)}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/6905264bc17504ef7f1aaf3aefec869902c25c2b" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.505ex; width:52.491ex; height:6.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle X_{1}\mid X_{2}=a\ \sim \ {\mathcal {N}}\left(\mu _{1}+{\frac {\sigma _{1}}{\sigma _{2}}}\rho (a-\mu _{2}),\,(1-\rho ^{2})\sigma _{1}^{2}\right)}"></span></dd></dl> <p>where <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \rho }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>ρ</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \rho }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/1f7d439671d1289b6a816e6af7a304be40608d64" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:1.202ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \rho }"></span> is the <a href="/wiki/Pearson_product-moment_correlation_coefficient" class="mw-redirect" title="Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient">correlation coefficient</a> between <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle X_{1}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle X_{1}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/f70b2694445a5901b24338a2e7a7e58f02a72a32" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.979ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle X_{1}}"></span> and <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle X_{2}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle X_{2}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/2ad47c14b8a092f182512e76c96638aea6e3bea1" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.979ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle X_{2}}"></span>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Bivariate_conditional_expectation">Bivariate conditional expectation</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Multivariate_normal_distribution&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Bivariate conditional expectation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="In_the_general_case">In the general case</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Multivariate_normal_distribution&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: In the general case"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\begin{pmatrix}X_{1}\\X_{2}\end{pmatrix}}\sim {\mathcal {N}}\left({\begin{pmatrix}\mu _{1}\\\mu _{2}\end{pmatrix}},{\begin{pmatrix}\sigma _{1}^{2}&\rho \sigma _{1}\sigma _{2}\\\rho \sigma _{1}\sigma _{2}&\sigma _{2}^{2}\end{pmatrix}}\right)}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mtable rowspacing="4pt" columnspacing="1em"> <mtr> <mtd> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mtd> </mtr> </mtable> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> </mrow> <mo>∼</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi class="MJX-tex-caligraphic" mathvariant="script">N</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mtable rowspacing="4pt" columnspacing="1em"> <mtr> <mtd> <msub> <mi>μ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd> <msub> <mi>μ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mtd> </mtr> </mtable> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> </mrow> <mo>,</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mtable rowspacing="4pt" columnspacing="1em"> <mtr> <mtd> <msubsup> <mi>σ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msubsup> </mtd> <mtd> <mi>ρ</mi> <msub> <mi>σ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>σ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd> <mi>ρ</mi> <msub> <mi>σ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>σ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mtd> <mtd> <msubsup> <mi>σ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msubsup> </mtd> </mtr> </mtable> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> </mrow> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\begin{pmatrix}X_{1}\\X_{2}\end{pmatrix}}\sim {\mathcal {N}}\left({\begin{pmatrix}\mu _{1}\\\mu _{2}\end{pmatrix}},{\begin{pmatrix}\sigma _{1}^{2}&\rho \sigma _{1}\sigma _{2}\\\rho \sigma _{1}\sigma _{2}&\sigma _{2}^{2}\end{pmatrix}}\right)}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/ce22b0491ad2afb6ff2337ae2a2f41705dbc48e0" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.671ex; width:42.421ex; height:6.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\begin{pmatrix}X_{1}\\X_{2}\end{pmatrix}}\sim {\mathcal {N}}\left({\begin{pmatrix}\mu _{1}\\\mu _{2}\end{pmatrix}},{\begin{pmatrix}\sigma _{1}^{2}&\rho \sigma _{1}\sigma _{2}\\\rho \sigma _{1}\sigma _{2}&\sigma _{2}^{2}\end{pmatrix}}\right)}"></span></dd></dl> <p>The conditional expectation of X<sub>1</sub> given X<sub>2</sub> is: </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \operatorname {E} (X_{1}\mid X_{2}=x_{2})=\mu _{1}+\rho {\frac {\sigma _{1}}{\sigma _{2}}}(x_{2}-\mu _{2})}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi mathvariant="normal">E</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo>∣</mo> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <msub> <mi>x</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>=</mo> <msub> <mi>μ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo>+</mo> <mi>ρ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <msub> <mi>σ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>σ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msub> <mi>x</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo>−</mo> <msub> <mi>μ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \operatorname {E} (X_{1}\mid X_{2}=x_{2})=\mu _{1}+\rho {\frac {\sigma _{1}}{\sigma _{2}}}(x_{2}-\mu _{2})}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/cfd9496a9fa201d2a19b74b256d0a9a46407f95f" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.171ex; width:39.073ex; height:5.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \operatorname {E} (X_{1}\mid X_{2}=x_{2})=\mu _{1}+\rho {\frac {\sigma _{1}}{\sigma _{2}}}(x_{2}-\mu _{2})}"></span></dd></dl> <p>Proof: the result is obtained by taking the expectation of the conditional distribution <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle X_{1}\mid X_{2}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo>∣</mo> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle X_{1}\mid X_{2}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/4dcc934c2df099372042c05f7a2728c8ebfabf2c" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:7.894ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle X_{1}\mid X_{2}}"></span> above. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="In_the_centered_case_with_unit_variances">In the centered case with unit variances</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Multivariate_normal_distribution&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: In the centered case with unit variances"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\begin{pmatrix}X_{1}\\X_{2}\end{pmatrix}}\sim {\mathcal {N}}\left({\begin{pmatrix}0\\0\end{pmatrix}},{\begin{pmatrix}1&\rho \\\rho &1\end{pmatrix}}\right)}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mtable rowspacing="4pt" columnspacing="1em"> <mtr> <mtd> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mtd> </mtr> </mtable> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> </mrow> <mo>∼</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi class="MJX-tex-caligraphic" mathvariant="script">N</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mtable rowspacing="4pt" columnspacing="1em"> <mtr> <mtd> <mn>0</mn> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd> <mn>0</mn> </mtd> </mtr> </mtable> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> </mrow> <mo>,</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mtable rowspacing="4pt" columnspacing="1em"> <mtr> <mtd> <mn>1</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mi>ρ</mi> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd> <mi>ρ</mi> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>1</mn> </mtd> </mtr> </mtable> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> </mrow> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\begin{pmatrix}X_{1}\\X_{2}\end{pmatrix}}\sim {\mathcal {N}}\left({\begin{pmatrix}0\\0\end{pmatrix}},{\begin{pmatrix}1&\rho \\\rho &1\end{pmatrix}}\right)}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/4f76ceb4fd0496b824f03991fcd240227fc3cb2c" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.505ex; width:31.601ex; height:6.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\begin{pmatrix}X_{1}\\X_{2}\end{pmatrix}}\sim {\mathcal {N}}\left({\begin{pmatrix}0\\0\end{pmatrix}},{\begin{pmatrix}1&\rho \\\rho &1\end{pmatrix}}\right)}"></span></dd></dl> <p>The conditional expectation of <i>X</i><sub>1</sub> given <i>X</i><sub>2</sub> is </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \operatorname {E} (X_{1}\mid X_{2}=x_{2})=\rho x_{2}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi mathvariant="normal">E</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo>∣</mo> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <msub> <mi>x</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>=</mo> <mi>ρ</mi> <msub> <mi>x</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \operatorname {E} (X_{1}\mid X_{2}=x_{2})=\rho x_{2}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/b40fbb9d590750d9f27748802a516cf5837bf621" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:23.453ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \operatorname {E} (X_{1}\mid X_{2}=x_{2})=\rho x_{2}}"></span></dd></dl> <p>and the conditional variance is </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \operatorname {var} (X_{1}\mid X_{2}=x_{2})=1-\rho ^{2};}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>var</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo>∣</mo> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <msub> <mi>x</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>=</mo> <mn>1</mn> <mo>−</mo> <msup> <mi>ρ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mo>;</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \operatorname {var} (X_{1}\mid X_{2}=x_{2})=1-\rho ^{2};}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/404a5a020f594ae7601ecd416d5b71d79f734bc3" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:28.492ex; height:3.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \operatorname {var} (X_{1}\mid X_{2}=x_{2})=1-\rho ^{2};}"></span></dd></dl> <p>thus the conditional variance does not depend on <i>x</i><sub>2</sub>. </p><p>The conditional expectation of <i>X</i><sub>1</sub> given that <i>X</i><sub>2</sub> is smaller/bigger than <i>z</i> is:<sup id="cite_ref-Maddala83_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maddala83-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 367">: 367 </span></sup> </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \operatorname {E} (X_{1}\mid X_{2}<z)=-\rho {\varphi (z) \over \Phi (z)},}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi mathvariant="normal">E</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo>∣</mo> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo><</mo> <mi>z</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>=</mo> <mo>−</mo> <mi>ρ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi>φ</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>z</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi mathvariant="normal">Φ</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>z</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>,</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \operatorname {E} (X_{1}\mid X_{2}<z)=-\rho {\varphi (z) \over \Phi (z)},}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/9f694f571e8376d5accaa291b56c879755cd9f78" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.671ex; width:27.64ex; height:6.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \operatorname {E} (X_{1}\mid X_{2}<z)=-\rho {\varphi (z) \over \Phi (z)},}"></span></dd></dl> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \operatorname {E} (X_{1}\mid X_{2}>z)=\rho {\varphi (z) \over (1-\Phi (z))},}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi mathvariant="normal">E</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo>∣</mo> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo>></mo> <mi>z</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>=</mo> <mi>ρ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi>φ</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>z</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mn>1</mn> <mo>−</mo> <mi mathvariant="normal">Φ</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>z</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>,</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \operatorname {E} (X_{1}\mid X_{2}>z)=\rho {\varphi (z) \over (1-\Phi (z))},}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/a38da1cd296a30a725ebf4c71d7f218256a3a7eb" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.671ex; width:31.644ex; height:6.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \operatorname {E} (X_{1}\mid X_{2}>z)=\rho {\varphi (z) \over (1-\Phi (z))},}"></span></dd></dl> <p>where the final ratio here is called the <a href="/wiki/Inverse_Mills_ratio" class="mw-redirect" title="Inverse Mills ratio">inverse Mills ratio</a>. </p><p>Proof: the last two results are obtained using the result <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \operatorname {E} (X_{1}\mid X_{2}=x_{2})=\rho x_{2}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi mathvariant="normal">E</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo>∣</mo> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <msub> <mi>x</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>=</mo> <mi>ρ</mi> <msub> <mi>x</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \operatorname {E} (X_{1}\mid X_{2}=x_{2})=\rho x_{2}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/b40fbb9d590750d9f27748802a516cf5837bf621" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:23.453ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \operatorname {E} (X_{1}\mid X_{2}=x_{2})=\rho x_{2}}"></span>, so that </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \operatorname {E} (X_{1}\mid X_{2}<z)=\rho E(X_{2}\mid X_{2}<z)}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi mathvariant="normal">E</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo>∣</mo> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo><</mo> <mi>z</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>=</mo> <mi>ρ</mi> <mi>E</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo>∣</mo> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo><</mo> <mi>z</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \operatorname {E} (X_{1}\mid X_{2}<z)=\rho E(X_{2}\mid X_{2}<z)}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/1fd531364cfff411c59b40d714533d591c4ae21a" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:35.439ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \operatorname {E} (X_{1}\mid X_{2}<z)=\rho E(X_{2}\mid X_{2}<z)}"></span> and then using the properties of the expectation of a <a href="/wiki/Truncated_normal_distribution" title="Truncated normal distribution">truncated normal distribution</a>.</dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Marginal_distributions">Marginal distributions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Multivariate_normal_distribution&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Marginal distributions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>To obtain the <a href="/wiki/Marginal_distribution" title="Marginal distribution">marginal distribution</a> over a subset of multivariate normal random variables, one only needs to drop the irrelevant variables (the variables that one wants to marginalize out) from the mean vector and the covariance matrix. The proof for this follows from the definitions of multivariate normal distributions and linear algebra.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><i>Example</i> </p><p>Let <span class="nowrap"><b>X</b> = [<i>X</i><sub>1</sub>, <i>X</i><sub>2</sub>, <i>X</i><sub>3</sub>]</span> be multivariate normal random variables with mean vector <span class="nowrap"><b>μ</b> = [<i>μ</i><sub>1</sub>, <i>μ</i><sub>2</sub>, <i>μ</i><sub>3</sub>]</span> and covariance matrix <b>Σ</b> (standard parametrization for multivariate normal distributions). Then the joint distribution of <span class="nowrap"><b>X<span class="nowrap" style="padding-left:0.05em;">′</span></b> = [<i>X</i><sub>1</sub>, <i>X</i><sub>3</sub>]</span> is multivariate normal with mean vector <span class="nowrap"><b>μ<span class="nowrap" style="padding-left:0.05em;">′</span></b> = [<i>μ</i><sub>1</sub>, <i>μ</i><sub>3</sub>]</span> and covariance matrix <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}'={\begin{bmatrix}{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}_{11}&{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}_{13}\\{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}_{31}&{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}_{33}\end{bmatrix}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">Σ</mi> </mrow> <mo>′</mo> </msup> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow> <mo>[</mo> <mtable rowspacing="4pt" columnspacing="1em"> <mtr> <mtd> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">Σ</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>11</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mtd> <mtd> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">Σ</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>13</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">Σ</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>31</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mtd> <mtd> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">Σ</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>33</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mtd> </mtr> </mtable> <mo>]</mo> </mrow> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}'={\begin{bmatrix}{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}_{11}&{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}_{13}\\{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}_{31}&{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}_{33}\end{bmatrix}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/3ad49f0df054ec9fe505e951f6122e66648a6d47" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.505ex; width:18.858ex; height:6.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}'={\begin{bmatrix}{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}_{11}&{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}_{13}\\{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}_{31}&{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}_{33}\end{bmatrix}}}"></span>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Affine_transformation">Affine transformation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Multivariate_normal_distribution&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Affine transformation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>If <span class="nowrap"><b>Y</b> = <b>c</b> + <b>BX</b></span> is an <a href="/wiki/Affine_transformation" title="Affine transformation">affine transformation</a> of <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbf {X} \ \sim {\mathcal {N}}({\boldsymbol {\mu }},{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}),}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">X</mi> </mrow> <mtext> </mtext> <mo>∼</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi class="MJX-tex-caligraphic" mathvariant="script">N</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">μ</mi> </mrow> <mo>,</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">Σ</mi> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>,</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbf {X} \ \sim {\mathcal {N}}({\boldsymbol {\mu }},{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}),}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/e300ef445b039704b7c967ff7fc8aa859abedc88" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:15.04ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbf {X} \ \sim {\mathcal {N}}({\boldsymbol {\mu }},{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}),}"></span> where <b>c</b> is an <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle M\times 1}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>M</mi> <mo>×</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle M\times 1}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/f641103f28cc9fd98df632ccdba15a4ceb18ec92" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:6.445ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle M\times 1}"></span> vector of constants and <b>B</b> is a constant <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle M\times N}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>M</mi> <mo>×</mo> <mi>N</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle M\times N}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/77b09b633429cadcb3f0ddeadc6dcbe7bd65fb13" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:7.346ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle M\times N}"></span> matrix, then <b>Y</b> has a multivariate normal distribution with expected value <span class="nowrap"><b>c</b> + <b>Bμ</b></span> and variance <b>BΣB</b><sup>T</sup> i.e., <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbf {Y} \sim {\mathcal {N}}\left(\mathbf {c} +\mathbf {B} {\boldsymbol {\mu }},\mathbf {B} {\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}\mathbf {B} ^{\rm {T}}\right)}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">Y</mi> </mrow> <mo>∼</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi class="MJX-tex-caligraphic" mathvariant="script">N</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">c</mi> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">B</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">μ</mi> </mrow> <mo>,</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">B</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">Σ</mi> </mrow> <msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">B</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">T</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbf {Y} \sim {\mathcal {N}}\left(\mathbf {c} +\mathbf {B} {\boldsymbol {\mu }},\mathbf {B} {\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}\mathbf {B} ^{\rm {T}}\right)}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/fff30d30c1d3a5836009a0cc31c8a6e7afea4035" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:25.671ex; height:3.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbf {Y} \sim {\mathcal {N}}\left(\mathbf {c} +\mathbf {B} {\boldsymbol {\mu }},\mathbf {B} {\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}\mathbf {B} ^{\rm {T}}\right)}"></span>. In particular, any subset of the <i>X<sub>i</sub></i> has a marginal distribution that is also multivariate normal. To see this, consider the following example: to extract the subset (<i>X</i><sub>1</sub>, <i>X</i><sub>2</sub>, <i>X</i><sub>4</sub>)<sup>T</sup>, use </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbf {B} ={\begin{bmatrix}1&0&0&0&0&\ldots &0\\0&1&0&0&0&\ldots &0\\0&0&0&1&0&\ldots &0\end{bmatrix}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">B</mi> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow> <mo>[</mo> <mtable rowspacing="4pt" columnspacing="1em"> <mtr> <mtd> <mn>1</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>0</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>0</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>0</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>0</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mo>…</mo> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>0</mn> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd> <mn>0</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>1</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>0</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>0</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>0</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mo>…</mo> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>0</mn> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd> <mn>0</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>0</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>0</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>1</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>0</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mo>…</mo> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>0</mn> </mtd> </mtr> </mtable> <mo>]</mo> </mrow> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbf {B} ={\begin{bmatrix}1&0&0&0&0&\ldots &0\\0&1&0&0&0&\ldots &0\\0&0&0&1&0&\ldots &0\end{bmatrix}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/ed72f393ece94fbaba46f764d65d46f8178928d5" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -4.005ex; width:32.485ex; height:9.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbf {B} ={\begin{bmatrix}1&0&0&0&0&\ldots &0\\0&1&0&0&0&\ldots &0\\0&0&0&1&0&\ldots &0\end{bmatrix}}}"></span></dd></dl> <p>which extracts the desired elements directly. </p><p>Another corollary is that the distribution of <span class="nowrap"><b>Z</b> = <b>b</b> · <b>X</b></span>, where <b>b</b> is a constant vector with the same number of elements as <b>X</b> and the dot indicates the <a href="/wiki/Dot_product" title="Dot product">dot product</a>, is univariate Gaussian with <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle Z\sim {\mathcal {N}}\left(\mathbf {b} \cdot {\boldsymbol {\mu }},\mathbf {b} ^{\rm {T}}{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}\mathbf {b} \right)}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>Z</mi> <mo>∼</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi class="MJX-tex-caligraphic" mathvariant="script">N</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">b</mi> </mrow> <mo>⋅</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">μ</mi> </mrow> <mo>,</mo> <msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">b</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">T</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">Σ</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">b</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle Z\sim {\mathcal {N}}\left(\mathbf {b} \cdot {\boldsymbol {\mu }},\mathbf {b} ^{\rm {T}}{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}\mathbf {b} \right)}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/dbc263891e401cf32932cf53e2c41a489e56c879" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:21.735ex; height:3.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle Z\sim {\mathcal {N}}\left(\mathbf {b} \cdot {\boldsymbol {\mu }},\mathbf {b} ^{\rm {T}}{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}\mathbf {b} \right)}"></span>. This result follows by using </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbf {B} ={\begin{bmatrix}b_{1}&b_{2}&\ldots &b_{n}\end{bmatrix}}=\mathbf {b} ^{\rm {T}}.}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">B</mi> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow> <mo>[</mo> <mtable rowspacing="4pt" columnspacing="1em"> <mtr> <mtd> <msub> <mi>b</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mtd> <mtd> <msub> <mi>b</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mtd> <mtd> <mo>…</mo> </mtd> <mtd> <msub> <mi>b</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>n</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mtd> </mtr> </mtable> <mo>]</mo> </mrow> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">b</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">T</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msup> <mo>.</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbf {B} ={\begin{bmatrix}b_{1}&b_{2}&\ldots &b_{n}\end{bmatrix}}=\mathbf {b} ^{\rm {T}}.}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/6356f1babc1df37ee1e32a73157f6835977e5512" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:29.705ex; height:3.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbf {B} ={\begin{bmatrix}b_{1}&b_{2}&\ldots &b_{n}\end{bmatrix}}=\mathbf {b} ^{\rm {T}}.}"></span></dd></dl> <p>Observe how the positive-definiteness of <b>Σ</b> implies that the variance of the dot product must be positive. </p><p>An affine transformation of <b>X</b> such as 2<b>X</b> is not the same as the <a href="/wiki/Sum_of_normally_distributed_random_variables" title="Sum of normally distributed random variables">sum of two independent realisations</a> of <b>X</b>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Geometric_interpretation">Geometric interpretation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Multivariate_normal_distribution&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Geometric interpretation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Confidence_region" title="Confidence region">Confidence region</a></div> <p>The equidensity contours of a non-singular multivariate normal distribution are <a href="/wiki/Ellipsoid" title="Ellipsoid">ellipsoids</a> (i.e. affine transformations of <a href="/wiki/Hypersphere" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypersphere">hyperspheres</a>) centered at the mean.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hence the multivariate normal distribution is an example of the class of <a href="/wiki/Elliptical_distribution" title="Elliptical distribution">elliptical distributions</a>. The directions of the principal axes of the ellipsoids are given by the eigenvectors of the covariance matrix <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">Σ</mi> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/8532511177f5a2d2dc2b8c1ea37d483c70266911" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.931ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}}"></span>. The squared relative lengths of the principal axes are given by the corresponding eigenvalues. </p><p>If <span class="nowrap"><b>Σ</b> = <b>UΛU</b><sup>T</sup> = <b>UΛ</b><sup>1/2</sup>(<b>UΛ</b><sup>1/2</sup>)<sup>T</sup></span> is an <a href="/wiki/Eigendecomposition" class="mw-redirect" title="Eigendecomposition">eigendecomposition</a> where the columns of <b>U</b> are unit eigenvectors and <b>Λ</b> is a <a href="/wiki/Diagonal_matrix" title="Diagonal matrix">diagonal matrix</a> of the eigenvalues, then we have </p> <dl><dd><dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbf {X} \ \sim {\mathcal {N}}({\boldsymbol {\mu }},{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }})\iff \mathbf {X} \ \sim {\boldsymbol {\mu }}+\mathbf {U} {\boldsymbol {\Lambda }}^{1/2}{\mathcal {N}}(0,\mathbf {I} )\iff \mathbf {X} \ \sim {\boldsymbol {\mu }}+\mathbf {U} {\mathcal {N}}(0,{\boldsymbol {\Lambda }}).}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">X</mi> </mrow> <mtext> </mtext> <mo>∼</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi class="MJX-tex-caligraphic" mathvariant="script">N</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">μ</mi> </mrow> <mo>,</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">Σ</mi> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mspace width="thickmathspace" /> <mo stretchy="false">⟺</mo> <mspace width="thickmathspace" /> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">X</mi> </mrow> <mtext> </mtext> <mo>∼</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">μ</mi> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">U</mi> </mrow> <msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">Λ</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi class="MJX-tex-caligraphic" mathvariant="script">N</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mn>0</mn> <mo>,</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">I</mi> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mspace width="thickmathspace" /> <mo stretchy="false">⟺</mo> <mspace width="thickmathspace" /> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">X</mi> </mrow> <mtext> </mtext> <mo>∼</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">μ</mi> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">U</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi class="MJX-tex-caligraphic" mathvariant="script">N</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mn>0</mn> <mo>,</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">Λ</mi> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>.</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbf {X} \ \sim {\mathcal {N}}({\boldsymbol {\mu }},{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }})\iff \mathbf {X} \ \sim {\boldsymbol {\mu }}+\mathbf {U} {\boldsymbol {\Lambda }}^{1/2}{\mathcal {N}}(0,\mathbf {I} )\iff \mathbf {X} \ \sim {\boldsymbol {\mu }}+\mathbf {U} {\mathcal {N}}(0,{\boldsymbol {\Lambda }}).}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/73125454b957b06bbed195306189316414d7a02b" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:73.337ex; height:3.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbf {X} \ \sim {\mathcal {N}}({\boldsymbol {\mu }},{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }})\iff \mathbf {X} \ \sim {\boldsymbol {\mu }}+\mathbf {U} {\boldsymbol {\Lambda }}^{1/2}{\mathcal {N}}(0,\mathbf {I} )\iff \mathbf {X} \ \sim {\boldsymbol {\mu }}+\mathbf {U} {\mathcal {N}}(0,{\boldsymbol {\Lambda }}).}"></span></dd></dl></dd></dl> <p>Moreover, <b>U</b> can be chosen to be a <a href="/wiki/Rotation_matrix" title="Rotation matrix">rotation matrix</a>, as inverting an axis does not have any effect on <i>N</i>(0, <b>Λ</b>), but inverting a column changes the sign of <b>U'</b>s determinant. The distribution <i>N</i>(<b>μ</b>, <b>Σ</b>) is in effect <i>N</i>(0, <b>I</b>) scaled by <b>Λ</b><sup>1/2</sup>, rotated by <b>U</b> and translated by <b>μ</b>. </p><p>Conversely, any choice of <b>μ</b>, full rank matrix <b>U</b>, and positive diagonal entries Λ<sub><i>i</i></sub> yields a non-singular multivariate normal distribution. If any Λ<sub><i>i</i></sub> is zero and <b>U</b> is square, the resulting covariance matrix <b>UΛU</b><sup>T</sup> is <a href="/wiki/Singular_matrix" class="mw-redirect" title="Singular matrix">singular</a>. Geometrically this means that every contour ellipsoid is infinitely thin and has zero volume in <i>n</i>-dimensional space, as at least one of the principal axes has length of zero; this is the <a href="/wiki/Degenerate_distribution" title="Degenerate distribution">degenerate case</a>. </p><p>"The radius around the true mean in a bivariate normal random variable, re-written in <a href="/wiki/Polar_coordinates" class="mw-redirect" title="Polar coordinates">polar coordinates</a> (radius and angle), follows a <a href="/wiki/Hoyt_distribution" class="mw-redirect" title="Hoyt distribution">Hoyt distribution</a>."<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In one dimension the probability of finding a sample of the normal distribution in the interval <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mu \pm \sigma }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>μ</mi> <mo>±</mo> <mi>σ</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mu \pm \sigma }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/6e204c02117a4f9075f3ee4fd83758cd771da083" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:5.572ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mu \pm \sigma }"></span> is approximately 68.27%, but in higher dimensions the probability of finding a sample in the region of the standard deviation ellipse is lower.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Dimensionality</th> <th>Probability </th></tr> <tr> <td>1</td> <td>0.6827 </td></tr> <tr> <td>2</td> <td>0.3935 </td></tr> <tr> <td>3</td> <td>0.1987 </td></tr> <tr> <td>4</td> <td>0.0902 </td></tr> <tr> <td>5</td> <td>0.0374 </td></tr> <tr> <td>6</td> <td>0.0144 </td></tr> <tr> <td>7</td> <td>0.0052 </td></tr> <tr> <td>8</td> <td>0.0018 </td></tr> <tr> <td>9</td> <td>0.0006 </td></tr> <tr> <td>10</td> <td>0.0002 </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Statistical_inference">Statistical inference</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Multivariate_normal_distribution&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Statistical inference"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Parameter_estimation">Parameter estimation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Multivariate_normal_distribution&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Parameter estimation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Estimation_of_covariance_matrices" title="Estimation of covariance matrices">Estimation of covariance matrices</a></div> <p>The derivation of the <a href="/wiki/Maximum_likelihood" class="mw-redirect" title="Maximum likelihood">maximum-likelihood</a> <a href="/wiki/Estimator" title="Estimator">estimator</a> of the covariance matrix of a multivariate normal distribution is straightforward. </p><p>In short, the probability density function (pdf) of a multivariate normal is </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle f(\mathbf {x} )={\frac {1}{\sqrt {(2\pi )^{k}|{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}|}}}\exp \left(-{1 \over 2}(\mathbf {x} -{\boldsymbol {\mu }})^{\rm {T}}{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}^{-1}({\mathbf {x} }-{\boldsymbol {\mu }})\right)}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>f</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">x</mi> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <msqrt> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mn>2</mn> <mi>π</mi> <msup> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>k</mi> </mrow> </msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">|</mo> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">Σ</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">|</mo> </mrow> </msqrt> </mfrac> </mrow> <mi>exp</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mn>2</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">x</mi> </mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">μ</mi> </mrow> <msup> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">T</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msup> <msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">Σ</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">x</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">μ</mi> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle f(\mathbf {x} )={\frac {1}{\sqrt {(2\pi )^{k}|{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}|}}}\exp \left(-{1 \over 2}(\mathbf {x} -{\boldsymbol {\mu }})^{\rm {T}}{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}^{-1}({\mathbf {x} }-{\boldsymbol {\mu }})\right)}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/ff81e31dbd47f733d1f78819f662dc15e1da53ec" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -3.171ex; width:51.637ex; height:6.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle f(\mathbf {x} )={\frac {1}{\sqrt {(2\pi )^{k}|{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}|}}}\exp \left(-{1 \over 2}(\mathbf {x} -{\boldsymbol {\mu }})^{\rm {T}}{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}^{-1}({\mathbf {x} }-{\boldsymbol {\mu }})\right)}"></span></dd></dl> <p>and the ML estimator of the covariance matrix from a sample of <i>n</i> observations is <sup id="cite_ref-papers.ssrn.com_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-papers.ssrn.com-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\widehat {\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}}={1 \over n}\sum _{i=1}^{n}({\mathbf {x} }_{i}-{\overline {\mathbf {x} }})({\mathbf {x} }_{i}-{\overline {\mathbf {x} }})^{\mathrm {T} }}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mover> <mi mathvariant="bold">Σ</mi> <mo>^</mo> </mover> </mrow> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mi>n</mi> </mfrac> </mrow> <munderover> <mo>∑</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>n</mi> </mrow> </munderover> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">x</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mover> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">x</mi> </mrow> <mo accent="false">¯</mo> </mover> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">x</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mover> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">x</mi> </mrow> <mo accent="false">¯</mo> </mover> </mrow> <msup> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">T</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\widehat {\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}}={1 \over n}\sum _{i=1}^{n}({\mathbf {x} }_{i}-{\overline {\mathbf {x} }})({\mathbf {x} }_{i}-{\overline {\mathbf {x} }})^{\mathrm {T} }}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/fcf25667160c99a8cf1f700f83c2c94b7a575ecf" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -3.005ex; margin-left: -0.01ex; width:29.597ex; height:6.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\widehat {\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}}={1 \over n}\sum _{i=1}^{n}({\mathbf {x} }_{i}-{\overline {\mathbf {x} }})({\mathbf {x} }_{i}-{\overline {\mathbf {x} }})^{\mathrm {T} }}"></span></dd></dl> <p>which is simply the <a href="/wiki/Sample_covariance_matrix" class="mw-redirect" title="Sample covariance matrix">sample covariance matrix</a>. This is a <a href="/wiki/Biased_estimator" class="mw-redirect" title="Biased estimator">biased estimator</a> whose expectation is </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle E\left[{\widehat {\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}}\right]={\frac {n-1}{n}}{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}.}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>E</mi> <mrow> <mo>[</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mover> <mi mathvariant="bold">Σ</mi> <mo>^</mo> </mover> </mrow> </mrow> <mo>]</mo> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> <mi>n</mi> </mfrac> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">Σ</mi> </mrow> <mo>.</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle E\left[{\widehat {\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}}\right]={\frac {n-1}{n}}{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}.}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/12908e94489d8fcdd7c2aa360d3ce85c26bc611a" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.838ex; width:18.592ex; height:5.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle E\left[{\widehat {\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}}\right]={\frac {n-1}{n}}{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}.}"></span></dd></dl> <p>An unbiased sample covariance is </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\widehat {\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}}={\frac {1}{n-1}}\sum _{i=1}^{n}(\mathbf {x} _{i}-{\overline {\mathbf {x} }})(\mathbf {x} _{i}-{\overline {\mathbf {x} }})^{\rm {T}}={\frac {1}{n-1}}\left[X'\left(I-{\frac {1}{n}}\cdot J\right)X\right]}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mover> <mi mathvariant="bold">Σ</mi> <mo>^</mo> </mover> </mrow> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <munderover> <mo>∑</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>n</mi> </mrow> </munderover> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">x</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mover> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">x</mi> </mrow> <mo accent="false">¯</mo> </mover> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">x</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mover> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">x</mi> </mrow> <mo accent="false">¯</mo> </mover> </mrow> <msup> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">T</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msup> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mrow> <mo>[</mo> <mrow> <msup> <mi>X</mi> <mo>′</mo> </msup> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow> <mi>I</mi> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mi>n</mi> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>⋅</mo> <mi>J</mi> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> <mi>X</mi> </mrow> <mo>]</mo> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\widehat {\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}}={\frac {1}{n-1}}\sum _{i=1}^{n}(\mathbf {x} _{i}-{\overline {\mathbf {x} }})(\mathbf {x} _{i}-{\overline {\mathbf {x} }})^{\rm {T}}={\frac {1}{n-1}}\left[X'\left(I-{\frac {1}{n}}\cdot J\right)X\right]}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/b483843b0f64ecbfea751011ef0ab8e61c7f0dcc" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -3.005ex; margin-left: -0.01ex; width:64.024ex; height:6.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\widehat {\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}}={\frac {1}{n-1}}\sum _{i=1}^{n}(\mathbf {x} _{i}-{\overline {\mathbf {x} }})(\mathbf {x} _{i}-{\overline {\mathbf {x} }})^{\rm {T}}={\frac {1}{n-1}}\left[X'\left(I-{\frac {1}{n}}\cdot J\right)X\right]}"></span> (matrix form; <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle I}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>I</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle I}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/535ea7fc4134a31cbe2251d9d3511374bc41be9f" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.172ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle I}"></span> is the <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle K\times K}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>K</mi> <mo>×</mo> <mi>K</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle K\times K}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/482213ed727088a54983b10499b51dd0e320ba5a" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:6.972ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle K\times K}"></span> identity matrix, J is a <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle K\times K}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>K</mi> <mo>×</mo> <mi>K</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle K\times K}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/482213ed727088a54983b10499b51dd0e320ba5a" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:6.972ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle K\times K}"></span> matrix of ones; the term in parentheses is thus the <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle K\times K}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>K</mi> <mo>×</mo> <mi>K</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle K\times K}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/482213ed727088a54983b10499b51dd0e320ba5a" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:6.972ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle K\times K}"></span> centering matrix)</dd></dl> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Fisher_information_matrix" class="mw-redirect" title="Fisher information matrix">Fisher information matrix</a> for estimating the parameters of a multivariate normal distribution has a closed form expression. This can be used, for example, to compute the <a href="/wiki/Cram%C3%A9r%E2%80%93Rao_bound" title="Cramér–Rao bound">Cramér–Rao bound</a> for parameter estimation in this setting. See <a href="/wiki/Fisher_information#Multivariate_normal_distribution" title="Fisher information">Fisher information</a> for more details. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bayesian_inference">Bayesian inference</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Multivariate_normal_distribution&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Bayesian inference"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Bayesian_statistics" title="Bayesian statistics">Bayesian statistics</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Conjugate_prior" title="Conjugate prior">conjugate prior</a> of the mean vector is another multivariate normal distribution, and the conjugate prior of the covariance matrix is an <a href="/wiki/Inverse-Wishart_distribution" title="Inverse-Wishart distribution">inverse-Wishart distribution</a> <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\mathcal {W}}^{-1}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi class="MJX-tex-caligraphic" mathvariant="script">W</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\mathcal {W}}^{-1}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/b2815ee1be142f769d4d398119c142e42865daef" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:4.771ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\mathcal {W}}^{-1}}"></span> . Suppose then that <i>n</i> observations have been made </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbf {X} =\{\mathbf {x} _{1},\dots ,\mathbf {x} _{n}\}\sim {\mathcal {N}}({\boldsymbol {\mu }},{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }})}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">X</mi> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mo fence="false" stretchy="false">{</mo> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">x</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo>,</mo> <mo>…</mo> <mo>,</mo> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">x</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>n</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo fence="false" stretchy="false">}</mo> <mo>∼</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi class="MJX-tex-caligraphic" mathvariant="script">N</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">μ</mi> </mrow> <mo>,</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">Σ</mi> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbf {X} =\{\mathbf {x} _{1},\dots ,\mathbf {x} _{n}\}\sim {\mathcal {N}}({\boldsymbol {\mu }},{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }})}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/cea3a16de110cb32af89dac628d069b89756733c" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:29.509ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbf {X} =\{\mathbf {x} _{1},\dots ,\mathbf {x} _{n}\}\sim {\mathcal {N}}({\boldsymbol {\mu }},{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }})}"></span></dd></dl> <p>and that a conjugate prior has been assigned, where </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle p({\boldsymbol {\mu }},{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }})=p({\boldsymbol {\mu }}\mid {\boldsymbol {\Sigma }})\ p({\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}),}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>p</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">μ</mi> </mrow> <mo>,</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">Σ</mi> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>=</mo> <mi>p</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">μ</mi> </mrow> <mo>∣</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">Σ</mi> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mtext> </mtext> <mi>p</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">Σ</mi> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>,</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle p({\boldsymbol {\mu }},{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }})=p({\boldsymbol {\mu }}\mid {\boldsymbol {\Sigma }})\ p({\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}),}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/0146e7a1d75c8526f7827f922164c2f380402e1c" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; margin-left: -0.089ex; width:25.407ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle p({\boldsymbol {\mu }},{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }})=p({\boldsymbol {\mu }}\mid {\boldsymbol {\Sigma }})\ p({\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}),}"></span></dd></dl> <p>where </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle p({\boldsymbol {\mu }}\mid {\boldsymbol {\Sigma }})\sim {\mathcal {N}}({\boldsymbol {\mu }}_{0},m^{-1}{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}),}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>p</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">μ</mi> </mrow> <mo>∣</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">Σ</mi> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>∼</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi class="MJX-tex-caligraphic" mathvariant="script">N</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">μ</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo>,</mo> <msup> <mi>m</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">Σ</mi> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>,</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle p({\boldsymbol {\mu }}\mid {\boldsymbol {\Sigma }})\sim {\mathcal {N}}({\boldsymbol {\mu }}_{0},m^{-1}{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}),}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/6c60e8b4d4d9522581099347a303847f6b9a83d8" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; margin-left: -0.089ex; width:26.45ex; height:3.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle p({\boldsymbol {\mu }}\mid {\boldsymbol {\Sigma }})\sim {\mathcal {N}}({\boldsymbol {\mu }}_{0},m^{-1}{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}),}"></span></dd></dl> <p>and </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle p({\boldsymbol {\Sigma }})\sim {\mathcal {W}}^{-1}({\boldsymbol {\Psi }},n_{0}).}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>p</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">Σ</mi> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>∼</mo> <msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi class="MJX-tex-caligraphic" mathvariant="script">W</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">Ψ</mi> </mrow> <mo>,</mo> <msub> <mi>n</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>.</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle p({\boldsymbol {\Sigma }})\sim {\mathcal {W}}^{-1}({\boldsymbol {\Psi }},n_{0}).}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/416b5983c7cc513e2f5ba4eeb119f8ec2b75acac" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; margin-left: -0.089ex; width:20.885ex; height:3.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle p({\boldsymbol {\Sigma }})\sim {\mathcal {W}}^{-1}({\boldsymbol {\Psi }},n_{0}).}"></span></dd></dl> <p>Then<sup id="cite_ref-papers.ssrn.com_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-papers.ssrn.com-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\begin{array}{rcl}p({\boldsymbol {\mu }}\mid {\boldsymbol {\Sigma }},\mathbf {X} )&\sim &{\mathcal {N}}\left({\frac {n{\bar {\mathbf {x} }}+m{\boldsymbol {\mu }}_{0}}{n+m}},{\frac {1}{n+m}}{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}\right),\\p({\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}\mid \mathbf {X} )&\sim &{\mathcal {W}}^{-1}\left({\boldsymbol {\Psi }}+n\mathbf {S} +{\frac {nm}{n+m}}({\bar {\mathbf {x} }}-{\boldsymbol {\mu }}_{0})({\bar {\mathbf {x} }}-{\boldsymbol {\mu }}_{0})',n+n_{0}\right),\end{array}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtable columnalign="right center left" rowspacing="4pt" columnspacing="1em"> <mtr> <mtd> <mi>p</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">μ</mi> </mrow> <mo>∣</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">Σ</mi> </mrow> <mo>,</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">X</mi> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mtd> <mtd> <mo>∼</mo> </mtd> <mtd> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi class="MJX-tex-caligraphic" mathvariant="script">N</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mover> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">x</mi> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">¯</mo> </mover> </mrow> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mi>m</mi> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">μ</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mi>m</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>,</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mi>m</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">Σ</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> <mo>,</mo> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd> <mi>p</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">Σ</mi> </mrow> <mo>∣</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">X</mi> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mtd> <mtd> <mo>∼</mo> </mtd> <mtd> <msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi class="MJX-tex-caligraphic" mathvariant="script">W</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">Ψ</mi> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mi>n</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">S</mi> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mi>m</mi> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mi>m</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mover> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">x</mi> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">¯</mo> </mover> </mrow> </mrow> <mo>−</mo> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">μ</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mover> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">x</mi> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">¯</mo> </mover> </mrow> </mrow> <mo>−</mo> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">μ</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </msub> <msup> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>′</mo> </msup> <mo>,</mo> <mi>n</mi> <mo>+</mo> <msub> <mi>n</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> <mo>,</mo> </mtd> </mtr> </mtable> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\begin{array}{rcl}p({\boldsymbol {\mu }}\mid {\boldsymbol {\Sigma }},\mathbf {X} )&\sim &{\mathcal {N}}\left({\frac {n{\bar {\mathbf {x} }}+m{\boldsymbol {\mu }}_{0}}{n+m}},{\frac {1}{n+m}}{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}\right),\\p({\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}\mid \mathbf {X} )&\sim &{\mathcal {W}}^{-1}\left({\boldsymbol {\Psi }}+n\mathbf {S} +{\frac {nm}{n+m}}({\bar {\mathbf {x} }}-{\boldsymbol {\mu }}_{0})({\bar {\mathbf {x} }}-{\boldsymbol {\mu }}_{0})',n+n_{0}\right),\end{array}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/1c9e039b690a2a2e5ca44169339157efb7e15333" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -3.838ex; width:68.178ex; height:8.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\begin{array}{rcl}p({\boldsymbol {\mu }}\mid {\boldsymbol {\Sigma }},\mathbf {X} )&\sim &{\mathcal {N}}\left({\frac {n{\bar {\mathbf {x} }}+m{\boldsymbol {\mu }}_{0}}{n+m}},{\frac {1}{n+m}}{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}\right),\\p({\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}\mid \mathbf {X} )&\sim &{\mathcal {W}}^{-1}\left({\boldsymbol {\Psi }}+n\mathbf {S} +{\frac {nm}{n+m}}({\bar {\mathbf {x} }}-{\boldsymbol {\mu }}_{0})({\bar {\mathbf {x} }}-{\boldsymbol {\mu }}_{0})',n+n_{0}\right),\end{array}}}"></span></dd></dl> <p>where </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}{\bar {\mathbf {x} }}&={\frac {1}{n}}\sum _{i=1}^{n}\mathbf {x} _{i},\\\mathbf {S} &={\frac {1}{n}}\sum _{i=1}^{n}(\mathbf {x} _{i}-{\bar {\mathbf {x} }})(\mathbf {x} _{i}-{\bar {\mathbf {x} }})'.\end{aligned}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtable columnalign="right left right left right left right left right left right left" rowspacing="3pt" columnspacing="0em 2em 0em 2em 0em 2em 0em 2em 0em 2em 0em" displaystyle="true"> <mtr> <mtd> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mover> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">x</mi> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">¯</mo> </mover> </mrow> </mrow> </mtd> <mtd> <mi></mi> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mi>n</mi> </mfrac> </mrow> <munderover> <mo>∑</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>n</mi> </mrow> </munderover> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">x</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>,</mo> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">S</mi> </mrow> </mtd> <mtd> <mi></mi> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mi>n</mi> </mfrac> </mrow> <munderover> <mo>∑</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>n</mi> </mrow> </munderover> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">x</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mover> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">x</mi> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">¯</mo> </mover> </mrow> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">x</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mover> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">x</mi> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">¯</mo> </mover> </mrow> </mrow> <msup> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>′</mo> </msup> <mo>.</mo> </mtd> </mtr> </mtable> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}{\bar {\mathbf {x} }}&={\frac {1}{n}}\sum _{i=1}^{n}\mathbf {x} _{i},\\\mathbf {S} &={\frac {1}{n}}\sum _{i=1}^{n}(\mathbf {x} _{i}-{\bar {\mathbf {x} }})(\mathbf {x} _{i}-{\bar {\mathbf {x} }})'.\end{aligned}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/73e2be5f3aca76921a20f70e6874ac1a8736e007" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -6.505ex; width:29.182ex; height:14.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}{\bar {\mathbf {x} }}&={\frac {1}{n}}\sum _{i=1}^{n}\mathbf {x} _{i},\\\mathbf {S} &={\frac {1}{n}}\sum _{i=1}^{n}(\mathbf {x} _{i}-{\bar {\mathbf {x} }})(\mathbf {x} _{i}-{\bar {\mathbf {x} }})'.\end{aligned}}}"></span></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Multivariate_normality_tests">Multivariate normality tests</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Multivariate_normal_distribution&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Multivariate normality tests"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Multivariate normality tests check a given set of data for similarity to the multivariate <a href="/wiki/Normal_distribution" title="Normal distribution">normal distribution</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Null_hypothesis" title="Null hypothesis">null hypothesis</a> is that the <a href="/wiki/Data_set" title="Data set">data set</a> is similar to the normal distribution, therefore a sufficiently small <a href="/wiki/P-value" title="P-value"><i>p</i>-value</a> indicates non-normal data. Multivariate normality tests include the Cox–Small test<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Smith and Jain's adaptation<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> of the Friedman–Rafsky test created by <a href="/wiki/Larry_rafsky" class="mw-redirect" title="Larry rafsky">Larry Rafsky</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jerome_H._Friedman" title="Jerome H. Friedman">Jerome Friedman</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><b>Mardia's test</b><sup id="cite_ref-Mardia_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mardia-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is based on multivariate extensions of <a href="/wiki/Skewness" title="Skewness">skewness</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kurtosis" title="Kurtosis">kurtosis</a> measures. For a sample {<b>x</b><sub>1</sub>, ..., <b>x</b><sub><i>n</i></sub>} of <i>k</i>-dimensional vectors we compute </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}&{\widehat {\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}}={1 \over n}\sum _{j=1}^{n}\left(\mathbf {x} _{j}-{\bar {\mathbf {x} }}\right)\left(\mathbf {x} _{j}-{\bar {\mathbf {x} }}\right)^{\mathrm {T} }\\&A={1 \over 6n}\sum _{i=1}^{n}\sum _{j=1}^{n}\left[(\mathbf {x} _{i}-{\bar {\mathbf {x} }})^{\mathrm {T} }\;{\widehat {\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}}^{-1}(\mathbf {x} _{j}-{\bar {\mathbf {x} }})\right]^{3}\\&B={\sqrt {\frac {n}{8k(k+2)}}}\left\{{1 \over n}\sum _{i=1}^{n}\left[(\mathbf {x} _{i}-{\bar {\mathbf {x} }})^{\mathrm {T} }\;{\widehat {\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}}^{-1}(\mathbf {x} _{i}-{\bar {\mathbf {x} }})\right]^{2}-k(k+2)\right\}\end{aligned}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtable columnalign="right left right left right left right left right left right left" rowspacing="3pt" columnspacing="0em 2em 0em 2em 0em 2em 0em 2em 0em 2em 0em" displaystyle="true"> <mtr> <mtd /> <mtd> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mover> <mi mathvariant="bold">Σ</mi> <mo>^</mo> </mover> </mrow> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mi>n</mi> </mfrac> </mrow> <munderover> <mo>∑</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>j</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>n</mi> </mrow> </munderover> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">x</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>j</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mover> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">x</mi> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">¯</mo> </mover> </mrow> </mrow> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> <msup> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">x</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>j</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mover> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">x</mi> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">¯</mo> </mover> </mrow> </mrow> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">T</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msup> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd /> <mtd> <mi>A</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mrow> <mn>6</mn> <mi>n</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <munderover> <mo>∑</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>n</mi> </mrow> </munderover> <munderover> <mo>∑</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>j</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>n</mi> </mrow> </munderover> <msup> <mrow> <mo>[</mo> <mrow> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">x</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mover> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">x</mi> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">¯</mo> </mover> </mrow> </mrow> <msup> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">T</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msup> <mspace width="thickmathspace" /> <msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mover> <mi mathvariant="bold">Σ</mi> <mo>^</mo> </mover> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">x</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>j</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mover> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">x</mi> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">¯</mo> </mover> </mrow> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> <mo>]</mo> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>3</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd /> <mtd> <mi>B</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msqrt> <mfrac> <mi>n</mi> <mrow> <mn>8</mn> <mi>k</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>k</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mn>2</mn> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> </mfrac> </msqrt> </mrow> <mrow> <mo>{</mo> <mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mi>n</mi> </mfrac> </mrow> <munderover> <mo>∑</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>n</mi> </mrow> </munderover> <msup> <mrow> <mo>[</mo> <mrow> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">x</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mover> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">x</mi> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">¯</mo> </mover> </mrow> </mrow> <msup> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">T</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msup> <mspace width="thickmathspace" /> <msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mover> <mi mathvariant="bold">Σ</mi> <mo>^</mo> </mover> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">x</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mover> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">x</mi> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">¯</mo> </mover> </mrow> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> <mo>]</mo> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mo>−</mo> <mi>k</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>k</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mn>2</mn> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> <mo>}</mo> </mrow> </mtd> </mtr> </mtable> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}&{\widehat {\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}}={1 \over n}\sum _{j=1}^{n}\left(\mathbf {x} _{j}-{\bar {\mathbf {x} }}\right)\left(\mathbf {x} _{j}-{\bar {\mathbf {x} }}\right)^{\mathrm {T} }\\&A={1 \over 6n}\sum _{i=1}^{n}\sum _{j=1}^{n}\left[(\mathbf {x} _{i}-{\bar {\mathbf {x} }})^{\mathrm {T} }\;{\widehat {\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}}^{-1}(\mathbf {x} _{j}-{\bar {\mathbf {x} }})\right]^{3}\\&B={\sqrt {\frac {n}{8k(k+2)}}}\left\{{1 \over n}\sum _{i=1}^{n}\left[(\mathbf {x} _{i}-{\bar {\mathbf {x} }})^{\mathrm {T} }\;{\widehat {\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}}^{-1}(\mathbf {x} _{i}-{\bar {\mathbf {x} }})\right]^{2}-k(k+2)\right\}\end{aligned}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/2d6fcd342cc6e6df3c6fcd10852c7908e248829d" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -10.671ex; width:66.252ex; height:22.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}&{\widehat {\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}}={1 \over n}\sum _{j=1}^{n}\left(\mathbf {x} _{j}-{\bar {\mathbf {x} }}\right)\left(\mathbf {x} _{j}-{\bar {\mathbf {x} }}\right)^{\mathrm {T} }\\&A={1 \over 6n}\sum _{i=1}^{n}\sum _{j=1}^{n}\left[(\mathbf {x} _{i}-{\bar {\mathbf {x} }})^{\mathrm {T} }\;{\widehat {\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}}^{-1}(\mathbf {x} _{j}-{\bar {\mathbf {x} }})\right]^{3}\\&B={\sqrt {\frac {n}{8k(k+2)}}}\left\{{1 \over n}\sum _{i=1}^{n}\left[(\mathbf {x} _{i}-{\bar {\mathbf {x} }})^{\mathrm {T} }\;{\widehat {\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}}^{-1}(\mathbf {x} _{i}-{\bar {\mathbf {x} }})\right]^{2}-k(k+2)\right\}\end{aligned}}}"></span></dd></dl> <p>Under the null hypothesis of multivariate normality, the statistic <i>A</i> will have approximately a <a href="/wiki/Chi-squared_distribution" title="Chi-squared distribution">chi-squared distribution</a> with <span class="nowrap"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1214402035">.mw-parser-output .sfrac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .sfrac.tion,.mw-parser-output .sfrac .tion{display:inline-block;vertical-align:-0.5em;font-size:85%;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sfrac .num{display:block;line-height:1em;margin:0.0em 0.1em;border-bottom:1px solid}.mw-parser-output .sfrac .den{display:block;line-height:1em;margin:0.1em 0.1em}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}</style><span class="sfrac">⁠<span class="tion"><span class="num">1</span><span class="sr-only">/</span><span class="den">6</span></span>⁠</span>⋅<i>k</i>(<i>k</i> + 1)(<i>k</i> + 2)</span> degrees of freedom, and <i>B</i> will be approximately <a href="/wiki/Standard_normal" class="mw-redirect" title="Standard normal">standard normal</a> <i>N</i>(0,1). </p><p>Mardia's kurtosis statistic is skewed and converges very slowly to the limiting normal distribution. For medium size samples <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle (50\leq n<400)}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mn>50</mn> <mo>≤</mo> <mi>n</mi> <mo><</mo> <mn>400</mn> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle (50\leq n<400)}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/77af15a8456dd4ce16f9d520f31b7af1633cc9e3" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:15.213ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle (50\leq n<400)}"></span>, the parameters of the asymptotic distribution of the kurtosis statistic are modified<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For small sample tests (<span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle n<50}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>n</mi> <mo><</mo> <mn>50</mn> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle n<50}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/2f071a7bc1e215d024da43ae64d9160bfb48ef66" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:6.818ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle n<50}"></span>) empirical critical values are used. Tables of critical values for both statistics are given by Rencher<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> for <i>k</i> = 2, 3, 4. </p><p>Mardia's tests are affine invariant but not consistent. For example, the multivariate skewness test is not consistent against symmetric non-normal alternatives.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <b>BHEP test</b><sup id="cite_ref-BH_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BH-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> computes the norm of the difference between the empirical <a href="/wiki/Characteristic_function_(probability_theory)" title="Characteristic function (probability theory)">characteristic function</a> and the theoretical characteristic function of the normal distribution. Calculation of the norm is performed in the <a href="/wiki/Lp_space" title="Lp space">L<sup>2</sup>(<i>μ</i>)</a> space of square-integrable functions with respect to the Gaussian weighting function <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mu _{\beta }(\mathbf {t} )=(2\pi \beta ^{2})^{-k/2}e^{-|\mathbf {t} |^{2}/(2\beta ^{2})}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>μ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>β</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">t</mi> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>=</mo> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mn>2</mn> <mi>π</mi> <msup> <mi>β</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <msup> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <mi>k</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <msup> <mi>e</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">|</mo> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">t</mi> </mrow> <msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">|</mo> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mn>2</mn> <msup> <mi>β</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mu _{\beta }(\mathbf {t} )=(2\pi \beta ^{2})^{-k/2}e^{-|\mathbf {t} |^{2}/(2\beta ^{2})}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/5791760c4cf266161b68b8362ce350266efc8c44" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:29.005ex; height:3.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mu _{\beta }(\mathbf {t} )=(2\pi \beta ^{2})^{-k/2}e^{-|\mathbf {t} |^{2}/(2\beta ^{2})}}"></span>. The test statistic is </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}T_{\beta }&=\int _{\mathbb {R} ^{k}}\left|{1 \over n}\sum _{j=1}^{n}e^{i\mathbf {t} ^{\mathrm {T} }{\widehat {\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}}^{-1/2}(\mathbf {x} _{j}-{\bar {\mathbf {x} )}}}-e^{-|\mathbf {t} |^{2}/2}\right|^{2}\;{\boldsymbol {\mu }}_{\beta }(\mathbf {t} )\,d\mathbf {t} \\&={1 \over n^{2}}\sum _{i,j=1}^{n}e^{-{\beta ^{2} \over 2}(\mathbf {x} _{i}-\mathbf {x} _{j})^{\mathrm {T} }{\widehat {\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}}^{-1}(\mathbf {x} _{i}-\mathbf {x} _{j})}-{\frac {2}{n(1+\beta ^{2})^{k/2}}}\sum _{i=1}^{n}e^{-{\frac {\beta ^{2}}{2(1+\beta ^{2})}}(\mathbf {x} _{i}-{\bar {\mathbf {x} }})^{\mathrm {T} }{\widehat {\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}}^{-1}(\mathbf {x} _{i}-{\bar {\mathbf {x} }})}+{\frac {1}{(1+2\beta ^{2})^{k/2}}}\end{aligned}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtable columnalign="right left right left right left right left right left right left" rowspacing="3pt" columnspacing="0em 2em 0em 2em 0em 2em 0em 2em 0em 2em 0em" displaystyle="true"> <mtr> <mtd> <msub> <mi>T</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>β</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mtd> <mtd> <mi></mi> <mo>=</mo> <msub> <mo>∫</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="double-struck">R</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>k</mi> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </msub> <msup> <mrow> <mo>|</mo> <mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mi>n</mi> </mfrac> </mrow> <munderover> <mo>∑</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>j</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>n</mi> </mrow> </munderover> <msup> <mi>e</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> <msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">t</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">T</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msup> <msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mover> <mi mathvariant="bold">Σ</mi> <mo>^</mo> </mover> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">x</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>j</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mover> <mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">x</mi> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">¯</mo> </mover> </mrow> </mrow> </mrow> </msup> <mo>−</mo> <msup> <mi>e</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">|</mo> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">t</mi> </mrow> <msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">|</mo> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> <mo>|</mo> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mspace width="thickmathspace" /> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">μ</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>β</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">t</mi> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mi>d</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">t</mi> </mrow> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd /> <mtd> <mi></mi> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <msup> <mi>n</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mfrac> </mrow> <munderover> <mo>∑</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> <mo>,</mo> <mi>j</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>n</mi> </mrow> </munderover> <msup> <mi>e</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <msup> <mi>β</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mn>2</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">x</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>−</mo> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">x</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>j</mi> </mrow> </msub> <msup> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">T</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msup> <msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mover> <mi mathvariant="bold">Σ</mi> <mo>^</mo> </mover> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">x</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>−</mo> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">x</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>j</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> </msup> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>2</mn> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mn>1</mn> <mo>+</mo> <msup> <mi>β</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <msup> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>k</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <munderover> <mo>∑</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>n</mi> </mrow> </munderover> <msup> <mi>e</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <msup> <mi>β</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mrow> <mn>2</mn> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mn>1</mn> <mo>+</mo> <msup> <mi>β</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">x</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mover> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">x</mi> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">¯</mo> </mover> </mrow> </mrow> <msup> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">T</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msup> <msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mover> <mi mathvariant="bold">Σ</mi> <mo>^</mo> </mover> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">x</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mover> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">x</mi> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">¯</mo> </mover> </mrow> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> </msup> <mo>+</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mrow> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mn>1</mn> <mo>+</mo> <mn>2</mn> <msup> <mi>β</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <msup> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>k</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> </mtd> </mtr> </mtable> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}T_{\beta }&=\int _{\mathbb {R} ^{k}}\left|{1 \over n}\sum _{j=1}^{n}e^{i\mathbf {t} ^{\mathrm {T} }{\widehat {\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}}^{-1/2}(\mathbf {x} _{j}-{\bar {\mathbf {x} )}}}-e^{-|\mathbf {t} |^{2}/2}\right|^{2}\;{\boldsymbol {\mu }}_{\beta }(\mathbf {t} )\,d\mathbf {t} \\&={1 \over n^{2}}\sum _{i,j=1}^{n}e^{-{\beta ^{2} \over 2}(\mathbf {x} _{i}-\mathbf {x} _{j})^{\mathrm {T} }{\widehat {\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}}^{-1}(\mathbf {x} _{i}-\mathbf {x} _{j})}-{\frac {2}{n(1+\beta ^{2})^{k/2}}}\sum _{i=1}^{n}e^{-{\frac {\beta ^{2}}{2(1+\beta ^{2})}}(\mathbf {x} _{i}-{\bar {\mathbf {x} }})^{\mathrm {T} }{\widehat {\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}}^{-1}(\mathbf {x} _{i}-{\bar {\mathbf {x} }})}+{\frac {1}{(1+2\beta ^{2})^{k/2}}}\end{aligned}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/2c7fc831946b9ed2bfe82beeef2f001b4eeb2fda" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -7.671ex; width:94.431ex; height:16.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}T_{\beta }&=\int _{\mathbb {R} ^{k}}\left|{1 \over n}\sum _{j=1}^{n}e^{i\mathbf {t} ^{\mathrm {T} }{\widehat {\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}}^{-1/2}(\mathbf {x} _{j}-{\bar {\mathbf {x} )}}}-e^{-|\mathbf {t} |^{2}/2}\right|^{2}\;{\boldsymbol {\mu }}_{\beta }(\mathbf {t} )\,d\mathbf {t} \\&={1 \over n^{2}}\sum _{i,j=1}^{n}e^{-{\beta ^{2} \over 2}(\mathbf {x} _{i}-\mathbf {x} _{j})^{\mathrm {T} }{\widehat {\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}}^{-1}(\mathbf {x} _{i}-\mathbf {x} _{j})}-{\frac {2}{n(1+\beta ^{2})^{k/2}}}\sum _{i=1}^{n}e^{-{\frac {\beta ^{2}}{2(1+\beta ^{2})}}(\mathbf {x} _{i}-{\bar {\mathbf {x} }})^{\mathrm {T} }{\widehat {\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}}^{-1}(\mathbf {x} _{i}-{\bar {\mathbf {x} }})}+{\frac {1}{(1+2\beta ^{2})^{k/2}}}\end{aligned}}}"></span></dd></dl> <p>The limiting distribution of this test statistic is a weighted sum of chi-squared random variables.<sup id="cite_ref-BH_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BH-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A detailed survey of these and other test procedures is available.<sup id="cite_ref-Henze_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Henze-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Classification_into_multivariate_normal_classes">Classification into multivariate normal classes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Multivariate_normal_distribution&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Classification into multivariate normal classes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Classification_of_several_multivariate_normals.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Classification_of_several_multivariate_normals.png/600px-Classification_of_several_multivariate_normals.png" decoding="async" width="600" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Classification_of_several_multivariate_normals.png/900px-Classification_of_several_multivariate_normals.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Classification_of_several_multivariate_normals.png/1200px-Classification_of_several_multivariate_normals.png 2x" data-file-width="3965" data-file-height="880" /></a><figcaption>Left: Classification of seven multivariate normal classes. Coloured ellipses are 1 sd error ellipses. Black marks the boundaries between the classification regions. <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle p_{e}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>p</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>e</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle p_{e}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/ea9d1daea5e2e2bca1b08d45ef8f2b10a55184ea" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; margin-left: -0.089ex; width:2.257ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle p_{e}}"></span> is the probability of total classification error. Right: the error matrix. <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle p_{ij}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>p</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> <mi>j</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle p_{ij}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/ca46e6d560ac4e615adcd6d053cd476f4aadfcbd" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; margin-left: -0.089ex; width:2.736ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle p_{ij}}"></span> is the probability of classifying a sample from normal <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle i}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>i</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle i}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/add78d8608ad86e54951b8c8bd6c8d8416533d20" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:0.802ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle i}"></span> as <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle j}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>j</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle j}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/2f461e54f5c093e92a55547b9764291390f0b5d0" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; margin-left: -0.027ex; width:0.985ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle j}"></span>. These are computed by the numerical method of ray-tracing <sup id="cite_ref-Das_17-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Das-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mathworks.com/matlabcentral/fileexchange/84973-integrate-and-classify-normal-distributions">Matlab code</a>). </figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Gaussian_Discriminant_Analysis">Gaussian Discriminant Analysis</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Multivariate_normal_distribution&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Gaussian Discriminant Analysis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Suppose that observations (which are vectors) are presumed to come from one of several multivariate normal distributions, with known means and covariances. Then any given observation can be assigned to the distribution from which it has the highest probability of arising. This classification procedure is called Gaussian discriminant analysis. The classification performance, i.e. probabilities of the different classification outcomes, and the overall classification error, can be computed by the numerical method of ray-tracing <sup id="cite_ref-Das_17-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Das-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mathworks.com/matlabcentral/fileexchange/84973-integrate-and-classify-normal-distributions">Matlab code</a>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Computational_methods">Computational methods</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Multivariate_normal_distribution&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Computational methods"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Drawing_values_from_the_distribution">Drawing values from the distribution</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Multivariate_normal_distribution&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Drawing values from the distribution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A widely used method for drawing (sampling) a random vector <b>x</b> from the <i>N</i>-dimensional multivariate normal distribution with mean vector <b>μ</b> and <a href="/wiki/Covariance_matrix" title="Covariance matrix">covariance matrix</a> <b>Σ</b> works as follows:<sup id="cite_ref-Gentle_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gentle-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ol><li>Find any real matrix <b>A</b> such that <span class="nowrap"><b>AA</b><sup>T</sup> = <b>Σ</b></span>. When <b>Σ</b> is positive-definite, the <a href="/wiki/Cholesky_decomposition" title="Cholesky decomposition">Cholesky decomposition</a> is typically used, and the <a href="/wiki/Cholesky_decomposition#Avoiding_taking_square_roots" title="Cholesky decomposition">extended form</a> of this decomposition can always be used (as the covariance matrix may be only positive semi-definite) in both cases a suitable matrix <b>A</b> is obtained. An alternative is to use the matrix <b>A</b> = <b>UΛ</b><sup>1/2</sup> obtained from a <a href="/wiki/Eigendecomposition_of_a_matrix#Real_symmetric_matrices" title="Eigendecomposition of a matrix">spectral decomposition</a> <b>Σ</b> = <b>UΛU</b><sup>−1</sup> of <b>Σ</b>. The former approach is more computationally straightforward but the matrices <b>A</b> change for different orderings of the elements of the random vector, while the latter approach gives matrices that are related by simple re-orderings. In theory both approaches give equally good ways of determining a suitable matrix <b>A</b>, but there are differences in computation time.</li> <li>Let <span class="nowrap"><b>z</b> = (<i>z</i><sub>1</sub>, ..., <i>z<sub>N</sub></i>)<sup>T</sup></span> be a vector whose components are <i>N</i> <a href="/wiki/Statistical_independence" class="mw-redirect" title="Statistical independence">independent</a> <a href="/wiki/Normal_distribution" title="Normal distribution">standard normal</a> variates (which can be generated, for example, by using the <a href="/wiki/Box%E2%80%93Muller_transform" title="Box–Muller transform">Box–Muller transform</a>).</li> <li>Let <b>x</b> be <span class="nowrap"><b>μ</b> + <b>Az</b></span>. This has the desired distribution due to the affine transformation property.</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Multivariate_normal_distribution&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chi_distribution" title="Chi distribution">Chi distribution</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Probability_density_function" title="Probability density function">pdf</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Norm_(mathematics)#p-norm" title="Norm (mathematics)">2-norm</a> (<a href="/wiki/Euclidean_norm" class="mw-redirect" title="Euclidean norm">Euclidean norm</a> or <a href="/wiki/Vector_length" class="mw-redirect" title="Vector length">vector length</a>) of a multivariate normally distributed vector (uncorrelated and zero centered). <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rayleigh_distribution" title="Rayleigh distribution">Rayleigh distribution</a>, the pdf of the vector length of a bivariate normally distributed vector (uncorrelated and zero centered)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rice_distribution" title="Rice distribution">Rice distribution</a>, the pdf of the vector length of a bivariate normally distributed vector (uncorrelated and non-centered)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hoyt_distribution" class="mw-redirect" title="Hoyt distribution">Hoyt distribution</a>, the pdf of the vector length of a bivariate normally distributed vector (correlated and centered)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Complex_normal_distribution" title="Complex normal distribution">Complex normal distribution</a>, an application of bivariate normal distribution</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaussian_copula" class="mw-redirect" title="Gaussian copula">Copula</a>, for the definition of the Gaussian or normal copula model.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multivariate_t-distribution" title="Multivariate t-distribution">Multivariate t-distribution</a>, which is another widely used spherically symmetric multivariate distribution.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multivariate_stable_distribution" title="Multivariate stable distribution">Multivariate stable distribution</a> extension of the multivariate normal distribution, when the index (exponent in the characteristic function) is between zero and two.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahalanobis_distance" title="Mahalanobis distance">Mahalanobis distance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wishart_distribution" title="Wishart distribution">Wishart distribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matrix_normal_distribution" title="Matrix normal distribution">Matrix normal distribution</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Multivariate_normal_distribution&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output 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a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output 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Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-33825-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-33825-5"><bdi>0-521-33825-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Limited+Dependent+and+Qualitative+Variables+in+Econometrics&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=0-521-33825-5&rft.aulast=Maddala&rft.aufirst=G.+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMultivariate+normal+distribution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">An algebraic computation of the marginal distribution is shown here <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://fourier.eng.hmc.edu/e161/lectures/gaussianprocess/node7.html">http://fourier.eng.hmc.edu/e161/lectures/gaussianprocess/node7.html</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100117200722/http://fourier.eng.hmc.edu/e161/lectures/gaussianprocess/node7.html">Archived</a> 2010-01-17 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. A much shorter proof is outlined here <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://math.stackexchange.com/a/3832137">https://math.stackexchange.com/a/3832137</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNikolaus_Hansen2016" class="citation web cs1">Nikolaus Hansen (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100331114258/http://www.lri.fr/~hansen/cmatutorial.pdf">"The CMA Evolution Strategy: A Tutorial"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1604.00772">1604.00772</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2016arXiv160400772H">2016arXiv160400772H</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lri.fr/~hansen/cmatutorial.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2010-03-31<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2012-01-07</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+CMA+Evolution+Strategy%3A+A+Tutorial&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1604.00772&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2016arXiv160400772H&rft.au=Nikolaus+Hansen&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.lri.fr%2F~hansen%2Fcmatutorial.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMultivariate+normal+distribution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDaniel_Wollschlaeger" class="citation web cs1">Daniel Wollschlaeger. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://finzi.psych.upenn.edu/usr/share/doc/library/shotGroups/html/hoyt.html">"The Hoyt Distribution (Documentation for R package 'shotGroups' version 0.6.2)"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Hoyt+Distribution+%28Documentation+for+R+package+%27shotGroups%27+version+0.6.2%29&rft.au=Daniel+Wollschlaeger&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffinzi.psych.upenn.edu%2Fusr%2Fshare%2Fdoc%2Flibrary%2FshotGroups%2Fhtml%2Fhoyt.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMultivariate+normal+distribution" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged December 2017">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWangShiMiao2015" class="citation journal cs1">Wang, Bin; Shi, Wenzhong; Miao, Zelang (2015-03-13). 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"Testing multivariate normality". <i>Biometrika</i>. <b>65</b> (2): 263. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fbiomet%2F65.2.263">10.1093/biomet/65.2.263</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Biometrika&rft.atitle=Testing+multivariate+normality&rft.volume=65&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=263&rft.date=1978&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fbiomet%2F65.2.263&rft.aulast=Cox&rft.aufirst=D.+R.&rft.au=Small%2C+N.+J.+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMultivariate+normal+distribution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmithJain1988" class="citation journal cs1">Smith, S. P.; Jain, A. K. (1988). "A test to determine the multivariate normality of a data set". <i>IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence</i>. <b>10</b> (5): 757. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1109%2F34.6789">10.1109/34.6789</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=IEEE+Transactions+on+Pattern+Analysis+and+Machine+Intelligence&rft.atitle=A+test+to+determine+the+multivariate+normality+of+a+data+set&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=757&rft.date=1988&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2F34.6789&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=S.+P.&rft.au=Jain%2C+A.+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMultivariate+normal+distribution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFriedmanRafsky1979" class="citation journal cs1">Friedman, J. 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"Invariant tests for multivariate normality: a critical review". <i>Statistical Papers</i>. <b>43</b> (4): 467–506. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00362-002-0119-6">10.1007/s00362-002-0119-6</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:122934510">122934510</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Statistical+Papers&rft.atitle=Invariant+tests+for+multivariate+normality%3A+a+critical+review&rft.volume=43&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=467-506&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs00362-002-0119-6&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A122934510%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Henze&rft.aufirst=Norbert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMultivariate+normal+distribution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gentle-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Gentle_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGentle2009" class="citation book cs1">Gentle, J. E. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cds.cern.ch/record/1639470"><i>Computational Statistics</i></a>. Statistics and Computing. New York: Springer. pp. 315–316. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-0-387-98144-4">10.1007/978-0-387-98144-4</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-387-98143-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-387-98143-7"><bdi>978-0-387-98143-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Computational+Statistics&rft.place=New+York&rft.series=Statistics+and+Computing&rft.pages=315-316&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-0-387-98144-4&rft.isbn=978-0-387-98143-7&rft.aulast=Gentle&rft.aufirst=J.+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcds.cern.ch%2Frecord%2F1639470&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMultivariate+normal+distribution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Literature">Literature</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Multivariate_normal_distribution&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Literature"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRencher,_A.C.1995" class="citation book cs1">Rencher, A.C. (1995). <i>Methods of Multivariate Analysis</i>. New York: Wiley.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Methods+of+Multivariate+Analysis&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=1995&rft.au=Rencher%2C+A.C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMultivariate+normal+distribution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTong1990" class="citation book cs1">Tong, Y. L. (1990). <i>The multivariate normal distribution</i>. Springer Series in Statistics. New York: Springer-Verlag. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4613-9655-0">10.1007/978-1-4613-9655-0</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4613-9657-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4613-9657-4"><bdi>978-1-4613-9657-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:120348131">120348131</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+multivariate+normal+distribution&rft.place=New+York&rft.series=Springer+Series+in+Statistics&rft.pub=Springer-Verlag&rft.date=1990&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A120348131%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-1-4613-9655-0&rft.isbn=978-1-4613-9657-4&rft.aulast=Tong&rft.aufirst=Y.+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMultivariate+normal+distribution" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Probability_distributions" title="Template:Probability distributions"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Probability_distributions" title="Template talk:Probability distributions"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Probability_distributions" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Probability distributions"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Probability_distributions_(list)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Probability_distribution" title="Probability distribution">Probability distributions</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_probability_distributions" title="List of probability distributions">list</a>)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Discrete <br />univariate</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">with finite <br />support</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Benford%27s_law" title="Benford's law">Benford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernoulli_distribution" title="Bernoulli distribution">Bernoulli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beta-binomial_distribution" title="Beta-binomial distribution">Beta-binomial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Binomial_distribution" title="Binomial distribution">Binomial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Categorical_distribution" title="Categorical distribution">Categorical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypergeometric_distribution" title="Hypergeometric distribution">Hypergeometric</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Negative_hypergeometric_distribution" title="Negative hypergeometric distribution">Negative</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poisson_binomial_distribution" title="Poisson binomial distribution">Poisson binomial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rademacher_distribution" title="Rademacher distribution">Rademacher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soliton_distribution" title="Soliton distribution">Soliton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrete_uniform_distribution" title="Discrete uniform distribution">Discrete uniform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zipf%27s_law" title="Zipf's law">Zipf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zipf%E2%80%93Mandelbrot_law" title="Zipf–Mandelbrot law">Zipf–Mandelbrot</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">with infinite <br />support</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beta_negative_binomial_distribution" title="Beta negative binomial distribution">Beta negative binomial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Borel_distribution" title="Borel distribution">Borel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conway%E2%80%93Maxwell%E2%80%93Poisson_distribution" title="Conway–Maxwell–Poisson distribution">Conway–Maxwell–Poisson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrete_phase-type_distribution" title="Discrete phase-type distribution">Discrete phase-type</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Delaporte_distribution" title="Delaporte distribution">Delaporte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extended_negative_binomial_distribution" title="Extended negative binomial distribution">Extended negative binomial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flory%E2%80%93Schulz_distribution" title="Flory–Schulz distribution">Flory–Schulz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gauss%E2%80%93Kuzmin_distribution" title="Gauss–Kuzmin distribution">Gauss–Kuzmin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geometric_distribution" title="Geometric distribution">Geometric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logarithmic_distribution" title="Logarithmic distribution">Logarithmic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixed_Poisson_distribution" title="Mixed Poisson distribution">Mixed Poisson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negative_binomial_distribution" title="Negative binomial distribution">Negative binomial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/(a,b,0)_class_of_distributions" title="(a,b,0) class of distributions">Panjer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parabolic_fractal_distribution" title="Parabolic fractal distribution">Parabolic fractal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poisson_distribution" title="Poisson distribution">Poisson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skellam_distribution" title="Skellam distribution">Skellam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yule%E2%80%93Simon_distribution" title="Yule–Simon distribution">Yule–Simon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zeta_distribution" title="Zeta distribution">Zeta</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Continuous <br />univariate</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">supported on a <br />bounded interval</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arcsine_distribution" title="Arcsine distribution">Arcsine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ARGUS_distribution" title="ARGUS distribution">ARGUS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balding%E2%80%93Nichols_model" title="Balding–Nichols model">Balding–Nichols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bates_distribution" title="Bates distribution">Bates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beta_distribution" title="Beta distribution">Beta</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Generalized_beta_distribution" title="Generalized beta distribution">Generalized</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beta_rectangular_distribution" title="Beta rectangular distribution">Beta rectangular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continuous_Bernoulli_distribution" title="Continuous Bernoulli distribution">Continuous Bernoulli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irwin%E2%80%93Hall_distribution" title="Irwin–Hall distribution">Irwin–Hall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kumaraswamy_distribution" title="Kumaraswamy distribution">Kumaraswamy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logit-normal_distribution" title="Logit-normal distribution">Logit-normal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noncentral_beta_distribution" title="Noncentral beta distribution">Noncentral beta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PERT_distribution" title="PERT distribution">PERT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raised_cosine_distribution" title="Raised cosine distribution">Raised cosine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reciprocal_distribution" title="Reciprocal distribution">Reciprocal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triangular_distribution" title="Triangular distribution">Triangular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/U-quadratic_distribution" title="U-quadratic distribution">U-quadratic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continuous_uniform_distribution" title="Continuous uniform distribution">Uniform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wigner_semicircle_distribution" title="Wigner semicircle distribution">Wigner semicircle</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">supported on a <br />semi-infinite <br />interval</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Benini_distribution" title="Benini distribution">Benini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benktander_type_I_distribution" title="Benktander type I distribution">Benktander 1st kind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benktander_type_II_distribution" title="Benktander type II distribution">Benktander 2nd kind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beta_prime_distribution" title="Beta prime distribution">Beta prime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burr_distribution" title="Burr distribution">Burr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chi_distribution" title="Chi distribution">Chi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chi-squared_distribution" title="Chi-squared distribution">Chi-squared</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Noncentral_chi-squared_distribution" title="Noncentral chi-squared distribution">Noncentral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inverse-chi-squared_distribution" title="Inverse-chi-squared distribution">Inverse</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scaled_inverse_chi-squared_distribution" title="Scaled inverse chi-squared distribution">Scaled</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dagum_distribution" title="Dagum distribution">Dagum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Davis_distribution" title="Davis distribution">Davis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erlang_distribution" title="Erlang distribution">Erlang</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hyper-Erlang_distribution" title="Hyper-Erlang distribution">Hyper</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exponential_distribution" title="Exponential distribution">Exponential</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hyperexponential_distribution" title="Hyperexponential distribution">Hyperexponential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypoexponential_distribution" title="Hypoexponential distribution">Hypoexponential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exponential-logarithmic_distribution" title="Exponential-logarithmic distribution">Logarithmic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F-distribution" title="F-distribution"><i>F</i></a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Noncentral_F-distribution" title="Noncentral F-distribution">Noncentral</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folded_normal_distribution" title="Folded normal distribution">Folded normal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9chet_distribution" title="Fréchet distribution">Fréchet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gamma_distribution" title="Gamma distribution">Gamma</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Generalized_gamma_distribution" title="Generalized gamma distribution">Generalized</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inverse-gamma_distribution" title="Inverse-gamma distribution">Inverse</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gamma/Gompertz_distribution" title="Gamma/Gompertz distribution">gamma/Gompertz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gompertz_distribution" title="Gompertz distribution">Gompertz</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shifted_Gompertz_distribution" title="Shifted Gompertz distribution">Shifted</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Half-logistic_distribution" title="Half-logistic distribution">Half-logistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Half-normal_distribution" title="Half-normal distribution">Half-normal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hotelling%27s_T-squared_distribution" title="Hotelling's T-squared distribution">Hotelling's <i>T</i>-squared</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inverse_Gaussian_distribution" title="Inverse Gaussian distribution">Inverse Gaussian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Generalized_inverse_Gaussian_distribution" title="Generalized inverse Gaussian distribution">Generalized</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kolmogorov%E2%80%93Smirnov_test" title="Kolmogorov–Smirnov test">Kolmogorov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%A9vy_distribution" title="Lévy distribution">Lévy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Log-Cauchy_distribution" title="Log-Cauchy distribution">Log-Cauchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Log-Laplace_distribution" title="Log-Laplace distribution">Log-Laplace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Log-logistic_distribution" title="Log-logistic distribution">Log-logistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Log-normal_distribution" title="Log-normal distribution">Log-normal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Log-t_distribution" title="Log-t distribution">Log-t</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lomax_distribution" title="Lomax distribution">Lomax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matrix-exponential_distribution" title="Matrix-exponential distribution">Matrix-exponential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maxwell%E2%80%93Boltzmann_distribution" title="Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution">Maxwell–Boltzmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maxwell%E2%80%93J%C3%BCttner_distribution" title="Maxwell–Jüttner distribution">Maxwell–Jüttner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mittag-Leffler_distribution" title="Mittag-Leffler distribution">Mittag-Leffler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nakagami_distribution" title="Nakagami distribution">Nakagami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pareto_distribution" title="Pareto distribution">Pareto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phase-type_distribution" title="Phase-type distribution">Phase-type</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poly-Weibull_distribution" title="Poly-Weibull distribution">Poly-Weibull</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rayleigh_distribution" title="Rayleigh distribution">Rayleigh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relativistic_Breit%E2%80%93Wigner_distribution" title="Relativistic Breit–Wigner distribution">Relativistic Breit–Wigner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rice_distribution" title="Rice distribution">Rice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truncated_normal_distribution" title="Truncated normal distribution">Truncated normal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Type-2_Gumbel_distribution" title="Type-2 Gumbel distribution">type-2 Gumbel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weibull_distribution" title="Weibull distribution">Weibull</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discrete_Weibull_distribution" title="Discrete Weibull distribution">Discrete</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilks%27s_lambda_distribution" title="Wilks's lambda distribution">Wilks's lambda</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">supported <br />on the whole <br />real line</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cauchy_distribution" title="Cauchy distribution">Cauchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generalized_normal_distribution#Version_1" title="Generalized normal distribution">Exponential power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fisher%27s_z-distribution" title="Fisher's z-distribution">Fisher's <i>z</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaniadakis_Gaussian_distribution" title="Kaniadakis Gaussian distribution">Kaniadakis κ-Gaussian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaussian_q-distribution" title="Gaussian q-distribution">Gaussian <i>q</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generalized_normal_distribution" title="Generalized normal distribution">Generalized normal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generalised_hyperbolic_distribution" title="Generalised hyperbolic distribution">Generalized hyperbolic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geometric_stable_distribution" title="Geometric stable distribution">Geometric stable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gumbel_distribution" title="Gumbel distribution">Gumbel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holtsmark_distribution" title="Holtsmark distribution">Holtsmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperbolic_secant_distribution" title="Hyperbolic secant distribution">Hyperbolic secant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johnson%27s_SU-distribution" title="Johnson's SU-distribution">Johnson's <i>S<sub>U</sub></i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landau_distribution" title="Landau distribution">Landau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laplace_distribution" title="Laplace distribution">Laplace</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asymmetric_Laplace_distribution" title="Asymmetric Laplace distribution">Asymmetric</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logistic_distribution" title="Logistic distribution">Logistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noncentral_t-distribution" title="Noncentral t-distribution">Noncentral <i>t</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normal_distribution" title="Normal distribution">Normal (Gaussian)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normal-inverse_Gaussian_distribution" title="Normal-inverse Gaussian distribution">Normal-inverse Gaussian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skew_normal_distribution" title="Skew normal distribution">Skew normal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slash_distribution" title="Slash distribution">Slash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stable_distribution" title="Stable distribution">Stable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Student%27s_t-distribution" title="Student's t-distribution">Student's <i>t</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tracy%E2%80%93Widom_distribution" title="Tracy–Widom distribution">Tracy–Widom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variance-gamma_distribution" title="Variance-gamma distribution">Variance-gamma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voigt_profile" title="Voigt profile">Voigt</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">with support <br />whose type varies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Generalized_chi-squared_distribution" title="Generalized chi-squared distribution">Generalized chi-squared</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generalized_extreme_value_distribution" title="Generalized extreme value distribution">Generalized extreme value</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generalized_Pareto_distribution" title="Generalized Pareto distribution">Generalized Pareto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marchenko%E2%80%93Pastur_distribution" title="Marchenko–Pastur distribution">Marchenko–Pastur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaniadakis_Exponential_distribution" class="mw-redirect" title="Kaniadakis Exponential distribution">Kaniadakis <i>κ</i>-exponential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaniadakis_Gamma_distribution" title="Kaniadakis Gamma distribution">Kaniadakis <i>κ</i>-Gamma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaniadakis_Weibull_distribution" title="Kaniadakis Weibull distribution">Kaniadakis <i>κ</i>-Weibull</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaniadakis_Logistic_distribution" class="mw-redirect" title="Kaniadakis Logistic distribution">Kaniadakis <i>κ</i>-Logistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaniadakis_Erlang_distribution" title="Kaniadakis Erlang distribution">Kaniadakis <i>κ</i>-Erlang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Q-exponential_distribution" title="Q-exponential distribution"><i>q</i>-exponential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Q-Gaussian_distribution" title="Q-Gaussian distribution"><i>q</i>-Gaussian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Q-Weibull_distribution" title="Q-Weibull distribution"><i>q</i>-Weibull</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shifted_log-logistic_distribution" title="Shifted log-logistic distribution">Shifted log-logistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tukey_lambda_distribution" title="Tukey lambda distribution">Tukey lambda</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Mixed <br />univariate</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">continuous-<br />discrete</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rectified_Gaussian_distribution" title="Rectified Gaussian distribution">Rectified Gaussian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Joint_probability_distribution" title="Joint probability distribution">Multivariate <br />(joint)</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nobold"><i>Discrete: </i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ewens%27s_sampling_formula" title="Ewens's sampling formula">Ewens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multinomial_distribution" title="Multinomial distribution">Multinomial</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dirichlet-multinomial_distribution" title="Dirichlet-multinomial distribution">Dirichlet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negative_multinomial_distribution" title="Negative multinomial distribution">Negative</a></li></ul></li> <li><span class="nobold"><i>Continuous: </i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dirichlet_distribution" title="Dirichlet distribution">Dirichlet</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Generalized_Dirichlet_distribution" title="Generalized Dirichlet distribution">Generalized</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multivariate_Laplace_distribution" title="Multivariate Laplace distribution">Multivariate Laplace</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Multivariate normal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multivariate_stable_distribution" title="Multivariate stable distribution">Multivariate stable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multivariate_t-distribution" title="Multivariate t-distribution">Multivariate <i>t</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normal-gamma_distribution" title="Normal-gamma distribution">Normal-gamma</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Normal-inverse-gamma_distribution" title="Normal-inverse-gamma distribution">Inverse</a></li></ul></li> <li><span class="nobold"><i><a href="/wiki/Random_matrix" title="Random matrix">Matrix-valued: </a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lewandowski-Kurowicka-Joe_distribution" title="Lewandowski-Kurowicka-Joe distribution">LKJ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matrix_normal_distribution" title="Matrix normal distribution">Matrix normal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matrix_t-distribution" title="Matrix t-distribution">Matrix <i>t</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matrix_gamma_distribution" title="Matrix gamma distribution">Matrix gamma</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inverse_matrix_gamma_distribution" title="Inverse matrix gamma distribution">Inverse</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wishart_distribution" title="Wishart distribution">Wishart</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Normal-Wishart_distribution" title="Normal-Wishart distribution">Normal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inverse-Wishart_distribution" title="Inverse-Wishart distribution">Inverse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normal-inverse-Wishart_distribution" title="Normal-inverse-Wishart distribution">Normal-inverse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Complex_Wishart_distribution" title="Complex Wishart distribution">Complex</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Directional_statistics" title="Directional statistics">Directional</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt><span class="nobold"><i>Univariate (circular) <a href="/wiki/Directional_statistics" title="Directional statistics">directional</a></i></span></dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Circular_uniform_distribution" title="Circular uniform distribution">Circular uniform</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Von_Mises_distribution" title="Von Mises distribution">Univariate von Mises</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Wrapped_normal_distribution" title="Wrapped normal distribution">Wrapped normal</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Wrapped_Cauchy_distribution" title="Wrapped Cauchy distribution">Wrapped Cauchy</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Wrapped_exponential_distribution" title="Wrapped exponential distribution">Wrapped exponential</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Wrapped_asymmetric_Laplace_distribution" title="Wrapped asymmetric Laplace distribution">Wrapped asymmetric Laplace</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Wrapped_L%C3%A9vy_distribution" title="Wrapped Lévy distribution">Wrapped Lévy</a></dd> <dt><span class="nobold"><i>Bivariate (spherical)</i></span></dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Kent_distribution" title="Kent distribution">Kent</a></dd> <dt><span class="nobold"><i>Bivariate (toroidal)</i></span></dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Bivariate_von_Mises_distribution" title="Bivariate von Mises distribution">Bivariate von Mises</a></dd> <dt><span class="nobold"><i>Multivariate</i></span></dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Von_Mises%E2%80%93Fisher_distribution" title="Von Mises–Fisher distribution">von Mises–Fisher</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Bingham_distribution" title="Bingham distribution">Bingham</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Degenerate_distribution" title="Degenerate distribution">Degenerate</a> <br />and <a href="/wiki/Singular_distribution" title="Singular distribution">singular</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt><span class="nobold"><i>Degenerate</i></span></dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Dirac_delta_function" title="Dirac delta function">Dirac delta function</a></dd> <dt><span class="nobold"><i>Singular</i></span></dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Cantor_distribution" title="Cantor distribution">Cantor</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Families</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Circular_distribution" title="Circular distribution">Circular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compound_Poisson_distribution" title="Compound Poisson distribution">Compound Poisson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elliptical_distribution" title="Elliptical distribution">Elliptical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exponential_family" title="Exponential family">Exponential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_exponential_family" title="Natural exponential family">Natural exponential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Location%E2%80%93scale_family" title="Location–scale family">Location–scale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maximum_entropy_probability_distribution" title="Maximum entropy probability distribution">Maximum entropy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixture_distribution" title="Mixture distribution">Mixture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pearson_distribution" title="Pearson distribution">Pearson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tweedie_distribution" title="Tweedie distribution">Tweedie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wrapped_distribution" title="Wrapped distribution">Wrapped</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Probability_distributions" title="Category:Probability distributions">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Probability_distributions" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Probability distributions">Commons</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Statistics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Statistics" title="Template:Statistics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Statistics" title="Template talk:Statistics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Statistics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Statistics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Statistics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Statistics" title="Statistics">Statistics</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_statistics" title="Outline of statistics">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_statistics_articles" title="List of statistics articles">Index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Descriptive_statistics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Descriptive_statistics" title="Descriptive statistics">Descriptive statistics</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.5em"><a href="/wiki/Continuous_probability_distribution" class="mw-redirect" title="Continuous probability distribution">Continuous data</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Central_tendency" title="Central tendency">Center</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mean" title="Mean">Mean</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arithmetic_mean" title="Arithmetic mean">Arithmetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arithmetic%E2%80%93geometric_mean" title="Arithmetic–geometric mean">Arithmetic-Geometric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contraharmonic_mean" title="Contraharmonic mean">Contraharmonic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cubic_mean" title="Cubic mean">Cubic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generalized_mean" title="Generalized mean">Generalized/power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geometric_mean" title="Geometric mean">Geometric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harmonic_mean" title="Harmonic mean">Harmonic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heronian_mean" title="Heronian mean">Heronian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heinz_mean" title="Heinz mean">Heinz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lehmer_mean" title="Lehmer mean">Lehmer</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Median" title="Median">Median</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mode_(statistics)" title="Mode (statistics)">Mode</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Statistical_dispersion" title="Statistical dispersion">Dispersion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Average_absolute_deviation" title="Average absolute deviation">Average absolute deviation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coefficient_of_variation" title="Coefficient of variation">Coefficient of variation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interquartile_range" title="Interquartile range">Interquartile range</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Percentile" title="Percentile">Percentile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Range_(statistics)" title="Range (statistics)">Range</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_deviation" title="Standard deviation">Standard deviation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variance#Sample_variance" title="Variance">Variance</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Shape_of_the_distribution" class="mw-redirect" title="Shape of the distribution">Shape</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_limit_theorem" title="Central limit theorem">Central limit theorem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moment_(mathematics)" title="Moment (mathematics)">Moments</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kurtosis" title="Kurtosis">Kurtosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L-moment" title="L-moment">L-moments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skewness" title="Skewness">Skewness</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.5em"><a href="/wiki/Count_data" title="Count data">Count data</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_dispersion" title="Index of dispersion">Index of dispersion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.5em">Summary tables</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Contingency_table" title="Contingency table">Contingency table</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frequency_distribution" class="mw-redirect" title="Frequency distribution">Frequency distribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grouped_data" title="Grouped data">Grouped data</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.5em"><a href="/wiki/Correlation_and_dependence" class="mw-redirect" title="Correlation and dependence">Dependence</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Partial_correlation" title="Partial correlation">Partial correlation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pearson_correlation_coefficient" title="Pearson correlation coefficient">Pearson product-moment correlation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rank_correlation" title="Rank correlation">Rank correlation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kendall_rank_correlation_coefficient" title="Kendall rank correlation coefficient">Kendall's τ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spearman%27s_rank_correlation_coefficient" title="Spearman's rank correlation coefficient">Spearman's ρ</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scatter_plot" title="Scatter plot">Scatter plot</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.5em"><a href="/wiki/Statistical_graphics" title="Statistical graphics">Graphics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bar_chart" title="Bar chart">Bar chart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biplot" title="Biplot">Biplot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Box_plot" title="Box plot">Box plot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Control_chart" title="Control chart">Control chart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Correlogram" title="Correlogram">Correlogram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fan_chart_(statistics)" title="Fan chart (statistics)">Fan chart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_plot" title="Forest plot">Forest plot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Histogram" title="Histogram">Histogram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pie_chart" title="Pie chart">Pie chart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Q%E2%80%93Q_plot" title="Q–Q plot">Q–Q plot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radar_chart" title="Radar chart">Radar chart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Run_chart" title="Run chart">Run chart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scatter_plot" title="Scatter plot">Scatter plot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stem-and-leaf_display" title="Stem-and-leaf display">Stem-and-leaf display</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Violin_plot" title="Violin plot">Violin plot</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Data_collection" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Data_collection" title="Data collection">Data collection</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.5em"><a href="/wiki/Design_of_experiments" title="Design of experiments">Study design</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effect_size" title="Effect size">Effect size</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missing_data" title="Missing data">Missing data</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optimal_design" class="mw-redirect" title="Optimal design">Optimal design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_population" title="Statistical population">Population</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Replication_(statistics)" title="Replication (statistics)">Replication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sample_size_determination" title="Sample size determination">Sample size determination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistic" title="Statistic">Statistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_power" class="mw-redirect" title="Statistical power">Statistical power</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.5em"><a href="/wiki/Survey_methodology" title="Survey methodology">Survey methodology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sampling_(statistics)" title="Sampling (statistics)">Sampling</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cluster_sampling" title="Cluster sampling">Cluster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stratified_sampling" title="Stratified sampling">Stratified</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opinion_poll" title="Opinion poll">Opinion poll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Questionnaire" title="Questionnaire">Questionnaire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_error" title="Standard error">Standard error</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.5em"><a href="/wiki/Experiment" title="Experiment">Controlled experiments</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blocking_(statistics)" title="Blocking (statistics)">Blocking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Factorial_experiment" title="Factorial experiment">Factorial experiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interaction_(statistics)" title="Interaction (statistics)">Interaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Random_assignment" title="Random assignment">Random assignment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Randomized_controlled_trial" title="Randomized controlled trial">Randomized controlled trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Randomized_experiment" title="Randomized experiment">Randomized experiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_control" title="Scientific control">Scientific control</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.5em">Adaptive designs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adaptive_clinical_trial" class="mw-redirect" title="Adaptive clinical trial">Adaptive clinical trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stochastic_approximation" title="Stochastic approximation">Stochastic approximation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Up-and-Down_Designs" class="mw-redirect" title="Up-and-Down Designs">Up-and-down designs</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.5em"><a href="/wiki/Observational_study" title="Observational study">Observational studies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cohort_study" title="Cohort study">Cohort study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-sectional_study" title="Cross-sectional study">Cross-sectional study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_experiment" title="Natural experiment">Natural experiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quasi-experiment" title="Quasi-experiment">Quasi-experiment</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Statistical_inference" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Statistical_inference" title="Statistical inference">Statistical inference</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.5em"><a href="/wiki/Statistical_theory" title="Statistical theory">Statistical theory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Population_(statistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Population (statistics)">Population</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistic" title="Statistic">Statistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Probability_distribution" title="Probability distribution">Probability distribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sampling_distribution" title="Sampling distribution">Sampling distribution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Order_statistic" title="Order statistic">Order statistic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empirical_distribution_function" title="Empirical distribution function">Empirical distribution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Density_estimation" title="Density estimation">Density estimation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_model" title="Statistical model">Statistical model</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Model_specification" class="mw-redirect" title="Model specification">Model specification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lp_space" title="Lp space">L<sup><i>p</i></sup> space</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_parameter" title="Statistical parameter">Parameter</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Location_parameter" title="Location parameter">location</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scale_parameter" title="Scale parameter">scale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shape_parameter" title="Shape parameter">shape</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parametric_statistics" title="Parametric statistics">Parametric family</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Likelihood_function" title="Likelihood function">Likelihood</a> <a href="/wiki/Monotone_likelihood_ratio" title="Monotone likelihood ratio"><span style="font-size:85%;">(monotone)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Location%E2%80%93scale_family" title="Location–scale family">Location–scale family</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exponential_family" title="Exponential family">Exponential family</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Completeness_(statistics)" title="Completeness (statistics)">Completeness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufficient_statistic" title="Sufficient statistic">Sufficiency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plug-in_principle" class="mw-redirect" title="Plug-in principle">Statistical functional</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bootstrapping_(statistics)" title="Bootstrapping (statistics)">Bootstrap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/U-statistic" title="U-statistic">U</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/V-statistic" title="V-statistic">V</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optimal_decision" title="Optimal decision">Optimal decision</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Loss_function" title="Loss function">loss function</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Efficiency_(statistics)" title="Efficiency (statistics)">Efficiency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_distance" title="Statistical distance">Statistical distance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Divergence_(statistics)" title="Divergence (statistics)">divergence</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asymptotic_theory_(statistics)" title="Asymptotic theory (statistics)">Asymptotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robust_statistics" title="Robust statistics">Robustness</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.5em"><a href="/wiki/Frequentist_inference" title="Frequentist inference">Frequentist inference</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Point_estimation" title="Point estimation">Point estimation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Estimating_equations" title="Estimating equations">Estimating equations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maximum_likelihood" class="mw-redirect" title="Maximum likelihood">Maximum likelihood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Method_of_moments_(statistics)" title="Method of moments (statistics)">Method of moments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M-estimator" title="M-estimator">M-estimator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minimum_distance_estimation" class="mw-redirect" title="Minimum distance estimation">Minimum distance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bias_of_an_estimator" title="Bias of an estimator">Unbiased estimators</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Minimum-variance_unbiased_estimator" title="Minimum-variance unbiased estimator">Mean-unbiased minimum-variance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rao%E2%80%93Blackwell_theorem" title="Rao–Blackwell theorem">Rao–Blackwellization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lehmann%E2%80%93Scheff%C3%A9_theorem" title="Lehmann–Scheffé theorem">Lehmann–Scheffé theorem</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Median-unbiased_estimator" class="mw-redirect" title="Median-unbiased estimator">Median unbiased</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plug-in_principle" class="mw-redirect" title="Plug-in principle">Plug-in</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Interval_estimation" title="Interval estimation">Interval estimation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Confidence_interval" title="Confidence interval">Confidence interval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pivotal_quantity" title="Pivotal quantity">Pivot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Likelihood_interval" class="mw-redirect" title="Likelihood interval">Likelihood interval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prediction_interval" title="Prediction interval">Prediction interval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tolerance_interval" title="Tolerance interval">Tolerance interval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resampling_(statistics)" title="Resampling (statistics)">Resampling</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bootstrapping_(statistics)" title="Bootstrapping (statistics)">Bootstrap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jackknife_resampling" title="Jackknife resampling">Jackknife</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Statistical_hypothesis_testing" class="mw-redirect" title="Statistical hypothesis testing">Testing hypotheses</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/One-_and_two-tailed_tests" title="One- and two-tailed tests">1- & 2-tails</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_(statistics)" title="Power (statistics)">Power</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Uniformly_most_powerful_test" title="Uniformly most powerful test">Uniformly most powerful test</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permutation_test" title="Permutation test">Permutation test</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Randomization_test" class="mw-redirect" title="Randomization test">Randomization test</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiple_comparisons" class="mw-redirect" title="Multiple comparisons">Multiple comparisons</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Parametric_statistics" title="Parametric statistics">Parametric tests</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Likelihood-ratio_test" title="Likelihood-ratio test">Likelihood-ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Score_test" title="Score test">Score/Lagrange multiplier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wald_test" title="Wald test">Wald</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.5em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_statistical_tests" title="List of statistical tests">Specific tests</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Z-test" title="Z-test"><i>Z</i>-test <span style="font-size:85%;">(normal)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Student%27s_t-test" title="Student's t-test">Student's <i>t</i>-test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F-test" title="F-test"><i>F</i>-test</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Goodness_of_fit" title="Goodness of fit">Goodness of fit</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chi-squared_test" title="Chi-squared test">Chi-squared</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G-test" title="G-test"><i>G</i>-test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kolmogorov%E2%80%93Smirnov_test" title="Kolmogorov–Smirnov test">Kolmogorov–Smirnov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anderson%E2%80%93Darling_test" title="Anderson–Darling test">Anderson–Darling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lilliefors_test" title="Lilliefors test">Lilliefors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jarque%E2%80%93Bera_test" title="Jarque–Bera test">Jarque–Bera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shapiro%E2%80%93Wilk_test" title="Shapiro–Wilk test">Normality <span style="font-size:85%;">(Shapiro–Wilk)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Likelihood-ratio_test" title="Likelihood-ratio test">Likelihood-ratio test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Model_selection" title="Model selection">Model selection</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cross-validation_(statistics)" title="Cross-validation (statistics)">Cross validation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akaike_information_criterion" title="Akaike information criterion">AIC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bayesian_information_criterion" title="Bayesian information criterion">BIC</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Rank_statistics" class="mw-redirect" title="Rank statistics">Rank statistics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sign_test" title="Sign test">Sign</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sample_median" class="mw-redirect" title="Sample median">Sample median</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilcoxon_signed-rank_test" title="Wilcoxon signed-rank test">Signed rank <span style="font-size:85%;">(Wilcoxon)</span></a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hodges%E2%80%93Lehmann_estimator" title="Hodges–Lehmann estimator">Hodges–Lehmann estimator</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mann%E2%80%93Whitney_U_test" title="Mann–Whitney U test">Rank sum <span style="font-size:85%;">(Mann–Whitney)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonparametric_statistics" title="Nonparametric statistics">Nonparametric</a> <a href="/wiki/Analysis_of_variance" title="Analysis of variance">anova</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kruskal%E2%80%93Wallis_test" title="Kruskal–Wallis test">1-way <span style="font-size:85%;">(Kruskal–Wallis)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedman_test" title="Friedman test">2-way <span style="font-size:85%;">(Friedman)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonckheere%27s_trend_test" title="Jonckheere's trend test">Ordered alternative <span style="font-size:85%;">(Jonckheere–Terpstra)</span></a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Van_der_Waerden_test" title="Van der Waerden test">Van der Waerden test</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.5em"><a href="/wiki/Bayesian_inference" title="Bayesian inference">Bayesian inference</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bayesian_probability" title="Bayesian probability">Bayesian probability</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prior_probability" title="Prior probability">prior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posterior_probability" title="Posterior probability">posterior</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Credible_interval" title="Credible interval">Credible interval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bayes_factor" title="Bayes factor">Bayes factor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bayes_estimator" title="Bayes estimator">Bayesian estimator</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maximum_a_posteriori_estimation" title="Maximum a posteriori estimation">Maximum posterior estimator</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="CorrelationRegression_analysis" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Correlation_and_dependence" class="mw-redirect" title="Correlation and dependence">Correlation</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Regression_analysis" title="Regression analysis">Regression analysis</a></li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.5em"><a href="/wiki/Correlation_and_dependence" class="mw-redirect" title="Correlation and dependence">Correlation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pearson_product-moment_correlation_coefficient" class="mw-redirect" title="Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient">Pearson product-moment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partial_correlation" title="Partial correlation">Partial correlation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confounding" title="Confounding">Confounding variable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coefficient_of_determination" title="Coefficient of determination">Coefficient of determination</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.5em"><a href="/wiki/Regression_analysis" title="Regression analysis">Regression analysis</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Errors_and_residuals" title="Errors and residuals">Errors and residuals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regression_validation" title="Regression validation">Regression validation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixed_model" title="Mixed model">Mixed effects models</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simultaneous_equations_model" title="Simultaneous equations model">Simultaneous equations models</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multivariate_adaptive_regression_splines" class="mw-redirect" title="Multivariate adaptive regression splines">Multivariate adaptive regression splines (MARS)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.5em"><a href="/wiki/Linear_regression" title="Linear regression">Linear regression</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Simple_linear_regression" title="Simple linear regression">Simple linear regression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordinary_least_squares" title="Ordinary least squares">Ordinary least squares</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_linear_model" title="General linear model">General linear model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bayesian_linear_regression" title="Bayesian linear regression">Bayesian regression</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.5em">Non-standard predictors</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nonlinear_regression" title="Nonlinear regression">Nonlinear regression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonparametric_regression" title="Nonparametric regression">Nonparametric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiparametric_regression" title="Semiparametric regression">Semiparametric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isotonic_regression" title="Isotonic regression">Isotonic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robust_regression" title="Robust regression">Robust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heteroscedasticity" class="mw-redirect" title="Heteroscedasticity">Heteroscedasticity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homoscedasticity" class="mw-redirect" title="Homoscedasticity">Homoscedasticity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.5em"><a href="/wiki/Generalized_linear_model" title="Generalized linear model">Generalized linear model</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Exponential_family" title="Exponential family">Exponential families</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logistic_regression" title="Logistic regression">Logistic <span style="font-size:85%;">(Bernoulli)</span></a> / <a href="/wiki/Binomial_regression" title="Binomial regression">Binomial</a> / <a href="/wiki/Poisson_regression" title="Poisson regression">Poisson regressions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.5em"><a href="/wiki/Partition_of_sums_of_squares" title="Partition of sums of squares">Partition of variance</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Analysis_of_variance" title="Analysis of variance">Analysis of variance (ANOVA, anova)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analysis_of_covariance" title="Analysis of covariance">Analysis of covariance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multivariate_analysis_of_variance" title="Multivariate analysis of variance">Multivariate ANOVA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Degrees_of_freedom_(statistics)" title="Degrees of freedom (statistics)">Degrees of freedom</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible uncollapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Categorical_/_Multivariate_/_Time-series_/_Survival_analysis" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Categorical_variable" title="Categorical variable">Categorical</a> / <a href="/wiki/Multivariate_statistics" title="Multivariate statistics">Multivariate</a> / <a href="/wiki/Time_series" title="Time series">Time-series</a> / <a href="/wiki/Survival_analysis" title="Survival analysis">Survival analysis</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.5em"><a href="/wiki/Categorical_variable" title="Categorical variable">Categorical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cohen%27s_kappa" title="Cohen's kappa">Cohen's kappa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contingency_table" title="Contingency table">Contingency table</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graphical_model" title="Graphical model">Graphical model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poisson_regression" title="Poisson regression">Log-linear model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/McNemar%27s_test" title="McNemar's test">McNemar's test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cochran%E2%80%93Mantel%E2%80%93Haenszel_statistics" title="Cochran–Mantel–Haenszel statistics">Cochran–Mantel–Haenszel statistics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.5em"><a href="/wiki/Multivariate_statistics" title="Multivariate statistics">Multivariate</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/General_linear_model" title="General linear model">Regression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multivariate_analysis_of_variance" title="Multivariate analysis of variance">Manova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principal_component_analysis" title="Principal component analysis">Principal components</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canonical_correlation" title="Canonical correlation">Canonical correlation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linear_discriminant_analysis" title="Linear discriminant analysis">Discriminant analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cluster_analysis" title="Cluster analysis">Cluster analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_classification" title="Statistical classification">Classification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_equation_modeling" title="Structural equation modeling">Structural equation model</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Factor_analysis" title="Factor analysis">Factor analysis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multivariate_distribution" class="mw-redirect" title="Multivariate distribution">Multivariate distributions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Elliptical_distribution" title="Elliptical distribution">Elliptical distributions</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Normal</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.5em"><a href="/wiki/Time_series" title="Time series">Time-series</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Decomposition_of_time_series" title="Decomposition of time series">Decomposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trend_estimation" class="mw-redirect" title="Trend estimation">Trend</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stationary_process" title="Stationary process">Stationarity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seasonal_adjustment" title="Seasonal adjustment">Seasonal adjustment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exponential_smoothing" title="Exponential smoothing">Exponential smoothing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cointegration" title="Cointegration">Cointegration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_break" title="Structural break">Structural break</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Granger_causality" title="Granger causality">Granger causality</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Specific tests</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dickey%E2%80%93Fuller_test" title="Dickey–Fuller test">Dickey–Fuller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johansen_test" title="Johansen test">Johansen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ljung%E2%80%93Box_test" title="Ljung–Box test">Q-statistic <span style="font-size:85%;">(Ljung–Box)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Durbin%E2%80%93Watson_statistic" title="Durbin–Watson statistic">Durbin–Watson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breusch%E2%80%93Godfrey_test" title="Breusch–Godfrey test">Breusch–Godfrey</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Time_domain" title="Time domain">Time domain</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autocorrelation" title="Autocorrelation">Autocorrelation (ACF)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Partial_autocorrelation_function" title="Partial autocorrelation function">partial (PACF)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-correlation" title="Cross-correlation">Cross-correlation (XCF)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autoregressive%E2%80%93moving-average_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Autoregressive–moving-average model">ARMA model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Box%E2%80%93Jenkins_method" title="Box–Jenkins method">ARIMA model <span style="font-size:85%;">(Box–Jenkins)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autoregressive_conditional_heteroskedasticity" title="Autoregressive conditional heteroskedasticity">Autoregressive conditional heteroskedasticity (ARCH)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vector_autoregression" title="Vector autoregression">Vector autoregression (VAR)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Frequency_domain" title="Frequency domain">Frequency domain</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spectral_density_estimation" title="Spectral density estimation">Spectral density estimation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourier_analysis" title="Fourier analysis">Fourier analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Least-squares_spectral_analysis" title="Least-squares spectral analysis">Least-squares spectral analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wavelet" title="Wavelet">Wavelet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whittle_likelihood" title="Whittle likelihood">Whittle likelihood</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.5em"><a href="/wiki/Survival_analysis" title="Survival analysis">Survival</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Survival_function" title="Survival function">Survival function</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kaplan%E2%80%93Meier_estimator" title="Kaplan–Meier estimator">Kaplan–Meier estimator (product limit)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proportional_hazards_model" title="Proportional hazards model">Proportional hazards models</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Accelerated_failure_time_model" title="Accelerated failure time model">Accelerated failure time (AFT) model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First-hitting-time_model" title="First-hitting-time model">First hitting time</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Failure_rate" title="Failure rate">Hazard function</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nelson%E2%80%93Aalen_estimator" title="Nelson–Aalen estimator">Nelson–Aalen estimator</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Test</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Log-rank_test" class="mw-redirect" title="Log-rank test">Log-rank test</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Applications" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_fields_of_application_of_statistics" title="List of fields of application of statistics">Applications</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.5em"><a href="/wiki/Biostatistics" title="Biostatistics">Biostatistics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" 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Multivariate normal distribution - Wikipedia