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Aircraft fabric covering - Wikipedia
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<div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Material and method used to cover open aircraft structures</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:TigerTail.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/TigerTail.JPG/250px-TigerTail.JPG" decoding="async" width="250" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/TigerTail.JPG/375px-TigerTail.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/TigerTail.JPG/500px-TigerTail.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3648" data-file-height="2736" /></a><figcaption>Fabric covering of a <a href="/wiki/De_Havilland_Tiger_Moth" title="De Havilland Tiger Moth">de Havilland Tiger Moth</a> showing rib stitching and inspection rings.</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Aircraft fabric covering</b> is a term used for both the material used and the process of covering aircraft open structures. It is also used for reinforcing closed <a href="/wiki/Plywood" title="Plywood">plywood</a> structures. The <a href="/wiki/De_Havilland_Mosquito" title="De Havilland Mosquito">de Havilland Mosquito</a> is an example of this technique, as are the pioneering all-wood <a href="/wiki/Monocoque" title="Monocoque">monocoque</a> fuselages of certain World War I German aircraft like the <a href="/wiki/LFG_Roland_C.II" title="LFG Roland C.II">LFG Roland C.II</a> in its wrapped <i>Wickelrumpf</i> plywood strip and fabric covering. </p><p>Early aircraft used organic materials such as <a href="/wiki/Cotton" title="Cotton">cotton</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cellulose" title="Cellulose">cellulose</a> nitrate <a href="/wiki/Aircraft_dope" title="Aircraft dope">dope</a>; modern fabric-covered designs usually use <a href="/wiki/Synthetic_fibers" class="mw-redirect" title="Synthetic fibers">synthetic materials</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Dacron" class="mw-redirect" title="Dacron">Dacron</a> and <a href="/wiki/Butyrate" class="mw-redirect" title="Butyrate">butyrate</a> dope for adhesive. Modern methods are often used in the restoration of older types that were originally covered using traditional methods. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Purpose/requirements"><span id="Purpose.2Frequirements"></span>Purpose/requirements</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aircraft_fabric_covering&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Purpose/requirements"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The purposes of the fabric covering of an aircraft are: </p> <ul><li>To provide a light airproof skin for lifting and control surfaces.</li> <li>To provide structural strength to otherwise weak structures.</li> <li>To cover other non-lifting parts of an aircraft to reduce drag, sometimes forming a <a href="/wiki/Aircraft_fairing" title="Aircraft fairing">fairing</a>.</li> <li>To protect the structure from the elements.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aircraft_fabric_covering&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_use">Early use</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aircraft_fabric_covering&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Early use"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lilienthal_aviodrome.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Lilienthal_aviodrome.JPG/220px-Lilienthal_aviodrome.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="79" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Lilienthal_aviodrome.JPG/330px-Lilienthal_aviodrome.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Lilienthal_aviodrome.JPG/440px-Lilienthal_aviodrome.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="578" /></a><figcaption>A Lillienthal flying machine replica</figcaption></figure> <p>Pioneering <a href="/wiki/Aviator" class="mw-redirect" title="Aviator">aviators</a> such as <a href="/wiki/George_Cayley" title="George Cayley">George Cayley</a> and <a href="/wiki/Otto_Lilienthal" title="Otto Lilienthal">Otto Lilienthal</a> used cotton-covered flying surfaces for their manned glider designs. The <a href="/wiki/Wright_brothers" title="Wright brothers">Wright brothers</a> also used cotton to cover their <a href="/wiki/Wright_Flyer" title="Wright Flyer">Wright Flyer</a>. Other early aircraft used a variety of fabrics, <a href="/wiki/Silk" title="Silk">silk</a> and <a href="/wiki/Linen" title="Linen">linen</a> being commonly used. Some early aircraft, such as <a href="/wiki/Alliot_Verdon_Roe" class="mw-redirect" title="Alliot Verdon Roe">A.V. Roe</a>'s first machines, even used paper as a covering material. Until the development of cellulose based dope in 1911 a variety of methods of finishing the fabric were used.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The most popular was the use of rubberised fabrics such as those manufactured by the "Continental" company. Other methods included the use of <a href="/wiki/Sago" title="Sago">sago</a> starch.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The advent of cellulose dopes such as "Emaillite" was a major step forward in the production of practical aircraft, producing a surface that remained taut (eliminating the need for frequent re-covering of the flying surfaces)<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="World_War_I/Postwar"><span id="World_War_I.2FPostwar"></span>World War I/Postwar</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aircraft_fabric_covering&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: World War I/Postwar"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Aviation_in_World_War_I" title="Aviation in World War I">air battles of World War I</a> were mainly fought with fabric-covered <a href="/wiki/Biplanes" class="mw-redirect" title="Biplanes">biplanes</a> that were vulnerable to fire due to the flammable properties of the cloth covering and nitrocellulose dope.<sup id="cite_ref-Aerocrafter_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aerocrafter-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> National insignia painted on the fabric were often cut from downed aircraft and used as <a href="/wiki/War_trophy" title="War trophy">war trophies</a>. The German aircraft designer <a href="/wiki/Hugo_Junkers" title="Hugo Junkers">Hugo Junkers</a> is considered one of the pioneers of metal aircraft; his designs started the move away from fabric covering. The highly flammable mixture of fabric, dope and <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a> gas was a factor in the demise of the <a href="/wiki/Hindenburg_disaster" title="Hindenburg disaster">Hindenburg</a> <a href="/wiki/Airship" title="Airship">airship</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="World_War_II">World War II</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aircraft_fabric_covering&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: World War II"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vickers_Wellington_Mark_X,_HE239_%27NA-Y%27,_of_No._428_Squadron_RCAF_(April_1943).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Vickers_Wellington_Mark_X%2C_HE239_%27NA-Y%27%2C_of_No._428_Squadron_RCAF_%28April_1943%29.png/220px-Vickers_Wellington_Mark_X%2C_HE239_%27NA-Y%27%2C_of_No._428_Squadron_RCAF_%28April_1943%29.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="161" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Vickers_Wellington_Mark_X%2C_HE239_%27NA-Y%27%2C_of_No._428_Squadron_RCAF_%28April_1943%29.png/330px-Vickers_Wellington_Mark_X%2C_HE239_%27NA-Y%27%2C_of_No._428_Squadron_RCAF_%28April_1943%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Vickers_Wellington_Mark_X%2C_HE239_%27NA-Y%27%2C_of_No._428_Squadron_RCAF_%28April_1943%29.png/440px-Vickers_Wellington_Mark_X%2C_HE239_%27NA-Y%27%2C_of_No._428_Squadron_RCAF_%28April_1943%29.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="585" /></a><figcaption>Damaged <a href="/wiki/Vickers_Wellington" title="Vickers Wellington">Vickers Wellington</a> showing burnt and missing fabric covering</figcaption></figure><p>By the World War II era many aircraft designs were using metal <a href="/wiki/Monocoque" title="Monocoque">monocoque</a> structures due to their higher operating <a href="/wiki/Airspeed" title="Airspeed">airspeeds</a>, although fabric-covered control surfaces were still used on early mark <a href="/wiki/Supermarine_Spitfire" title="Supermarine Spitfire">Spitfires</a> and other types. The <a href="/wiki/Hawker_Hurricane" title="Hawker Hurricane">Hawker Hurricane</a> had a fabric covered fuselage, and they also had fabric covered wings until 1939. Many transports, bombers and trainers still used fabric, although the flammable nitrate dope was replaced with butyrate dope instead, which burns less readily.<sup id="cite_ref-Aerocrafter_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aerocrafter-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/De_Havilland_Mosquito" title="De Havilland Mosquito">Mosquito</a> is an example of a fabric-covered (<a href="/wiki/Madapollam" title="Madapollam">madapollam</a>) plywood aircraft. The <a href="/wiki/Vickers_Wellington" title="Vickers Wellington">Vickers Wellington</a> used fabric over a <a href="/wiki/Geodesic_airframe" class="mw-redirect" title="Geodesic airframe">geodesic airframe</a> which offered good combat damage resistance. </p><p>An interesting case of ingenuity under wartime adversity was the <a href="/wiki/Colditz_Cock" title="Colditz Cock">Colditz Cock</a> glider. This homebuilt aircraft, intended as a means of escape, employed prison bedding as its covering material; <a href="/wiki/Homemade_glue" class="mw-redirect" title="Homemade glue">homemade glue</a> and dope made from boiled <a href="/wiki/Millet" title="Millet">millet</a> were also used by the prisoners in its construction. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Introduction_of_modern_materials">Introduction of modern materials</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aircraft_fabric_covering&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Introduction of modern materials"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>With the development of modern synthetic materials following World War II, cotton fabrics were replaced in civil aircraft applications by <a href="/wiki/Polyethylene_terephthalate" title="Polyethylene terephthalate">polyethylene terephthalate</a>, known by the trade-name <i>Dacron</i> or <i>Ceconite</i>. This new fabric could be glued to the airframe instead of sewn and then heat-shrunk to fit. Grade A cotton would typically last six to seven years when the aircraft was stored outside, whereas Ceconite, which does not rot like cotton, can last over 20 years.<sup id="cite_ref-Aerocrafter_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aerocrafter-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ASSC1_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ASSC1-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:UltraflightLazairSeriesIIC-ICKY01.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/UltraflightLazairSeriesIIC-ICKY01.JPG/220px-UltraflightLazairSeriesIIC-ICKY01.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/UltraflightLazairSeriesIIC-ICKY01.JPG/330px-UltraflightLazairSeriesIIC-ICKY01.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/UltraflightLazairSeriesIIC-ICKY01.JPG/440px-UltraflightLazairSeriesIIC-ICKY01.JPG 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="496" /></a><figcaption>An <a href="/wiki/Ultraflight_Lazair" title="Ultraflight Lazair">Ultraflight Lazair</a> covered using Ceconite and the Hipec process.</figcaption></figure> <p>Early attempts to use these modern fabrics with butyrate dope proved that the dope did not adhere at all and peeled off in sheets. Nitrate dope was resurrected as the initial system of choice instead, although it was supplanted by new materials too.<sup id="cite_ref-Aerocrafter_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aerocrafter-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One fabric system, developed by Ray Stits in the United States and <a href="/wiki/Supplemental_type_certificate" title="Supplemental type certificate">FAA-approved</a> in 1965, is marketed under the brand name <i>Poly-Fiber</i>. This uses three weights of Dacron fabric sold as by the brand name <i>Ceconite</i>, plus fabric glue for attaching to the airframe (Poly-Tak), fabric preparation sealer resin (Poly-Brush) and paint (Poly-Tone). This system is not dope and instead uses <a href="/wiki/Vinyl_group" title="Vinyl group">vinyl</a>-based chemicals.<sup id="cite_ref-Aerocrafter_4-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aerocrafter-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ceconite 101 is a certified 3.5 oz/yd<sup>2</sup> (119 g/m<sup>2</sup>) fabric while Ceconite 102 is a 3.16 oz/yd<sup>2</sup> (107 g/m<sup>2</sup>) fabric. There is also an uncertified light Ceconite of 1.87 oz/yd<sup>2</sup> (63 g/m<sup>2</sup>) intended for <a href="/wiki/Ultralight_aircraft" class="mw-redirect" title="Ultralight aircraft">ultralight aircraft</a>. This method requires physical attachment of the fabric to the airframe in the form of rib-stitching, rivets or capstrips, which are then usually covered with fabric tapes.<sup id="cite_ref-ASSC1_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ASSC1-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ASSC2_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ASSC2-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ASSC3_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ASSC3-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In addition to Poly-Fiber, a number of other companies produce covering processes for <a href="/wiki/Type_certificate" title="Type certificate">certified</a> and <a href="/wiki/Homebuilt_aircraft" title="Homebuilt aircraft">homebuilt aircraft</a>. Randolph Products and Certified Coatings Products both make <a href="/wiki/Butyrate" class="mw-redirect" title="Butyrate">butyrate</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nitrate" title="Nitrate">nitrate</a>-based dopes for use with Dacron fabric.<sup id="cite_ref-ASSC4_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ASSC4-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ASSC5_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ASSC5-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Superflite and Air-Tech systems use a similar fabric, but the finishes are <a href="/wiki/Polyurethane" title="Polyurethane">polyurethane</a>-based products with flex agents added. These finishes produce very high gloss results.<sup id="cite_ref-Aerocrafter_4-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aerocrafter-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Falconar_Avia" title="Falconar Avia">Falconar Avia</a> of <a href="/wiki/Edmonton,_Alberta" class="mw-redirect" title="Edmonton, Alberta">Edmonton, Alberta</a>, <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a> developed the Hipec system in 1964 for use with Dacron fabric. It uses a special Hipec Sun Barrier that adheres fabric directly to the aircraft structure in one step, eliminating the need for the riveting, rib-stitching and taping used in traditional fabric processes. The final paint is then applied over the sun barrier to complete the process.<sup id="cite_ref-Hipec_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hipec-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Hunt_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hunt-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Newer systems were developed and distributed by Stewart Systems of <a href="/wiki/Cashmere,_Washington" title="Cashmere, Washington">Cashmere, Washington</a> and Blue River (Ceconite 7600). These two systems use the same certified dacron materials as other systems, but do not use high <a href="/wiki/Volatile_organic_compounds" class="mw-redirect" title="Volatile organic compounds">volatile organic compounds</a>, using water as a carrier instead, making them safer to use and less environmentally damaging.<sup id="cite_ref-Aerocrafter_4-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aerocrafter-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Stewart_Systems_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stewart_Systems-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many ultralight aircraft are covered with pre-sewn envelopes of 3.9 oz Dacron that are simply screwed, bolted or laced into place. These are produced in a wide variety of colours and patterns and are commonly flown untreated or with an anti-<a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Ultraviolet radiation">ultraviolet radiation</a> finish to resist sun damage.<sup id="cite_ref-ASSC6_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ASSC6-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Lanitz_Aviation" title="Lanitz Aviation">Lanitz Aviation</a> introduced a new process in 2001 manufactured in Germany under the trade name Oratex6000.<sup id="cite_ref-Lanitz-Prena_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lanitz-Prena-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Oratex has received a European <a href="/wiki/EASA" class="mw-redirect" title="EASA">EASA</a> <a href="/wiki/Supplemental_Type_Certificate" class="mw-redirect" title="Supplemental Type Certificate">Supplemental Type Certificate</a> (STC),<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Canadian STCs,<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and a US STC.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Oratex differs from previous systems, which all require the application of many layers of special coatings (many of them toxic) along with the time, skill, equipment and safety precautions necessary to apply them. Oratex6000 is simply glued to the airframe and then shrunk tight and does not require any coatings.<sup id="cite_ref-Lanitz-Prena2_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lanitz-Prena2-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Covering_processes">Covering processes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aircraft_fabric_covering&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Covering processes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Traditional_methods">Traditional methods</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aircraft_fabric_covering&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Traditional methods"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:PupRoot.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/PupRoot.JPG/220px-PupRoot.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/PupRoot.JPG/330px-PupRoot.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/PupRoot.JPG/440px-PupRoot.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3451" data-file-height="2045" /></a><figcaption>Laced panels and stitched undercambered airfoil of a <a href="/wiki/Sopwith_Pup" title="Sopwith Pup">Sopwith Pup</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Traditional covering methods use organic materials, such as <a href="/wiki/Cotton" title="Cotton">cotton</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Once the aircraft structure is prepared by sanding, the material is applied using dope as an adhesive. Rib-stitching is used on faster aircraft types and especially on <a href="/wiki/Camber_(aerodynamics)" title="Camber (aerodynamics)">undercambered</a> airfoils to ensure that the fabric follows the aircraft structure. The distance between stitches is reduced in areas affected by the propeller wash. The covering would then be treated with tautening dope to remove wrinkles and increase structural strength, finish coats often containing aluminium powder would serve to protect the surface from <a href="/wiki/Ultra-violet_light" class="mw-redirect" title="Ultra-violet light">ultra-violet light</a>. Large fabric panels of the World War I era aircraft were often laced together through <a href="/wiki/Grommet" title="Grommet">eyelets</a> to ease access to the internal structure for maintenance. Some disadvantages compared to modern methods are the relatively short service life of the covering due to biological effects such as <a href="/wiki/Mildew" title="Mildew">mildew</a> and the labour required to achieve the end result.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern_methods">Modern methods</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aircraft_fabric_covering&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Modern methods"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Modern covering methods follow the traditional method with minor differences. Synthetic materials are used, covering is adhered to the structure using dedicated glues. The shrinking process is achieved by applying an <a href="/wiki/Ironing" title="Ironing">electric iron</a> or <a href="/wiki/Heat_gun" title="Heat gun">heat gun</a>. Once the covering is tight, rib-stitching is again used for heavier or faster aircraft. Cosmetic finish coats are usually applied, except in the case of Oratex which normally receives no coatings. A side effect of using modern covering materials on wooden structured aircraft is that due to the much longer life the structure remains covered and un-inspected for much longer time periods, this has resulted in special periodic inspections being mandated by aviation regulatory bodies.<sup id="cite_ref-Aerocrafter_4-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aerocrafter-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>With both methods of covering it is normal for the aircraft to be re-weighed after renewal of the fabric to determine any change in mass and centre of gravity.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aircraft_fabric_covering&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aircraft_dope" title="Aircraft dope">Aircraft dope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homebuilt_aircraft" title="Homebuilt aircraft">Homebuilt aircraft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio-controlled_aircraft" title="Radio-controlled aircraft">Radio-controlled aircraft</a>, on which either <a href="/wiki/Aircraft_dope" title="Aircraft dope">doped</a>-on fabric or prepared iron-on fabric (using heat from a clothes iron for adhesion and shrinkage) can be used for a covering material.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aircraft_fabric_covering&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notes">Notes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aircraft_fabric_covering&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFRathbun1919" class="citation book cs1">Rathbun, John B. (1919). "Wing Construction". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/62729"><i>Aeroplane Construction and Operation</i></a>. Chicago: Stanton and Van Vliet<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 May</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Wing+Construction&rft.btitle=Aeroplane+Construction+and+Operation&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pub=Stanton+and+Van+Vliet&rft.date=1919&rft.aulast=Rathbun&rft.aufirst=John+B.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gutenberg.org%2Febooks%2F62729&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAircraft+fabric+covering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Penrose, Harald <i>British Aviation: The Pioneer Years</i> London: Putnam, 1967 p.323</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation magazine cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/Flight_International_Magazine_1911-08-12-pdf/page/n17">"Some Notes on Fabric Varnish"</a>. <i>Flight</i>. Vol. 3, no. 32. 12 August 1911. p. 707<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 May</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Flight&rft.atitle=Some+Notes+on+Fabric+Varnish&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=32&rft.pages=707&rft.date=1911-08-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2FFlight_International_Magazine_1911-08-12-pdf%2Fpage%2Fn17&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAircraft+fabric+covering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Aerocrafter-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Aerocrafter_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Aerocrafter_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Aerocrafter_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Aerocrafter_4-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Aerocrafter_4-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Aerocrafter_4-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Aerocrafter_4-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Aerocrafter_4-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Goldenbaum, Jon: <i>Aircraft Fabrics - Wrapping it up</i>, AeroCrafter - Homebuilt Aircraft Sourcebook, page 31-34. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 February</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=wwwapps.tc.gc.ca&rft.atitle=NICO%3A+Certificate+SP+0003&rft.au=Transport+Canada&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwwwapps.tc.gc.ca%2Fsaf-sec-sur%2F2%2Fnico-celn%2Fc_d.aspx%3Flang%3Deng%26amp%3Baprv_num%3D%26amp%3BISU_NUM%3D1%26amp%3BSTART_DATE%3D2015-11-13%26amp%3BAUTH_DESC%3DEASA%26amp%3BDESC%3DApplication%2Bof%2BORATEX%2BCovering%2B%26%2BCoating%2BSystem%26amp%3BFRGN_NUM%3DSP%2B0003%26amp%3Baprv_type%3DSTC%26amp%3BPARTS_NUM%3D%26amp%3Bid_num%3D49332&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAircraft+fabric+covering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFederal_Aviation_Administration2017" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Federal_Aviation_Administration" title="Federal Aviation Administration">Federal Aviation Administration</a> (20 March 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.airweb.faa.gov/Regulatory_and_Guidance_Library/rgstc.nsf/0/B45778F28B923251862581280050016E?OpenDocument&Highlight=sa03898ny">"Supplemental Type Certificate SA03898NY"</a>. <i>www.airweb.faa.gov</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 February</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.airweb.faa.gov&rft.atitle=Supplemental+Type+Certificate+SA03898NY&rft.date=2017-03-20&rft.au=Federal+Aviation+Administration&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.airweb.faa.gov%2FRegulatory_and_Guidance_Library%2Frgstc.nsf%2F0%2FB45778F28B923251862581280050016E%3FOpenDocument%26Highlight%3Dsa03898ny&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAircraft+fabric+covering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lanitz-Prena2-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Lanitz-Prena2_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLanitz-Prena22013" class="citation web cs1">Lanitz-Prena2 (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131203053132/http://www.oracover.de/index.php/katalog/showarticles/503200-1-silver.html">"Lanitz-Prena2"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oracover.de/index.php/katalog/showarticles/503200-1-silver.html">the original</a> on 2013-12-03<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-11-15</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Lanitz-Prena2&rft.date=2013&rft.au=Lanitz-Prena2&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.oracover.de%2Findex.php%2Fkatalog%2Fshowarticles%2F503200-1-silver.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAircraft+fabric+covering" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_numeric_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJudge1921" class="citation book cs1">Judge, Arthur W. (1921). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/001512581"><i>Aircraft and Automobile Materials of Construction</i></a>. The specialists' series. Vol. 2. London: Sir Isaac Pitman & Sons. pp. <span class="nowrap">339–</span>344<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 May</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aircraft+and+Automobile+Materials+of+Construction&rft.place=London&rft.series=The+specialists%27+series&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E339-%3C%2Fspan%3E344&rft.pub=Sir+Isaac+Pitman+%26+Sons&rft.date=1921&rft.aulast=Judge&rft.aufirst=Arthur+W.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcatalog.hathitrust.org%2FRecord%2F001512581&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAircraft+fabric+covering" class="Z3988"></span> Specifically, either grade A or grade B cotton.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">FAA AC.43.13, pp. 81-94.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">FAA AC.43.13, p. 84.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">FAA AC.43.13, p. 243.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aircraft_fabric_covering&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Aviation_Administration" title="Federal Aviation Administration">Federal Aviation Administration</a>, <i>Acceptable Methods, Techniques and Practices-Aircraft Inspection and Repair, AC43.13.1A, Change 3.</i> U.S Department of Transportation, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington D.C. 1988.</li> <li>Taylor, John W.R. <i>The Lore of Flight</i>, London: Universal Books Ltd., 1990. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-9509620-1-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-9509620-1-5">0-9509620-1-5</a>.</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aircraft_fabric_covering&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPearce2004" class="citation conference cs1">Pearce, Andrew (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bigstuffheritage.org/avoiding-that-shrinking-feeling-adopting-a-chemically-unstable-material-for-conservation"><i>Avoiding that Shrinking Feeling: Adopting a Chemically Unstable Material for Conservation</i></a>. Big Stuff. Canberra, Australia.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.btitle=Avoiding+that+Shrinking+Feeling%3A+Adopting+a+Chemically+Unstable+Material+for+Conservation&rft.place=Canberra%2C+Australia&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Pearce&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbigstuffheritage.org%2Favoiding-that-shrinking-feeling-adopting-a-chemically-unstable-material-for-conservation&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAircraft+fabric+covering" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRegel2019" class="citation thesis cs1">Regel, Benjamin M. (March 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://spiral.imperial.ac.uk/handle/10044/1/68719"><i>The Conservation of Doped-Fabric Aircraft at the Science Museum, London</i></a> (Thesis). Imperial College London<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 March</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=The+Conservation+of+Doped-Fabric+Aircraft+at+the+Science+Museum%2C+London&rft.inst=Imperial+College+London&rft.date=2019-03&rft.aulast=Regel&rft.aufirst=Benjamin+M.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fspiral.imperial.ac.uk%2Fhandle%2F10044%2F1%2F68719&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAircraft+fabric+covering" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRegelLangfeldtBurdenRyan2016" class="citation journal cs1">Regel, Ben; Langfeldt, Jannicke; Burden, Louisa; Ryan, Mary (5 August 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://journal.sciencemuseum.ac.uk/browse/issue-06/doping-at-the-science-museum">"Doping at the Science Museum: The Conservation Challenge of Doped Fabric Aircraft in the Flight Gallery"</a>. <i>Science Museum Group Journal</i>. <b>6</b> (6). <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.15180%2F160605">10.15180/160605</a></span><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 March</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science+Museum+Group+Journal&rft.atitle=Doping+at+the+Science+Museum%3A+The+Conservation+Challenge+of+Doped+Fabric+Aircraft+in+the+Flight+Gallery&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=6&rft.date=2016-08-05&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.15180%2F160605&rft.aulast=Regel&rft.aufirst=Ben&rft.au=Langfeldt%2C+Jannicke&rft.au=Burden%2C+Louisa&rft.au=Ryan%2C+Mary&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjournal.sciencemuseum.ac.uk%2Fbrowse%2Fissue-06%2Fdoping-at-the-science-museum&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAircraft+fabric+covering" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aircraft_fabric_covering&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media 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.hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Aircraft_components_and_systems469" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output 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abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Aircraft_components" title="Template:Aircraft components"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Aircraft_components" title="Template talk:Aircraft components"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Aircraft_components" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Aircraft components"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Aircraft_components_and_systems469" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Fixed-wing_aircraft" title="Fixed-wing aircraft">Aircraft</a> components and <a href="/wiki/Aircraft_systems" title="Aircraft systems">systems</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Airframe" title="Airframe">Airframe</a> structure</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aft_pressure_bulkhead" title="Aft pressure bulkhead">Aft pressure bulkhead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cabane_strut" class="mw-redirect" title="Cabane strut">Cabane strut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aircraft_canopy" title="Aircraft canopy">Canopy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crack_arrestor" title="Crack arrestor">Crack arrestor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cruciform_tail" title="Cruciform tail">Cruciform tail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aircraft_dope" title="Aircraft dope">Dope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empennage" title="Empennage">Empennage</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Fabric covering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aircraft_fairing" title="Aircraft fairing">Fairing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flying_wires" class="mw-redirect" title="Flying wires">Flying wires</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Former" title="Former">Former</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuselage" title="Fuselage">Fuselage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hardpoint" title="Hardpoint">Hardpoint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interplane_strut" class="mw-redirect" title="Interplane strut">Interplane strut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jury_strut" class="mw-redirect" title="Jury strut">Jury strut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leading_edge" title="Leading edge">Leading edge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lift_strut" class="mw-redirect" title="Lift strut">Lift strut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longeron" title="Longeron">Longeron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nacelle" title="Nacelle">Nacelle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rib_(aeronautics)" title="Rib (aeronautics)">Rib</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spar_(aeronautics)" title="Spar (aeronautics)">Spar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stabilizer_(aeronautics)" title="Stabilizer (aeronautics)">Stabilizer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stressed_skin" title="Stressed skin">Stressed skin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strut" title="Strut">Strut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T-tail" title="T-tail">T-tail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tailplane" title="Tailplane">Tailplane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trailing_edge" title="Trailing edge">Trailing edge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twin_tail#Variations" title="Twin tail">Triple tail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twin_tail" title="Twin tail">Twin tail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/V-tail" title="V-tail">V-tail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vertical_stabilizer" title="Vertical stabilizer">Vertical stabilizer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wing_root" title="Wing root">Wing root</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wing_tip" title="Wing tip">Wing tip</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wingbox" title="Wingbox">Wingbox</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Aircraft_flight_control_system" title="Aircraft flight control system">Flight controls</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aileron" title="Aileron">Aileron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_brake_(aeronautics)" title="Air brake (aeronautics)">Airbrake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aircraft_flight_control_system#Artificial_feel_devices" title="Aircraft flight control system">Artificial feel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autopilot" title="Autopilot">Autopilot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canard_(aeronautics)" title="Canard (aeronautics)">Canard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centre_stick" title="Centre stick">Centre stick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deceleron" title="Deceleron">Deceleron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dive_brake" title="Dive brake">Dive brake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dual_control_(aviation)" title="Dual control (aviation)">Dual control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electro-hydraulic_actuator" title="Electro-hydraulic actuator">Electro-hydraulic actuator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elevator_(aeronautics)" title="Elevator (aeronautics)">Elevator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elevon" title="Elevon">Elevon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flaperon" title="Flaperon">Flaperon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flight_control_modes" title="Flight control modes">Flight control modes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fly-by-wire" title="Fly-by-wire">Fly-by-wire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gust_lock" title="Gust lock">Gust lock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HOTAS" title="HOTAS">HOTAS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudder#Aircraft_rudders" title="Rudder">Rudder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudder_pedal" title="Rudder pedal">Rudder pedals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Servo_tab" title="Servo tab">Servo tab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Side-stick" title="Side-stick">Side-stick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spoiler_(aeronautics)" title="Spoiler (aeronautics)">Spoiler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spoileron" title="Spoileron">Spoileron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stabilator" title="Stabilator">Stabilator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stick_pusher" title="Stick pusher">Stick pusher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stick_shaker" title="Stick shaker">Stick shaker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trim_tab" title="Trim tab">Trim tab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wing_warping" title="Wing warping">Wing warping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yaw_damper" title="Yaw damper">Yaw damper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoke_(aeronautics)" title="Yoke (aeronautics)">Yoke</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Aerodynamics" title="Aerodynamics">Aerodynamic</a> and <a href="/wiki/High-lift_device" title="High-lift device">high-lift</a><br />devices</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boeing_X-53_Active_Aeroelastic_Wing" title="Boeing X-53 Active Aeroelastic Wing">Active Aeroelastic Wing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adaptive_compliant_wing" title="Adaptive compliant wing">Adaptive compliant wing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-shock_body" title="Anti-shock body">Anti-shock body</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blown_flap" title="Blown flap">Blown flap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Channel_wing" title="Channel wing">Channel wing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leading-edge_extension#Dogtooth_extension" title="Leading-edge extension">Dog-tooth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drag-reducing_aerospike" title="Drag-reducing aerospike">Drag-reducing aerospike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flap_(aeronautics)" title="Flap (aeronautics)">Flap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gouge_flap" title="Gouge flap">Gouge flap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gurney_flap" title="Gurney flap">Gurney flap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krueger_flap" title="Krueger flap">Krueger flap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leading-edge_cuff" title="Leading-edge cuff">Leading-edge cuff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leading-edge_droop_flap" title="Leading-edge droop flap">Leading-edge droop flap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leading-edge_extension" title="Leading-edge extension">LEX</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leading-edge_slat" title="Leading-edge slat">Slats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leading-edge_slot" title="Leading-edge slot">Slot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stall_strips" title="Stall strips">Stall strips</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strake_(aeronautics)" title="Strake (aeronautics)">Strake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variable-sweep_wing" title="Variable-sweep wing">Variable-sweep wing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vortex_generator" title="Vortex generator">Vortex generator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vortilon" title="Vortilon">Vortilon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wing_fence" title="Wing fence">Wing fence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wingtip_device" title="Wingtip device">Winglet</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Avionics" title="Avionics">Avionic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Flight_instruments" title="Flight instruments">flight<br />instrument</a> systems</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Airborne_collision_avoidance_system" title="Airborne collision avoidance system">ACAS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_data_boom" title="Air data boom">Air data boom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_data_computer" title="Air data computer">Air data computer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aircraft_periscope" class="mw-redirect" title="Aircraft periscope">Aircraft periscope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Airspeed_indicator" title="Airspeed indicator">Airspeed indicator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Altimeter" title="Altimeter">Altimeter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annunciator_panel" title="Annunciator panel">Annunciator panel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrodome_(aeronautics)" title="Astrodome (aeronautics)">Astrodome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attitude_indicator" title="Attitude indicator">Attitude indicator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compass" title="Compass">Compass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Course_deviation_indicator" title="Course deviation indicator">Course deviation indicator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_flight_instrument_system" title="Electronic flight instrument system">EFIS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engine-indicating_and_crew-alerting_system" title="Engine-indicating and crew-alerting system">EICAS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flight_management_system" title="Flight management system">Flight management system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glass_cockpit" title="Glass cockpit">Glass cockpit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Positioning_System" title="Global Positioning System">GPS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Head-up_display" title="Head-up display">Head-up display</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heading_indicator" title="Heading indicator">Heading indicator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horizontal_situation_indicator" title="Horizontal situation indicator">Horizontal situation indicator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inertial_navigation_system" title="Inertial navigation system">INS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrated_standby_instrument_system" title="Integrated standby instrument system">ISIS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multi-function_display" title="Multi-function display">Multi-function display</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pitot%E2%80%93static_system" title="Pitot–static system">Pitot–static system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radar_altimeter" title="Radar altimeter">Radar altimeter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traffic_collision_avoidance_system" title="Traffic collision avoidance system">TCAS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transponder_(aeronautics)" title="Transponder (aeronautics)">Transponder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turn_and_slip_indicator" title="Turn and slip indicator">Turn and slip indicator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variometer" title="Variometer">Variometer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yaw_string" title="Yaw string">Yaw string</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Aircraft_engine" title="Aircraft engine">Propulsion</a> controls,<br /> devices and <a href="/wiki/Aircraft_fuel_system" title="Aircraft fuel system">fuel systems</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autothrottle" title="Autothrottle">Autothrottle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drop_tank" title="Drop tank">Drop tank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FADEC" title="FADEC">FADEC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuel_tank#Aircraft" title="Fuel tank">Fuel tank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gascolator" title="Gascolator">Gascolator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inlet_cone" title="Inlet cone">Inlet cone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intake_ramp" title="Intake ramp">Intake ramp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NACA_cowling" title="NACA cowling">NACA cowling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NACA_duct" title="NACA duct">NACA duct</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-sealing_fuel_tank" title="Self-sealing fuel tank">Self-sealing fuel tank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Splitter_plate_(aeronautics)" title="Splitter plate (aeronautics)">Splitter plate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Throttle" title="Throttle">Throttle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thrust_lever" title="Thrust lever">Thrust lever</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thrust_reversal" title="Thrust reversal">Thrust reversal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Townend_ring" title="Townend ring">Townend ring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_emergency_power" title="War emergency power">War emergency power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wet_wing" title="Wet wing">Wet wing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Landing_gear" title="Landing gear">Landing</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arresting_gear" title="Arresting gear">arresting gear</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aircraft_tire" title="Aircraft tire">Aircraft tire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tailhook" title="Tailhook">Arrestor hook</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autobrake" title="Autobrake">Autobrake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conventional_landing_gear" title="Conventional landing gear">Conventional landing gear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drogue_parachute" title="Drogue parachute">Drogue parachute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landing_gear" title="Landing gear">Landing gear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landing_gear_extender" title="Landing gear extender">Landing gear extender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oleo_strut" title="Oleo strut">Oleo strut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tricycle_landing_gear" title="Tricycle landing gear">Tricycle landing gear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tundra_tire" title="Tundra tire">Tundra tire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Escape systems</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ejection_seat" title="Ejection seat">Ejection seat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Escape_crew_capsule" title="Escape crew capsule">Escape crew capsule</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other systems</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aircraft_lavatory" title="Aircraft lavatory">Aircraft lavatory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auxiliary_power_unit" title="Auxiliary power unit">Auxiliary power unit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bleed_air" title="Bleed air">Bleed air system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deicing_boot" title="Deicing boot">Deicing boot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergency_oxygen_system" title="Emergency oxygen system">Emergency oxygen system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_control_system" title="Environmental control system">Environmental control system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flight_recorder" title="Flight recorder">Flight recorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_fluid#Aircraft_hydraulic_systems" title="Hydraulic fluid">Hydraulic system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_protection_system" title="Ice protection system">Ice protection system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/In-flight_entertainment" title="In-flight entertainment">In-flight entertainment system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landing_lights" title="Landing lights">Landing lights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navigation_light" title="Navigation light">Navigation light</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passenger_service_unit" title="Passenger service unit">Passenger service unit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ram_air_turbine" title="Ram air turbine">Ram air turbine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <!-- NewPP limit report Parsed by mw‐web.eqiad.main‐bc58557c4‐mcfg7 Cached time: 20250204111420 Cache expiry: 2592000 Reduced expiry: false Complications: [vary‐revision‐sha1, show‐toc] CPU time usage: 0.468 seconds Real time usage: 0.597 seconds Preprocessor visited node count: 1909/1000000 Post‐expand include size: 60649/2097152 bytes Template argument size: 1350/2097152 bytes Highest expansion depth: 16/100 Expensive parser function count: 1/500 Unstrip recursion depth: 1/20 Unstrip post‐expand size: 82668/5000000 bytes Lua time usage: 0.286/10.000 seconds Lua memory usage: 5276644/52428800 bytes Number of Wikibase entities loaded: 0/400 --> <!-- Transclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template) 100.00% 496.386 1 -total 40.29% 199.973 1 Template:Reflist 20.35% 100.998 1 Template:Aircraft_components 19.44% 96.513 1 Template:Navbox 18.90% 93.835 2 Template:Cite_book 16.35% 81.137 1 Template:Short_description 12.15% 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