Day–night cloud asymmetry prevents early oceans on Venus but not on Earth

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However, it is still unknown whether water has ever condensed on the surface of Venus3,4 because the planet—now completely dry5—has undergone global resurfacing events that obscure most of its history6,7. The conditions required for water to have initially condensed on the surface of Solar System terrestrial planets are highly uncertain, as they have so far only been studied with one-dimensional numerical climate models3 that cannot account for the effects of atmospheric circulation and clouds, which are key climate stabilizers. Here we show using three-dimensional global climate model simulations of early Venus and Earth that water clouds—which preferentially form on the nightside, owing to the strong subsolar water vapour absorption—have a strong net warming effect that inhibits surface water condensation even at modest insolations (down to 325 watts per square metre, that is, 0.95 times the Earth solar constant). This shows that water never condensed and that, consequently, oceans never formed on the surface of Venus. Furthermore, this shows that the formation of Earth’s oceans required much lower insolation than today, which was made possible by the faint young Sun. This also implies the existence of another stability state for present-day Earth: the ‘steam Earth’, with all the water from the oceans evaporated into the atmosphere. 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This shows that water never condensed and that, consequently, oceans never formed on the surface of Venus. Furthermore, this shows that the formation of Earth’s oceans required much lower insolation than today, which was made possible by the faint young Sun. This also implies the existence of another stability state for present-day Earth: the ‘steam Earth’, with all the water from the oceans evaporated into the atmosphere. 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This shows that water never condensed and that, consequently, oceans never formed on the surface of Venus. Furthermore, this shows that the formation of Earth’s oceans required much lower insolation than today, which was made possible by the faint young Sun. This also implies the existence of another stability state for present-day Earth: the ‘steam Earth’, with all the water from the oceans evaporated into the atmosphere. 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itemscope itemtype="https://schema.org/ListItem"> <span itemprop="name">article</span><meta itemprop="position" content="3"></li> </ol> </div> </nav> </div> <div class="u-container u-mt-32 u-mb-32 u-clearfix" id="content" data-component="article-container" data-container-type="article"> <main class="c-article-main-column u-float-left js-main-column" data-track-component="article body"> <article lang="en"> <div class="c-article-header"> <header> <ul class="c-article-identifiers" data-test="article-identifier"> <li class="c-article-identifiers__item" data-test="article-category">Article</li> <li class="c-article-identifiers__item">Published: <time datetime="2021-10-13">13 October 2021</time></li> </ul> <h1 class="c-article-title" data-test="article-title" data-article-title="">Day–night cloud asymmetry prevents early oceans on Venus but not on Earth</h1> <ul class="c-article-author-list c-article-author-list--short" data-test="authors-list" data-component-authors-activator="authors-list"><li class="c-article-author-list__item"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Martin-Turbet-Aff1" data-author-popup="auth-Martin-Turbet-Aff1" data-author-search="Turbet, Martin" data-corresp-id="c1">Martin Turbet<svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-mail-medium"></use></svg></a><span class="u-js-hide"> <a class="js-orcid" href="http://orcid.org/0000-0003-2260-9856"><span class="u-visually-hidden">ORCID: </span>orcid.org/0000-0003-2260-9856</a></span><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff1">1</a></sup>, </li><li class="c-article-author-list__item"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Emeline-Bolmont-Aff1" data-author-popup="auth-Emeline-Bolmont-Aff1" data-author-search="Bolmont, Emeline">Emeline Bolmont</a><span class="u-js-hide"> <a class="js-orcid" href="http://orcid.org/0000-0001-5657-4503"><span class="u-visually-hidden">ORCID: </span>orcid.org/0000-0001-5657-4503</a></span><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff1">1</a></sup>, </li><li class="c-article-author-list__item c-article-author-list__item--hide-small-screen"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Guillaume-Chaverot-Aff1" data-author-popup="auth-Guillaume-Chaverot-Aff1" data-author-search="Chaverot, Guillaume">Guillaume Chaverot</a><span class="u-js-hide"> <a class="js-orcid" href="http://orcid.org/0000-0003-4711-3099"><span class="u-visually-hidden">ORCID: </span>orcid.org/0000-0003-4711-3099</a></span><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff1">1</a></sup>, </li><li class="c-article-author-list__item c-article-author-list__item--hide-small-screen"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-David-Ehrenreich-Aff1" data-author-popup="auth-David-Ehrenreich-Aff1" data-author-search="Ehrenreich, David">David Ehrenreich</a><span class="u-js-hide"> <a class="js-orcid" href="http://orcid.org/0000-0001-9704-5405"><span class="u-visually-hidden">ORCID: </span>orcid.org/0000-0001-9704-5405</a></span><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff1">1</a></sup>, </li><li class="c-article-author-list__item c-article-author-list__item--hide-small-screen"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-J_r_my-Leconte-Aff2" data-author-popup="auth-J_r_my-Leconte-Aff2" data-author-search="Leconte, Jérémy">Jérémy Leconte</a><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff2">2</a></sup> & </li><li class="c-article-author-list__show-more" aria-label="Show all 6 authors for this article" title="Show all 6 authors for this article">…</li><li class="c-article-author-list__item"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Emmanuel-Marcq-Aff3" data-author-popup="auth-Emmanuel-Marcq-Aff3" data-author-search="Marcq, Emmanuel">Emmanuel Marcq</a><span class="u-js-hide"> <a class="js-orcid" href="http://orcid.org/0000-0002-1924-641X"><span class="u-visually-hidden">ORCID: </span>orcid.org/0000-0002-1924-641X</a></span><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff3">3</a></sup> </li></ul><button aria-expanded="false" class="c-article-author-list__button"><svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-down-medium"></use></svg><span>Show authors</span></button> <p class="c-article-info-details" data-container-section="info"> <a data-test="journal-link" href="/" data-track="click" data-track-action="journal homepage" data-track-category="article body" data-track-label="link"><i data-test="journal-title">Nature</i></a> <b data-test="journal-volume"><span class="u-visually-hidden">volume</span> 598</b>, <span class="u-visually-hidden">pages </span>276–280 (<span data-test="article-publication-year">2021</span>)<a href="#citeas" class="c-article-info-details__cite-as u-hide-print" data-track="click" data-track-action="cite this article" data-track-label="link">Cite this article</a> </p> <div class="c-article-metrics-bar__wrapper u-clear-both"> <ul class="c-article-metrics-bar u-list-reset"> <li class=" c-article-metrics-bar__item" data-test="access-count"> <p class="c-article-metrics-bar__count">9473 <span class="c-article-metrics-bar__label">Accesses</span></p> </li> <li class="c-article-metrics-bar__item" data-test="altmetric-score"> <p class="c-article-metrics-bar__count">921 <span class="c-article-metrics-bar__label">Altmetric</span></p> </li> <li class="c-article-metrics-bar__item"> <p class="c-article-metrics-bar__details"><a href="/articles/s41586-021-03873-w/metrics" data-track="click" data-track-action="view metrics" data-track-label="link" rel="nofollow">Metrics <span class="u-visually-hidden">details</span></a></p> </li> </ul> </div> </header> <div class="u-js-hide" data-component="article-subject-links"> <h3 class="c-article__sub-heading">Subjects</h3> <ul class="c-article-subject-list"> <li class="c-article-subject-list__subject"><a href="/subjects/atmospheric-dynamics" data-track="click" data-track-action="view subject" data-track-label="link">Atmospheric dynamics</a></li><li class="c-article-subject-list__subject"><a href="/subjects/early-solar-system" data-track="click" data-track-action="view subject" data-track-label="link">Early solar system</a></li><li class="c-article-subject-list__subject"><a href="/subjects/palaeoclimate" data-track="click" data-track-action="view subject" data-track-label="link">Palaeoclimate</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div class="c-article-body"> <section aria-labelledby="Abs1" data-title="Abstract" lang="en"><div class="c-article-section" id="Abs1-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Abs1">Abstract</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Abs1-content"><p>Earth has had oceans for nearly four billion years<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1" title="Catling, D. C. & Zahnle, K. J. The Archean atmosphere. Sci. Adv. 6, eaax1420 (2020)." href="/articles/s41586-021-03873-w#ref-CR1" id="ref-link-section-d555266047e434">1</a></sup> and Mars had lakes and rivers 3.5–3.8 billion years ago<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2" title="Haberle, R. M., Catling, D. C., Carr, M. H. & Zahnle, K. J. in The Atmosphere and Climate of Mars (eds Haberle, R. M. et al.) 526–568 (Cambridge Planetary Science, Cambridge Univ. Press, 2017)." href="/articles/s41586-021-03873-w#ref-CR2" id="ref-link-section-d555266047e438">2</a></sup>. However, it is still unknown whether water has ever condensed on the surface of Venus<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 3" title="Hamano, K., Abe, Y. & Genda, H. Emergence of two types of terrestrial planet on solidification of magma ocean. Nature 497, 607–610 (2013)." href="/articles/s41586-021-03873-w#ref-CR3" id="ref-link-section-d555266047e442">3</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 4" title="Way, M. J. et al. Was Venus the first habitable world of our Solar System? Geophys. Res. Lett. 43, 8376–8383 (2016)." href="/articles/s41586-021-03873-w#ref-CR4" id="ref-link-section-d555266047e445">4</a></sup> because the planet—now completely dry<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 5" title="Bézard, B. & de Bergh, C. Composition of the atmosphere of Venus below the clouds. J. Geophys. Res. Planets 112, E04S07 (2007)." href="/articles/s41586-021-03873-w#ref-CR5" id="ref-link-section-d555266047e449">5</a></sup>—has undergone global resurfacing events that obscure most of its history<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 6" title="Phillips, R. J. et al. Impact craters and Venus resurfacing history. J. Geophys. Res. 97, 15923–15948 (1992)." href="/articles/s41586-021-03873-w#ref-CR6" id="ref-link-section-d555266047e453">6</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 7" title="Kreslavsky, M. A., Ivanov, M. A. & Head, J. W. The resurfacing history of Venus: constraints from buffered crater densities. Icarus 250, 438–450 (2015)." href="/articles/s41586-021-03873-w#ref-CR7" id="ref-link-section-d555266047e456">7</a></sup>. The conditions required for water to have initially condensed on the surface of Solar System terrestrial planets are highly uncertain, as they have so far only been studied with one-dimensional numerical climate models<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 3" title="Hamano, K., Abe, Y. & Genda, H. Emergence of two types of terrestrial planet on solidification of magma ocean. Nature 497, 607–610 (2013)." href="/articles/s41586-021-03873-w#ref-CR3" id="ref-link-section-d555266047e461">3</a></sup> that cannot account for the effects of atmospheric circulation and clouds, which are key climate stabilizers. Here we show using three-dimensional global climate model simulations of early Venus and Earth that water clouds—which preferentially form on the nightside, owing to the strong subsolar water vapour absorption—have a strong net warming effect that inhibits surface water condensation even at modest insolations (down to 325 watts per square metre, that is, 0.95 times the Earth solar constant). This shows that water never condensed and that, consequently, oceans never formed on the surface of Venus. Furthermore, this shows that the formation of Earth’s oceans required much lower insolation than today, which was made possible by the faint young Sun. This also implies the existence of another stability state for present-day Earth: the ‘steam Earth’, with all the water from the oceans evaporated into the atmosphere.</p></div></div></section> <noscript> <div class="c-nature-box c-nature-box--side " data-component="entitlement-box"> <div class="js-access-button"> <a href="https://wayf.springernature.com?redirect_uri=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nature.com%2Farticles%2Fs41586-021-03873-w" class="c-article__button" data-test="ra21"> <svg class="u-icon" width="18" height="18" aria-hidden="true" focusable="false"><use href="#icon-institution"></use></svg> <span class="c-article__button-text">Access through your institution</span> </a> </div> <div class="js-buy-button"> <a href="#access-options" class="c-article__button c-article__button--inverted" data-test="ra21"> <span>Buy or subscribe</span> </a> </div> </div> </noscript> <div class="js-context-bar-sticky-point-mobile" data-track-context="article body"> </div> <div 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href="https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.4680905">https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.4680905</a>. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="section anchor" href="/articles/s41586-021-03873-w#Sec16">Source data</a> are provided with this paper.</p> </div></div></section><section data-title="Code availability"><div class="c-article-section" id="code-availability-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="code-availability">Code availability</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="code-availability-content"> <p>The LMD Generic global climate model code (and documentation on how to use the model) used in this work can be downloaded from the SVN repository at <a href="https://svn.lmd.jussieu.fr/Planeto/trunk/LMDZ.GENERIC/">https://svn.lmd.jussieu.fr/Planeto/trunk/LMDZ.GENERIC/</a> (version 2528). More information and documentation are available at <a href="http://www-planets.lmd.jussieu.fr">http://www-planets.lmd.jussieu.fr</a>.</p> </div></div></section><div id="MagazineFulltextArticleBodySuffix"><section aria-labelledby="Bib1" data-title="References"><div class="c-article-section" id="Bib1-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Bib1">References</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Bib1-content"><div data-container-section="references"><ol class="c-article-references" data-track-component="outbound reference" data-track-context="references section"><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="1."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR1">Catling, D. C. & Zahnle, K. J. The Archean atmosphere. <i>Sci. 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This project has received funding from the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme (grant agreement numbers 724427/FOUR ACES and 679030/WHIPLASH). This work has been carried out within the framework of the National Centre of Competence in Research PlanetS supported by the Swiss National Science Foundation. We acknowledge the financial support of the SNSF. M.T. thanks the Gruber Foundation for its support to this research. M.T. thanks N. Chaniaud for her help in preparing Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/articles/s41586-021-03873-w#Fig1">1</a>. We thank the LMD Generic global climate team for the teamwork development and improvement of the model. This work was performed using the high-performance computing resources of Centre Informatique National de l’Enseignement Supérieur (CINES) under the allocation A0080110391 made by Grand Équipement National de Calcul Intensif (GENCI). A total of about 600,000 CPU hours were used for this project on the OCCIGEN supercomputer, resulting in roughly one ton equivalent of CO<sub>2</sub> emissions.</p></div></div></section><section aria-labelledby="author-information" data-title="Author information"><div class="c-article-section" id="author-information-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="author-information">Author information</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="author-information-content"><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="affiliations">Authors and Affiliations</h3><ol class="c-article-author-affiliation__list"><li id="Aff1"><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__address">Observatoire astronomique de l’Université de Genève, Versoix, Switzerland</p><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__authors-list">Martin Turbet, Emeline Bolmont, Guillaume Chaverot & David Ehrenreich</p></li><li id="Aff2"><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__address">Laboratoire d’astrophysique de Bordeaux, Université de Bordeaux, CNRS, B18N, Pessac, France</p><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__authors-list">Jérémy Leconte</p></li><li id="Aff3"><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__address">LATMOS/IPSL, UVSQ, Université Paris-Saclay, Sorbonne Université, CNRS, Guyancourt, France</p><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__authors-list">Emmanuel Marcq</p></li></ol><div class="u-js-hide u-hide-print" data-test="author-info"><span class="c-article__sub-heading">Authors</span><ol class="c-article-authors-search u-list-reset"><li id="auth-Martin-Turbet-Aff1"><span class="c-article-authors-search__title u-h3 js-search-name">Martin Turbet</span><div class="c-article-authors-search__list"><div class="c-article-authors-search__item c-article-authors-search__list-item--left"><a href="/search?author=Martin%20Turbet" class="c-article-button" data-track="click" data-track-action="author link - 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publication" data-track-label="link" rel="nofollow">View author publications</a></div><div class="c-article-authors-search__item c-article-authors-search__list-item--right"><p class="search-in-title-js c-article-authors-search__text">You can also search for this author in <span class="c-article-identifiers"><a class="c-article-identifiers__item" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=search&term=Emmanuel%20Marcq" data-track="click" data-track-action="author link - pubmed" data-track-label="link" rel="nofollow">PubMed</a><span class="u-hide"> </span><a class="c-article-identifiers__item" href="http://scholar.google.co.uk/scholar?as_q=&num=10&btnG=Search+Scholar&as_epq=&as_oq=&as_eq=&as_occt=any&as_sauthors=%22Emmanuel%20Marcq%22&as_publication=&as_ylo=&as_yhi=&as_allsubj=all&hl=en" data-track="click" data-track-action="author link - scholar" data-track-label="link" rel="nofollow">Google Scholar</a></span></p></div></div></li></ol></div><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="contributions">Contributions</h3><p>M.T. developed the core ideas of the manuscript, developed and performed the 3D GCM simulations, wrote the manuscript and prepared the figures. E.B. and G.C. provided advice on sensitivity studies. D.E., G.C. and J.L. provided advice on the structure of the figures. J.L. provided advice on the organization of the manuscript, as well as for understanding the mechanism of cloud formation. E.M. provided advice on literature selection. All authors provided guidance and comments on the manuscript.</p><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="corresponding-author">Corresponding author</h3><p id="corresponding-author-list">Correspondence to <a id="corresp-c1" href="mailto:martin.turbet@unige.ch">Martin Turbet</a>.</p></div></div></section><section data-title="Ethics declarations"><div class="c-article-section" id="ethics-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="ethics">Ethics declarations</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="ethics-content"> <h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="FPar1">Competing interests</h3> <p>The authors declare no competing interests.</p> </div></div></section><section data-title="Additional information"><div class="c-article-section" id="additional-information-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="additional-information">Additional information</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="additional-information-content"><p><b>Peer review information</b> <i>Nature</i> thanks Stephen Kane, James Kasting and the other, anonymous, reviewer(s) for their contribution to the peer review of this work. Peer reviewer reports are available.</p><p><b>Publisher’s note</b> Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.</p></div></div></section><section data-title="Extended data figures and tables"><div class="c-article-section" id="Sec14-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Sec14">Extended data figures and tables</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Sec14-content"><div data-test="supplementary-info"><div id="figshareContainer" class="c-article-figshare-container" data-test="figshare-container"></div><div class="c-article-supplementary__item js-c-reading-companion-figures-item" data-test="supp-item" id="Fig5"><h3 class="c-article-supplementary__title u-h3"><a class="print-link" data-track="click" data-track-action="view supplementary info" data-test="supp-info-link" data-track-label="extended data fig. 1 temporal evolution of modelle" href="/articles/s41586-021-03873-w/figures/5" data-supp-info-image="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/esm/art%3A10.1038%2Fs41586-021-03873-w/MediaObjects/41586_2021_3873_Fig5_ESM.jpg">Extended Data Fig. 1 Temporal evolution of modelled surface temperatures.</a></h3><div class="c-article-supplementary__description" data-component="thumbnail-container"><p>Temporal evolution of the globally averaged surface temperatures in the 3-D GCM baseline simulations of (initially hot and steamy) Venus, for several insolations.</p></div></div><div class="c-article-supplementary__item js-c-reading-companion-figures-item" data-test="supp-item" id="Fig6"><h3 class="c-article-supplementary__title u-h3"><a class="print-link" data-track="click" data-track-action="view supplementary info" data-test="supp-info-link" data-track-label="extended data fig. 2 cloud forcings in hot and ste" href="/articles/s41586-021-03873-w/figures/6" data-supp-info-image="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/esm/art%3A10.1038%2Fs41586-021-03873-w/MediaObjects/41586_2021_3873_Fig6_ESM.jpg">Extended Data Fig. 2 Cloud forcings in hot and steamy early Venus and Earth simulations.</a></h3><div class="c-article-supplementary__description" data-component="thumbnail-container"><p>Radiative balance of clouds on hot and steamy Earth (<b>a</b>) and Venus (<b>b</b>) as a function of the incident solar flux. Blue curves indicate the greenhouse effect of clouds. Red curves indicate the amount of incoming solar radiation reflected back by the clouds (the more negative the value, the greater the reflected flux.). Black curves indicate the net radiative effect of clouds (positive values mean warming). In all initially hot and steamy simulations, clouds lead to a strong atmospheric warming.</p><p><a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="supplementary material anchor" href="/articles/s41586-021-03873-w#MOESM3">Source data</a></p></div></div><div class="c-article-supplementary__item js-c-reading-companion-figures-item" data-test="supp-item" id="Fig7"><h3 class="c-article-supplementary__title u-h3"><a class="print-link" data-track="click" data-track-action="view supplementary info" data-test="supp-info-link" data-track-label="extended data fig. 3 radiative budget comparisons " href="/articles/s41586-021-03873-w/figures/7" data-supp-info-image="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/esm/art%3A10.1038%2Fs41586-021-03873-w/MediaObjects/41586_2021_3873_Fig7_ESM.jpg">Extended Data Fig. 3 Radiative budget comparisons between 1D and 3D models.</a></h3><div class="c-article-supplementary__description" data-component="thumbnail-container"><p>Thermal emission to space (<b>a</b>) and bond albedo (<b>b</b>) as a function of the surface temperature for our 3-D GCM simulations of Earth (blue) and Venus (red). We have also added the results of 1-D radiative-convective cloud-free calculations<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 29" title="Turbet, M., Ehrenreich, D., Lovis, C., Bolmont, E. & Fauchez, T. The runaway greenhouse radius inflation effect—an observational diagnostic to probe water on earth-sized planets and test the habitable zone concept. Astron. Astrophys. 628, A12 (2019)." href="/articles/s41586-021-03873-w#ref-CR29" id="ref-link-section-d555266047e2535">29</a></sup> (in black), using H<sub>2</sub>O and N<sub>2</sub> partial pressures of 10 and 1 bar, respectively, as in the 3-D baseline simulations. For comparison, we added the moist tropospheric radiation limits<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 68" title="Goldblatt, C. & Watson, A. J. The runaway greenhouse: implications for future climate change, geoengineering and planetary atmospheres. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. A 370, 4197–4216 (2012)." href="/articles/s41586-021-03873-w#ref-CR68" id="ref-link-section-d555266047e2544">68</a></sup> for the thermal emission<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 67" title="Nakajima, S., Hayashi, Y.-Y. & Abe, Y. A study on the ’runaway greenhouse effect’ with a one-dimensional radiative-convective equilibrium model. J. Atmos. Sci. 49, 2256–2266 (1992)." href="/articles/s41586-021-03873-w#ref-CR67" id="ref-link-section-d555266047e2548">67</a></sup> and the bond albedo from refs. <sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 27" title="Kopparapu, R. K. et al. Habitable zones around main-sequence stars: new estimates. Astrophys. J. 765, 131 (2013)." href="/articles/s41586-021-03873-w#ref-CR27" id="ref-link-section-d555266047e2552">27</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 28" title="Goldblatt, C., Robinson, T. D., Zahnle, K. J. & Crisp, D. Low simulated radiation limit for runaway greenhouse climates. Nat. Geosci. 6, 661–667 (2013)." href="/articles/s41586-021-03873-w#ref-CR28" id="ref-link-section-d555266047e2555">28</a></sup>.</p><p><a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="supplementary material anchor" href="/articles/s41586-021-03873-w#MOESM4">Source data</a></p></div></div><div class="c-article-supplementary__item js-c-reading-companion-figures-item" data-test="supp-item" id="Fig8"><h3 class="c-article-supplementary__title u-h3"><a class="print-link" data-track="click" data-track-action="view supplementary info" data-test="supp-info-link" data-track-label="extended data fig. 4 impact of cloud microphysical" href="/articles/s41586-021-03873-w/figures/8" data-supp-info-image="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/esm/art%3A10.1038%2Fs41586-021-03873-w/MediaObjects/41586_2021_3873_Fig8_ESM.jpg">Extended Data Fig. 4 Impact of cloud microphysical properties on their spatial distribution.</a></h3><div class="c-article-supplementary__description" data-component="thumbnail-container"><p>Maps of water cloud column for early Venus (at a top-of-atmosphere insolation of 500 W m<sup>−2</sup>, i.e. the minimal insolation received on Venus, about 4 billion years ago when the Sun was 25% fainter than today), with different cloud microphysics parameterisations (10<sup>3</sup>, 10<sup>4</sup>, 10<sup>5</sup>, 10<sup>6</sup> and 10<sup>7</sup> cloud condensation nuclei (CCN) per kg of air, for panels <b>a</b>, <b>b</b>, <b>c</b>, <b>d</b> and <b>e</b>, respectively). The maps were calculated in the heliocentric frame (i.e., keeping the subsolar point at 0° longitude and 0° latitude), and using an average of two Venusian days. The distribution of clouds (present on the nightside, absent on the dayside) is robust to the choice of the number of CCN.</p><p><a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="supplementary material anchor" href="/articles/s41586-021-03873-w#MOESM5">Source data</a></p></div></div><div class="c-article-supplementary__item js-c-reading-companion-figures-item" data-test="supp-item" id="Fig9"><h3 class="c-article-supplementary__title u-h3"><a class="print-link" data-track="click" data-track-action="view supplementary info" data-test="supp-info-link" data-track-label="extended data fig. 5 effects of water and carbon d" href="/articles/s41586-021-03873-w/figures/9" data-supp-info-image="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/esm/art%3A10.1038%2Fs41586-021-03873-w/MediaObjects/41586_2021_3873_Fig9_ESM.jpg">Extended Data Fig. 5 Effects of water and carbon dioxide atmospheric contents.</a></h3><div class="c-article-supplementary__description" data-component="thumbnail-container"><p>Impact of the water and carbon dioxide atmospheric contents on the surface temperature (a), thermal emission to space (b), bond albedo (c) and net cloud radiative forcing (d). The calculations assume a hot and steamy Venus (insolation at 500 W/m<sup>2</sup>) with 1 bar of N<sub>2</sub> and between 1 and 30 bar of H<sub>2</sub>O (in blue); with 1-10 bar of CO<sub>2</sub> and 10 bar of H<sub>2</sub>O (in red).</p></div></div><div class="c-article-supplementary__item" data-test="supp-item"><div class="c-article-table" data-test="inline-table" data-container-section="table" id="table-1"><figure><figcaption class="c-article-table__figcaption"><b id="Tab1" data-test="table-caption">Extended Data Table 1 Summary of the main physical parameters used in the GCM for the baseline hot and steamy Earth and Venus simulations</b></figcaption><div class="u-text-right u-hide-print"><a class="c-article__pill-button" data-test="table-link" data-track="click" data-track-action="view table" data-track-label="button" rel="nofollow" href="/articles/s41586-021-03873-w/tables/1" aria-label="Full size table 1"><span>Full size table</span><svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-right-small"></use></svg></a></div></figure></div></div></div></div></div></section><section data-title="Supplementary information"><div class="c-article-section" id="Sec15-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Sec15">Supplementary information</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Sec15-content"><div data-test="supplementary-info"><div class="c-article-supplementary__item" data-test="supp-item" id="MOESM1"><h3 class="c-article-supplementary__title u-h3"><a class="print-link" data-track="click" data-track-action="view supplementary info" data-test="supp-info-link" data-track-label="peer review file" href="https://static-content.springer.com/esm/art%3A10.1038%2Fs41586-021-03873-w/MediaObjects/41586_2021_3873_MOESM1_ESM.pdf" data-supp-info-image="">Peer Review 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Day–night cloud asymmetry prevents early oceans on Venus but not on Earth | Nature