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<span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Grain</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Grain-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_materials" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_materials"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Other materials</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_materials-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Incidental_uses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Incidental_uses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Incidental uses</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Incidental_uses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Manufacture_of_quern-stones" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Manufacture_of_quern-stones"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Manufacture of quern-stones</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Manufacture_of_quern-stones-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Evolution_of_quern-stones" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evolution_of_quern-stones"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Evolution of quern-stones</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Evolution_of_quern-stones-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Evolution of quern-stones subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Evolution_of_quern-stones-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Saddle_quern" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Saddle_quern"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Saddle quern</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Saddle_quern-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rotary_quern" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rotary_quern"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Rotary quern</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rotary_quern-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Beehive_quern" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Beehive_quern"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2.1</span> <span>Beehive quern</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Beehive_quern-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Disc_quern" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Disc_quern"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2.2</span> <span>Disc quern</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Disc_quern-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Miniature_quern" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Miniature_quern"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2.3</span> <span>Miniature quern</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Miniature_quern-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_types_of_quern_stones" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_types_of_quern_stones"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Other types of quern stones</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_types_of_quern_stones-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Laws_against_use" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Laws_against_use"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Laws against use</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Laws_against_use-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ornament_and_inscription" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ornament_and_inscription"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Ornament and inscription</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ornament_and_inscription-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Wondrous_Mauchline_Quern" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Wondrous_Mauchline_Quern"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>The Wondrous Mauchline Quern</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Wondrous_Mauchline_Quern-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Related_grinding_tools" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Related_grinding_tools"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Related grinding tools</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Related_grinding_tools-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of 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href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%BDernov_(ml%C3%BDnek)" title="Žernov (mlýnek) – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Žernov (mlýnek)" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breuan" title="Breuan – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Breuan" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahlstein" title="Mahlstein – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Mahlstein" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%A4sikivi" title="Käsikivi – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Käsikivi" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molino_de_mano" title="Molino de mano – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Molino de mano" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manmuelejo" title="Manmuelejo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Manmuelejo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B3" title="دستاس – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="دستاس" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mu%C3%AD%C3%B1o_de_man" title="Muíño de man – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Muíño de man" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ig mw-list-item"><a href="https://ig.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nkume_Quern" title="Nkume Quern – Igbo" lang="ig" hreflang="ig" data-title="Nkume Quern" data-language-autonym="Igbo" data-language-local-name="Igbo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Igbo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-csb mw-list-item"><a href="https://csb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%BBarna" title="Żarna – Kashubian" lang="csb" hreflang="csb" data-title="Żarna" data-language-autonym="Kaszëbsczi" data-language-local-name="Kashubian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kaszëbsczi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Destar" title="Destar – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Destar" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B3%D1%8B%D0%BB%D1%87%D0%B0%D0%BA" title="Жаргылчак – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Жаргылчак" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trinamosios_girnos" title="Trinamosios girnos – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Trinamosios girnos" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%A9zimalom" title="Kézimalom – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Kézimalom" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mai mw-list-item"><a href="https://mai.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%81%E0%A4%A4" title="जाँत – Maithili" lang="mai" hreflang="mai" data-title="जाँत" data-language-autonym="मैथिली" data-language-local-name="Maithili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मैथिली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%87" title="जाते – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="जाते" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D8%AD%D8%A7%D9%8A%D9%87" title="رحايه – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="رحايه" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kweern" title="Kweern – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Kweern" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%81%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8B" title="जाँतो – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="जाँतो" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%9F%B3%E8%87%BC" title="石臼 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="石臼" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%A5ndkvern" title="Håndkvern – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Håndkvern" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DB%81%D8%AA%DA%BE_%DA%86%DA%A9%DB%8C" title="ہتھ چکی – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="ہتھ چکی" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%BBarna" title="Żarna – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Żarna" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%BDarnov_(n%C3%A1stroj)" title="Žarnov (nástroj) – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Žarnov (nástroj)" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%A4sikivet" title="Käsikivet – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Käsikivet" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%88" title="திருகை – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="திருகை" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Жорна – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Жорна" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DB%81%D8%AA%DA%BE_%DA%86%DA%A9%DB%8C" title="ہتھ چکی – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="ہتھ چکی" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo mw-list-item"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%BB%8Cl%E1%BB%8D" title="Ọlọ – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" data-title="Ọlọ" data-language-autonym="Yorùbá" data-language-local-name="Yoruba" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Yorùbá</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C4%B1stari" title="Dıstari – Dimli" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Dıstari" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Dimli" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Zazaki</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q1543947#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit 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i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Quarrystone" class="mw-redirect" title="Quarrystone">Quarrystone</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Basalt_quern.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Basalt_quern.jpg/220px-Basalt_quern.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Basalt_quern.jpg/330px-Basalt_quern.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Basalt_quern.jpg/440px-Basalt_quern.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3648" data-file-height="2432" /></a><figcaption>Disc quern made of basalt stone</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Jato_An_ancient_tool_used_to_grind_food_item_in_Nepal.ogv/220px--Jato_An_ancient_tool_used_to_grind_food_item_in_Nepal.ogv.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="124" data-durationhint="73" data-mwtitle="Jato_An_ancient_tool_used_to_grind_food_item_in_Nepal.ogv" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Jato_An_ancient_tool_used_to_grind_food_item_in_Nepal.ogv"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/b/b9/Jato_An_ancient_tool_used_to_grind_food_item_in_Nepal.ogv/Jato_An_ancient_tool_used_to_grind_food_item_in_Nepal.ogv.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="854" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/b/b9/Jato_An_ancient_tool_used_to_grind_food_item_in_Nepal.ogv/Jato_An_ancient_tool_used_to_grind_food_item_in_Nepal.ogv.720p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="720p.vp9.webm" data-width="1280" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b9/Jato_An_ancient_tool_used_to_grind_food_item_in_Nepal.ogv" type="video/ogg; codecs="theora, vorbis"" data-width="1280" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/b/b9/Jato_An_ancient_tool_used_to_grind_food_item_in_Nepal.ogv/Jato_An_ancient_tool_used_to_grind_food_item_in_Nepal.ogv.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="256" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/b/b9/Jato_An_ancient_tool_used_to_grind_food_item_in_Nepal.ogv/Jato_An_ancient_tool_used_to_grind_food_item_in_Nepal.ogv.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="426" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/b/b9/Jato_An_ancient_tool_used_to_grind_food_item_in_Nepal.ogv/Jato_An_ancient_tool_used_to_grind_food_item_in_Nepal.ogv.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/b/b9/Jato_An_ancient_tool_used_to_grind_food_item_in_Nepal.ogv/Jato_An_ancient_tool_used_to_grind_food_item_in_Nepal.ogv.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /></video></span><figcaption>Nepali women using quern-stones to grind grains</figcaption></figure><p><b>Quern-stones</b> are <a href="/wiki/Rock_(geology)" title="Rock (geology)">stone</a> tools for hand-<a href="/wiki/Mill_(grinding)" title="Mill (grinding)">grinding</a> a wide variety of materials, especially for various types of grains. They are used in pairs. The lower stationary stone of early examples is called a saddle <b>quern</b>, while the upper mobile stone is called a <b>muller, rubber</b>, or <b>handstone</b>. The upper stone was moved in a back-and-forth motion across the saddle quern. Later querns are known as rotary querns. The central hole of a rotary quern is called the eye, and a dish in the upper surface is known as the <b>hopper</b>. A <b>handle slot</b> contained a handle which enabled the rotary quern to be rotated.<sup id="cite_ref-McLaren113p106_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McLaren113p106-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They were first used in the <a href="/wiki/Neolithic" title="Neolithic">Neolithic</a> era to grind cereals into flour.<sup id="cite_ref-britmus_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-britmus-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Design_of_quern-stones">Design of quern-stones</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Quern-stone&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Design of quern-stones"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The upper stones were usually concave while the lower ones were convex. Quern-stones are frequently identifiable by their grooved working surfaces which enabled the movement of flour. Sometimes a <a href="/wiki/Millrind" title="Millrind">millrind</a> was present as a piece of wood (or other material), which allowed the cereal etc. to be added but still acted as a centering device. The upper stone sometimes had a cup-shaped area around the hopper hole with a raised edge.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most handstones have a handle hole on the upper surface, but one class of quern-stones have a slot handle which indicates that a piece of wood was placed horizontally and protruded out from the edge so that the operator could turn the stone by standing and using a rod vertically.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One class of upper quern-stones has from two to three sockets for the rod used to turn them and this is thought to reflect the need to reduce wear and tear by having alternative points of contact when in active use.<sup id="cite_ref-McLaren115_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McLaren115-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Quernupper.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Quernupper.jpg/220px-Quernupper.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Quernupper.jpg/330px-Quernupper.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Quernupper.jpg/440px-Quernupper.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2288" data-file-height="1712" /></a><figcaption>The upper stone of a Scottish hand quern from <a href="/wiki/Dalgarven_Mill" class="mw-redirect" title="Dalgarven Mill">Dalgarven Mill</a>, North Ayrshire</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Grain">Grain</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Quern-stone&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Grain"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cliffecastlemus_016.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Cliffecastlemus_016.jpg/220px-Cliffecastlemus_016.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Cliffecastlemus_016.jpg/330px-Cliffecastlemus_016.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Cliffecastlemus_016.jpg/440px-Cliffecastlemus_016.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3192" data-file-height="2392" /></a><figcaption>Revolving beehive quern-stones and [lower] a saddlestone on display at <a href="/wiki/Cliffe_Castle_Museum" title="Cliffe Castle Museum">Cliffe Castle Museum</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Keighley" title="Keighley">Keighley</a>, <a href="/wiki/West_Yorkshire" title="West Yorkshire">West Yorkshire</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Quern-stones have been used by numerous civilizations throughout the world to grind materials, the most important of which was usually <a href="/wiki/Cereal" title="Cereal">grain</a> to make <a href="/wiki/Flour" title="Flour">flour</a> for <a href="/wiki/Bread" title="Bread">bread</a>-making. They were generally replaced by <a href="/wiki/Millstone" title="Millstone">millstones</a> once mechanised forms of <a href="/wiki/Mill_(grinding)" title="Mill (grinding)">milling</a> appeared, particularly the <a href="/wiki/Water_mill" class="mw-redirect" title="Water mill">water mill</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Windmill" title="Windmill">windmill</a>, although animals were also used to operate the millstones. However, in many non-Westernised, non-mechanised cultures they are still manufactured and used regularly and have only been replaced in many parts of the world in the last century or so. </p><p>The use of grinding stones for vegetal food processing, and possibly the production of flour, was widespread across <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a> from at least 30,000 years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In early <a href="/wiki/Maya_civilization" title="Maya civilization">Maya civilizations</a> the process of <a href="/wiki/Nixtamalization" title="Nixtamalization">nixtamalization</a> was distinctive in that hard, ripe kernels of maize (corn) were boiled in water and lime, thus producing nixtamal which was then made into unleavened dough for flat cakes by grinding with a handstone on a quern (<i>metate</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Quern stones were used in <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a> at least 10,000 years ago to grind wheat into flour. The production of flour by rubbing wheat by hand took several hours.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Due to their form, dimensions, and the nature of the treatment of the surfaces, they reproduce precisely the most ancient implements used for grinding cereal grain into flour. Saddle querns were known in China during the Neolithic Age but rotary stone mills did not appear until the Warring States Period.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A prehistoric quern dating back to 23,000 BCE was found at the Longwangchan archaeological site, in Hukou, Shaanxi in 2007. The site is located in the heartland of the northern Chinese loess plateau near the Yellow River.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Other_materials">Other materials</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Quern-stone&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Other materials"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As well as grain, ethnographic evidence and <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian" class="mw-redirect" title="Mesopotamian">Mesopotamian</a> texts show that a wide range of foodstuffs and inorganic materials were processed using stone querns or mortars, including nuts, seeds, fruit, vegetables, herbs, spices, meat, bark, pigments, temper and clay.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Moreover, one study analysing quern-stones noted that a number of querns had traces of <a href="/wiki/Arsenic" title="Arsenic">arsenic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bismuth" title="Bismuth">bismuth</a>, unlike their source rocks, and had levels of <a href="/wiki/Antimony" title="Antimony">antimony</a> which were ten times higher than those of the rocks. The authors concluded that this was probably due to the use of these querns in the preparation of medicines, cosmetics, dyes or even in the manufacture of alloys.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Querns were widely used in grinding metals ores after mining extraction. The aim was to liberate fine ore particles which could then be separated by washing for example, prior to smelting. They were thus widely used in <a href="/wiki/Gold_mining" title="Gold mining">gold mining</a> in antiquity. </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Shetland" title="Shetland">Shetland</a>, tobacco was not smoked when first introduced, but instead was ground up into <a href="/wiki/Snuff_(tobacco)" title="Snuff (tobacco)">snuff</a>, and inhaled up the nose. Snuff-querns consisted of an upper and lower stone, fixed together by a central iron pivot. The quern was held on the user's lap, the eye of the quern was filled with dried tobacco leaves, and then the upper-stone was turned using the handle. The friction caused by the turning ground the leaves into a fine powder that built up around the edge of the lower-stone. Many snuff-querns had a small hole or cut made near the edge of the upper-stone, into which a pointed end of a lamb's horn was placed in order to turn the stone; an alternative to using a handle.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Incidental_uses">Incidental uses</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Quern-stone&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Incidental uses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Quern-stones_in_China_small.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Quern-stones_in_China_small.jpg/170px-Quern-stones_in_China_small.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Quern-stones_in_China_small.jpg/255px-Quern-stones_in_China_small.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Quern-stones_in_China_small.jpg/340px-Quern-stones_in_China_small.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2304" data-file-height="3072" /></a><figcaption>A stack of quern-stones for sale in a market in <a href="/wiki/Haikou" title="Haikou">Haikou</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hainan" title="Hainan">Hainan</a>, <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>. These quern-stones are only about 30 cm wide.</figcaption></figure> <p>Quern stones’ ubiquity led to ancillary uses. For example, DeBoer, in his review of the traditional gambling games of North American tribes, reports that one of the games involved bouncing a group of split canes off a quern.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Quern stones may have been used as improvised weapons, as mentioned in the Bible: "But a certain woman threw an upper-millstone on <a href="/wiki/Abimelech_(Judges)" title="Abimelech (Judges)">Abimelech</a>'s head, and crushed his skull." (<a href="/wiki/Book_of_Judges" title="Book of Judges">Judg.</a> 9:53 <a href="/wiki/NRSV" class="mw-redirect" title="NRSV">NRSV</a>) </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Manufacture_of_quern-stones">Manufacture of quern-stones</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Quern-stone&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Manufacture of quern-stones"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The best type of stone from which to manufacture quern-stones are <a href="/wiki/Igneous" class="mw-redirect" title="Igneous">igneous</a> rocks such as <a href="/wiki/Basalt" title="Basalt">basalt</a>. These have naturally rough surfaces, but grains do not detach easily, so the material being ground does not become gritty. However, such rocks are not always available, meaning that quern-stones have been manufactured from a wide variety of rocks, including <a href="/wiki/Sandstone" title="Sandstone">sandstone</a>, <a href="/wiki/Quartzite" title="Quartzite">quartzite</a> and <a href="/wiki/Limestone" title="Limestone">limestone</a>. <a href="/wiki/Quernmore" title="Quernmore">Quernmore</a> Crag near <a href="/wiki/Lancaster,_Lancashire" title="Lancaster, Lancashire">Lancaster</a> in England is named after the quarrying of millstone grit used to make quern stones in these parts. The names of the mountains of <a href="/wiki/Whernside" title="Whernside">Whernside</a> and <a href="/wiki/Great_Whernside" title="Great Whernside">Great Whernside</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Yorkshire_Dales" title="Yorkshire Dales">Yorkshire Dales</a> have the same origin. </p><p>Rutter was able to show, for the southern Levant, that basalt quern-stones were preferred to those manufactured from other rock types. Basalt quern-stones were therefore transported over long-distances, leading him to argue that, despite their everyday, utilitarian function, they were also used as a <a href="/wiki/Status_symbol" title="Status symbol">status symbol</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Research in Scotland has indicated that to a degree regional styles existed.<sup id="cite_ref-McLaren_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McLaren-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Native_women_grinding_wheat,_Palestine.tiff" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Native_women_grinding_wheat%2C_Palestine.tiff/lossy-page1-220px-Native_women_grinding_wheat%2C_Palestine.tiff.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="239" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Native_women_grinding_wheat%2C_Palestine.tiff/lossy-page1-330px-Native_women_grinding_wheat%2C_Palestine.tiff.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Native_women_grinding_wheat%2C_Palestine.tiff/lossy-page1-440px-Native_women_grinding_wheat%2C_Palestine.tiff.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1415" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption> Women grind grain with a quern, <a href="/wiki/Palestine_(region)" title="Palestine (region)">Palestine</a> (1900)</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Evolution_of_quern-stones">Evolution of quern-stones</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Quern-stone&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Evolution of quern-stones"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Knocking_stone" title="Knocking stone">Knocking stones</a> were used in the preparation of small quantities of cereal, however the earliest forms of quern were the saddle and trough querns. The earliest quern so far discovered dates to <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 9,000 BCE</span> and was found at Abu Hureyra, Syria.<sup id="cite_ref-britmus_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-britmus-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A later development was the rotary quern, which takes several forms. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Saddle_quern">Saddle quern</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Quern-stone&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Saddle quern"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The saddle quern is produced by rocking or rolling the muller using parallel motions (i.e., pushing and pulling the handstone), which forms a shape looking like a <a href="/wiki/Saddle" title="Saddle">saddle</a>. These are the most ancient and widely used type of quern-stone and were superseded around the 5th to the 4th century BC by the more efficient rotary quern.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The handstones for saddle querns are generally either roughly cylindrical (not unlike a <a href="/wiki/Rolling_pin" title="Rolling pin">rolling pin</a>) and used with both hands, or rough hemispheres and used with one hand. This provides a crushing motion, not a grinding action and is more suitable for crushing malted grain. It is not easy to produce flour from a saddle quern with unmalted grain. The muller is also referred to as a 'rubber' or 'mouler'.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some pictorial examples may be found in the <a href="/wiki/Metate" title="Metate">metate</a> article. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rotary_quern">Rotary quern</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Quern-stone&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Rotary quern"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Jato_(grinder)" title="Jato (grinder)">Jato (grinder)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mo_(grist_mill)" title="Mo (grist mill)">Mo (grist mill)</a></div> <p>As the name implies, the rotary quern used circular motions to grind the material, meaning both the upper and lower quern were generally circular. The handstone of a rotary quern is much heavier than that of saddle quern and provides the necessary weight for the grinding of unmalted grain into flour. In some cases the grinding surfaces of the stones fit into each other, the upper stone being slightly concave and the lower one convex. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Quern_at_Estonian_Open_Air_Museum.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Quern_at_Estonian_Open_Air_Museum.jpg/220px-Quern_at_Estonian_Open_Air_Museum.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Quern_at_Estonian_Open_Air_Museum.jpg/330px-Quern_at_Estonian_Open_Air_Museum.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Quern_at_Estonian_Open_Air_Museum.jpg/440px-Quern_at_Estonian_Open_Air_Museum.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4032" data-file-height="2268" /></a><figcaption>Rotary hand quern at the Estonian Open Air Museum</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Beehive_quern">Beehive quern</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Quern-stone&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Beehive quern"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Quern_stones.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Quern_stones.JPG/290px-Quern_stones.JPG" decoding="async" width="290" height="217" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Quern_stones.JPG/435px-Quern_stones.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Quern_stones.JPG/580px-Quern_stones.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2288" data-file-height="1712" /></a><figcaption>Querns from the <a href="/wiki/Whithorn" title="Whithorn">Whithorn</a> Museum, <a href="/wiki/Dumfries_and_Galloway" title="Dumfries and Galloway">Dumfries and Galloway</a>, southern Scotland</figcaption></figure> <p>In this type, the upper stone is hemispherical, or bun-shaped, with a central conical hopper to hold the grain that falls down a hole to the grinding surface. It is held in position with a pivot that fits into a central hole in the bottom stone. The upper stone also has a deep horizontal socket in its steep side in which to place the wooden peg used as a handle to rotate or oscillate the upper stone. This was the earliest type of rotary quern to appear in the British Isles. It arrived in Britain in the middle of the <a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a> (about 400–300 BC) and spread into the northern half of Ireland, probably from Scotland, some time after the 2nd century BC.<sup id="cite_ref-J.T._Koch,_2007_p._150_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-J.T._Koch,_2007_p._150-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Disc_quern">Disc quern</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Quern-stone&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Disc quern"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Handquern1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Handquern1.jpg/190px-Handquern1.jpg" decoding="async" width="190" height="109" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Handquern1.jpg/285px-Handquern1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Handquern1.jpg/380px-Handquern1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="752" data-file-height="432" /></a><figcaption>A hand quern being operated<sup id="cite_ref-Garnett155_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Garnett155-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Disc querns consist of two flat disc-shaped stones, an upper stone with a cylindrical perforation for containing a handle and a lower stone with a central spindle hole.<sup id="cite_ref-O'Sullivan2006_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-O'Sullivan2006-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The adjustable, discoid rotary quern has larger, flatter and more discoid stones than the beehive type. The lower stone was completely perforated. The long handle rotated in a shallow socket in the upper surface of the upper stone. They are thought to have originated in <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a> 2,500 years ago<sup id="cite_ref-Ritti_et_al._2007,_159_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ritti_et_al._2007,_159-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and appear to have arrived in maritime Scotland from about 200 BC with people who built the defensive homes known as <a href="/wiki/Broch" title="Broch">brochs</a>. This <a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a> type closely resembles the adjustable Highland quern still in use in historic times.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/Ireland" title="Ireland">Ireland</a>, disc querns were the dominant type of querns in use between the years 500 <a href="/wiki/Common_Era" title="Common Era">CE</a>–1500 CE, and usually had a diameter of 30–60 cm.<sup id="cite_ref-O'Sullivan2006_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-O'Sullivan2006-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Girl_with_ponytail-Women_at_the_Quern.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Girl_with_ponytail-Women_at_the_Quern.jpg/220px-Girl_with_ponytail-Women_at_the_Quern.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="138" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Girl_with_ponytail-Women_at_the_Quern.jpg/330px-Girl_with_ponytail-Women_at_the_Quern.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Girl_with_ponytail-Women_at_the_Quern.jpg/440px-Girl_with_ponytail-Women_at_the_Quern.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1400" data-file-height="880" /></a><figcaption>The quern rests on the <a href="/wiki/Earasaid" class="mw-redirect" title="Earasaid">earasaid</a> of the woman on the right, possibly to catch grain; she feeds the stone with grain from the bowl at her left. Woodcut from <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Pennant" title="Thomas Pennant">Thomas Pennant</a>'s 1772 book <i>A Tour in Scotland</i>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Garnett in his 1800 tour of Scotland describes the use of a hand quern as follows: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The quern consists of two circular pieces of stone, generally grit or granite, about twenty inches in diameter. In the lower stone is a wooden peg, rounded at the top; on this the upper stone is nicely balanced, so as just to touch the lower one, by means of a piece of wood fixed in a large hole in this upper piece, but which does not fill the hole, room for feeding the mill being left on each side: it is so nicely balanced, that though there is some friction from the contact of the two stones, yet a very small momentum will make it revolve several times, when it has no corn in it. The corn being dried, two women sit down on the ground, having the quern between them; the one feeds it, while the other turns it round, relieving each other occasionally, and singing some Celtic songs all the time.<sup id="cite_ref-Garnett155_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Garnett155-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Miniature_quern">Miniature quern</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Quern-stone&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Miniature quern"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Under 200 mm (8 in) in diameter and varying from roughly dressed to carefully worked, often with vertical handle sockets, a new class of querns has been identified having been overlooked in the past as weights, etc. In all respects they are like full sized quern stones and they show the typical wear signs that indicate that they were used for grinding small amounts of seeds, minerals or herbs. A suggestion that they may have been made as toys is thought to be unlikely.<sup id="cite_ref-McLaren2008_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McLaren2008-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_types_of_quern_stones">Other types of quern stones</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Quern-stone&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Other types of quern stones"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Other forms of quern-stone include hopper-rubbers and Pompeian mills, both used by the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Romans</a>. The larger rotary mills were usually worked by a donkey or horse via an extension arm of wood attached to the upper stone. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><audio id="mwe_player_1" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" style="width:220px;" data-durationhint="65" data-mwtitle="Roman_mill.ogg" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Roman_mill.ogg"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/71/Roman_mill.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/71/Roman_mill.ogg/Roman_mill.ogg.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /></audio></span><figcaption>Sound of a Roman mill.</figcaption></figure> <p>Querns utilizing crank-and-connecting rods were used in the <a href="/wiki/Western_Han_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Han Dynasty">Western Han Dynasty</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Yan_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yan-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Laws_against_use">Laws against use</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Quern-stone&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Laws against use"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There was a legal requirement in <a href="/wiki/Scotland" title="Scotland">Scotland</a> for tenants to pay for use of the baron's mill. Early leases of mills gave to the miller the legal right to destroy quern-stones which were being used in defiance of <a href="/wiki/Thirlage" title="Thirlage">thirlage</a> agreements.<sup id="cite_ref-Gauldie_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gauldie-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The obligations of thirlage eventually ceased to apply, but thirlage in Scotland was only formally and totally abolished on 28 November (<a href="/wiki/Martinmas" class="mw-redirect" title="Martinmas">Martinmas</a>) 2004 by the <a href="/wiki/Abolition_of_Feudal_Tenure_etc._(Scotland)_Act_2000" title="Abolition of Feudal Tenure etc. (Scotland) Act 2000">Abolition of Feudal Tenure etc. (Scotland) Act 2000</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A similar obligation (the manorial right of <a href="/wiki/Thirlage#Multure" title="Thirlage">mulcture</a>) existed in England, established by custom only and not by <a href="/wiki/Statute" title="Statute">statute</a>. This was actively enforced using <a href="/wiki/English_law#Common_law" title="English law">common law</a> provisions.<sup id="cite_ref-sbh_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sbh-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Among many recorded adjudications, the 1274 case of the abbot of St Albans Abbey, <a href="/wiki/Cirencester" title="Cirencester">Cirencester</a>, who owned as lord of the manor the exclusive milling rights for the whole town, is notable: he instructed his bailiffs to search townspeople's homes and seize any quern-stones they found. Eventually the town brought a case against the abbott at the town <a href="/wiki/Assize" class="mw-redirect" title="Assize">assizes</a>. They lost, and were ordered to pay the abbot 100 <a href="/wiki/Mark_(currency)#England_and_Scotland" title="Mark (currency)">marks</a> in compensation for defaming him. To celebrate his victory, the abbot then used the stones to pave the floor of his private parlour.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Exercising the prerogative fell into gradual disuse and the last instance was in <a href="/wiki/Wakefield" title="Wakefield">Wakefield</a>, Yorkshire, when in 1850 the town bought out the owner of Soke Mill for £20,000 (equivalent to £2,700,000 in 2023).<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ornament_and_inscription">Ornament and inscription</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Quern-stone&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Ornament and inscription"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%E0%A4%9D%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%8B.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A quern-stone (right), known as jato in Nepali, in the porch of a rural Nepali house." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/%E0%A4%9D%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%8B.jpg/220px-%E0%A4%9D%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%8B.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="115" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/%E0%A4%9D%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%8B.jpg/330px-%E0%A4%9D%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%8B.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/%E0%A4%9D%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%8B.jpg/440px-%E0%A4%9D%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%8B.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4063" data-file-height="2122" /></a><figcaption>A quern-stone (right), known as <i>jato</i> in <a href="/wiki/Nepali_language" title="Nepali language">Nepali</a>, on the porch of a rural <a href="/wiki/Nepal" title="Nepal">Nepali</a> house.</figcaption></figure> <p>A number of handstones have been found with extra carving, however it is not always straightforward to separate decoration from practical functional purposes. The designs invest in the appearance of the handstone when it is in circular motion, and the ability of the quern-stones to change seeds into flour may invoke a feeling of transformative magic that attracted both reverence and status to these household objects.<sup id="cite_ref-McLaren119_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McLaren119-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Three beehive querns found in Ireland have inscribed ornament of <a href="/wiki/La_T%C3%A8ne_culture" title="La Tène culture">La Tène</a> type,<sup id="cite_ref-J.T._Koch,_2007_p._150_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-J.T._Koch,_2007_p._150-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as do examples from England and Wales.<sup id="cite_ref-McLaren113p117_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McLaren113p117-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many of the horizontal slot-handled quern-stones have decoration that usually follows the basic pattern of motifs that encircle the hopper and/or the handle slot. One type though has an irregular pattern of cup marks that encircle the hopper.<sup id="cite_ref-McLaren113p106_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McLaren113p106-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A quern was discovered at <a href="/wiki/Dunadd" title="Dunadd">Dunadd</a> in Scotland that has a cross carved into the upper stone. The cross has expanded terminals and ultimately derives its form from <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Roman</a> and <a href="/wiki/Byzantine" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine">Byzantine</a> predecessors of the fifth and sixth centuries. This example has a high quality of finishing which reflects its 'cost' and enhances its symbolic value and social significance. The cross is likely to have 'protected' the corn and the resultant flour from evil, such as fungal <a href="/wiki/Rust_(fungus)" title="Rust (fungus)">rust</a> or <a href="/wiki/Ergot" title="Ergot">ergot</a>. Various legends give miraculous power to mill-stones and several have been found which have been re-used in the construction of burial cists or as tomb stones. The association between quern stones and burial may be because they are used in the process of making bread, the staple of life. A broken or disused quern therefore can be seen as symbolic of death.<sup id="cite_ref-Campbell_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Campbell-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/Clonmacnoise" title="Clonmacnoise">Clonmacnoise</a>, near <a href="/wiki/Athlone" title="Athlone">Athlone</a> in County Offaly in <a href="/wiki/Ireland" title="Ireland">Ireland</a>, a quern stone was found which had been made into a tombstone, having been ornamented and the name Sechnasach, who died in 928 AD, inscribed onto it.<sup id="cite_ref-Bord_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bord-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A large quern was discovered on the <a href="/wiki/Lough_Scur" title="Lough Scur">Lough Scur</a> <a href="/wiki/Crannog" title="Crannog">crannog</a> in <a href="/wiki/Ireland" title="Ireland">Ireland</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_Wondrous_Mauchline_Quern">The Wondrous Mauchline Quern</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Quern-stone&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: The Wondrous Mauchline Quern"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the 9th century the Welsh monk <a href="/wiki/Nennius" title="Nennius">Nennius</a> wrote a history of Britain, the <i><a href="/wiki/Historia_Brittonum" title="Historia Brittonum">Historia Brittonum</a></i>, in which he lists the thirteen wonders of Britain, and included in it is the wondrous '<a href="/wiki/Mauchline" title="Mauchline">Mauchline</a> Quern' that ground constantly, except on Sundays. It could be heard working underground and the local placename 'Auchenbrain' may celebrate it, translating from the Gaelic as 'field of the quern'.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Related_grinding_tools">Related grinding tools</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Quern-stone&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Related grinding tools"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Knocking_stone" title="Knocking stone">Knocking stone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jato_(grinder)" title="Jato (grinder)">Jato</a>: a type of rotary quern-stone used in the Himalayan region of Nepal, Sikkim, Darjeeling and Bhutan.</li> <li><span title="Malay (macrolanguage)-language text"><i lang="ms">Batu giling</i></span> (<a href="/wiki/Malay_language" title="Malay language">Malay</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mano_(archaeology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mano (archaeology)">Manos</a> and <a href="/wiki/Metate" title="Metate">metate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Millstone" title="Millstone">Millstone</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Quern-stone&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Querns" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Querns">Querns</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Metate" title="Metate">Metate</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Scottish_Rural_Life,_History_Dictionary" class="extiw" title="wikibooks:Scottish Rural Life, History Dictionary">Scottish Rural Life, History Dictionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sharpening_stone" title="Sharpening stone">Sharpening stone</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Quern-stone&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-McLaren113p106-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-McLaren113p106_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-McLaren113p106_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFMcLarenHunter2008" class="citation journal cs1">McLaren D, Hunter F (2008). 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London: <a href="/wiki/Simpkin_%26_Marshall" title="Simpkin & Marshall">Simpkin & Marshall</a>. p. 215. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/184882012">184882012</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+corn+milling&rft.place=London&rft.pages=215&rft.pub=Simpkin+%26+Marshall&rft.date=1898&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F184882012&rft.aulast=Bennett&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft.au=Elton%2C+John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQuern-stone" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAshton1904" class="citation book cs1">Ashton, John (1904). "The miller and his tolls". <i>The History of Bread from Pre-historic to Modern Times</i>. London: <a href="/wiki/The_Religious_Tract_Society" class="mw-redirect" title="The Religious Tract Society">The Religious Tract Society</a>. p. 115. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/6124449">6124449</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+miller+and+his+tolls&rft.btitle=The+History+of+Bread+from+Pre-historic+to+Modern+Times&rft.place=London&rft.pages=115&rft.pub=The+Religious+Tract+Society&rft.date=1904&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F6124449&rft.aulast=Ashton&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQuern-stone" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-McLaren119-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-McLaren119_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcLarenHunter2008" class="citation journal cs1">McLaren D, Hunter F (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://journals.socantscot.org/index.php/psas/article/download/9718/9685/">"New aspects of rotary querns in Scotland"</a>. <i>Proc Soc Antiq Scot</i>. <b>119</b>: 106. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0081-1564">0081-1564</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proc+Soc+Antiq+Scot&rft.atitle=New+aspects+of+rotary+querns+in+Scotland&rft.volume=119&rft.pages=106&rft.date=2008&rft.issn=0081-1564&rft.aulast=McLaren&rft.aufirst=D&rft.au=Hunter%2C+F&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjournals.socantscot.org%2Findex.php%2Fpsas%2Farticle%2Fdownload%2F9718%2F9685%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQuern-stone" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-McLaren113p117-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-McLaren113p117_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcLarenHunter2008" class="citation journal cs1">McLaren D, Hunter F (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://journals.socantscot.org/index.php/psas/article/download/9718/9685/">"New aspects of rotary querns in Scotland"</a>. <i>Proc Soc Antiq Scot</i>. <b>113</b>: 117. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0081-1564">0081-1564</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proc+Soc+Antiq+Scot&rft.atitle=New+aspects+of+rotary+querns+in+Scotland&rft.volume=113&rft.pages=117&rft.date=2008&rft.issn=0081-1564&rft.aulast=McLaren&rft.aufirst=D&rft.au=Hunter%2C+F&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjournals.socantscot.org%2Findex.php%2Fpsas%2Farticle%2Fdownload%2F9718%2F9685%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQuern-stone" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Campbell-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Campbell_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ewan Campbell, A cross-marked quern from Dunadd and other evidence for relations between Dunass and Iona, <i>Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland</i>, vol. 5, no. 117 (1987), pp. 105 - 117.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bord-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Bord_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Janet and Colin Bord, <i>Mysterious Britain</i> (Garnstone 1973), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-85511-180-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-85511-180-1">0-85511-180-1</a>. P. 62.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Watson, William J. (1926). <i>The History of the Celtic Place-Names of Scotland</i>. Edinburgh : William Blackwood & Sons Ltd., p.187</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Quern-stone&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>DeBoer, W. (2001) Of dice and women: gambling and exchange in Native North America, In <i>Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory</i> 8:215-268.</li> <li>Gauldie, Enid (1981) The Scottish Miller 1700–1900. Pub. John Donald. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-85976-067-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-85976-067-7">0-85976-067-7</a>. 98-99.</li> <li>Lease, N., Laurent, R., Blackburn, M. and Fortin, M. (2001) Caractérisation pétrologie d’artefact en basalte provenant de Tell ‘Atij et de Tell Gudeda en Syrie de Nord (3000-2500 av J-C), In <i>Serie archéométri</i>e 1:227-240.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'SullivanDowney2006" class="citation journal cs1">O'Sullivan, Muiris; Downey, Liam (2006). "Quern Stones". <i>Archaeology Ireland</i>. <b>20</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">22–</span>25. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20559139">20559139</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Archaeology+Ireland&rft.atitle=Quern+Stones&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E22-%3C%2Fspan%3E25&rft.date=2006&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F20559139%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=O%27Sullivan&rft.aufirst=Muiris&rft.au=Downey%2C+Liam&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQuern-stone" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRittiGreweKessener2007" class="citation cs2">Ritti, Tullia; Grewe, Klaus; Kessener, Paul (2007), "A Relief of a Water-powered Stone Saw Mill on a Sarcophagus at Hierapolis and its Implications", <i>Journal of Roman Archaeology</i>, <b>20</b>: <span class="nowrap">138–</span>163, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS1047759400005341">10.1017/S1047759400005341</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161937987">161937987</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Roman+Archaeology&rft.atitle=A+Relief+of+a+Water-powered+Stone+Saw+Mill+on+a+Sarcophagus+at+Hierapolis+and+its+Implications&rft.volume=20&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E138-%3C%2Fspan%3E163&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS1047759400005341&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A161937987%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Ritti&rft.aufirst=Tullia&rft.au=Grewe%2C+Klaus&rft.au=Kessener%2C+Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQuern-stone" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Wright, K. (1992) <i>Ground stone assemblage variations and subsistence strategies in the Levant, 22,000 to 5,500 bp</i>, unpublished PhD thesis, Yale University.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Quern-stone&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080916141517/http://meuliere.ish-lyon.cnrs.fr/index.html">Atlas of European millstone quarries</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171213145604/http://qeiyafa.huji.ac.il/gallerystone.asp">Saddle quern, other querns, and stone objects</a> at the Khirbet Qeiyafa archaeological site in Israel</li> <li>Demonstration of quern-stone use in Iran, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lOe13mgZP1w"><span class="plainlinks">Using a Millstone : Grinding Wheat with a Stone grinder (2022)</span></a> on <a href="/wiki/YouTube_video_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="YouTube video (identifier)">YouTube</a>, November 2022.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul 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style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Revolution" title="Neolithic Revolution">Neolithic Revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Founder_crops" title="Founder crops">Founder crops</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_World_crops" title="New World crops">New World crops</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ard_(plough)" title="Ard (plough)">Ard / plough</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celt_(tool)" title="Celt (tool)">Celt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digging_stick" title="Digging stick">Digging stick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestication" title="Domestication">Domestication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goad" title="Goad">Goad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irrigation" title="Irrigation">Irrigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secondary_products_revolution" title="Secondary products revolution">Secondary products</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sickle" title="Sickle">Sickle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terrace_(earthworks)" title="Terrace (earthworks)">Terracing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em">Food processing</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Control_of_fire_by_early_humans" title="Control of fire by early humans">Fire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basket" title="Basket">Basket</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cooking" title="Cooking">Cooking</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Earth_oven" title="Earth oven">Earth oven</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Granary" title="Granary">Granaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grinding_slab" title="Grinding slab">Grinding slab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ground_stone" title="Ground stone">Ground stone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hearth" title="Hearth">Hearth</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/A%C5%9F%C4%B1kl%C4%B1_H%C3%B6y%C3%BCk#Hearths" title="Aşıklı Höyük">Aşıklı Höyük</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qesem_cave#Fire" title="Qesem cave">Qesem cave</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mano_(stone)" title="Mano (stone)">Manos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metate" title="Metate">Metate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mortar_and_pestle" title="Mortar and pestle">Mortar and pestle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pottery" title="Pottery">Pottery</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Quern-stone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_storage_pits" title="Prehistoric storage pits">Storage pits</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em"><a href="/wiki/Hunting_hypothesis" title="Hunting hypothesis">Hunting</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arrow" title="Arrow">Arrow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boomerang" title="Boomerang">Boomerang</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Throwing_stick" title="Throwing stick">throwing stick</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bow_and_arrow" title="Bow and arrow">Bow and arrow</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_archery" title="History of archery">history</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravettian#Hunting" title="Gravettian">Nets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spear" title="Spear">Spear</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spear-thrower" title="Spear-thrower">spear-thrower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baton_fragment_(Palart_310)" title="Baton fragment (Palart 310)">baton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harpoon" title="Harpoon">harpoon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sch%C3%B6ningen_spears" title="Schöningen spears">Schöningen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woomera_(spear-thrower)" title="Woomera (spear-thrower)">woomera</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Projectile_point" title="Projectile point">Projectile points</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arrowhead" title="Arrowhead">Arrowhead</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Transverse_arrowhead" title="Transverse arrowhead">Transverse</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bare_Island_projectile_point" title="Bare Island projectile point">Bare Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cascade_point" title="Cascade point">Cascade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clovis_point" title="Clovis point">Clovis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creswellian_culture" title="Creswellian culture">Cresswell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cumberland_point" title="Cumberland point">Cumberland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eden_point" title="Eden point">Eden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folsom_point" title="Folsom point">Folsom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamoka_projectile_point" title="Lamoka projectile point">Lamoka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manis_Mastodon_site" title="Manis Mastodon site">Manis Mastodon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plano_point" title="Plano point">Plano</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Systems</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Game_drive_system" title="Game drive system">Game drive system</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buffalo_jump" title="Buffalo jump">Buffalo jump</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em"><a href="/wiki/Lithic_technology" title="Lithic technology">Toolmaking</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Industry_(archaeology)" title="Industry (archaeology)">Earliest toolmaking</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oldowan" title="Oldowan">Oldowan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acheulean" title="Acheulean">Acheulean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mousterian" title="Mousterian">Mousterian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aurignacian" title="Aurignacian">Aurignacian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clovis_culture" title="Clovis culture">Clovis culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cupstone" title="Cupstone">Cupstone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_hardening" title="Fire hardening">Fire hardening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravettian" title="Gravettian">Gravettian culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hafting" title="Hafting">Hafting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hand_axe" title="Hand axe">Hand axe</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grooves_(archaeology)" title="Grooves (archaeology)">Grooves</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Langdale_axe_industry" title="Langdale axe industry">Langdale axe industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levallois_technique" title="Levallois technique">Levallois technique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithic_core" title="Lithic core">Lithic core</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithic_reduction" title="Lithic reduction">Lithic reduction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lithic_analysis" title="Lithic analysis">analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Debitage" title="Debitage">debitage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithic_flake" title="Lithic flake">flake</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithic_technology" title="Lithic technology">Lithic technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magdalenian" title="Magdalenian">Magdalenian culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferrous_metallurgy" title="Ferrous metallurgy">Metallurgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microblade_technology" title="Microblade technology">Microblade technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grime%27s_Graves" title="Grime's Graves">Mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prepared-core_technique" title="Prepared-core technique">Prepared-core technique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solutrean" title="Solutrean">Solutrean industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Striking_platform" title="Striking platform">Striking platform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tool_stone" title="Tool stone">Tool stone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uniface" title="Uniface">Uniface</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yubetsu_technique" title="Yubetsu technique">Yubetsu technique</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em"><a href="/wiki/Artifact_(archaeology)" title="Artifact (archaeology)">Other tools</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adze" title="Adze">Adze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stitching_awl" title="Stitching awl">Awl</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gravettian#Use_of_animal_remains" title="Gravettian">bone</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axe" title="Axe">Axe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bannerstone" title="Bannerstone">Bannerstone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blade_(archaeology)" title="Blade (archaeology)">Blade</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prismatic_blade" title="Prismatic blade">prismatic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bone_tool" title="Bone tool">Bone tool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bow_drill" title="Bow drill">Bow drill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burin_(lithic_flake)" title="Burin (lithic flake)">Burin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canoe#History" title="Canoe">Canoe</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oar" title="Oar">Oar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pesse_canoe" title="Pesse canoe">Pesse canoe</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chopper_(archaeology)" title="Chopper (archaeology)">Chopper</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chopping_tool" title="Chopping tool">tool</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleaver_(Stone_Age_tool)" title="Cleaver (Stone Age tool)">Cleaver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denticulate_tool" title="Denticulate tool">Denticulate tool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_plough" title="Fire plough">Fire plough</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire-saw" title="Fire-saw">Fire-saw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hammerstone" title="Hammerstone">Hammerstone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knife" title="Knife">Knife</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microlith" title="Microlith">Microlith</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Quern-stone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racloir" title="Racloir">Racloir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rope" title="Rope">Rope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scraper_(archaeology)" title="Scraper (archaeology)">Scraper</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grattoir_de_c%C3%B4t%C3%A9" title="Grattoir de côté">side</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stone_tool" title="Stone tool">Stone tool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tally_stick#Paleolithic_tally_sticks" title="Tally stick">Tally stick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_weapons#Copper_Age" title="History of weapons">Weapons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wheel" title="Wheel">Wheel</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bronocice_pot" title="Bronocice pot">illustration</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Architecture434" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_architecture" title="History of architecture">Architecture</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em">Ceremonial</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kiva" title="Kiva">Kiva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyramid" title="Pyramid">Pyramid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menhir" title="Menhir">Standing stones</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Megalith" title="Megalith">megalith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stone_row" title="Stone row">row</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stonehenge" title="Stonehenge">Stonehenge</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em">Dwellings</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neolithic_architecture" title="Neolithic architecture">Neolithic architecture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neolithic_long_house" title="Neolithic long house">long house</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_megalith_architecture" title="British megalith architecture">British megalith architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nordic_megalith_architecture" title="Nordic megalith architecture">Nordic megalith architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burdei" title="Burdei">Burdei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cave" title="Cave">Cave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cliff_dwelling" title="Cliff dwelling">Cliff dwelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dugout_(shelter)" title="Dugout (shelter)">Dugout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hut" title="Hut">Hut</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quiggly_hole" title="Quiggly hole">Quiggly hole</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacal" title="Jacal">Jacal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longhouse" title="Longhouse">Longhouse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mudbrick" title="Mudbrick">Mudbrick</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mehrgarh#Lifestyle_and_technology" title="Mehrgarh">Mehrgarh</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pit-house" title="Pit-house">Pit-house</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navajo_pueblitos" title="Navajo pueblitos">Pueblitos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pueblo" title="Pueblo">Pueblo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rock_shelter" title="Rock shelter">Rock shelter</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blombos_Cave" title="Blombos Cave">Blombos Cave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abri_de_la_Madeleine" title="Abri de la Madeleine">Abri de la Madeleine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sibudu_Cave" title="Sibudu Cave">Sibudu Cave</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roundhouse_(dwelling)" title="Roundhouse (dwelling)">Roundhouse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stilt_house" title="Stilt house">Stilt house</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_pile_dwellings_around_the_Alps" title="Prehistoric pile dwellings around the Alps">Alp pile dwellings</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ness_of_Brodgar" title="Ness of Brodgar">Stone roof</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wattle_and_daub" title="Wattle and daub">Wattle and daub</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em">Water management</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Check_dam" title="Check dam">Check dam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cistern" title="Cistern">Cistern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flush_toilet#History" title="Flush toilet">Flush toilet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reservoir" title="Reservoir">Reservoir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Well" title="Well">Well</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em">Other architecture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feature_(archaeology)" title="Feature (archaeology)">Archaeological features</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Broch" title="Broch">Broch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burnt_mound" title="Burnt mound">Burnt mound</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fulacht_fiadh" title="Fulacht fiadh">fulacht fiadh</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causewayed_enclosure" title="Causewayed enclosure">Causewayed enclosure</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tor_enclosure" title="Tor enclosure">Tor enclosure</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neolithic_circular_enclosures_in_Central_Europe" title="Neolithic circular enclosures in Central Europe">Circular enclosure</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Goseck_Circle" title="Goseck Circle">Goseck</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cursus" title="Cursus">Cursus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henge" title="Henge">Henge</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thornborough_Henges" title="Thornborough Henges">Thornborough</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megalithic_architectural_elements" title="Megalithic architectural elements">Megalithic architectural elements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midden" title="Midden">Midden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_oldest_extant_buildings" title="List of oldest extant buildings">Oldest extant buildings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timber_circle" title="Timber circle">Timber circle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timber_trackway" class="mw-redirect" title="Timber trackway">Timber trackway</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sweet_Track" title="Sweet Track">Sweet Track</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Arts_and_culture434" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_art" title="Prehistoric art">Arts</a> and <a href="/wiki/Archaeological_culture" title="Archaeological culture">culture</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em"><a href="/wiki/Artifact_(archaeology)" title="Artifact (archaeology)">Material goods</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Basket_weaving" title="Basket weaving">Baskets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beadwork" title="Beadwork">Beadwork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bed#History" title="Bed">Beds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chalcolithic" title="Chalcolithic">Chalcolithic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_clothing_and_textiles" title="History of clothing and textiles">Clothing/textiles</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_clothing_and_textiles_technology" title="Timeline of clothing and textiles technology">timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_cosmetics" title="History of cosmetics">Cosmetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Stone_Age" title="Middle Stone Age">Glue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_hide_materials" title="History of hide materials">Hides</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shoe#History" title="Shoe">shoes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%96tzi#Clothes_and_shoes" title="Ötzi">Ötzi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewellery#History" title="Jewellery">Jewelry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amber#Use" title="Amber">amber use</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mirror#History" title="Mirror">Mirrors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pottery#History" title="Pottery">Pottery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cardium_pottery" title="Cardium pottery">Cardium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cord-marked_pottery" title="Cord-marked pottery">Cord-marked</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grooved_ware" title="Grooved ware">Grooved ware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C5%8Dmon_pottery" title="Jōmon pottery">Jōmon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linear_Pottery_culture" title="Linear Pottery culture">Linear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unstan_ware" title="Unstan ware">Unstan ware</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sewing_needle#History" title="Sewing needle">Sewing needle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weaving" title="Weaving">Weaving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_wine" title="History of wine">Wine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Areni-1_winery" title="Areni-1 winery">winery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_wine_press#Early_history" title="History of the wine press">wine press</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em"><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_art" title="Prehistoric art">Prehistoric art</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_the_Upper_Paleolithic" title="Art of the Upper Paleolithic">Art of the Upper Paleolithic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_the_Middle_Paleolithic" title="Art of the Middle Paleolithic">Art of the Middle Paleolithic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blombos_Cave#Archaeological_remains_and_material_culture_from_the_Middle_Stone_Age_levels" title="Blombos Cave">Blombos Cave</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Stone_Age_art" title="List of Stone Age art">List of Stone Age art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bird_stone" title="Bird stone">Bird stone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cairn" title="Cairn">Cairn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carved_stone_balls" title="Carved stone balls">Carved stone balls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cave_painting" title="Cave painting">Cave paintings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cup_and_ring_mark" title="Cup and ring mark">Cup and ring mark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geoglyph" title="Geoglyph">Geoglyph</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hill_figure" title="Hill figure">Hill figure</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_hat" title="Golden hat">Golden hats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guardian_stones" title="Guardian stones">Guardian stones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gwion_Gwion_rock_paintings" title="Gwion Gwion rock paintings">Gwion Gwion rock paintings</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_painting#Pre-history" title="History of painting">painting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pigment#History" title="Pigment">pigment</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megalithic_art" title="Megalithic art">Megalithic art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petroform" title="Petroform">Petroform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petroglyph" title="Petroglyph">Petroglyph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrosomatoglyph" title="Petrosomatoglyph">Petrosomatoglyph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pictogram" title="Pictogram">Pictogram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rock_art" title="Rock art">Rock art</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rock_cupule" title="Rock cupule">Rock cupule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stone_carving" title="Stone carving">Stone carving</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sculpture#Prehistoric_periods" title="Sculpture">Sculpture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statue_menhir" title="Statue menhir">Statue menhir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stone_circle" title="Stone circle">Stone circle</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_stone_circles" title="List of stone circles">list</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stone_circles_in_the_British_Isles_and_Brittany" title="Stone circles in the British Isles and Brittany">British Isles and Brittany</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venus_figurine" title="Venus figurine">Venus figurine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em"><a href="/wiki/Paleolithic_religion" title="Paleolithic religion">Burial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tumulus" title="Tumulus">Burial mounds</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bowl_barrow" title="Bowl barrow">Bowl barrow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Round_barrow" title="Round barrow">Round barrow</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mound_Builders" title="Mound Builders">Mound Builders culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_burial_mounds_in_the_United_States" title="List of burial mounds in the United States">U.S. sites</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chamber_tomb" title="Chamber tomb">Chamber tomb</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cotswold-Severn_Group" title="Cotswold-Severn Group">Cotswold-Severn</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cist" title="Cist">Cist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dartmoor_kistvaens" title="Dartmoor kistvaens">Dartmoor kistvaens</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clava_cairn" title="Clava cairn">Clava cairn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Court_cairn" title="Court cairn">Court cairn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cremation#History" title="Cremation">Cremation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dolmen" title="Dolmen">Dolmen</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_dolmen" title="Great dolmen">Great dolmen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyre" title="Pyre">Funeral pyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallery_grave" title="Gallery grave">Gallery grave</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Transepted_gallery_grave" class="mw-redirect" title="Transepted gallery grave">transepted</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wedge-shaped_gallery_grave" class="mw-redirect" title="Wedge-shaped gallery grave">wedge-shaped</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grave_goods" title="Grave goods">Grave goods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jar_burial" title="Jar burial">Jar burial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Long_barrow" title="Long barrow">Long barrow</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Unchambered_long_barrow" title="Unchambered long barrow">unchambered</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gr%C3%B8nsalen" title="Grønsalen">Grønsalen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megalithic_tomb" class="mw-redirect" title="Megalithic tomb">Megalithic tomb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mummy" title="Mummy">Mummy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passage_grave" title="Passage grave">Passage grave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rectangular_dolmen" title="Rectangular dolmen">Rectangular dolmen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ring_cairn" title="Ring cairn">Ring cairn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simple_dolmen" title="Simple dolmen">Simple dolmen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stone_box_grave" title="Stone box grave">Stone box grave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tor_cairn" title="Tor cairn">Tor cairn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unchambered_long_cairn" title="Unchambered long cairn">Unchambered long cairn</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em">Other cultural</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaeoastronomy" title="Archaeoastronomy">Archaeoastronomy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_archaeoastronomical_sites_by_country" title="List of archaeoastronomical sites by country">sites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lunar_calendar" title="Lunar calendar">lunar calendar</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_modernity" title="Behavioral modernity">Behavioral modernity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_musicology" title="Evolutionary musicology">Evolutionary musicology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Music_archaeology" title="Music archaeology">music archaeology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_origin_of_religion" title="Evolutionary origin of religion">Evolutionary origin of religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paleolithic_religion" title="Paleolithic religion">Paleolithic religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_religion" title="Prehistoric religion">Prehistoric religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entheogenic_drugs_and_the_archaeological_record" title="Entheogenic drugs and the archaeological record">Spiritual drug use</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_language" title="Origin of language">Origin of language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_counting" class="mw-redirect" title="Prehistoric counting">Prehistoric counting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_medicine" title="Prehistoric medicine">Prehistoric medicine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trepanning" title="Trepanning">trepanning</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_music" title="Prehistoric music">Prehistoric music</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alligator_drum" title="Alligator drum">Alligator drum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleolithic_flute" title="Paleolithic flute">flutes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divje_Babe_flute" title="Divje Babe flute">Divje Babe flute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gudi_(instrument)" title="Gudi (instrument)">gudi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_warfare" title="Prehistoric warfare">Prehistoric warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diepkloof_Rock_Shelter" title="Diepkloof Rock Shelter">Symbols</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Howiesons_Poort#Symbolism" title="Howiesons Poort">symbolism</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div 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