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class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.1</span> <span>Landing at Peniche</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Landing_at_Peniche-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Norris'_march_to_Lisbon" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Norris'_march_to_Lisbon"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.2</span> <span>Norris' march to Lisbon</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Norris'_march_to_Lisbon-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Attack_on_Lisbon" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Attack_on_Lisbon"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.3</span> <span>Attack on Lisbon</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Attack_on_Lisbon-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Withdraw_to_Cascais" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Withdraw_to_Cascais"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.4</span> <span>Withdraw to Cascais</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Withdraw_to_Cascais-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Out_to_sea" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Out_to_sea"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.5</span> <span>Out to sea</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Out_to_sea-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Raid_on_Vigo" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Raid_on_Vigo"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Raid on Vigo</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Raid_on_Vigo-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Return_to_England" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Return_to_England"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Return to England</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Return_to_England-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aftermath" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aftermath"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Aftermath</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aftermath-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Legacy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown 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id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 14 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-14" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">14 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%B1%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%A7_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A5%D9%86%D8%AC%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%B2%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="الأرمادا الإنجليزية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="الأرمادا الإنجليزية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expedici%C3%B3_Drake-Norris_del_1589" title="Expedició Drake-Norris del 1589 – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Expedició Drake-Norris del 1589" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Englische_Armada" title="Englische Armada – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Englische Armada" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invencible_Inglesa" title="Invencible Inglesa – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Invencible Inglesa" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exp%C3%A9dition_Drake-Norreys" title="Expédition Drake-Norreys – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Expédition Drake-Norreys" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armada_Inglesa" title="Armada Inglesa – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Armada Inglesa" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%93%9C%EB%A0%88%EC%9D%B4%ED%81%AC-%EB%85%B8%EB%A6%AC%EC%8A%A4_%EC%9B%90%EC%A0%95" title="드레이크-노리스 원정 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="드레이크-노리스 원정" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B1%D5%B6%D5%A3%D5%AC%D5%AB%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%B4%D5%A1%D5%A4%D5%A1" title="Անգլիական արմադա – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Անգլիական արմադա" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armada_England" title="Armada England – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Armada England" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engelse_Armada" title="Engelse Armada – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Engelse Armada" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armada_Inglesa" title="Armada Inglesa – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Armada Inglesa" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B0" title="Английская армада – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Английская армада" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%B9%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B0" title="Англійська армада – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Англійська армада" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%8B%B1%E5%9B%BD%E6%97%A0%E6%95%8C%E8%88%B0%E9%98%9F" title="英国无敌舰队 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="英国无敌舰队" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a 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dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">English fleet sent against Spain in 1589</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the 1589 expeditionary naval task force from England against Spain. For the naval complement of England, see <a href="/wiki/English_Navy" class="mw-redirect" title="English Navy">English Navy</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r963460841">@media all and (min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .desktop-float-right{box-sizing:border-box;float:right;clear:right}}.mw-parser-output .infobox.vevent .status>p:first-child{margin:0}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1034237262">.mw-parser-output .stack{box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .stack>div{margin:1px;overflow:hidden}@media all and (min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .stack-clear-left{float:left;clear:left}.mw-parser-output .stack-clear-right{float:right;clear:right}.mw-parser-output .stack-left{float:left}.mw-parser-output .stack-right{float:right}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-clear-left{float:left;clear:left;margin-right:1em}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-clear-right{float:right;clear:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-left{float:left;margin-right:1em}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-right{float:right;margin-left:1em}}</style><div class="stack mw-stack stack-clear-right"><div><table class="infobox vevent" style="width:25.5em;border-spacing:2px;"><tbody><tr><th class="summary" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">English Armada</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;">Part of the <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Spanish_War_(1585)" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo-Spanish War (1585)">Anglo–Spanish War (1585–1604)</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="text-align:center;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;line-height:1.5em;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Mapa_contraarmada.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Mapa_contraarmada.svg/300px-Mapa_contraarmada.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="212" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Mapa_contraarmada.svg/450px-Mapa_contraarmada.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Mapa_contraarmada.svg/600px-Mapa_contraarmada.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1052" data-file-height="744" /></a></span><br />Map of the English Armada campaigns</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><table style="width:100%;margin:0;padding:0;border:0;display:inline-table"><tbody><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Date</th><td>April – July 1589</td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Location</th><td><div class="location"><a href="/wiki/A_Coru%C3%B1a" title="A Coruña">A Coruña</a> – <a href="/wiki/Lisbon" title="Lisbon">Lisbon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iberian_Peninsula" title="Iberian Peninsula">Iberian Coast</a><br />(modern <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a> (<a href="/wiki/Galicia_(Spain)" title="Galicia (Spain)">Galicia</a>), and <a href="/wiki/Portugal" title="Portugal">Portugal</a>)<br /><a href="/wiki/Bay_of_Biscay" title="Bay of Biscay">Bay of Biscay</a></div></td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Result</th><td class="status"> Spanish victory<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElliott1982333_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElliott1982333-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorris2002335_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorris2002335-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Belligerents</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/England" title="England"><img alt="England" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/be/Flag_of_England.svg/23px-Flag_of_England.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/be/Flag_of_England.svg/35px-Flag_of_England.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/be/Flag_of_England.svg/46px-Flag_of_England.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="480" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_England" title="Kingdom of England">England</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic"><img alt="Dutch Republic" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Prinsenvlag.svg/23px-Prinsenvlag.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Prinsenvlag.svg/35px-Prinsenvlag.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Prinsenvlag.svg/45px-Prinsenvlag.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Dutch Republic</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Portugal" title="Portugal"><img alt="Portugal" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Flag_of_Portugal_%281578%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Portugal_%281578%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Flag_of_Portugal_%281578%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Portugal_%281578%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Flag_of_Portugal_%281578%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Portugal_%281578%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2000" /></a></span></span> Portuguese loyal to the <a href="/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio,_Prior_of_Crato" title="António, Prior of Crato">Prior of Crato</a></li></ul> </div></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Iberian_Union" title="Iberian Union">Iberian Union</a></b></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain"><img alt="Spain" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg/23px-Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg/35px-Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg/45px-Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spain</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Portugal" title="Portugal"><img alt="Portugal" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Flag_of_Portugal_%281578%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Portugal_%281578%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Flag_of_Portugal_%281578%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Portugal_%281578%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Flag_of_Portugal_%281578%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Portugal_%281578%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2000" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Portugal" title="Kingdom of Portugal">Portugal</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMartins2014442_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMartins2014442-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Commanders and leaders</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/England" title="England"><img alt="England" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/be/Flag_of_England.svg/23px-Flag_of_England.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/be/Flag_of_England.svg/35px-Flag_of_England.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/be/Flag_of_England.svg/46px-Flag_of_England.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="480" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_I_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Elizabeth I of England">Elizabeth I</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/England" title="England"><img alt="England" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/be/Flag_of_England.svg/23px-Flag_of_England.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/be/Flag_of_England.svg/35px-Flag_of_England.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/be/Flag_of_England.svg/46px-Flag_of_England.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="480" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Robert_Devereux,_2nd_Earl_of_Essex" title="Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex">Robert Devereux</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/England" title="England"><img alt="England" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/be/Flag_of_England.svg/23px-Flag_of_England.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/be/Flag_of_England.svg/35px-Flag_of_England.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/be/Flag_of_England.svg/46px-Flag_of_England.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="480" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Francis_Drake" title="Francis Drake">Francis Drake</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/England" title="England"><img alt="England" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/be/Flag_of_England.svg/23px-Flag_of_England.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/be/Flag_of_England.svg/35px-Flag_of_England.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/be/Flag_of_England.svg/46px-Flag_of_England.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="480" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/John_Norris_(soldier)" title="John Norris (soldier)">John Norris</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Portugal" title="Portugal"><img alt="Portugal" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Flag_of_Portugal_%281578%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Portugal_%281578%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Flag_of_Portugal_%281578%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Portugal_%281578%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Flag_of_Portugal_%281578%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Portugal_%281578%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2000" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio,_Prior_of_Crato" title="António, Prior of Crato">Prior of Crato</a></li></ul> </div></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain"><img alt="Spain" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg/23px-Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg/35px-Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg/45px-Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Portugal" title="Portugal"><img alt="Portugal" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Flag_of_Portugal_%281578%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Portugal_%281578%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Flag_of_Portugal_%281578%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Portugal_%281578%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Flag_of_Portugal_%281578%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Portugal_%281578%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2000" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_Spain" title="Philip II of Spain">Philip II/I</a></li> <li><b>Coruña:</b> <ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain"><img alt="Spain" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg/23px-Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg/35px-Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg/45px-Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marquesado_de_Cerralbo" class="extiw" title="es:Marquesado de Cerralbo">Marques de Cerralbo</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain"><img alt="Spain" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg/23px-Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg/35px-Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg/45px-Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> Álvaro Troncoso</li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain"><img alt="Spain" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg/23px-Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg/35px-Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg/45px-Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Mar%C3%ADa_Pita" title="María Pita">María Pita</a></li></ul></li> <li><b>Lisbon:</b> <ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain"><img alt="Spain" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg/23px-Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg/35px-Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg/45px-Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Pedro_Henriquez_de_Acevedo,_Count_of_Fuentes" title="Pedro Henriquez de Acevedo, Count of Fuentes">Count of Fuentes</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain"><img alt="Spain" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg/23px-Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg/35px-Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg/45px-Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Mart%C3%ADn_de_Padilla_y_Manrique,_1st_Count_of_Santa_Gadea" title="Martín de Padilla y Manrique, 1st Count of Santa Gadea">Martín de Padilla</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain"><img alt="Spain" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg/23px-Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg/35px-Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg/45px-Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Alonso_de_Baz%C3%A1n" title="Alonso de Bazán">Alonso de Bazán</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Portugal" title="Portugal"><img alt="Portugal" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Flag_of_Portugal_%281578%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Portugal_%281578%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Flag_of_Portugal_%281578%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Portugal_%281578%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Flag_of_Portugal_%281578%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Portugal_%281578%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2000" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Teod%C3%B3sio_II,_Duke_of_Braganza" title="Teodósio II, Duke of Braganza">Duke of Braganza</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Strength</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li>180+ ships<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWernham1988346_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWernham1988346-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>27,667 men<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWernham1988346_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWernham1988346-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> </div></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li>Four <a href="/wiki/Galleons" class="mw-redirect" title="Galleons">galleons</a></li> <li>Unknown armed merchant vessels</li> <li>15,000 men</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Casualties and losses</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li>11,000<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBucholzKey2009145_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBucholzKey2009145-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>–18,000 killed, drowned or died of disease<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWernham1988341_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWernham1988341-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos2018245_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos2018245-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHampden1972254_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHampden1972254-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>40 ships captured, sunk or scuttled<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFernández_Duro197251_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFernández_Duro197251-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWernham1988341_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWernham1988341-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos2018245_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos2018245-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> </div></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> 900 dead or wounded<br />3 galleons destroyed<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBicheno2012266_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBicheno2012266-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br />13 merchant ships</td></tr></tbody></table><div class="navbox-styles"><style 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style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Anglo-Spanish_War_(1585–1604)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="line-height:1.6em"><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Spanish_War_(1585%E2%80%931604)" title="Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604)"><span class="wrap">Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604)</span></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>Caribbean and South America</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_San_Juan_de_Ul%C3%BAa_(1568)" title="Battle of San Juan de Ulúa (1568)">San Juan de Ulúa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Drake%27s_expedition_of_1572%E2%80%931573" title="Francis Drake's expedition of 1572–1573">Drake's 1572-73 expedition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Drake%27s_circumnavigation" title="Francis Drake's circumnavigation">Drake's circumnavigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_S%C3%A3o_Vicente" title="Battle of São Vicente">São Vicente</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Santo_Domingo_(1586)" title="Battle of Santo Domingo (1586)">Santo Domingo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cartagena_de_Indias_(1586)" title="Battle of Cartagena de Indias (1586)">Cartagena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raid_on_St._Augustine" title="Raid on St. Augustine">St. Augustine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Cavendish%27s_circumnavigation" title="Thomas Cavendish's circumnavigation">Cavendish's circumnavigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Watts%27_West_Indies_and_Virginia_expedition" title="Watts' West Indies and Virginia expedition">Spanish West Indies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blockade_of_Western_Cuba" title="Blockade of Western Cuba">Havana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newport%27s_1592_expedition" title="Newport's 1592 expedition">Hispaniola <b>·</b> Bay of Honduras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raid_on_Puerto_Caballos_(1594)" title="Raid on Puerto Caballos (1594)">1st Puerto Caballos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Action_of_San_Mateo_Bay" title="Action of San Mateo Bay">San Mateo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Recife_(1595)" title="Capture of Recife (1595)">Recife</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raleigh%27s_El_Dorado_expedition" title="Raleigh's El Dorado expedition">Trinidad <b>·</b> Orinoco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preston%E2%80%93Somers_expedition" title="Preston–Somers expedition">La Guaira <b>·</b> Caracas <b>·</b> Coro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Guadalupe_Island_(1595)" title="Battle of Guadalupe Island (1595)">Guadalupe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_San_Juan_(1595)" title="Battle of San Juan (1595)">1st San Juan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drake%27s_Assault_on_Panama" title="Drake's Assault on Panama">Panama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pinos" title="Battle of Pinos">Pinos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_San_Juan_(1598)" title="Battle of San Juan (1598)">2nd San Juan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raid_on_Tabasco_(1599)" title="Raid on Tabasco (1599)">Tabasco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Portobello_(1601)" title="Capture of Portobello (1601)">Portobello</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Puerto_Caballos_(1603)" title="Battle of Puerto Caballos (1603)">2nd Puerto Caballos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raid_on_Santiago_de_Cuba_(1603)" title="Raid on Santiago de Cuba (1603)">Santiago de Cuba</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Atlantic</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Vila_Franca_do_Campo" title="Battle of Vila Franca do Campo">Vila Franca do Campo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_the_Azores" title="Conquest of the Azores">Terceira</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newfoundland_expedition_(1585)" title="Newfoundland expedition (1585)">Newfoundland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Action_off_Bermuda_(1585)" title="Action off Bermuda (1585)">Bermuda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Santiago_(1585)" title="Capture of Santiago (1585)">Santiago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portudal%E2%80%93Joal_Massacre" title="Portudal–Joal Massacre">Senegal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azores_Voyage_of_1589" title="Azores Voyage of 1589">1st Azores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Flores_(1591)" title="Battle of Flores (1591)">1st Flores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Flores_(1592)" title="Battle of Flores (1592)">2nd Flores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Action_of_Faial" title="Action of Faial">Faial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Las_Palmas" title="Battle of Las Palmas">Las Palmas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islands_Voyage" title="Islands Voyage">2nd Azores</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>European waters</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Scheldt_(1574)" title="Battle of the Scheldt (1574)">Scheldt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pantelleria_(1586)" title="Battle of Pantelleria (1586)">Pantelleria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singeing_the_King_of_Spain%27s_Beard" title="Singeing the King of Spain's Beard">1st Cádiz <b>·</b>Algarve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Armada" title="Spanish Armada">Spanish Armada (1st Calais <b>·</b> Gravelines)</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">English Armada (Corunna <b>·</b> Lisbon)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bayona_Islands_(1590)" title="Battle of Bayona Islands (1590)">Bayona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Strait_of_Gibraltar_(1590)" title="Battle of the Strait of Gibraltar (1590)">1st Gibraltar Strait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Strait_of_Gibraltar_(1591)" title="Battle of the Strait of Gibraltar (1591)">2nd Gibraltar Strait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Berlengas_(1591)" title="Battle of the Berlengas (1591)">Berlengas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Gulf_of_Almer%C3%ADa_(1591)" title="Battle of the Gulf of Almería (1591)">Gulf of Almería</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Barbary_Coast" title="Battle of the Barbary Coast">Barbary Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Bay_of_Biscay_(1592)" title="Battle of the Bay of Biscay (1592)">Bay of Biscay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raid_on_Mount%27s_Bay" title="Raid on Mount's Bay">Mount's Bay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attack_on_Cawsand" title="Attack on Cawsand">Cawsand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_C%C3%A1diz" title="Capture of Cádiz">2nd Cádiz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2nd_Spanish_Armada" title="2nd Spanish Armada">Cape Finisterre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/3rd_Spanish_Armada" title="3rd Spanish Armada">Cornwall <b>·</b> West Wales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Sesimbra_Bay" title="Battle of Sesimbra Bay">Sesimbra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Narrow_Seas" title="Battle of the Narrow Seas">Dover Strait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Gulf_of_Cadiz_(1604)" title="Battle of the Gulf of Cadiz (1604)">Gulf of Cádiz</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Low Countries and Germany</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Mons_(1572)" title="Siege of Mons (1572)">Mons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relief_of_Goes" title="Relief of Goes">Goes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Middelburg_(1572%E2%80%931574)" title="Siege of Middelburg (1572–1574)">Middelburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Haarlem" title="Siege of Haarlem">Haarlem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Geertruidenberg_(1573)" title="Capture of Geertruidenberg (1573)">1st Geertruidenberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Leiden" title="Siege of Leiden">Leiden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Delft_(1573)" title="Battle of Delft (1573)">Delft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Valkenburg_(1574)" title="Capture of Valkenburg (1574)">Valkenburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Schoonhoven_(1575)" title="Siege of Schoonhoven (1575)">Schoonhoven</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Gembloux_(1578)" title="Battle of Gembloux (1578)">Gembloux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Rijmenam_(1578)" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Rijmenam (1578)">Rijmenam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Borgerhout" title="Battle of Borgerhout">Borgerhout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_Fury_at_Mechelen" title="English Fury at Mechelen">Mechelen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Steenwijk_(1580%E2%80%931581)" title="Siege of Steenwijk (1580–1581)">1st Steenwijk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kollum" title="Battle of Kollum">Kollum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Noordhorn" title="Battle of Noordhorn">Noordhorn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Niezijl" title="Siege of Niezijl">Niezijl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Lochem_(1582)" title="Siege of Lochem (1582)">Lochem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Lier_(1582)" title="Siege of Lier (1582)">Lier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Eindhoven_(1583)" title="Siege of Eindhoven (1583)">Eindhoven</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Steenbergen_(1583)" title="Battle of Steenbergen (1583)">Steenbergen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Aalst_(1584)" title="Capture of Aalst (1584)">Aalst</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Antwerp" title="Fall of Antwerp">Antwerp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_IJsseloord" title="Siege of IJsseloord">Arnhem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Grave_(1586)" title="Siege of Grave (1586)">1st Grave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Venlo_(1586)" title="Siege of Venlo (1586)">Venlo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Axel" title="Capture of Axel">Axel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Rheinberg_(1586%E2%80%931590)" title="Siege of Rheinberg (1586–1590)">1st Rheinberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Zutphen" title="Battle of Zutphen">1st Zutphen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Sluis_(1587)" title="Siege of Sluis (1587)">1st Sluis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Bergen_op_Zoom_(1588)" title="Siege of Bergen op Zoom (1588)">Bergen op Zoom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Geertruidenberg_(1589)" title="Capture of Geertruidenberg (1589)">2nd Geertruidenberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Breda_(1590)" title="Capture of Breda (1590)">Breda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Zutphen_(1591)" title="Siege of Zutphen (1591)">2nd Zutphen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Deventer_(1591)" title="Siege of Deventer (1591)">Deventer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Delfzijl" title="Capture of Delfzijl">Delfzijl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Knodsenburg" title="Siege of Knodsenburg">Knodsenburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Hulst_(1591)" title="Siege of Hulst (1591)">1st Hulst</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Nijmegen_(1591)" title="Siege of Nijmegen (1591)">Nijmegen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Steenwijk_(1592)" title="Siege of Steenwijk (1592)">2nd Steenwijk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Coevorden_(1592)" title="Siege of Coevorden (1592)">1st Coevorden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Geertruidenberg_(1593)" title="Siege of Geertruidenberg (1593)">3rd Geertruidenberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Coevorden_(1593)" title="Siege of Coevorden (1593)">2nd Coevorden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Groningen_(1594)" title="Siege of Groningen (1594)">Groningen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Huy_(1595)" title="Siege of Huy (1595)">Huy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Groenlo_(1595)" title="Siege of Groenlo (1595)">1st Groenlo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Lippe" title="Battle of the Lippe">Lippe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Hulst_(1596)" title="Siege of Hulst (1596)">2nd Hulst</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Turnhout_(1597)" title="Battle of Turnhout (1597)">Turnhout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Rheinberg_(1597)" title="Siege of Rheinberg (1597)">2nd Rheinberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Meurs_(1597)" title="Siege of Meurs (1597)">Meurs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Groenlo_(1597)" title="Siege of Groenlo (1597)">2nd Groenlo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Bredevoort_(1597)" title="Siege of Bredevoort (1597)">Bredevoort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Enschede_(1597)" title="Capture of Enschede (1597)">Enschede</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Ootmarsum" title="Capture of Ootmarsum">Ootmarsum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Oldenzaal_(1597)" title="Siege of Oldenzaal (1597)">Oldenzaal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Lingen_(1597)" title="Siege of Lingen (1597)">Lingen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Schenckenschans_(1599)" title="Siege of Schenckenschans (1599)">Schenckenschans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Zaltbommel" title="Siege of Zaltbommel">Zaltbommel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Rees_(1599)" title="Siege of Rees (1599)">Rees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_San_Andreas_(1600)" title="Siege of San Andreas (1600)">San Andreas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Nieuwpoort" title="Battle of Nieuwpoort">Nieuwpoort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Rheinberg_(1601)" title="Siege of Rheinberg (1601)">3rd Rheinberg <b>·</b> 2nd Meurs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Ostend" title="Siege of Ostend">Ostend</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_%27s-Hertogenbosch_(1601)" title="Siege of 's-Hertogenbosch (1601)">'s-Hertogenbosch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Grave_(1602)" title="Siege of Grave (1602)">2nd Grave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutiny_of_Hoogstraten#Mutiny_&_siege" title="Mutiny of Hoogstraten">Hoogstraten</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Sluis_(1604)" title="Siege of Sluis (1604)">Ardenburg <b>·</b> Oostberg <b>·</b> 2nd Sluis</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>France</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Arques" title="Battle of Arques">Arques</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ivry" title="Battle of Ivry">Ivry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Paris_(1590)" title="Siege of Paris (1590)">Paris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ch%C3%A2teau-Laudran" title="Battle of Château-Laudran">Château-Laudran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Rouen_(1591%E2%80%931592)" title="Siege of Rouen (1591–1592)">Rouen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Caudebec" title="Siege of Caudebec">Caudebec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Craon" title="Battle of Craon">Craon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Blaye" title="Battle of Blaye">Blaye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Morlaix_(1594)" title="Siege of Morlaix (1594)">Morlaix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Fort_Crozon" title="Siege of Fort Crozon">Crozon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Calais_(1596)" title="Siege of Calais (1596)">2nd Calais</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Amiens_(1597)" title="Siege of Amiens (1597)">Amiens</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Ireland</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Carrigafoyle_Castle" title="Siege of Carrigafoyle Castle">Carrigafoyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Smerwick" title="Siege of Smerwick">Smerwick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Armada_in_Ireland" title="Spanish Armada in Ireland">Irish West Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Kinsale" title="Siege of Kinsale">Kinsale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Castlehaven" title="Battle of Castlehaven">Castlehaven</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></div> <p>The <b>English Armada</b> (<a href="/wiki/Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a>: <i lang="es">Invencible Inglesa</i>, <small><a href="/wiki/Literal_translation" title="Literal translation">lit.</a> </small>'Invincible English'), also known as the <b>Counter Armada</b> or the <b>Drake–Norris Expedition</b>, was an attack fleet sent against Spain by Queen <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_I_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Elizabeth I of England">Elizabeth I of England</a> that sailed on 28 April 1589 during the undeclared <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Spanish_War_(1585%E2%80%931604)" title="Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604)">Anglo-Spanish War</a> (1585–1604) and the <a href="/wiki/Eighty_Years%27_War" title="Eighty Years' War">Eighty Years' War</a>. Led by <a href="/wiki/Sir_Francis_Drake" class="mw-redirect" title="Sir Francis Drake">Sir Francis Drake</a> as admiral and <a href="/wiki/John_Norris_(soldier)" title="John Norris (soldier)">Sir John Norris</a> as general, it failed to drive home the advantage that England had gained resulting from the failure of the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Armada" title="Spanish Armada">Spanish Armada</a> in the previous year. The Spanish victory marked a revival of <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_Spain" title="Philip II of Spain">Philip II</a>'s naval power through the next decade.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElliott1982351_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElliott1982351-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_Armada&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table style="float: left; margin-right: 1em"> <tbody><tr> <th style="background:#b0c4de;">Opposing monarchs </th></tr> <tr> <td><ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional widths="> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 205px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Portrait_of_Philip_II_of_Spain_by_Sofonisba_Anguissola_-_002b.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Philip II of Spain"><img alt="Philip II of Spain" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Portrait_of_Philip_II_of_Spain_by_Sofonisba_Anguissola_-_002b.jpg/120px-Portrait_of_Philip_II_of_Spain_by_Sofonisba_Anguissola_-_002b.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Portrait_of_Philip_II_of_Spain_by_Sofonisba_Anguissola_-_002b.jpg/180px-Portrait_of_Philip_II_of_Spain_by_Sofonisba_Anguissola_-_002b.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Portrait_of_Philip_II_of_Spain_by_Sofonisba_Anguissola_-_002b.jpg/240px-Portrait_of_Philip_II_of_Spain_by_Sofonisba_Anguissola_-_002b.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2480" data-file-height="3051" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_Spain" title="Philip II of Spain">Philip II of Spain</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 205px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Elizabeth_I_in_coronation_robes.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Queen Elizabeth I"><img alt="Queen Elizabeth I" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Elizabeth_I_in_coronation_robes.jpg/120px-Elizabeth_I_in_coronation_robes.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="161" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Elizabeth_I_in_coronation_robes.jpg/180px-Elizabeth_I_in_coronation_robes.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Elizabeth_I_in_coronation_robes.jpg/240px-Elizabeth_I_in_coronation_robes.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2863" data-file-height="3845" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Queen_Elizabeth_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Queen Elizabeth I">Queen Elizabeth I</a></div> </li> </ul> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>After the failure of the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Armada" title="Spanish Armada">Spanish Armada</a> and its return to <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a>, <a href="/wiki/England" title="England">England</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Queen_Elizabeth_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Queen Elizabeth I">Queen Elizabeth I</a>'s intentions were to capitalize upon Spain's temporary weakness at sea and to compel <a href="/wiki/King_Philip_II_of_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="King Philip II of Spain">King Philip II of Spain</a> to negotiate for peace. Her advisors had more ambitious plans. <a href="/wiki/William_Cecil,_1st_Baron_Burghley" title="William Cecil, 1st Baron Burghley">William Cecil, 1st Baron Burghley</a> noted that the expedition had three main objectives: destroy the battered Spanish Atlantic fleet, which was being repaired in ports of northern Spain; make a landing at <a href="/wiki/Lisbon" title="Lisbon">Lisbon</a> and raise a revolt there against Philip II (Philip I of Portugal); and to continue west and establish a permanent base in the <a href="/wiki/Azores" title="Azores">Azores</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos201836_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos201836-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A further aim was to seize the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_treasure_fleet" title="Spanish treasure fleet">Spanish treasure fleet</a> as it returned from the <a href="/wiki/Americas" title="Americas">Americas</a> to <a href="/wiki/C%C3%A1diz" title="Cádiz">Cádiz</a>, but that depended largely on the success of the Azores campaign.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos201831_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos201831-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-GonzálezRamón_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GonzálezRamón-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The strategic objective of the military expedition was to break the trade embargo imposed across the <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese Empire</a>, which included <a href="/wiki/Brazil" title="Brazil">Brazil</a> and the <a href="/wiki/East_Indies" title="East Indies">East Indies</a>, and trading posts in India and China. By securing an alliance with the Portuguese crown, Elizabeth hoped to curb Spanish Habsburg power in Europe and to free up the trade routes to these possessions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos201837_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos201837-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> That was a difficult proposition because Philip had been <a href="/wiki/Struggle_for_the_throne_of_Portugal" class="mw-redirect" title="Struggle for the throne of Portugal">accepted as king</a> by the aristocracy and the clergy of Portugal in 1581 at the Cortes of Tomar. The pretender to the throne, <a href="/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio,_Prior_of_Crato" title="António, Prior of Crato">António, Prior of Crato</a>, the last surviving heir of the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Aviz" title="House of Aviz">House of Aviz</a>, had failed to establish an effective government-in-exile in the Azores, and turned to the English for support. He was not a charismatic figure, and with his cause compromised by his illegitimacy, he faced an opponent with a relatively strong claim to the throne in the eyes of the Portuguese nobles of the <i><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Cortes" title="Portuguese Cortes">Cortes</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Catarina,_Duchess_of_Braganza" class="mw-redirect" title="Catarina, Duchess of Braganza">Duchess Catherine of Braganza</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Anthony_I_of_Portugal.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Anthony_I_of_Portugal.jpg/220px-Anthony_I_of_Portugal.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="290" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/98/Anthony_I_of_Portugal.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="325" data-file-height="428" /></a><figcaption>Dom António, Prior of Crato, pretender to the throne of Portugal</figcaption></figure> <p>There were obstacles for the enterprise besides the complex politics. Burghley proposed launching a flotilla immediately. However, the English fleet was completely exhausted and crippled after preventing the Spanish invasion attempt and Elizabeth's coffers were empty.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos201831–33_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos201831–33-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, like its Spanish predecessor, the English expedition suffered from unduly optimistic planning, based on hopes of repeating Drake's successful <a href="/wiki/Singeing_the_King_of_Spain%27s_Beard" title="Singeing the King of Spain's Beard">raid on Cadiz</a> in 1587. There was a contradiction between the separate plans, each of which was ambitious in its own right, but the most pressing need was the destruction of the Spanish Atlantic fleet lying at port in <a href="/wiki/A_Coru%C3%B1a" title="A Coruña">A Coruña</a>, <a href="/wiki/San_Sebasti%C3%A1n" title="San Sebastián">San Sebastián</a> and <a href="/wiki/Santander,_Cantabria" class="mw-redirect" title="Santander, Cantabria">Santander</a> along the northern coast of Spain, as was directly ordered by the Queen. </p><p>Since Elizabeth had no resources, Drake and Norris floated the expedition as a <a href="/wiki/Joint_stock_company" class="mw-redirect" title="Joint stock company">joint stock company</a>, with capital of about £80,000, one quarter to come from the Queen and one eighth from the Dutch, the balance to be made up by various noblemen, merchants and guilds.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos201836_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos201836-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>The treasurer was Sir <a href="/wiki/James_Hales_(died_1589)" title="James Hales (died 1589)">James Hales</a>, who died on the return journey, as is recorded on his monument in <a href="/wiki/Canterbury_Cathedral" title="Canterbury Cathedral">Canterbury Cathedral</a>. Concerns over logistics and the adverse weather delayed the departure of the fleet, and confusion grew as it waited in port. The Dutch failed to supply their promised warships, a third of the victuals had already been consumed, and the ranks of volunteers had increased the planned contingent of troops from 10,000 to 20,000+.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos201836_14-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos201836-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Unlike the Spanish Armada expedition the previous year, the English fleet also lacked siege guns and cavalry, which would compromise its intended aims. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Execution">Execution</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_Armada&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Execution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Assembling_the_attack_force">Assembling the attack force</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_Armada&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Assembling the attack force"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ships">Ships</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_Armada&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Ships"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_ships_of_the_English_Armada" title="List of ships of the English Armada">List of ships of the English Armada</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ark-Royal-1587.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Ark-Royal-1587.jpg/220px-Ark-Royal-1587.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="184" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Ark-Royal-1587.jpg/330px-Ark-Royal-1587.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Ark-Royal-1587.jpg/440px-Ark-Royal-1587.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1490" data-file-height="1245" /></a><figcaption>English <a href="/wiki/Galleon" title="Galleon">galleon</a> <a href="/wiki/HMS_Ark_Royal_(1587)" class="mw-redirect" title="HMS Ark Royal (1587)">Ark Royal</a> from 1587</figcaption></figure> <p>As recorded on the list of 8 April 1589 o.s.<sup id="ref_Note_b_1" class="reference"><a href="#cnote_Note_b">[Note b]</a></sup>, there were Royal <a href="/wiki/Galleons" class="mw-redirect" title="Galleons">galleons</a>, English <a href="/wiki/Armed_merchantman" title="Armed merchantman">armed merchantmen</a>, Dutch <a href="/wiki/Flyboat" title="Flyboat">flyboats</a>, <a href="/wiki/Full-rigged_pinnace" title="Full-rigged pinnace">pinnaces</a> and other ships for a total of 180 vessels broken down thusly:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWernham1988346_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWernham1988346-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <td>Troops and mariners </td> <td>115 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Baggage </td> <td>33 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Horses </td> <td>10 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Victuals </td> <td>10 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Munitions </td> <td>2 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Support </td> <td>3 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Pioneers </td> <td>7 </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The list of 9 April o.s. names 84 ships divided amongst five squadrons led respectively by Drake in the <i><a href="/wiki/English_ship_Revenge_(1577)" title="English ship Revenge (1577)">Revenge</a></i>, Sir John Norris in the <i><a href="/wiki/English_ship_Nonsuch_(1603)" title="English ship Nonsuch (1603)">Nonpareil</a></i>, Norris' brother <a href="/wiki/Edward_Norreys_(died_1603)" title="Edward Norreys (died 1603)">Edward</a> in the <i><a href="/wiki/English_ship_Foresight_(1570)" title="English ship Foresight (1570)">Foresight</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Fenner_(sea_captain)" title="Thomas Fenner (sea captain)">Thomas Fenner</a> in the <i><a href="/wiki/English_ship_Dreadnought_(1573)" title="English ship Dreadnought (1573)">Dreadnought</a></i>, and Roger Williams in the <i><a href="/wiki/English_ship_Swiftsure_(1573)" title="English ship Swiftsure (1573)">Swiftsure</a></i>., each with "near about 15 <a href="/wiki/Flyboat" title="Flyboat">flyboats</a>", which would give a total of about 160.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWernham198836–38_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWernham198836–38-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, in the payment list of 5 September 1589 o.s., there are 13 ships named that were not on the 9 April o.s. list.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWernham1988338–41_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWernham1988338–41-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Those 13 ships were not flyboats hence they should be added to the 160 from the 9 April o.s. list. With expectations of sizable profit and this expedition being mostly commercial, and last minute additions being made up until the fleet sailed on 28 April, one cannot really give a precise total number of ships but at least 173 can be documented. Nevertheless, what is rather telling is a 15 February 1591 o.s. notice to the <a href="/wiki/Lord_High_Treasurer_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Lord High Treasurer of England">Lord High Treasurer of England</a>, Burghley, wherein the number of vessels was "180 and other ships".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWernham1988297_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWernham1988297-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It's not outside the realm of possibility that the number "reached nearly two hundred sail."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHume189626_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHume189626-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Men">Men</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_Armada&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Men"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the 8 April o.s. list, there were two different figures recorded for the number of men participating in the expedition. The first, 23,375, is what most historians and authors have used however at the end of this document, the total number of men had increased to 27,667.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWernham1988346_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWernham1988346-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A critical analysis of the document reveals the figure of 23,375 is illusory,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos201840–41_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos201840–41-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> especially when below the signatures of Drake and Norris, and the confirmation of the Lord High Treasurer Burghley, there's the following postscript: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p><i>Signed</i> J. Norris, F. Drake. <i>Endorsed by Burghley</i> as 8 April 1589. The numbers of men for the army and of ships <i>and of foot at end in his hand 27,667</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWernham1988346_4-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWernham1988346-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Robert_Devereux,_2nd_Earl_of_Essex_by_Marcus_Gheeraerts_the_Younger.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Robert_Devereux%2C_2nd_Earl_of_Essex_by_Marcus_Gheeraerts_the_Younger.jpg/220px-Robert_Devereux%2C_2nd_Earl_of_Essex_by_Marcus_Gheeraerts_the_Younger.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="281" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Robert_Devereux%2C_2nd_Earl_of_Essex_by_Marcus_Gheeraerts_the_Younger.jpg/330px-Robert_Devereux%2C_2nd_Earl_of_Essex_by_Marcus_Gheeraerts_the_Younger.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Robert_Devereux%2C_2nd_Earl_of_Essex_by_Marcus_Gheeraerts_the_Younger.jpg/440px-Robert_Devereux%2C_2nd_Earl_of_Essex_by_Marcus_Gheeraerts_the_Younger.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2400" data-file-height="3070" /></a><figcaption>The 2nd Earl of Essex, by <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Gheeraerts_the_Younger" title="Marcus Gheeraerts the Younger">Marcus Gheeraerts the Younger</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The story of how <a href="/wiki/Robert_Devereux,_2nd_Earl_of_Essex" title="Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex">Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex</a>, ended up sailing with them almost parallels that of the English Armada itself. Against the Queen's express orders, the 21-year old Devereux eagerly escaped from his rich capricious lover and embarked on what he thought was sure to be an exciting and profitable adventure. The Earl of Essex hid on the <i>Swiftsure</i> and neither Drake, Norris nor Williams betrayed the Earl when the Queen's courtier <a href="/wiki/Francis_Knollys_(the_elder)" title="Francis Knollys (the elder)">Francis Knollys</a> came to Plymouth looking for him. The <i>Swiftsure</i> set sail immediately upon hearing Knollys declarations.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHume189628_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHume189628-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the time Knollys set out in a pinnace in pursuit, nobody knew where the <i>Swiftsure</i> was because a strong wind forced it into <a href="/wiki/Falmouth,_Cornwall" title="Falmouth, Cornwall">Falmouth</a>. The English fleet set sail without the <i>Swiftsure</i>, which sailed two days later and headed straight for the Portuguese coast to rendezvous with the rest of the fleet.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos2018120–21_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos2018120–21-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Coruña"><span id="Coru.C3.B1a"></span>Coruña</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_Armada&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Coruña"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Coru%C3%B1a" title="Siege of Coruña">Siege of Coruña</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1590_or_later_Marcus_Gheeraerts,_Sir_Francis_Drake_Buckland_Abbey,_Devon.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/1590_or_later_Marcus_Gheeraerts%2C_Sir_Francis_Drake_Buckland_Abbey%2C_Devon.jpg/220px-1590_or_later_Marcus_Gheeraerts%2C_Sir_Francis_Drake_Buckland_Abbey%2C_Devon.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="300" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/1590_or_later_Marcus_Gheeraerts%2C_Sir_Francis_Drake_Buckland_Abbey%2C_Devon.jpg/330px-1590_or_later_Marcus_Gheeraerts%2C_Sir_Francis_Drake_Buckland_Abbey%2C_Devon.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/1590_or_later_Marcus_Gheeraerts%2C_Sir_Francis_Drake_Buckland_Abbey%2C_Devon.jpg/440px-1590_or_later_Marcus_Gheeraerts%2C_Sir_Francis_Drake_Buckland_Abbey%2C_Devon.jpg 2x" data-file-width="777" data-file-height="1060" /></a><figcaption>Admiral <a href="/wiki/Francis_Drake" title="Francis Drake">Sir Francis Drake</a>, commander of the English Armada</figcaption></figure> <p>Of the 137<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERodriguez-SalgadoAdams1991116_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERodriguez-SalgadoAdams1991116-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> ships of Philip II's expedition of 1588 that entered the English Channel, most of the 29 ships lost had been armed merchantmen, and the core of the Armada, the <a href="/wiki/Galleons" class="mw-redirect" title="Galleons">galleons</a> of the Squadron of Portugal of the Armada del Mar Oceano (Atlantic Fleet), survived their voyage home and docked in Spain's Atlantic ports for repairs, where they lay for months and were vulnerable to attack.<sup id="cite_ref-GonzálezRamón_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GonzálezRamón-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Drake and Norris had orders from Queen Elizabeth to first attack <a href="/wiki/Santander,_Spain" title="Santander, Spain">Santander</a>, where most of the surviving galleons from the Spanish Armada were being kept, and destroy the Spanish fleet. He also had to placate the fleet's commanders and investors who wanted the first objective to be landing in Lisbon.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos201839_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos201839-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Drake chose to ignore them, alleging unfavourable winds and too much risk of becoming embayed by the Spaniards in the <a href="/wiki/Bay_of_Biscay" title="Bay of Biscay">Bay of Biscay</a>. He chose to bypass Santander and headed in a different direction to attack <a href="/wiki/Coru%C3%B1a" class="mw-redirect" title="Coruña">Coruña</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos201851_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos201851-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in <a href="/wiki/Galicia_(Spain)" title="Galicia (Spain)">Galicia</a> instead. It is not completely clear why he did this, even though the winds seem like a poor excuse. His behaviour suggests that his goal in taking this city was either to establish a base of operations or to raid it for booty. The latter seems most plausible since this expedition was privately funded and Drake had investors to satisfy. He may have been gathering supplies for a long struggle in Santander.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERodríguez_González200660–64_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERodríguez_González200660–64-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Either way, this decision was the campaign's first major error. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:John_Norreys.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/John_Norreys.png/220px-John_Norreys.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="259" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/John_Norreys.png/330px-John_Norreys.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bf/John_Norreys.png 2x" data-file-width="398" data-file-height="468" /></a><figcaption>Sir John Norris. Oil on panel by an unknown author of the <a href="/wiki/English_school_of_painting" class="mw-redirect" title="English school of painting">English school of painting</a> (1600 – 1629).</figcaption></figure> <p>Whilst crossing the Bay of Biscay some 25 ships with 3,000 men deserted,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHume189629_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHume189629-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> including many of the Dutch who found reasons to return to England or put into <a href="/wiki/La_Rochelle" title="La Rochelle">La Rochelle</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Wernham_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wernham-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Coruña was almost defenceless at the time of the attack. To face the rest of the English Armada's ships, except the <i>Swiftsure</i>, plus boats and the soldiers in them, Coruña had one large galleon undergoing repairs (<i>San Juan</i>, with 50 cannons), two <a href="/wiki/Galley" title="Galley">galleys</a> (<i>Diana</i> and <i>Princesa</i>, with 20 cannons each), the 1,300 ton carrack <i>Regazona</i>, and three other smaller ships (<i><a href="/wiki/Carrack" title="Carrack">nao</a> San Bartolomé</i> with 27 cannons, the <i><a href="/wiki/List_of_ships_of_the_Spanish_Armada#Urca" title="List of ships of the Spanish Armada">urca</a> Sansón</i> with 18 cannons and the <i>galeoncete</i> (small galleon) <i>San Bernardo</i> with 21 cannons). <a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marquesado_de_Cerralbo" class="extiw" title="es:Marquesado de Cerralbo">Juan Pacheco de Toledo, Marques de Cerralbo</a>, the governor of Coruña, and garrison commander Álvaro Troncoso led a combination of militia, <a href="/wiki/Hidalgo_(nobility)" title="Hidalgo (nobility)">hidalgos</a> and the few available soldiers totaled 1,200 troops, most of them with little military training, except for seven companies of old <i><a href="/wiki/Tercios" class="mw-redirect" title="Tercios">tercios</a></i>, who happened to be resting in the city after their return from war. It also had the medieval city walls, built in the 13th century.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos201843–51_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos201843–51-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Maria_Pita,_A_Coru%C3%B1a_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Maria_Pita%2C_A_Coru%C3%B1a_2.jpg/220px-Maria_Pita%2C_A_Coru%C3%B1a_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Maria_Pita%2C_A_Coru%C3%B1a_2.jpg/330px-Maria_Pita%2C_A_Coru%C3%B1a_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Maria_Pita%2C_A_Coru%C3%B1a_2.jpg/440px-Maria_Pita%2C_A_Coru%C3%B1a_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1499" data-file-height="1090" /></a><figcaption>Monument of the heroine <a href="/wiki/Maria_Pita" class="mw-redirect" title="Maria Pita">Maria Pita</a> in the Square of the Town Hall of <a href="/wiki/A_Coru%C3%B1a" title="A Coruña">A Coruña</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The English entered the bay of Coruña and disembarked on 4 May. Norris took the lower town, inflicted 500 casualties and plundered the wine cellars and fisheries there, and Drake destroyed the galleon <i>Regazona</i>, the <i> San Bartolome</i> and thirteen merchant ships in the harbour. The Spanish set the unseaworthy <i>San Juan</i> on fire, not before dismounting her guns to use them against the English fleet and troops. For the next two weeks, the wind blew westerly, and while waiting for a change, the English occupied themselves in a siege of Coruña's fortified upper town. Norris' troops launched three major assaults against the walls of the upper town and tried to breach them with mines, but the vigorous defence by the regular Spanish troops, militia, and women of the city, including <a href="/wiki/Maria_Pita" class="mw-redirect" title="Maria Pita">Maria Pita</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=In%C3%A9s_de_Ben&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Inés de Ben (page does not exist)">Inés de Ben</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEValcárcel200451–63_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEValcárcel200451–63-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> forced the English back with severe losses.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos201877–97_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos201877–97-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Spanish then attempted to reinforce the garrison through the bridge of <a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/El_Burgo_(La_Coru%C3%B1a)" class="extiw" title="es:El Burgo (La Coruña)">El Burgo</a>, but they were intercepted by a force of 6,000 men led by John and Edward Norreys, and with push of the pike were defeated with heavy losses.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraham1972178_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraham1972178-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <i>Princesa</i> and the <i>Diana</i> managed to avoid capture and slipped past the English fleet; according to English sources, they repeatedly resupplied the defenders unmolested.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWernham1988341_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWernham1988341-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On the 18th, after 14 days of siege and attempted assaults, the English heard news about a fresh Spanish relief force on their way to Coruña,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos2018103–07_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos2018103–07-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and at length, with a favourable wind returning and painfully low morale, the English abandoned the siege and retreated to their ships after they had lost four captains, three large ships,<sup id="cite_ref-GonzálezRamón_16-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GonzálezRamón-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> various boats<sup id="cite_ref-GonzálezRamón_16-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GonzálezRamón-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and more than 1,500 men in the fighting alone.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos2018112_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos2018112-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After investing two-weeks attempting to capture this "simple" fishing town of 4,000 people, outnumbering their fighting forces by more than 10:1, Drake left without even loading up on supplies.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Next stop, Portugal where, along the way, the fleet met up with Essex and the <i>Swiftsure</i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Portugal">Portugal</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_Armada&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Portugal"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:0_L%27archiduc_Albert_de_Habsbourg_-_Frans_Pourbus_le_Jeune_(1).JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/0_L%27archiduc_Albert_de_Habsbourg_-_Frans_Pourbus_le_Jeune_%281%29.JPG/220px-0_L%27archiduc_Albert_de_Habsbourg_-_Frans_Pourbus_le_Jeune_%281%29.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="393" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/0_L%27archiduc_Albert_de_Habsbourg_-_Frans_Pourbus_le_Jeune_%281%29.JPG/330px-0_L%27archiduc_Albert_de_Habsbourg_-_Frans_Pourbus_le_Jeune_%281%29.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/0_L%27archiduc_Albert_de_Habsbourg_-_Frans_Pourbus_le_Jeune_%281%29.JPG/440px-0_L%27archiduc_Albert_de_Habsbourg_-_Frans_Pourbus_le_Jeune_%281%29.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1680" data-file-height="3004" /></a><figcaption><i>Portrait of Albert VII</i> (<i>c.</i> 1599–1600), by <a href="/wiki/Frans_Pourbus_the_Younger" title="Frans Pourbus the Younger">Frans Pourbus the Younger</a>. <a href="/wiki/Convent_of_Las_Descalzas_Reales" title="Convent of Las Descalzas Reales">Convent of Las Descalzas Reales</a> collection in <a href="/wiki/Madrid" title="Madrid">Madrid</a>.</figcaption></figure> <div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="position: relative; top: 0px; right: 0px; width: 200px;"><div class="center" style="font-weight:bold">English campaign in Portugal</div><div class="thumbinner noresize" style="position: relative; top: 0px; right: 0px; outline:0px; border:0px; padding:0px; height: 450px; width: 200px;"><a class="mw-kartographer-map notheme mw-kartographer-container floatright" style="width: 200px; height: 450px;" data-mw-kartographer="mapframe" data-style="osm-intl" data-width="200" data-height="450" data-zoom="8" data-lat="38.83333" data-lon="-9.166667" href="/wiki/Special:Map/8/38.83333/-9.166667/en"><img src="https://maps.wikimedia.org/img/osm-intl,8,38.83333,-9.166667,200x450.png?lang=en" width="200" height="450" decoding="async" srcset="https://maps.wikimedia.org/img/osm-intl,8,38.83333,-9.166667,200x450@2x.png?lang=en 2x" alt="Map" /></a><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 0px; outline-style: solid; outline-color: blue; top: 0px; left: -125px; width: 450px; height: 450px; transform: rotate(0deg); border-radius: 0px; background-color: #FFFFFF00; color:inherit;"></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; line-height: 0.98; white-space: nowrap; top: 218px; left: -127px; transform: translateX(-100%) rotate(0deg); text-align: right; background-color: transparent; color:inherit;"><span style="color: black; font-size: 12px; font-weight:normal;"> </span></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 0px; top: 432px; left: 187px; width: 12px; height: 12px; background-color: transparent;color:inherit;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="https://www.openstreetmap.org/copyright" title="About OpenStreetMaps" rel="nofollow"><img alt="About OpenStreetMaps" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/12px-Invisible_Square.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/18px-Invisible_Square.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/24px-Invisible_Square.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="200" /></a></span></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 0px; top: 432px; left: 90px; width: 12px; height: 12px; background-color: transparent;color:inherit;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Policy:Maps_Terms_of_Use" title="Maps: terms of use"><img alt="Maps: terms of use" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/12px-Invisible_Square.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/18px-Invisible_Square.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/24px-Invisible_Square.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="200" /></a></span></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 0px; outline-style: solid; outline-color: blue; top: 406px; left: 92.5px; background-color:transparent; color:inherit; transform: rotate(0deg);"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Mapscaleline.svg/52px-Mapscaleline.svg.png" decoding="async" width="52" height="7" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Mapscaleline.svg/78px-Mapscaleline.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Mapscaleline.svg/104px-Mapscaleline.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="138" data-file-height="18" /></span></span></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; line-height: 0.98; white-space: nowrap; top: 405.875px; left: 138px; transform: translateX(-100%) rotate(0deg); text-align: right; background-color: transparent; color:inherit;"><span style="color: grey; font-size: 9px; font-weight:normal;"> 45km<br />30miles</span></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 0px; outline-style: solid; outline-color: #777755FF; top: 310.14288731817px; left: 66.644311673447px; background-color:transparent; color:inherit; transform: rotate(0deg);"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="Sea battle" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Battle_icon_active_%28crossed_swords%29.svg/14px-Battle_icon_active_%28crossed_swords%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Battle_icon_active_%28crossed_swords%29.svg/21px-Battle_icon_active_%28crossed_swords%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Battle_icon_active_%28crossed_swords%29.svg/28px-Battle_icon_active_%28crossed_swords%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="185" data-file-height="185" /></span></span></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; line-height: 0.98; white-space: nowrap; top: 329.14288731817px; left: 72.144311673447px; width: fit-content; text-align: center; transform: translateX(-50%) rotate(0deg); background-color: transparent; color:inherit;"><span style="color: #777755; font-size: 11px; font-weight:normal;"> Sea battle</span></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 0px; outline-style: solid; outline-color: #777755FF; top: 238.21773285485px; left: 97.53242777585px; background-color:transparent; color:inherit; transform: rotate(0deg);"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="Lisbon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Battle_icon_active_%28crossed_swords%29.svg/14px-Battle_icon_active_%28crossed_swords%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Battle_icon_active_%28crossed_swords%29.svg/21px-Battle_icon_active_%28crossed_swords%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Battle_icon_active_%28crossed_swords%29.svg/28px-Battle_icon_active_%28crossed_swords%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="185" data-file-height="185" /></span></span></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; line-height: 0.98; white-space: nowrap; top: 257.21773285485px; left: 103.03242777585px; width: fit-content; text-align: center; transform: translateX(-50%) rotate(0deg); background-color: transparent; color:inherit;"><span style="color: #777755; font-size: 11px; font-weight:normal;"> </span></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 0px; outline-style: solid; outline-color: #777755FF; top: 233.15158008709px; left: 100.0796161638px; background-color:transparent; color:inherit; transform: rotate(0deg);"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="Alvalade" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Blue_pog.svg/14px-Blue_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Blue_pog.svg/21px-Blue_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Blue_pog.svg/28px-Blue_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; line-height: 0.98; white-space: nowrap; top: 238.65158008709px; left: 115.5796161638px; text-align: left; transform: rotate(0deg) background-color: transparent; color:inherit;"><span style="color: #777755; font-size: 11px; font-weight:normal;"> Alvalade</span></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 0px; outline-style: solid; outline-color: #777755FF; top: 213px; left: 94.5px; background-color:transparent; color:inherit; transform: rotate(0deg);"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="Loures" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Battle_icon_active_%28crossed_swords%29.svg/14px-Battle_icon_active_%28crossed_swords%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Battle_icon_active_%28crossed_swords%29.svg/21px-Battle_icon_active_%28crossed_swords%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Battle_icon_active_%28crossed_swords%29.svg/28px-Battle_icon_active_%28crossed_swords%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="185" data-file-height="185" /></span></span></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; line-height: 0.98; white-space: nowrap; top: 232px; left: 100px; width: fit-content; text-align: center; transform: translateX(-50%) rotate(0deg); background-color: transparent; color:inherit;"><span style="color: #777755; font-size: 11px; font-weight:normal;"> </span></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 0px; outline-style: solid; outline-color: #777755FF; top: 244.11231061649px; left: 49.014493072342px; background-color:transparent; color:inherit; transform: rotate(0deg);"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="Cascais" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Blue_pog.svg/14px-Blue_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Blue_pog.svg/21px-Blue_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Blue_pog.svg/28px-Blue_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; line-height: 0.98; white-space: nowrap; top: 263.11231061649px; left: 54.514493072342px; width: fit-content; text-align: center; transform: translateX(-50%) rotate(0deg); background-color: transparent; color:inherit;"><span style="color: #777755; font-size: 11px; font-weight:normal;"> Cascais</span></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 0px; outline-style: solid; outline-color: #777755FF; top: 154.50541596011px; left: 76.305797228937px; background-color:transparent; color:inherit; transform: rotate(0deg);"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="Torres Vedras" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Blue_pog.svg/14px-Blue_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Blue_pog.svg/21px-Blue_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Blue_pog.svg/28px-Blue_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; line-height: 0.98; white-space: nowrap; top: 173.50541596011px; left: 81.805797228937px; width: fit-content; text-align: center; transform: translateX(-50%) rotate(0deg); background-color: transparent; color:inherit;"><span style="color: #777755; font-size: 11px; font-weight:normal;"> </span></div> <div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 0px; outline-style: solid; outline-color: #777755FF; top: 119.3084468612px; left: 70.241123619258px; background-color:transparent; color:inherit; transform: rotate(0deg);"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="Lourinhã" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Blue_pog.svg/14px-Blue_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Blue_pog.svg/21px-Blue_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Blue_pog.svg/28px-Blue_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; line-height: 0.98; white-space: nowrap; top: 124.8084468612px; left: 85.741123619258px; text-align: left; transform: rotate(0deg) background-color: transparent; color:inherit;"><span style="color: #777755; font-size: 11px; font-weight:normal;"> Lourinhã</span></div> <div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 0px; outline-style: solid; outline-color: #777755FF; top: 91.88145041514px; left: 58.111594457874px; background-color:transparent; color:inherit; transform: rotate(0deg);"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="Peniche" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Battle_icon_active_%28crossed_swords%29.svg/14px-Battle_icon_active_%28crossed_swords%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Battle_icon_active_%28crossed_swords%29.svg/21px-Battle_icon_active_%28crossed_swords%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Battle_icon_active_%28crossed_swords%29.svg/28px-Battle_icon_active_%28crossed_swords%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="185" data-file-height="185" /></span></span></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; line-height: 0.98; white-space: nowrap; top: 110.88145041514px; left: 63.611594457874px; width: fit-content; text-align: center; transform: translateX(-50%) rotate(0deg); background-color: transparent; color:inherit;"><span style="color: #777755; font-size: 11px; font-weight:normal;"> Peniche</span></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 1px; outline-style: solid; outline-color: white; top: 347px; left: 153px; width: 47px; height: 90px; background-color:transparent;color:inherit;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Reliefkarte_Portugal.png" title="File:Reliefkarte Portugal.png"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Reliefkarte_Portugal.png/47px-Reliefkarte_Portugal.png" decoding="async" width="47" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Reliefkarte_Portugal.png/71px-Reliefkarte_Portugal.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Reliefkarte_Portugal.png/94px-Reliefkarte_Portugal.png 2x" data-file-width="1633" data-file-height="3133" /></a></span></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 0px; outline-style: solid; outline-color: blue; top: 387.92307692308px; left: 158.53846153846px; background-color:transparent; color:inherit; transform: rotate(0deg);"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/6px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="6" height="6" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/9px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; line-height: 0.98; white-space: nowrap; top: 392.92307692308px; left: 154.03846153846px; transform: translateX(-100%) rotate(0deg); text-align: right; background-color: transparent; color:inherit;"><span style="color: black; font-size: 12px; font-weight:normal;"> </span></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute;top: 9px;left: 164px"><div style="color: white; opacity:100; font-size: 19px; font-weight:normal; text-align: left;"><a class="mw-kartographer-maplink no-icon" data-mw-kartographer="maplink" data-style="osm-intl" href="/wiki/Special:Map/8/38.83333/-9.166667/en" data-zoom="8" data-lat="38.83333" data-lon="-9.166667" data-overlays="["_bc831b6aabd8edf72274644c8559b5bcdd08a6f2"]"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Click for interactive fullscreen map with links to nearby articles"> </span></a></div></div></div></div></div> <p>Work to strengthen the fortifications of <a href="/wiki/Fort_of_S%C3%A3o_Juli%C3%A3o_da_Barra" title="Fort of São Julião da Barra">São Julião</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oeiras,_Portugal" title="Oeiras, Portugal">Oeiras</a>, <a href="/wiki/Trafaria" title="Trafaria">Trafaria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fort_of_S%C3%A3o_Sebasti%C3%A3o_de_Caparica" title="Fort of São Sebastião de Caparica">Caparica</a> which defended the entrance to the <a href="/wiki/Tagus_estuary" class="mw-redirect" title="Tagus estuary">Tagus estuary</a> had been completed by 20 May.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Philip II's viceroy in Portugal was <a href="/wiki/Albert_VII,_Archduke_of_Austria" title="Albert VII, Archduke of Austria">Archduke Albert VII</a> who tasked <a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jo%C3%A3o_Gon%C3%A7alves_de_Ata%C3%ADde" class="extiw" title="pt:João Gonçalves de Ataíde">João Gonçalves de Ataide</a> to recruit local men to defend against the impending invasion and ordered Captain <a href="/wiki/Pedro_Henriquez_de_Acevedo,_Count_of_Fuentes" title="Pedro Henriquez de Acevedo, Count of Fuentes">Pedro Enríquez de Guzmán, Count of Fuentes</a> to bring a few Spanish companies. </p><p>Meanwhile, Drake struggled against the wind. Three days after leaving Coruña, a south-westerly wind caused part of the fleet to drift towards <a href="/wiki/Estaca_de_Bares" class="mw-redirect" title="Estaca de Bares">Estaca de Bares</a> and the coast of <a href="/wiki/Lugo" title="Lugo">Lugo</a>, leaving it somewhat dispersed. It wasn't until 24 May that the bulk of the fleet managed to sail beyond <a href="/wiki/Cape_Finisterre" title="Cape Finisterre">Cape Finisterre</a> where they came upon Essex and the <i>Swiftsure</i>, then, with a favourable wind, headed for Lisbon.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWernham1988231_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWernham1988231-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>The next day, 25 May, just off the island of <a href="/wiki/Berlengas" title="Berlengas">Berlengas</a>, they spotted <a href="/wiki/Cape_Roca" class="mw-redirect" title="Cape Roca">Cape Roca</a> indicating the Tagus estuary was not far off.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos2018122_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos2018122-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the end of the day, the fleet anchored in the bay of <a href="/wiki/Peniche,_Portugal" title="Peniche, Portugal">Peniche</a> where a war council was held. </p><p>The next step in Elizabeth's plan was to arouse a Portuguese uprising against Philip II. The Portuguese aristocracy had recognized the latter as King of Portugal in 1580 and thus added the Kingdom of Portugal to the <a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Spain" title="Monarchy of Spain">Hispanic Monarchy</a>. The pretender to the throne who England supported, the Prior of Crato, was not the best candidate. He did not have enough support even to establish a government-in-exile or much charisma to back his already-dubious claim. Despite this, Elizabeth had agreed to help him in hopes of diminishing the power of the Spanish Empire in Europe and for a permanent military base in the strategic <a href="/wiki/Azores" title="Azores">Azores</a>, from which to attack merchant ships and to obtain ultimate control of the commercial routes to the <a href="/wiki/New_World" title="New World">New World</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Wernham_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wernham-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the wake of their experience in Coruña, Drake and Norris clashed on how to achieve this next objective. Despite Drake having proven success against Spanish forces whereas Norris had none, the fleet went with Norris' plan. They would land in Peniche then march 70 km (43 mi) south to attack Lisbon by land while Drake attacked from the sea. This was the fleet's second major error. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Landing_at_Peniche">Landing at Peniche</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_Armada&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Landing at Peniche"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Portugal_(16516777913).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Portugal_%2816516777913%29.jpg/220px-Portugal_%2816516777913%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Portugal_%2816516777913%29.jpg/330px-Portugal_%2816516777913%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Portugal_%2816516777913%29.jpg/440px-Portugal_%2816516777913%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>Peniche Fortress</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pedro_Henriquez_de_Acevedo.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Pedro_Henriquez_de_Acevedo.jpg/200px-Pedro_Henriquez_de_Acevedo.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="257" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Pedro_Henriquez_de_Acevedo.jpg/300px-Pedro_Henriquez_de_Acevedo.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Pedro_Henriquez_de_Acevedo.jpg/400px-Pedro_Henriquez_de_Acevedo.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3966" data-file-height="5092" /></a><figcaption>Count Fuentes</figcaption></figure> <p>On 26 May, Drake arrived at <a href="/wiki/Peniche,_Portugal" title="Peniche, Portugal">Peniche</a>. Ataíde had marshalled just over 400 troops in preparation of the fleet's arrival. He and his men knew the coastline well and were deployed in the areas where a landing would be easiest while Antônio de Araújo remained in the <a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pra%C3%A7a-forte_de_Peniche" class="extiw" title="pt:Praça-forte de Peniche">fortress of Peniche</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos2018125_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos2018125-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The English, led by the Earl of Essex, took thirty-two barges to the most dangerous point of <a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Praia_da_Consola%C3%A7%C3%A3o" class="extiw" title="pt:Praia da Consolação">Consolação beach</a> which was completely exposed to the sea, rocky coastline and deep water. Fourteen barges foundered and others were smashed against the reefs, 80 men drowned but the English managed to establish a beachhead where the first skirmish took place.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos2018126_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos2018126-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Captain Benavides immediately engaged some 2,000 invaders with 100 men. Ataíde brought his 400 men and Captain Blas de Jerez added another 80 while Pedro de Guzmán stayed in the rearguard. Ataíde led three bloody charges, afterwards making an orderly withdrawal, leaving fifteen Spaniards dead on the battle field. Ataíde and Guzmán headed for the fort of Peniche and discovered it was surrounded by the English. Their only way out was to withdraw in the direction of the village of <a href="/wiki/Atouguia_da_Baleia" title="Atouguia da Baleia">Atouguia da Baleia</a> and in the fields outside the town, they camped for the night. The English had swept in like a hurricane and had landed 12,000 men in a matter of hours.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos2018126–27_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos2018126–27-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The English offered terms of surrender to Captain Araújo, commander of Peniche's fortress garrison who responded he would only surrender to the pretender Dom António, which he did.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHume189643_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHume189643-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> That same day, Archduke Albert ordered Alonso de Bazán to bring 12 galleys with more infantry to São Julião. During the night, the men recruited by Ataíde deserted. </p><p>The Spanish had their doubts about their Portuguese allies. They weren't exhibiting the expected fervour against this invader. There was no love lost regarding the Prior of Crato; he not only squandered the Portuguese crown jewels which he took when he fled the country, but he promised to Elizabeth the subjection of the Portuguese empire along with a permanent pecuniary payment.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos2018130_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos2018130-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The impression made by the return of the pretender with an enormous invading army was conflicting. The Portuguese didn't rise up in revolt and join ranks as Dom António had promised but they weren't eager to be part of the Spanish resistance either.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos2018128–29_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos2018128–29-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The next morning, Captain Gaspar de Alarcón led his Spanish cavalry on a surprise attack against the English flank, capturing a few prisoners whereupon Guzmán withdrew to <a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castelo_de_Torres_Vedras" class="extiw" title="pt:Castelo de Torres Vedras">the fortress of</a> <a href="/wiki/Torres_Vedras" title="Torres Vedras">Torres Vedras</a> and sent Ataíde to report to the Archduke in Lisbon. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Norris'_march_to_Lisbon"><span id="Norris.27_march_to_Lisbon"></span>Norris' march to Lisbon</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_Armada&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Norris' march to Lisbon"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Norris had stationed 500 men with six ships in Peniche<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHume189646_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHume189646-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> then the English began their long march to Lisbon on 28 May without artillery or a baggage train making provisioning problematic but Dom António assured them that the locals would provide whatever the army needed. The English had very strict orders not to upset the inhabitants but housebreaking and pillaging was rife once they were clear of Peniche. Norris ordered Captain Crisp, the provost marshal, to hang the perpetrators including their officers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHume189651_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHume189651-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWernham1988267_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWernham1988267-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As they approached Torres Vedras, Guzmán and Don Sancho Bravo, who brought more cavalry and infantry, withdrew to <a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enxara_dos_Cavaleiros" class="extiw" title="pt:Enxara dos Cavaleiros">Enxara dos Cavaleiros</a> some two leagues away while Alarcón stayed behind to harass the enemy and report on their actions.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Dom António made his <a href="/wiki/Royal_entry" title="Royal entry">triumphal entry</a> into Torres Vedras on 29 May with much fanfare from the people but the English commanders and nobles noticed something was off. They realized that Portuguese nobility were not amongst the revellers; in fact, they were nowhere to be found.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These were precisely the individuals who, along with their conscripts, were to set the example for the population to rise up in favour of the Prior of Crato.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos2018137_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos2018137-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The English pressed Crato about provisioning whereupon the latter had sent soldiers to fetch the lawyer, Gaspar Campello, living nearby and put him in charge of provisioning the army. Campello had no better success in gathering provisions since the local population were leaving with their possessions and supplies thus leaving the road to Lisbon devoid of victuals. Meanwhile, in Lisbon, the population was fleeing with much of their moveable property in anticipation of the English overrunning the city thus leaving the defence of the city to the Spaniards.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos2018139–40_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos2018139–40-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cidadela_cascais_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Cidadela_cascais_1.jpg/220px-Cidadela_cascais_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Cidadela_cascais_1.jpg/330px-Cidadela_cascais_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Cidadela_cascais_1.jpg/440px-Cidadela_cascais_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2848" data-file-height="2128" /></a><figcaption>Citadel of Cascais: gun gate.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Forte_de_S%C3%A3o_Juli%C3%A3o_da_Barra.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Forte_de_S%C3%A3o_Juli%C3%A3o_da_Barra.jpg/220px-Forte_de_S%C3%A3o_Juli%C3%A3o_da_Barra.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Forte_de_S%C3%A3o_Juli%C3%A3o_da_Barra.jpg/330px-Forte_de_S%C3%A3o_Juli%C3%A3o_da_Barra.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Forte_de_S%C3%A3o_Juli%C3%A3o_da_Barra.jpg/440px-Forte_de_S%C3%A3o_Juli%C3%A3o_da_Barra.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>Fortress of São Julião da Barra</figcaption></figure> <p>On 30 May, Drake reached the port of <a href="/wiki/Cascais" title="Cascais">Cascais</a> and anchored his fleet between <a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cidadela_de_Cascais" class="extiw" title="pt:Cidadela de Cascais">its citadel</a> and that of São Julião in a crescent formation as close to the coast as possible. He also ordered raiding vessels to scour the waters of the nearby coastline and the Berlengas islands for enemy ships. Meanwhile, the English army, continually harassed by the Spaniards during their arduous journey, reached <a href="/wiki/Loures" title="Loures">Loures</a>, barely 10 km (6.2 mi) from the walls of Lisbon.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos2018143_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos2018143-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Though their perilous journey was behind them, the Spanish would not allow them to enjoy much rest for their camp continued to be attacked and any supplies cut off; Norris' army was getting hungrier by the minute. Little did the English know that just outside the city walls were vast stocks of supplies. Fearing the enemy would attack the next day and discover the storehouses along the way, the Archduke ordered Captain Don Juan de Torres to keep them occupied on 31 May whilst the provisions were brought into the city, and if de Torres could inflict losses on the English, all the better. Though the Spanish tried to coax the English into coming out of their trenches, the latter wouldn't move. Meanwhile, so as to deny the English any provisions, what remained in the storehouses after bringing what they could into Lisbon was set ablaze.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos2018147–50_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos2018147–50-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because the English were not willing to come out and answer Spanish calls for battle, Captains Juan de Torres, Sancho Bravo, Gaspar de Alarcón and Francisco Malo selected 200 elite <a href="/wiki/Harquebusiers" class="mw-redirect" title="Harquebusiers">harquebusiers</a> supported by some cavalry and carried out a <i><a href="/wiki/Camisado" title="Camisado">camisado</a></i>. Lieutenant Colonel John Sampson's camp was selected as the target of this mission. The Spanish approached the camp at dawn on Thursday, 1 June, <a href="/wiki/Feast_of_Corpus_Christi" title="Feast of Corpus Christi">Corpus Christi day</a>, shouting "Viva el Rei Dom António!" (Long live Dom António!). The moment they were admitted into the camp, the guards were killed then several soldiers sleeping in their tents were killed before the alarm was shouted. The English hurriedly formed a makeshift defensive line while their compatriots were being massacred. Harquebus fire erupted on both sides and Don Juan de Torres was wounded in the arm; he died from it three-weeks later. The Spanish made a hasty retreat.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos2018153–55_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos2018153–55-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While the English continued to rest and starve – the men found the weather too hot and exhausting, many were weak from hunger, sick and injured, and needed to be carried on baggage mules and stretchers made from pikes<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWernham1988xlviii_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWernham1988xlviii-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> –, the Archduke called a war council. The Portuguese commanders pointed out that since they were expecting relief troops to arrive any day, the city walls were tall and strong, and they could be easily resupplied from the Tagus while the English were suffering from hunger and sickness, they decided to bring the army within the city walls and make their stand there.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Before the end of day on 1 June the English were in <a href="/wiki/Alvalade" title="Alvalade">Alvalade</a>, less than an hour away, forming up pike squadrons. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lisbona._Olisipo_..._vulgo_Lisbona_Florentissimum_Portugalliae_Emporiu.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Lisbona._Olisipo_..._vulgo_Lisbona_Florentissimum_Portugalliae_Emporiu.jpg/235px-Lisbona._Olisipo_..._vulgo_Lisbona_Florentissimum_Portugalliae_Emporiu.jpg" decoding="async" width="235" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Lisbona._Olisipo_..._vulgo_Lisbona_Florentissimum_Portugalliae_Emporiu.jpg/353px-Lisbona._Olisipo_..._vulgo_Lisbona_Florentissimum_Portugalliae_Emporiu.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Lisbona._Olisipo_..._vulgo_Lisbona_Florentissimum_Portugalliae_Emporiu.jpg/470px-Lisbona._Olisipo_..._vulgo_Lisbona_Florentissimum_Portugalliae_Emporiu.jpg 2x" data-file-width="12344" data-file-height="9259" /></a><figcaption>Caravels and carracks in the Tagus River, with the castle of São Jorge in the centre distance, unknown artist (1572)</figcaption></figure> <p>Atop a high steep mound in Lisbon is the imposing and threatening <a href="/wiki/Castle_of_S%C3%A3o_Jorge" class="mw-redirect" title="Castle of São Jorge">Castle of São Jorge</a> which commands an extraordinary view of the city and its environs. Installed within were new large reinforced bronze <a href="/wiki/Culverins" class="mw-redirect" title="Culverins">culverins</a> with extra thick barrels pointed towards the English camp. The gunners needed to test the range of their new guns and found this an opportune time. Just as the English rearguard was leaving Alvalade on 2 June, the vanguard came within 2,000 metres (2,200 yards) and the guns were fired, causing surprise and inflicting casualties for Norris' army.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They quickly realized they'd be contending with this threat for as long as they were within range so a more suitable route with better cover was chosen to approach the city. Meanwhile, the Spanish had set fire to the houses built adjacent to the city's wall thus forming a makeshift bulwark and Bazán was ordered to bring 12 galleys from São Julião to the city. The English found a suburb that was suitably protected from the castle's artillery and that of the galleys where they camped for the night. Their rest was unsettled by a Spanish sortie leaving some English casualties on the field, before being chased away by the English cavalry and the Earl of Essex forces.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWernham1988xlviii–xlix_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWernham1988xlviii–xlix-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHume189660–61_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHume189660–61-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While the troops tried to rest, plans were made to effect a surreptitious entry into the city. One Portuguese noble still loyal to Dom António was Rui Dias Lobo who took a message to the abbot and friars of the monastery of the Holy Trinity, which was built against a weak section of the city wall, asking for permission to use the monastery as an entry point for the English soldiers. Since the catholic friars were fully informed of the Protestant English treatment of Catholics, they discretely relayed this plan to the Spanish who in turn arrested and imprisoned Dias Lobo.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos2018167–68_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos2018167–68-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another plan centered around a diversionary tactic and the betrayal of one of the Portuguese noble Matías de Alburquerque's captains who was in charge of one of the gates; nothing came of it. The third and least credible plan was the inhabitants would rebel the moment Dom António would reach the walls of Lisbon thus keeping the Spaniards inside the walls busy while the English entered without difficulty. None of these plans bore any fruit.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos2018168–69_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos2018168–69-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHume189660–61_64-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHume189660–61-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Attack_on_Lisbon">Attack on Lisbon</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_Armada&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Attack on Lisbon"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vista_-_Castelo_de_S%C3%A2o_Jorge.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Vista_-_Castelo_de_S%C3%A2o_Jorge.JPG/235px-Vista_-_Castelo_de_S%C3%A2o_Jorge.JPG" decoding="async" width="235" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Vista_-_Castelo_de_S%C3%A2o_Jorge.JPG/353px-Vista_-_Castelo_de_S%C3%A2o_Jorge.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Vista_-_Castelo_de_S%C3%A2o_Jorge.JPG/470px-Vista_-_Castelo_de_S%C3%A2o_Jorge.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2816" data-file-height="2112" /></a><figcaption>View of Lisbon from the castle of São Jorge</figcaption></figure> <p>At dawn on 3 June, the English readied themselves to mount an assault on the western side of the city wall. In anticipation thereof, the Spanish stationed top marksmen on the rooftops of churches just outside the north-western sector to reinforce those on the western wall. The houses outside the gate of Santa Catalina were set on fire to prevent them from being used to scale the wall. The English then headed south toward the sea where preparations had been made for them. The houses there had also been burnt and the galleys were in position to rain fire down on them. When Norris finally got a good look at the vast outskirts of Lisbon and sheer size of the city, he could but only reflect. He had no artillery to smash through the wall nor scaling ladders to climb over the wall, in fact, he had no siege equipment of any kind. Moreover, his army's numbers were decreasing by the hour and those able to fight were weak from hunger.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos2018171_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos2018171-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The expected uprising by the Portuguese loyal to Crato never materialized<sup id="cite_ref-Wernham_31-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wernham-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Norris reluctantly admitted to himself that this campaign was a failure.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHume189662_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHume189662-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Their only option was to go on the defensive and withdraw to their trenches. This was the moment where the table turned and the Spanish went on the offensive. </p><p>Three simultaneous attacks were launched by the Spanish; one on the nearest most trenches in the very streets of the suburbs, one on the rear-guard, and the cannonade from the castle of São Jorge. The English suffered hundreds of losses whereas the Spanish left 25 dead.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos2018180_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos2018180-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Spanish were expecting several thousand reinforcements on forced marches to arrive at any time and were continuously resupplied via the river whereas the English were out of powder and <a href="/wiki/Slow_match" title="Slow match">match</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWernham1988xlviii–lii_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWernham1988xlviii–lii-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The latter spent the day of 4 June burying their dead and planning a clandestine nocturnal retreat to Cascais. To execute the deception, they lit several bonfires in the campsite and kept them lit while the bulk of the infantry quietly scurried along a route away from the water and away from main roads so as not to be discovered. Meanwhile, the Archduke planned a feigne attack on the English camp because it seemed really peculiar to him that they hadn't made any offensive moves that entire day. He ordered that at midnight, the men on the galleys send 2,000 lit match cords on skiffs to land on the shore near the English camp. Normally, lit match cords at night would give away one's position but in this case, it was intended to make the English believe they were about to be attacked. It was a purely serendipitous coincidence that this ruse resulted in the enemy thinking their retreat had been discovered causing them to make disorderly haste.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos2018184_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos2018184-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Withdraw_to_Cascais">Withdraw to Cascais</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_Armada&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Withdraw to Cascais"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As dawn broke on 5 June, Bazán's galleys spotted the enemy's movements and opened fire which awakened Lisbon. Upon determining that the enemy's withdraw was complete and not a trick, the Spaniards set out in pursuit. The galleys followed the English infantry firing all the while. When they approached Cascais, Sancho Bravo and Alarcón attacked the English column inflicting hundreds more casualties.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos2018185–86_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos2018185–86-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When the English completed the march from Lisbon to Cascais. they lost some 500 dead along the way.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos2018192_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos2018192-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 6 June the Count of Fuentes marshalled an army in Lisbon to march on Cascais so as to inflict as many casualties as possible. They spent the night in Oeiras.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When they reached the English trenches on the morning of 7 June they were met with cannon fire from Drake's fleet. A council of war decided that it was impracticable to launch any sort of direct assault on the English. On the way back to Lisbon, Fuentes stopped off at the castle of São Julião to consult with Bazán.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They arranged to keep the enemy isolated to Cascais, essentially besieging them. </p><p>During the morning of 8 June, the Earl of Essex, champing at the bit to achieve glory and angry with the lack of success of the slow spineless army, arranged to have a <a href="/wiki/Kerykes" title="Kerykes">trumpeter</a> bring to the Spanish a message challenging them to open combat. The message read: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>We, the Generals Drake and Norris and Earls of [such and such], having been informed that the Count of Fuentes, General of the Kingdom of Portugal, and others on his side, have said that we retreated and fled in secret from Lisbon, and not in the manner of an army intending to fight, hereby state that we have not fled. So that it may be known by our deeds that we are ready and willing, we are sending you this trumpeter with our challenge, and inform you that we await you on this field of Oeiras to offer battle until the end of the day.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bdh-rd.bne.es/viewer.vm?id=0000251852"><i>Relación de lo subçedido del [</i>sic<i>] armada enemiga del reyno de Ynglaterra a este de Portugal con la retirada a su tierra este año de 1589</i></a>, Biblioteca Nacional, Madrid, mss 18579 (in Spanish), p. 79</cite></div></blockquote> <p>The messenger was shown all courtesies in accordance with the rules of hospitality then sent back with the message being unopened.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHume189667–68_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHume189667–68-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Shortly thereafter, The most important Portuguese aristocrat <a href="/wiki/Teod%C3%B3sio_II,_Duke_of_Braganza" title="Teodósio II, Duke of Braganza">Dom Teodósio II, 7th Duke of Bragança</a> arrived in Lisbon with 20 noblemen including his brother <a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duarte_de_Bragan%C3%A7a,_Marqu%C3%AAs_de_Frechilla" class="extiw" title="pt:Duarte de Bragança, Marquês de Frechilla">Dom Duarte of Bragança, Marquis of Frechilla</a>, his personal guard of 70 <a href="/wiki/Halberdiers" class="mw-redirect" title="Halberdiers">halberdiers</a>, 200 <a href="/wiki/Lancers" class="mw-redirect" title="Lancers">lancers</a> and 1,000 infantrymen.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His arrival not only brought reinforcements to defend Lisbon, it also solidified the Catholic union while leaving Dom António looking like little more than a fugitive from justice. </p><p>While Drake was anchored in Cascais, he seized several wheat-laden urcas giving him a veritable inexhaustible supply source. They engaged the nearby mills to grind the wheat into flour from which bread was made. On 9 June, Fuentes sent Captain Francisco de Velasco with a small division of infantry and cavalry to destroy those mills thus eliminating the usefulness of the vast amounts of wheat for making bread. They resorted to boiling the wheat in order to eat it.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 10 June, Francisco Coloma inventoried the enemy's vessels anchored at Cascais as counting 147. In reporting that, he added that, though they continue to threaten to attack the entrance of the estuary, he didn't believe they actually would do so for during the past few days, they had the most optimal weather and tides to do so if they wished to.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Then, on 11 June. Captain Francisco de Cárdenas, commander of the castle of Cascais, received a visit from two <a href="/wiki/Franciscans" title="Franciscans">Franciscan monks</a> from the monastery of São António solemnly vowing that Lisbon had surrendered to Dom António three days earlier and it would be a mortal sin to keep fighting when all hope was lost. Several days prior, Cárdenas had sent two soldiers to request more men and ammunition from Lisbon who were never heard from, nor had he any news from Lisbon, so he had no reason to doubt the monks' claims. He surrendered the castle without a fight, obtaining honourable terms, leaving with ~50 men, banners and weapons, and even given a ship to sail to <a href="/wiki/Set%C3%BAbal" title="Setúbal">Setúbal</a>. Within the castle were plenty of supplies and ammunition, and 14 cannons. Upon his arrival in Setúbal, Cárdenas was arrested then beheaded.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos2018202–03_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos2018202–03-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As each day passed, the Spanish-Portuguese, a.k.a. Iberian army was growing stronger while the English were dwindling. Observing the odd passive conduct of the enemy fleet, Lisbon still thought the English would return to launch a combined ground and sea attack on 13 June, <a href="/wiki/Anthony_of_Padua" title="Anthony of Padua">St. Anthony's feast day</a>, the city's own patron saint. The Count of Villadorta, general of the Portuguese cavalry, had stationed a strong detachment near Cascais and the next day, the Duke of Bragança joined his forces to complete the siege by land. Meanwhile, the <i><a href="/wiki/Adelantado" title="Adelantado">Adelantado of Castile</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Mart%C3%ADn_de_Padilla_y_Manrique,_1st_Count_of_Santa_Gadea" title="Martín de Padilla y Manrique, 1st Count of Santa Gadea">Martín Padilla</a>, arrived in São Julião with 15 well equipped galleys to reinforce those of Bazán thus completing the siege by sea.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos2018206–07_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos2018206–07-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The English finished embarking that very night. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Out_to_sea">Out to sea</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_Armada&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Out to sea"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Azores_old_map.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Azores_old_map.jpg/280px-Azores_old_map.jpg" decoding="async" width="280" height="197" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Azores_old_map.jpg/420px-Azores_old_map.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Azores_old_map.jpg/560px-Azores_old_map.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2104" data-file-height="1480" /></a><figcaption>Map of the Azores from 1585</figcaption></figure> <p>Everything was ready on 16 June to launch a major offensive against the English assuming the weather cooperated, which it didn't, so the attack was delayed. Also that day, two small vessels arrived from England bringing correspondences from the Queen dated 20 May o.s. and news that 17 supply vessels, but no troops, were en route;<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWernham1988164_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWernham1988164-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most of those ships had earlier abandoned the fleet.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWernham1988173_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWernham1988173-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>T hose supply ships arrived on 17 or 18 June, commanded by Captain Cross.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWernham1988240_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWernham1988240-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In her letters, the queen ordered the immediate return of her favourite Essex and vehemently criticized Drake and Norris for how badly they've conducted the expedition thus far, especially for not going to Santander to destroy the remnants of the Spanish Armada despite the favourable winds to do so. All Drake could think of was leaving Portugal as quickly as possible to achieve some sort of victory but the wind wasn't cooperating. It didn't cooperate on 17 June either. In the several days that the English Armada was anchored off Cascais, Drake had collected numerous merchantmen and the day before they sailed, a fleet of 20 French and 60 Hanseatic ships was captured in the mouth of the Tagus. That seizure, notes R. B. Wernham, "dealt a useful blow to Spanish preparations",<sup id="cite_ref-:2_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but later required a publicly printed justification from the Queen's own printer on 30 June 1589 o.s., since, without booty, she and her fellow English investors faced considerable losses.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On the morning of 18 June, despite the unfavourable wind, Drake finally decided to set sail away from the coast with his fleet and the captured merchantmen totalling some 210 ships<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWernham1988234_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWernham1988234-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which is when Essex escorted some 30 Dutch merchant ships which were discharged thus ending their participation in the expedition.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos2018212_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos2018212-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>So as to placate his queen, Drake decided to try and capture the treasure fleet in the Azores but not being able to sail west, the winds pushed him south-southwest, staying within sight of the Portuguese coast. Meanwhile, the Iberian troops who arrived in Cascais after the English departure found it in utter shambles. Part of the castle had been blown up, the entire town sacked, and the churches desecrated. It was so dirty and dilapidated that Fuentes ordered the garrison to billet in adjacent towns until it had been cleaned up.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <i>Adelantado</i> set off on pursuit of the English Armada with 9 galleys on 19 June, while in Lisbon 15 caravels with extra men and munitions were being made ready to reinforce the Azores. The first engagement at sea was on the morning of 20 June resulting in the loss of 9-11 English ships, two smaller boats and the dispersion of the fleet.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos2018219_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos2018219-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:0_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the end of the day, Drake had managed to reassemble much of his fleet. Young William Fenner who had come with the 17 supply ships commanded by Captain Cross was separated further after a storm during the night and found himself heading toward the <a href="/wiki/Archipelago" title="Archipelago">archipelago</a> of <a href="/wiki/Madeira" title="Madeira">Madeira</a>, ultimately anchoring in <a href="/wiki/Porto_Santo_Island" title="Porto Santo Island">Porto Santo</a> where, the next day, seven more English vessels joined him. They took the island and resupplied themselves over the next two days. Unable to find the rest of the fleet, they set sail for England.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWernham1988240_87-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWernham1988240-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The English prisoners captured by the Iberians following the 20 June battle revealed that the fleet had no provisions making an adventure to the Azores unlikely so the Iberians shifted their attention to the 500 man garrison Norris left at Peniche on 28 May. Drake made his way up the Portuguese coast against the wind to retrieve those men while Guzmán and Bravo rushed thereto with their cavalry. The latter arrived on 22 June making a surprise attack just as the garrison started to embark on a small ship, killing or capturing some 300.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos2018219_93-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos2018219-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Tacking_(sailing)" title="Tacking (sailing)">Tacking</a> his way north along the Portuguese coast, Drake arrived at Peniche the next day hoping to pickup the garrison only to be met with cannon fire from the fortress. He sailed off and on the next day, 24 June, a favourable northeast wind came up and Drake set off for the open sea, seemingly heading for the Azores. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Raid_on_Vigo">Raid on Vigo</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_Armada&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Raid on Vigo"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1034237262"><div class="stack mw-stack stack-right"><div> <div class="switcher-container"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238443738">.mw-parser-output .locmap .od{position:absolute}.mw-parser-output .locmap .id{position:absolute;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .locmap .l0{font-size:0;position:absolute}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pv{line-height:110%;position:absolute;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pl{line-height:110%;position:absolute;top:-0.75em;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pr{line-height:110%;position:absolute;top:-0.75em;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pv>div{display:inline;padding:1px}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pl>div{display:inline;padding:1px;float:right}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pr>div{display:inline;padding:1px;float:left}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od .pv>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od .pl>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od .pr>div{background:#fff!important;color:#000!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .locmap{filter:grayscale(0.6)}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data .locmap div{background:transparent!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .locmap{filter:grayscale(0.6)}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od .pv>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od .pl>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od .pr>div{background:white!important;color:#000!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data .locmap div{background:transparent!important}}</style><div class="locmap noviewer noresize thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:242px"><div style="position:relative;width:240px;border:1px solid lightgray"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Relief_Map_of_Spain.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Vigo is located in Spain"><img alt="Vigo is located in Spain" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Relief_Map_of_Spain.png/240px-Relief_Map_of_Spain.png" decoding="async" width="240" height="206" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Relief_Map_of_Spain.png/360px-Relief_Map_of_Spain.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Relief_Map_of_Spain.png/480px-Relief_Map_of_Spain.png 2x" data-file-width="1197" data-file-height="1027" /></a></span><div class="od notheme" style="top:22.357%;left:8.079%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Vigo"><img alt="Vigo" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pr" style="width:6em;left:5px"><div>Vigo</div></div></div></div><div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Relief_Map_of_Spain.png" title="File:Relief Map of Spain.png">class=notpageimage| </a></div>Location within Spain</div><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none">Show map of Spain</span></div></div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238443738"><div class="locmap noviewer noresize thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:242px"><div style="position:relative;width:240px;border:1px solid lightgray"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Spain_Galicia_location_map.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Vigo is located in Galicia"><img alt="Vigo is located in Galicia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Spain_Galicia_location_map.svg/240px-Spain_Galicia_location_map.svg.png" decoding="async" width="240" height="259" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Spain_Galicia_location_map.svg/360px-Spain_Galicia_location_map.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Spain_Galicia_location_map.svg/480px-Spain_Galicia_location_map.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="553" /></a></span><div class="od notheme" style="top:73.629%;left:26.985%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Vigo"><img alt="Vigo" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pr" style="width:6em;left:5px"><div>Vigo</div></div></div></div><div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Spain_Galicia_location_map.svg" title="File:Spain Galicia location map.svg">class=notpageimage| </a></div>Location within Galicia</div><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none">Show map of Galicia</span></div></div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238443738"><div class="locmap noviewer noresize thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:242px"><div style="position:relative;width:240px;border:1px solid lightgray"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Pontevedra-loc.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Vigo is located in Province of Pontevedra"><img alt="Vigo is located in Province of Pontevedra" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Pontevedra-loc.svg/240px-Pontevedra-loc.svg.png" decoding="async" width="240" height="282" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Pontevedra-loc.svg/360px-Pontevedra-loc.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Pontevedra-loc.svg/480px-Pontevedra-loc.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="601" /></a></span><div class="od notheme" style="top:62.112%;left:26.492%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Vigo"><img alt="Vigo" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pr" style="width:6em;left:5px"><div>Vigo</div></div></div></div><div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Pontevedra-loc.svg" title="File:Pontevedra-loc.svg">class=notpageimage| </a></div>Location within the Province of Pontevedra</div><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none">Show map of Province of Pontevedra</span></div></div></div> </div></div> <p>Drake struggled against the wind, tacking his way to <a href="/wiki/Vigo" title="Vigo">Vigo</a> over the next five days, tossing the dead overboard by the hundred, finally arriving within sight of the undefended small fishing town on the morning of 29 June.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHume189670_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHume189670-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By nightfall, about 133 ships had anchored off <a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bouzas_(Vigo)" class="extiw" title="es:Bouzas (Vigo)">Bouzas</a>, Vigo and <a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teis" class="extiw" title="es:Teis">Teis</a> with 20 vessels guarding the area around the <a href="/wiki/C%C3%ADes_Islands" title="Cíes Islands">Cíes Islands</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since it was too late in the day to start a landing, they waited until the next morning which gave the Spaniards time to evacuate the town. Their strategy was essentially to divide and conquer. They expected the English to enter the town as a cohesive groups but, after seeing the town empty of people and valuables, they would eventually spread out across the outskirts where ambushes were waiting for them. Come dawn, 30 June, the English came ashore at three different locations with about 2,000 men and were, at once, stunned and disappointed to find the town completely deserted. Incensed by their defeats in Coruña and Lisbon, they showed no mercy to Vigo. Destruction started with the armada's cannons followed by iconoclasm and burning of churches then setting the rest of the town ablaze. Surrendering to their desires for wanton destruction gave them a dangerous sense of confidence that allowed their greed to take over and sent them to disperse in search of food, loot, etc.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There were a few skirmishes that day a few hundred invaders were killed but the main purpose of the landing was to refill their water casks which went on during the chaos. </p><p>The next day, 1 July, Don Luis Sarmiento showed up with a sizable Spanish force, catching the English unawares, killing hundreds and capturing prisoners. Drake quickly ordered his men to reembark then sent a dispatch promising to leave the estuary without causing further harm on condition the prisoners were returned. When the Spanish commander saw the totality of the devastation, he had the prisoners hanged within view of the fleet and challenged Drake to send more Englishmen so he could hang them all.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos2018233_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos2018233-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The next morning, Drake sailed out of the estuary with most of the fleet leaving Norris behind with some 30 vessels as he was further up the waterway and couldn't make it out before a storm hit. Two of Drake's ships were captured that day, one ran aground and two more were smashed against the rocks near <a href="/wiki/Cangas,_Pontevedra" title="Cangas, Pontevedra">Cangus</a>. On 3 July, Drake still struggled against the wind on his way to Finisterre while Norris, still anchored off Cíes Islands had the artillery removed from the ship that ran aground then set it ablaze. The latter was able to leave Cíes on 4 July.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos2018235–36_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos2018235–36-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Return_to_England">Return to England</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_Armada&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Return to England"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Spain saw the last of the English fleet on 5 July as it struggled against the wind past Finisterre. Captain Diego de Aramburu was dispatched from Santander with a flotilla of <a href="/wiki/Zabra" title="Zabra">zabras</a> to chase the English fleet nearly back to its home shores.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGonzalez-Arnao_Conde-Luque199594_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGonzalez-Arnao_Conde-Luque199594-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>From this point on, it becomes difficult to follow the path of the armada since information is available for only a small number of vessels, but what there is, is shockingly grim. Thomas Fenner's 500 ton <i>Dreadnought</i> set off with nearly 300 sailors then returned to Plymouth with only 18 fit to do work, the rest were dead or ill, including Fenner.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWernham1988lxv_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWernham1988lxv-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Of the crew of the <i>Griffin of Lübeck</i>, only 5 or 6 men were well but too weak to hoist the sails, the rest were dead, including the captain, or diseased, and of the 50 soldiers that were aboard, 32 or 33 had to be cast overboard. Two more died just as they landed in <a href="/wiki/Sandwich,_Kent" title="Sandwich, Kent">Sandwich</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWernham1988211_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWernham1988211-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Drake's flagship, the <i>Revenge</i> had sprung a leak from storm damage and almost foundered as she led the remainder of the fleet home to Plymouth where she docked on 10 July. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Aftermath">Aftermath</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_Armada&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Aftermath"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Norris landed in Plymouth on 13 July and immediately conspired with the Earl of Essex and Anthony Ashley to cover up the extent of the disaster and even go so far as to try and spin it into a triumph.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos2018241_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos2018241-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The next day, Norris sent a letter to Walsingham admitting failure and drawing the latter into the conspiracy thus making him a coconspirator.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWernham1988199–200_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWernham1988199–200-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos2018241_103-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos2018241-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 17 July a reply to the falsified reports arrived from Elizabeth expressing her delight with the "happy success" of the expedition.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWernham1988lvi_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWernham1988lvi-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos2018243_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos2018243-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following Norris' initial report, a cascade of propaganda erupted immediately with the most detailed account (in English), written in the form of a letter by an "anonymous" participant, published in 1589: <i>A true Coppie of a Discourse written by a Gentleman, employed in the late Voyage of Spain and Portingale</i>...,<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which unabashedly set out to restore the credit of the participants but it could not conjure away "the utter failure of the campaign or the conduct of the men who took part in it."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHume189611_108-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHume189611-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hume later noted, "…they wrote from Cascaes (Cascais) a full account of all that had happened in the best light they could devise…"<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHume189668_109-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHume189668-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the English narrative has been shown to have been a highly-effective means to suppress the magnitude of the disaster.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos2018245_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos2018245-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rarely in the history of England had the government, or the crown, been so badly informed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWernham1988lvi_105-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWernham1988lvi-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An unintended consequence of this misinformation campaign was the rapid spread of disease carried by the fleet personnel from the returning vessels onto the port town populations in England. Since the Queen's subjects were told the expedition was a success, the returning ships docked without being checked out.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos2018244_110-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos2018244-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Plymouth alone, there were 400 local towns people dead within the first few weeks.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWernham1988241_111-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWernham1988241-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lord Burleigh issued a proclamation that access to London by expedition participants was prohibited on penalty of death.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGonzalez-Arnao_Conde-Luque199596_112-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGonzalez-Arnao_Conde-Luque199596-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>None of the campaign's objectives had been accomplished, and for a number of years, the expedition's results discouraged further joint stock adventures on such a scale.<sup id="cite_ref-Wernham_31-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wernham-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWagner1999242_114-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWagner1999242-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The English expeditionary force had sustained a heavy loss of ships, troops and resources yet had not inflicted decisive damage on the Spanish forces. As it was a joint stock expedition it was a financial failure too, having only brought back 150 captured cannon and £30,000 of plunder.<sup id="cite_ref-Wernham_31-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wernham-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The financial problems were ultimately settled by simply not paying the survivors.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos2018244_110-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos2018244-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following a thorough investigation of the expedition, Drake and Norris were never publicly admonished.<sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Still, they both fell out of favour, with Norris not being given another command until 1591 and Drake waiting until 1595 to finally embark on his next, and final voyage.<sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWernham1988_117-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWernham1988-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite all this, the queen never amended her triumphalist letter of 7 July 1589 o.s.. </p><p>Despite 25 vessels with 3,000 men that abandoned the expedition and ended up in England and La Rochelle, 17 had returned and rejoined the expedition,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWernham1988240_87-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWernham1988240-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> thus, as many as 40 ships of the English fleet were sunk, scuttled, captured or otherwise unaccounted for<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFernández_Duro197251_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFernández_Duro197251-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> at Coruña, Lisbon and during the English retreat.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWernham1988341_6-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWernham1988341-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos2018245_7-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos2018245-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Fourteen of the ships were lost directly to the actions of Spanish naval forces: three at Coruña; six were sunk by the galleys led by Padilla and three seized by another galley's squadron commanded by Admiral <a href="/wiki/Alonso_de_Baz%C3%A1n" title="Alonso de Bazán">Alonso de Bazán</a>, all of them off Lisbon; two others were captured in the Bay of Biscay by the flotilla of <a href="/wiki/Zabra" title="Zabra">zabras</a> from Santander under Captain Diego de Aramburu, on their way back to England.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_94-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGonzalez-Arnao_Conde-Luque199594_100-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGonzalez-Arnao_Conde-Luque199594-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A 2021 environmental study carried out by the <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Agriculture_(Spain)" title="Ministry of Agriculture (Spain)">Spanish Ministry of Agriculture</a> at Coruña harbour claims to have found the remains of five English ships from Drake's fleet at the O Burgo estuary.<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The rest were lost to a stormy sea as the fleet made its return voyage, checked and harassed by Aramburu's zabras as far as the English channel.<sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to contemporary historian Fray Juan de Vitoria, the Spanish flotilla rounded up a good number of castaways during the pursuit.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFernández_Duro197252_120-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFernández_Duro197252-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some of the English vessels arrived in Britain badly undercrewed, their complements being depleted by famine and disease.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_88-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The scope of the tragedy and the widely varying accounts makes it next to impossible to give an accurate number of men and ships lost in this expedition. What has been documented is of the 3,722 men who returned and demanded their pay, only 1,042 received pay and of the thousands of widows, only 119 received their husband's pay.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWernham1988341_6-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWernham1988341-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Using the data Wernham compiled, assuming 27,667 men set out, if only 3,722 came back, that would mean nearly 24,000 died, deserted, or are otherwise unaccounted for. Various contemporary chroniclers reported deaths ranged everywhere from 11,000<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBucholzKey2009145_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBucholzKey2009145-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to more than 18,000,<sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in contrast, the number of survivors were reported to range from 3,000<sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to 5,000.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHume189668_109-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHume189668-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The chimerical "anonymous" discourse, actually written by Wingfield, claims more than 6,000 returned out of the 13,500 who embarked.<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Even if the more commonly accepted number of 23,375 men embarking with 5,000 surviving, that's still more than 18,000 dead. </p><p>Determining the number of ships lost is no less problematic. Starting with the 180 documented ships and adding others in the days after the final recorded inventory, 200 cannot be considered exaggerated. We find that 102 ships were named on the 5 September 1589 o.s. pay list. Of the 84 ships on the 9 April o.s. list that set sail, only 69 appear on the 5 September o.s. list, thus, according to Wernham, 15 ships were lost. But the number of those not listed and failed to return is unknown. In addition to the 69 that are known to have sailed and returned, another 33 returned with them; most of them medium-sized.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos2020246–48_124-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos2020246–48-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Regardless, with the opportunity to strike a decisive blow against the weakened Spanish Navy lost, Philip was able revive his navy the very next year, sending 37 ships with 6,420 men to <a href="/wiki/Brittany" title="Brittany">Brittany</a> where they established a <a href="/wiki/Brittany_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Brittany Campaign">base of operations</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Blavet" title="Blavet">Blavet</a> river.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos2018253_125-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos2018253-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The English and Dutch ultimately failed to disrupt the various fleets of the Indies despite the great number of military personnel mobilized every year. Thus, Spain remained the predominant power in Europe for several decades.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElliott1982333_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElliott1982333-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The failure of the expedition depleted the financial resources of England's treasury, which had been carefully restored during the long reign of Elizabeth I, and the expedition's failure was so embarrassing that England continues to downplay its significance.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos20183–4and_pp._245-246_126-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos20183–4and_pp._245-246-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The war was financially costly to both of its protagonists, and the Spanish Empire, which was fighting France and the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">United Provinces</a> at the same time, would be compelled in financial distress to default on its debt repayments in 1596 after the English <a href="/wiki/Capture_of_C%C3%A1diz" title="Capture of Cádiz">Capture of Cádiz</a>. After a <a href="/wiki/Raid_on_Mount%27s_Bay" title="Raid on Mount's Bay">successful raid on Cornwall in 1595</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> three more armadas were sent by Spain: in <a href="/wiki/2nd_Spanish_Armada" title="2nd Spanish Armada">1596</a> (126-140 ships) which was scattered by a storm, <a href="/wiki/3rd_Spanish_Armada" title="3rd Spanish Armada">1597</a> (140 ships) where 7 ships managed to land 700 elite forces on a beach in one of the creeks off the <a href="/wiki/Helford_River" title="Helford River">Helford River</a> near <a href="/wiki/Falmouth,_Cornwall" title="Falmouth, Cornwall">Falmouth</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kinsale" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Kinsale">1601</a> (33 ships) where the Spanish held the town of <a href="/wiki/Kinsale" title="Kinsale">Kinsale</a> for three months, but these efforts ultimately failed to succeed.<sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Peace was finally agreed at the signing of the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_London,_1604" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaty of London, 1604">Treaty of London</a> in 1604. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legacy">Legacy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_Armada&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Legacy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The failure of the English Armada is barely acknowledged by the <a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Historiography of the United Kingdom">British historiography</a>, as explained by <a href="/wiki/David_Keys" title="David Keys">David Keys</a>: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The English Armada was larger than the Spanish, and from many points of view it was an even greater disaster. This fact, however, is completely overlooked. It is never mentioned in the history courses taught in British schools and a majority of British history teachers have never even heard of it.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><i>Gran Bretaña olvida su gran desastre naval mientras recupera restos de la Armada Invencible</i> (in Spanish: "Britain forgets its great naval disaster as it recovers wreckage of the Invincible Armada"), <i><a href="/wiki/ABC_(newspaper)" title="ABC (newspaper)">ABC</a></i>, 6 August 2001, p. 38</cite></div></blockquote> <p>Nevertheless, even the "landmark" 11th Edition of the <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopedia Britannica</a></i> (1911) does mention, if only in passing, that "the attempt on Portugal in 1589 under Drake and Norris proved a complete failure."<sup id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In Portugal, the pillages some of the English soldiers committed along the way, along with the ultimate ineffectiveness of the forces sent by England, gave rise to the saying "<a href="/wiki/Friend_from_Peniche" title="Friend from Peniche">friend from Peniche</a>", meaning someone who falsely appears to be a friend.<sup id="cite_ref-130" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "Amigo de Peniche" is also a type of local <a href="/wiki/Pastry" title="Pastry">pastry</a> made of flour, eggs, sugar and almonds.<sup id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_Armada&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Armada_in_Ireland" title="Spanish Armada in Ireland">Spanish Armada in Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brittany_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Brittany Campaign">Brittany Campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raid_on_Mounts_Bay" class="mw-redirect" title="Raid on Mounts Bay">Raid on Mounts Bay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attack_on_Cawsand" title="Attack on Cawsand">Attack on Cawsand</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_Armada&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div style=""><ol class="references" style="list-style-type:upper-alpha;"> <li id="cnote_Note_a"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#ref_Note_a_1">^</a></b></span> <div style="display:inline;" class="reference-text">Philip's spies in England reported losses exceeding 18,000 men. No French or Italian report put the number at lower than 15,000 dead.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos2018245_7-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos2018245-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></li> <li id="cnote_Note_b"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#ref_Note_b_1">^</a></b></span> <div style="display:inline;" class="reference-text">Throughout the Catholic world, the <a href="/wiki/Gregorian_calendar" title="Gregorian calendar">Gregorian calendar</a> replaced the <a href="/wiki/Julian_calendar" title="Julian calendar">Julian calendar</a> in October 1582 which corrected a 10-day error. England didn't adopt it until 1752 so all English State papers have Julian dates. Dates on original English source documents will be indicated herein with the suffix "o.s." for old style.</div></li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_Armada&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMartins2014442-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMartins2014442_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMartins2014">Martins 2014</a>, p. 442.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEElliott1982333-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElliott1982333_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElliott1982333_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFElliott1982">Elliott 1982</a>, p. 333.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorris2002335-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorris2002335_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMorris2002">Morris 2002</a>, p. 335.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWernham1988346-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWernham1988346_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWernham1988346_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWernham1988346_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWernham1988346_4-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWernham1988346_4-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWernham1988">Wernham 1988</a>, p. 346.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBucholzKey2009145-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBucholzKey2009145_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBucholzKey2009145_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBucholzKey2009">Bucholz & Key 2009</a>, p. 145.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWernham1988341-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWernham1988341_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWernham1988341_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWernham1988341_6-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWernham1988341_6-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWernham1988341_6-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWernham1988">Wernham 1988</a>, p. 341.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos2018245-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos2018245_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos2018245_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos2018245_7-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos2018245_7-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos2018245_7-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGorrochategui_Santos2018">Gorrochategui Santos 2018</a>, p. 245.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHampden1972254-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHampden1972254_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHampden1972">Hampden 1972</a>, p. 254.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFFernández_Duro1972" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Fernández Duro, Cesáreo (1972). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://armada.defensa.gob.es/html/historiaarmada/tomo3/tomo_03.pdf"><i>Armada Española desde la unión de los Reinos de Castilla y Aragón</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> (in Spanish). Vol. III. Museo Naval de Madrid, Instituto de Historia y Cultura Naval. p. 51.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Armada+Espa%C3%B1ola+desde+la+uni%C3%B3n+de+los+Reinos+de+Castilla+y+Arag%C3%B3n&rft.pages=51&rft.pub=Museo+Naval+de+Madrid%2C+Instituto+de+Historia+y+Cultura+Naval&rft.date=1972&rft.aulast=Fern%C3%A1ndez+Duro&rft.aufirst=Ces%C3%A1reo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farmada.defensa.gob.es%2Fhtml%2Fhistoriaarmada%2Ftomo3%2Ftomo_03.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+Armada" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFernández_Duro197251-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFernández_Duro197251_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFernández_Duro197251_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFernández_Duro1972">Fernández Duro 1972</a>, p. 51.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBicheno2012266-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBicheno2012266_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBicheno2012">Bicheno 2012</a>, p. 266.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEElliott1982351-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElliott1982351_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFElliott1982">Elliott 1982</a>, p. 351.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHume1896" class="citation book cs1">Hume, Martin (1896). <i>The Year After the Armada: And Other Historical Studies</i>. 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</li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos2018168–69-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos2018168–69_66-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGorrochategui_Santos2018">Gorrochategui Santos 2018</a>, pp. 168–69.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos2018171-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos2018171_67-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGorrochategui_Santos2018">Gorrochategui Santos 2018</a>, p. 171.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHume189662-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHume189662_68-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHume1896">Hume 1896</a>, p. 62.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos2018180-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos2018180_69-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGorrochategui_Santos2018">Gorrochategui Santos 2018</a>, p. 180.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWernham1988xlviii–lii-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWernham1988xlviii–lii_70-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWernham1988">Wernham 1988</a>, pp. xlviii–lii.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Memoria de Vinda dos Ingleses a Portugal em 1589</i>, pp. 277-278, quoted in Pires de Lima, Durval, <i>O ataque dos ingleses a Lisboa em 1589 contado por uma testemunha</i> in Lisboa e seu Termo: Estudios e Documentos, Associação doa Arqueólogos Portugueses (in Portuguese), vol. 1, Lisbon, 1948.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bdh-rd.bne.es/viewer.vm?id=0000251852"><i>Relación de lo subçedido del [</i>sic<i>] armada enemiga del reyno de Ynglaterra a este de Portugal con la retirada a su tierra este año de 1589</i></a>, Biblioteca Nacional, Madrid, mss 18579 (in Spanish), p. 68.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Letter from Francisco de Coloma, <a href="/wiki/Archivo_General_de_Simancas" title="Archivo General de Simancas">Archivo General de Simancas (AGS)</a>. Guerra antigua (in Spanish). file 249, № 129.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos2018184-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos2018184_74-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGorrochategui_Santos2018">Gorrochategui Santos 2018</a>, p. 184.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos2018185–86-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos2018185–86_75-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGorrochategui_Santos2018">Gorrochategui Santos 2018</a>, pp. 185–86.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos2018192-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos2018192_76-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGorrochategui_Santos2018">Gorrochategui Santos 2018</a>, p. 192.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bdh-rd.bne.es/viewer.vm?id=0000251852"><i>Relación de lo subçedido del [</i>sic<i>] armada enemiga del reyno de Ynglaterra a este de Portugal con la retirada a su tierra este año de 1589</i></a>, Biblioteca Nacional, Madrid, mss 18579 (in Spanish), p. 76.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bdh-rd.bne.es/viewer.vm?id=0000251852"><i>Relación de lo subçedido del [</i>sic<i>] armada enemiga del reyno de Ynglaterra a este de Portugal con la retirada a su tierra este año de 1589</i></a>, Biblioteca Nacional, Madrid, mss 18579 (in Spanish), p. 78.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHume189667–68-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHume189667–68_79-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHume1896">Hume 1896</a>, pp. 67–68.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bdh-rd.bne.es/viewer.vm?id=0000251852"><i>Relación de lo subçedido del [</i>sic<i>] armada enemiga del reyno de Ynglaterra a este de Portugal con la retirada a su tierra este año de 1589</i></a>, Biblioteca Nacional, Madrid, mss 18579 (in Spanish), p. 79.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bdh-rd.bne.es/viewer.vm?id=0000251852"><i>Relación de lo subçedido del [</i>sic<i>] armada enemiga del reyno de Ynglaterra a este de Portugal con la retirada a su tierra este año de 1589</i></a>, Biblioteca Nacional, Madrid, mss 18579 (in Spanish), p. 80.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Francisco Coloma to the King, entrance to Lisbon Estuary, 10 June 1589, <a href="/wiki/Archivo_General_de_Simancas" title="Archivo General de Simancas">Archivo General de Simancas (AGS)</a>. Guerra antigua (in Spanish). file 249, № 121.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos2018202–03-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos2018202–03_83-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGorrochategui_Santos2018">Gorrochategui Santos 2018</a>, pp. 202–03.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos2018206–07-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos2018206–07_84-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGorrochategui_Santos2018">Gorrochategui Santos 2018</a>, pp. 206–07.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWernham1988164-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWernham1988164_85-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWernham1988">Wernham 1988</a>, p. 164.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWernham1988173-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWernham1988173_86-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWernham1988">Wernham 1988</a>, p. 173.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWernham1988240-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWernham1988240_87-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWernham1988240_87-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWernham1988240_87-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWernham1988">Wernham 1988</a>, p. 240.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_88-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_88-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWernham1951" class="citation book cs1">Wernham, R B (January 1951). <i>Queen Elizabeth and the Portugal Expedition of 1589: Part II</i> (66 ed.). The English Historical Review. pp. 194–218. <q>especially 204–214. Wernham's articles are based on his work editing <i>Calendar State Papers Foreign</i>: eliz. xxiii (January–June 1589)</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Queen+Elizabeth+and+the+Portugal+Expedition+of+1589%3A+Part+II&rft.pages=194-218&rft.edition=66&rft.pub=The+English+Historical+Review&rft.date=1951-01&rft.aulast=Wernham&rft.aufirst=R+B&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+Armada" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEngland_and_Wales._Sovereign_(1558-1603_:_Elizabeth_I)BealePenrosePenrose1589" class="citation book cs1">England and Wales. Sovereign (1558-1603 : Elizabeth I); Beale, Robert; Penrose, Boies; Penrose, Boies; Lyell, James P. R. (James Patrick Ronaldson) (1589). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.org/details/declarationofcav00engl"><i>A declaration of the cavses, which mooved the chiefe commanders of the nauie of Her Most Excellent Maiestie the Queene of England, in their voyage and expedition for Portingal, : to take and arrest in the mouth of the river of Lisbone, certaine shippes of corne and other prouisions of warre bound for the said citie : prepared for the seruices of the King of Spaine, in the ports and prouinces within and about the sownde, the 30. day of Iune, in the yeere of Our Lord 1589. and of Her Maiesties raigne the one and thirtie</i></a>. Boston Public Library. 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Guerra antigua (in Spanish). file 249, № 136.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos2018219-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos2018219_93-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos2018219_93-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGorrochategui_Santos2018">Gorrochategui Santos 2018</a>, p. 219.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_94-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_94-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGonzálezRamón2002" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">González, Rodríguez; Ramón, Agustín (19 September 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://repositorioinstitucional.ceu.es/handle/10637/1416">"Una derrota de Drake ante Lisboa"</a>. <i>Circulo Naval Español</i> (in Spanish).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Circulo+Naval+Espa%C3%B1ol&rft.atitle=Una+derrota+de+Drake+ante+Lisboa.&rft.date=2002-09-19&rft.aulast=Gonz%C3%A1lez&rft.aufirst=Rodr%C3%ADguez&rft.au=Ram%C3%B3n%2C+Agust%C3%ADn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frepositorioinstitucional.ceu.es%2Fhandle%2F10637%2F1416&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+Armada" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHume189670-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHume189670_95-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHume1896">Hume 1896</a>, p. 70.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Report by Juan Rodríguez, captain of the ship called <i>La Trinidad</i>, <a href="/wiki/Archivo_General_de_Simancas" title="Archivo General de Simancas">Archivo General de Simancas (AGS)</a>. Guerra antigua (in Spanish). file. 250, № 154.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_de_Santiago_y_G%C3%B3mez" class="extiw" title="gl:José de Santiago y Gómez">Santigo y Gómez, José</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bdh-rd.bne.es/viewer.vm?id=0000107177&page=1">Historia de Vigo y su comarca</a>, Madrid: Impr. del Asilo de Huérfabism, 1919, pp. 328-330.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos2018233-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos2018233_98-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGorrochategui_Santos2018">Gorrochategui Santos 2018</a>, p. 233.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos2018235–36-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos2018235–36_99-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGorrochategui_Santos2018">Gorrochategui Santos 2018</a>, pp. 235–36.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGonzalez-Arnao_Conde-Luque199594-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGonzalez-Arnao_Conde-Luque199594_100-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGonzalez-Arnao_Conde-Luque199594_100-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGonzalez-Arnao_Conde-Luque1995">Gonzalez-Arnao Conde-Luque 1995</a>, p. 94.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWernham1988lxv-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWernham1988lxv_101-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWernham1988">Wernham 1988</a>, p. lxv.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWernham1988211-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWernham1988211_102-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWernham1988">Wernham 1988</a>, p. 211.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos2018241-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos2018241_103-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos2018241_103-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGorrochategui_Santos2018">Gorrochategui Santos 2018</a>, p. 241.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWernham1988199–200-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWernham1988199–200_104-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWernham1988">Wernham 1988</a>, pp. 199–200.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWernham1988lvi-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWernham1988lvi_105-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWernham1988lvi_105-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWernham1988">Wernham 1988</a>, p. lvi.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos2018243-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGorrochategui_Santos2018243_106-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGorrochategui_Santos2018">Gorrochategui Santos 2018</a>, p. 243.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWingfield1589" class="citation web cs1">Wingfield, Anthony (1589). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/truecoppieofdisc00wing/page/n5/mode/2up">"A True Coppie of a Discourse written by a Gentleman employed in the late Voyage of Spaine and Portingale"</a>. <i>Internet Archive</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Aillaud. p. 218.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Quadro+elementar+das+rela%C3%A7%C3%B5es+politicas+e+diplomaticas+de+Portugal&rft.place=Lisbon&rft.pages=218&rft.pub=Pariz%2C+J.+P.+Aillaud&rft.date=1858&rft.aulast=Rebello+Da+Silva&rft.aufirst=Luis+Augusto&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+Armada" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWagner1999242-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWagner1999242_114-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWagner1999">Wagner 1999</a>, p. 242.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSugden1990" class="citation book cs1">Sugden, John (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sirfrancisdrake00sugd_0/page/282/mode/2up"><i>Sir Francis Drake</i></a>. 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Impr. del Asilo de Huérfanos. p. 333.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historia+de+Vigo+y+su+comarca&rft.pages=333&rft.pub=Impr.+del+Asilo+de+Hu%C3%A9rfanos&rft.date=1896&rft.aulast=G%C3%B3mez&rft.aufirst=Jos%C3%A9+de+Santiago+y&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D48pDAAAAYAAJ%26dq%3D%2522guipuzcoano%2522%2Baramburu%2BVigo%26pg%3DPA333&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+Armada" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFernández_Duro197252-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFernández_Duro197252_120-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFernández_Duro1972">Fernández Duro 1972</a>, p. 52.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHume1899" class="citation journal cs1">Hume, Martin A S (1899). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.british-history.ac.uk/cal-state-papers/simancas/vol4/pp547-552">"Simancas: July 1589"</a>. <i>Calendar of State Papers, Spain (Simancas)</i>. <b>4</b> (1587–1603). London: 549<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 December</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Calendar+of+State+Papers%2C+Spain+%28Simancas%29&rft.atitle=Simancas%3A+July+1589&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=1587%E2%80%931603&rft.pages=549&rft.date=1899&rft.aulast=Hume&rft.aufirst=Martin+A+S&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.british-history.ac.uk%2Fcal-state-papers%2Fsimancas%2Fvol4%2Fpp547-552&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+Armada" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>As told by two ensigns held prisoner in Corunna</i>, <a href="/wiki/Archivo_General_de_Simancas" title="Archivo General de Simancas">Archivo General de Simancas (AGS)</a>. Guerra antigua (in Spanish). file 250, № 348.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWingfield1589" class="citation web cs1">Wingfield, Anthony (1589). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/truecoppieofdisc00wing/page/n5/mode/2up">"A True Coppie of a Discourse written by a Gentleman employed in the late Voyage of Spaine and Portingale"</a>. <i>Internet Archive</i>. p. 10<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Boxtree. pp. 58–62. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780752220291" title="Special:BookSources/9780752220291"><bdi>9780752220291</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Invasion%3A+Defending+Britain+from+Attack&rft.pages=58-62&rft.pub=Boxtree&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=9780752220291&rft.aulast=Cruickshank&rft.aufirst=Dan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+Armada" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tenace, E. (2003), "A Strategy of Reactions: The Armadas of 1596 and 1597 and the Spanish Struggle for European Hegemony." <i>English Historical Review</i>, <b>118</b>, pp. 855–882</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="noprint"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/12px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/18px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/24px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></span></span> </span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPollard1911" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Albert_Pollard" title="Albert Pollard">Pollard, Albert Frederick</a> (1911). "<a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/English_History" class="extiw" title="s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/English History">English History</a>". In <a href="/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm" title="Hugh Chisholm">Chisholm, Hugh</a> (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i>. Vol. 9 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=English+History&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.edition=11th&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1911&rft.aulast=Pollard&rft.aufirst=Albert+Frederick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+Armada" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160305121936/http://www.cm-peniche.pt/News/newsdetail.aspx?news=3a19394d-172f-4a00-a7ef-556d0eafd893">"AMIGOS DE PENICHE – UMA PARTIDA DA HISTÓRIA - Município de Peniche - Capital da Onda"</a>. 5 March 2016. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cm-peniche.pt/News/newsdetail.aspx?news=3a19394d-172f-4a00-a7ef-556d0eafd893">the original</a> on 5 March 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 September</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=AMIGOS+DE+PENICHE+%E2%80%93+UMA+PARTIDA+DA+HIST%C3%93RIA+-+Munic%C3%ADpio+de+Peniche+-+Capital+da+Onda&rft.date=2016-03-05&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cm-peniche.pt%2FNews%2Fnewsdetail.aspx%3Fnews%3D3a19394d-172f-4a00-a7ef-556d0eafd893&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+Armada" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pastelariasroma.pt/amigos-de-peniche-e-lenda-que-inspira-docaria-regional/">"Amigos de Peniche é lenda que inspira doçaria regional"</a>. <i>Pastelarias Roma</i> (in European Portuguese). 22 June 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 September</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Pastelarias+Roma&rft.atitle=Amigos+de+Peniche+%C3%A9+lenda+que+inspira+do%C3%A7aria+regional&rft.date=2015-06-22&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pastelariasroma.pt%2Famigos-de-peniche-e-lenda-que-inspira-docaria-regional%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+Armada" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_Armada&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBicheno2012" class="citation book cs1">Bicheno, Hugh. (2012). <i>Elizabeth's Sea Dogs: How England's Mariners Became the Scourge of the Seas</i>. Conway. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84486-174-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84486-174-3"><bdi>978-1-84486-174-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Elizabeth%27s+Sea+Dogs%3A+How+England%27s+Mariners+Became+the+Scourge+of+the+Seas&rft.pub=Conway&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-84486-174-3&rft.aulast=Bicheno&rft.aufirst=Hugh.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+Armada" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBucholzKey2009" class="citation book cs1">Bucholz, R O; Key, Newton (2009). <i>Early modern England 1485–1714: a narrative history</i>. John Wiley and Sons. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1405162753" title="Special:BookSources/978-1405162753"><bdi>978-1405162753</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Early+modern+England+1485%E2%80%931714%3A+a+narrative+history&rft.pub=John+Wiley+and+Sons&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1405162753&rft.aulast=Bucholz&rft.aufirst=R+O&rft.au=Key%2C+Newton&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+Armada" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFElliott1982" class="citation book cs1">Elliott, J H (1982). <i>Europe Divided (1559–1598)</i>. Cornell University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788484326694" title="Special:BookSources/9788484326694"><bdi>9788484326694</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Europe+Divided+%281559%E2%80%931598%29&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=9788484326694&rft.aulast=Elliott&rft.aufirst=J+H&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+Armada" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGonzalez-Arnao_Conde-Luque1995" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Gonzalez-Arnao Conde-Luque, Mariano (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=oN5cIltA3IoC&q=%22tomo+dos+barcos+llevados+luego+a+Santander%22"><i>Derrota y muerte de Sir Francis Drake, a Coruña 1589 – Portobelo 1596</i></a> (in Spanish). Xunta de Galicia, Servicio Central de Publicacións. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8445314630" title="Special:BookSources/978-8445314630"><bdi>978-8445314630</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Derrota+y+muerte+de+Sir+Francis+Drake%2C+a+Coru%C3%B1a+1589+%E2%80%93+Portobelo+1596&rft.pub=Xunta+de+Galicia%2C+Servicio+Central+de+Publicaci%C3%B3ns&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-8445314630&rft.aulast=Gonzalez-Arnao+Conde-Luque&rft.aufirst=Mariano&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DoN5cIltA3IoC%26q%3D%2522tomo%2Bdos%2Bbarcos%2Bllevados%2Bluego%2Ba%2BSantander%2522&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+Armada" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGorrochategui_Santos2018" class="citation book cs1">Gorrochategui Santos, Luis (2018). <i>English Armada: The Greatest Naval Disaster in English History</i>. Oxford: Bloomsbury. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1350016996" title="Special:BookSources/978-1350016996"><bdi>978-1350016996</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=English+Armada%3A+The+Greatest+Naval+Disaster+in+English+History&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Bloomsbury&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-1350016996&rft.aulast=Gorrochategui+Santos&rft.aufirst=Luis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+Armada" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHampden1972" class="citation book cs1">Hampden, John (1972). <i>Francis Drake, privateer: contemporary narratives and documents</i>. Taylor & Francis. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780817357030" title="Special:BookSources/9780817357030"><bdi>9780817357030</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Francis+Drake%2C+privateer%3A+contemporary+narratives+and+documents&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=1972&rft.isbn=9780817357030&rft.aulast=Hampden&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+Armada" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorris2002" class="citation book cs1">Morris, Terence Alan (2002). <i>Europe and England in the sixteenth century</i>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781134748204" title="Special:BookSources/9781134748204"><bdi>9781134748204</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Europe+and+England+in+the+sixteenth+century&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=9781134748204&rft.aulast=Morris&rft.aufirst=Terence+Alan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+Armada" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGraham1972" class="citation book cs1">Graham, Winston (1972). <i>The Spanish Armadas</i>. Collins. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780002218429" title="Special:BookSources/9780002218429"><bdi>9780002218429</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Spanish+Armadas&rft.pub=Collins&rft.date=1972&rft.isbn=9780002218429&rft.aulast=Graham&rft.aufirst=Winston&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+Armada" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMartins2014" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Martins, Oliveira (2014). <i>História de Portugal</i> (in Portuguese). Ediçoes Vercial. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9898392602" title="Special:BookSources/978-9898392602"><bdi>978-9898392602</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hist%C3%B3ria+de+Portugal&rft.pub=Edi%C3%A7oes+Vercial&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-9898392602&rft.aulast=Martins&rft.aufirst=Oliveira&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+Armada" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRodríguez_González2006" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Rodríguez González, Agustín Ramón (2006). <i>Victorias por mar de los españoles</i> (in Spanish). Madrid: Biblioteca de Historia, Grafite Ediciones. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/849-6281388" title="Special:BookSources/849-6281388"><bdi>849-6281388</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Victorias+por+mar+de+los+espa%C3%B1oles&rft.place=Madrid&rft.pub=Biblioteca+de+Historia%2C+Grafite+Ediciones&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=849-6281388&rft.aulast=Rodr%C3%ADguez+Gonz%C3%A1lez&rft.aufirst=Agust%C3%ADn+Ram%C3%B3n&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+Armada" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRodriguez-SalgadoAdams1991" class="citation book cs1">Rodriguez-Salgado, M J; Adams, Simon (1991). <i>England, Spain and the </i>Gran Armada<i>, 1585-1604</i>. Barnes & Noble. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0389209554" title="Special:BookSources/0389209554"><bdi>0389209554</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=England%2C+Spain+and+the+Gran+Armada%2C+1585-1604&rft.pub=Barnes+%26+Noble&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=0389209554&rft.aulast=Rodriguez-Salgado&rft.aufirst=M+J&rft.au=Adams%2C+Simon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+Armada" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWagner1999" class="citation book cs1">Wagner, John A (1999). <i>Historical Dictionary of the Elizabethan World: Britain, Ireland, Europe, and America</i>. New York: Checkmark Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781573562003" title="Special:BookSources/9781573562003"><bdi>9781573562003</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historical+Dictionary+of+the+Elizabethan+World%3A+Britain%2C+Ireland%2C+Europe%2C+and+America&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Checkmark+Books&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=9781573562003&rft.aulast=Wagner&rft.aufirst=John+A&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+Armada" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWernham1988" class="citation book cs1">Wernham, R B (1988). <i>The Expedition of Sir John Norris and Sir Francis Drake to Spain and Portugal, 1589</i>. Aldershot: Navy Records Society. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781911423560" title="Special:BookSources/9781911423560"><bdi>9781911423560</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Expedition+of+Sir+John+Norris+and+Sir+Francis+Drake+to+Spain+and+Portugal%2C+1589&rft.place=Aldershot&rft.pub=Navy+Records+Society&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=9781911423560&rft.aulast=Wernham&rft.aufirst=R+B&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+Armada" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFValcárcel2004" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Valcárcel, Isabel (2004). <i>Mujeres de armas tomar</i> (in Spanish). Edaf Antilla. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788496107564" title="Special:BookSources/9788496107564"><bdi>9788496107564</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mujeres+de+armas+tomar&rft.pub=Edaf+Antilla&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=9788496107564&rft.aulast=Valc%C3%A1rcel&rft.aufirst=Isabel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+Armada" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_Armada&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGorrochategui_Santos2020" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Gorrochategui Santos, Luis (2020). <i>Contra Armada: La mayor victoria de España sobre Inglaterra</i> (in Spanish). Editorial Crítica. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8491992301" title="Special:BookSources/978-8491992301"><bdi>978-8491992301</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Contra+Armada%3A+La+mayor+victoria+de+Espa%C3%B1a+sobre+Inglaterra&rft.pub=Editorial+Cr%C3%ADtica&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-8491992301&rft.aulast=Gorrochategui+Santos&rft.aufirst=Luis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+Armada" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Mattingly, Garrett, <i>The Armada</i> (Mariner Books, New York 2005). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0618565914" title="Special:BookSources/0618565914">0618565914</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFParker1996" class="citation journal cs1">Parker, Geoffrey (1996). "The Dreadnought Revolution of Tudor England". <i>The Mariner's Mirror</i>. <b>82</b> (3): 269–300. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00253359.1996.10656603">10.1080/00253359.1996.10656603</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Mariner%27s+Mirror&rft.atitle=The+Dreadnought+Revolution+of+Tudor+England&rft.volume=82&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=269-300&rft.date=1996&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00253359.1996.10656603&rft.aulast=Parker&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+Armada" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>J. H. Parry, 'Colonial Development and International Rivalries Outside Europe, 1: America', in R. B. Wernham (ed.), <i>The New Cambridge Modern History</i>, Vol. III: 'The Counter-Reformation and Price Revolution 1559–1610' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1971): 507–531.</li> <li>Helmut Pemsel, <i>Atlas of Naval Warfare: An Atlas and Chronology of Conflict at Sea from Earliest Times to the Present Day</i>, translated by D. G. Smith (London: Arms and Armour Press, 1977).</li> <li>R. B. Wernham (1951a), "Queen Elizabeth and the Portugal Expedition of 1589: Part I" <i>The English Historical Review</i> <b>66</b>.258 (January 1951), pp. 1–26</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_Armada&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/cu31924027982648#page/n7/mode/2up">The Year After the Armada, and other historical studies, Martin Andrew Sharp Hume (New York 1896)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/rr/rarebook/catalog/drake/drake-9-begoftheend.html">Library of Congress: Hans P. Kraus, "Sir Francis Drake: A Pictorial Biography":</a> "The Beginning of the End: The Drake-Norris Expedition, 1589" From the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/rr/rarebook/">Rare Book and Special Collections Division</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress" title="Library of Congress">Library of Congress</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Spanish_Empire" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" 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colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div id="Timeline–immersed" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Timeline–immersed</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Monarchs" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic Monarchs">Catholic Monarchs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Spanish colonization of the Americas">Conquest of the Americas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spanish_East_Indies" title="Spanish East Indies">Asia and the Pacific</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Tordesillas" title="Treaty of Tordesillas">Treaty of Tordesillas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Wars" title="Italian Wars">Italian Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habsburg_Spain" title="Habsburg Spain">Habsburgs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Golden_Age" title="Spanish Golden Age">Golden Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_the_League_of_Cognac" title="War of the League of Cognac">War of the League of Cognac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Encomienda" title="Encomienda">Encomiendas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Laws" title="New Laws">New Laws in favour of the indigenous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expulsion_of_the_Moriscos" title="Expulsion of the Moriscos">Expulsion of the Moriscos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman%E2%80%93Habsburg_wars" title="Ottoman–Habsburg wars">Ottoman–Habsburg wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Wars_of_Religion" title="French Wars of Religion">French Wars of Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Castilian_War" title="Castilian War">Bruneian–Spanish conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Spanish_War_(1585%E2%80%931604)" title="Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604)">Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piracy_in_the_Caribbean" title="Piracy in the Caribbean">Piracy in the Caribbean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eighty_Years%27_War" title="Eighty Years' War">Eighty Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93Moro_conflict" title="Spanish–Moro conflict">Spanish–Moro conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franco-Spanish_War_(1635%E2%80%931659)" title="Franco-Spanish War (1635–1659)">Franco-Spanish War (1635–1659)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Restoration_War" title="Portuguese Restoration War">Portuguese Restoration War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Spanish_Succession" title="War of the Spanish Succession">War of the Spanish Succession</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Queen_Anne%27s_War" title="Queen Anne's War">Queen Anne's War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enlightenment_in_Spain" title="Enlightenment in Spain">Bourbons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bourbon_Reforms" title="Bourbon Reforms">Bourbon Reforms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_Jenkins%27_Ear" title="War of Jenkins' Ear">War of Jenkins' Ear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Madrid_(13_January_1750)" title="Treaty of Madrid (13 January 1750)">Treaty of Madrid (1750)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_Years%27_War" title="Seven Years' War">Seven Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nootka_Convention" title="Nootka Convention">Nootka Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peninsular_War" title="Peninsular War">Napoleonic invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Treaty_of_San_Ildefonso" title="Third Treaty of San Ildefonso">Third Treaty of San Ildefonso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_American_wars_of_independence" title="Spanish American wars of independence">Independence of Spanish continental Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adams%E2%80%93On%C3%ADs_Treaty" title="Adams–Onís Treaty">Adams–Onís Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Constitution_of_1812" title="Spanish Constitution of 1812">Liberal constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carlist_Wars" title="Carlist Wars">Carlist Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93American_War" title="Spanish–American War">Spanish–American War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German%E2%80%93Spanish_Treaty_(1899)" title="German–Spanish Treaty (1899)">German–Spanish Treaty (1899)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Civil_War" title="Spanish Civil War">Spanish Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Morocco#Independent_Morocco_(since_1956)" title="History of Morocco">Independence of Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Guinea" title="Spanish Guinea">Independence of Equatorial Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Sahara_conflict" title="Western Sahara conflict">Western Sahara conflict</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div id="Territories" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Territories</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Europe" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Europe</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Castille" class="mw-redirect" title="Crown of Castille">Crown of Castille</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Aragon" title="Crown of Aragon">Crown of Aragon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iberian_Union" title="Iberian Union">Union with Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gibraltar" title="Gibraltar">Gibraltar</a></li></ul></li> <li>Southern Italy (Kingdoms of <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Naples#Aragonese_dynasty" title="Kingdom of Naples">Naples</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sicily#The_insular_kingdom_of_Sicily_under_the_Crown_of_Aragon_and_Spain" title="Kingdom of Sicily">Sicily</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sardinia#Aragonese_period" title="Sardinia">Sardinia</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Milan" title="Duchy of Milan">Milan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_V,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor">Union with Holy Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Netherlands" title="Spanish Netherlands">Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, northernmost France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franche-Comt%C3%A9" title="Franche-Comté">Franche-Comté</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Catalonia" title="Northern Catalonia">Pyrénées-Orientales</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="North_America" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">North America</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_Spain" title="New Spain">New Spain</a> (<a href="/wiki/Spanish_expeditions_to_the_Pacific_Northwest" title="Spanish expeditions to the Pacific Northwest">Coastal Alaska</a>, Central United States (<a href="/wiki/Louisiana_(New_Spain)" title="Louisiana (New Spain)">Spanish Louisiana</a>), Western United States (<a href="/wiki/Spanish_Texas" title="Spanish Texas">Spanish Texas</a>), <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Florida" title="Spanish Florida">Florida</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Mexico&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kingdom of Mexico (page does not exist)">Mexico</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reino_de_M%C3%A9xico" class="extiw" title="es:Reino de México">es</a>]</span>, Central America (<a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Yucatan" class="mw-redirect" title="Captaincy General of Yucatan">Captaincy General of Yucatan</a>), <a href="/wiki/Spanish_West_Indies" title="Spanish West Indies">Spanish Caribbean</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Central_America" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Central America</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Guatemala" title="Captaincy General of Guatemala">Captaincy General of Guatemala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_West_Indies" title="Spanish West Indies">Spanish West Indies</a> (<a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Cuba" title="Captaincy General of Cuba">Cuba</a>, <a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Santo_Domingo" title="Captaincy General of Santo Domingo">Dominican Republic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Puerto_Rico" title="Captaincy General of Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Trinidad_and_Tobago#Spanish_period" title="History of Trinidad and Tobago">Trinidad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colony_of_Santiago" title="Colony of Santiago">Jamaica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Haiti#Spanish_history_(1492–1625)" title="History of Haiti">Haiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aruba#History" title="Aruba">Aruba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cura%C3%A7ao#History" title="Curaçao">Curazao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bonaire#History" title="Bonaire">Bonaire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Belize_(1506%E2%80%931862)" title="History of Belize (1506–1862)">Belize</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="South_America" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">South America</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_New_Granada" title="Viceroyalty of New Granada">New Granada</a> (<a href="/wiki/New_Kingdom_of_Granada" title="New Kingdom of Granada">Colombia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Quito" title="Real Audiencia of Quito">Ecuador</a>, <a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Panama" title="Real Audiencia of Panama">Panama</a>, <a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Venezuela" title="Captaincy General of Venezuela">Venezuela, part of Guyana</a>, a northernmost portion of Brazilian Amazon)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_Peru" title="Viceroyalty of Peru">Peru</a> (Peru, <a href="/wiki/Acre_(state)" title="Acre (state)">Acre</a>, <a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Chile" title="Captaincy General of Chile">Chile</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_the_R%C3%ADo_de_la_Plata" title="Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata">Río de la Plata</a> (<a href="/wiki/Governorate_of_the_R%C3%ADo_de_la_Plata" title="Governorate of the Río de la Plata">Argentina</a>, <a href="/wiki/Governorate_of_Paraguay" title="Governorate of Paraguay">Paraguay</a>, <a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Charcas" title="Real Audiencia of Charcas">Charcas</a> (Bolivia), <a href="/wiki/Banda_Oriental" title="Banda Oriental">Banda Oriental</a> (Uruguay), <a href="/wiki/Misiones_Orientales" title="Misiones Orientales">Misiones Orientales</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Falkland_Islands" title="History of the Falkland Islands">Malvinas</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Asia_and_Oceania_(Spanish_East_Indies)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Asia and Oceania (<a href="/wiki/Spanish_East_Indies" title="Spanish East Indies">Spanish East Indies</a>)</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_the_Philippines" title="Captaincy General of the Philippines">Captaincy General of the Philippines</a> (<a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a>, <a href="/wiki/Guam" title="Guam">Guam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Northern_Mariana_Islands" title="Northern Mariana Islands">Mariana</a>, <a href="/wiki/Caroline_Islands" title="Caroline Islands">Caroline</a>, <a href="/wiki/Federated_States_of_Micronesia" title="Federated States of Micronesia">Micronesia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Palau" title="Palau">Palau</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Formosa" title="Spanish Formosa">Northern Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidore" title="Tidore">Tidore</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Africa" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Africa</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Guinea" title="Spanish Guinea">Equatorial Guinea</a></li> <li>Northern Africa (<a href="/wiki/Spanish_Sahara" title="Spanish Sahara">Western Sahara</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spanish_protectorate_in_Morocco" title="Spanish protectorate in Morocco">Spanish Morocco</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Tripoli" title="Spanish Tripoli">Tripoli</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tunis#Spanish_occupation_and_Ottoman_control" title="Tunis">Tunis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pe%C3%B1%C3%B3n_of_Algiers" title="Peñón of Algiers">Peñón of Algiers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oran#Spanish_period_(1509–1708,_1732–1792)" title="Oran">Oran</a>, <a href="/wiki/B%C3%A9ja%C3%AFa#Muslim_and_feudal_rulers" title="Béjaïa">Béjaïa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ifni" title="Ifni">Ifni</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cape_Juby" title="Cape Juby">Cape Juby</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Antarctica" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Antarctica</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Terra_Australis,_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Terra Australis, Spain">Terra Australis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div id="Administration" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Administration</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: nowrap; text-align: right;">Organization</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: white; text-align: left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ayuntamiento" title="Ayuntamiento">Ayuntamiento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cabildo_(council)" title="Cabildo (council)">Cabildo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_the_Indies" title="Council of the Indies">Council of the Indies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germania_(guild)" title="Germania (guild)">Germania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santa_Hermandad" title="Santa Hermandad">Santa Hermandad</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: nowrap; text-align: right;">Law</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: white; text-align: left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Exequatur" title="Exequatur">Exequatur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laws_of_the_Indies" title="Laws of the Indies">Laws of the Indies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papal_bull" title="Papal bull">Papal bull</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Decree_of_Graces_of_1815" title="Royal Decree of Graces of 1815">Royal Decree of Graces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Salamanca" title="School of Salamanca">School of Salamanca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trial_of_residence" title="Trial of residence">Trial of residence</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: nowrap; text-align: right;">Titles and positions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: white; text-align: left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alcalde" title="Alcalde">Alcalde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corregidor_(position)" title="Corregidor (position)">Corregidor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Municipal_president" title="Municipal president">Municipal president</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regidor" title="Regidor">Regidor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syndic" title="Syndic">Syndic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vecino" title="Vecino">Vecino</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div id="Administrative_subdivisions" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Administrative subdivisions</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: nowrap; text-align: right;"><a href="/wiki/Viceroy#In_the_Americas" title="Viceroy">Viceroyalties</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: white; text-align: left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Columbian_Viceroyalty" title="Columbian Viceroyalty">Columbian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_New_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Viceroyalty of New Spain">New Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_New_Granada" title="Viceroyalty of New Granada">New Granada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_Peru" title="Viceroyalty of Peru">Perú</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_the_R%C3%ADo_de_la_Plata" title="Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata">Río de la Plata</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: nowrap; text-align: right;"><a href="/wiki/Captaincies_of_the_Spanish_Empire" title="Captaincies of the Spanish Empire">Captaincies General</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: white; text-align: left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Chile" title="Captaincy General of Chile">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Cuba" title="Captaincy General of Cuba">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Guatemala" title="Captaincy General of Guatemala">Guatemala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_the_Philippines" title="Captaincy General of the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Provincias_Internas" title="Provincias Internas">Provincias Internas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Puerto_Rico" title="Captaincy General of Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Santo_Domingo" title="Captaincy General of Santo Domingo">Santo Domingo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Venezuela" title="Captaincy General of Venezuela">Venezuela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Yucat%C3%A1n" title="Captaincy General of Yucatán">Yucatán</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: nowrap; text-align: right;"><a href="/wiki/Governorates_of_the_Spanish_Empire" title="Governorates of the Spanish Empire">Governorates</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: white; text-align: left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Castilla_de_Oro" title="Castilla de Oro">Castilla de Oro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Governorate_of_Cuba" title="Governorate of Cuba">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Florida" title="Spanish Florida">La Florida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_(New_Spain)" title="Louisiana (New Spain)">La Luisiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Governorate_of_New_Andalusia_(1501%E2%80%931513)" title="Governorate of New Andalusia (1501–1513)">New Andalusia (1501–1513)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Governorate_of_New_Andalusia" title="Governorate of New Andalusia">New Andalusia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Governorate_of_New_Castile" title="Governorate of New Castile">New Castile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Navarre" title="New Navarre">New Navarre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Spain" title="New Spain">New Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Governorate_of_New_Toledo" title="Governorate of New Toledo">New Toledo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Governorate_of_Paraguay" title="Governorate of Paraguay">Paraguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Governorate_of_the_R%C3%ADo_de_la_Plata" title="Governorate of the Río de la Plata">Río de la Plata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Governorate_of_Terra_Australis" title="Governorate of Terra Australis">Terra Australis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: nowrap; text-align: right;"><a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia" title="Real Audiencia">Audiencias</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: white; text-align: left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_Kingdom_of_Granada" title="New Kingdom of Granada">Bogotá</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Audiencia_of_Buenos_Aires" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal Audiencia of Buenos Aires">Buenos Aires</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Venezuela" title="Captaincy General of Venezuela">Caracas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Charcas" title="Real Audiencia of Charcas">Charcas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Concepci%C3%B3n" title="Real Audiencia of Concepción">Concepción</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Cusco" class="mw-redirect" title="Real Audiencia of Cusco">Cusco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Audiencia_of_Guadalajara" title="Royal Audiencia of Guadalajara">Guadalajara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Guatemala" title="Real Audiencia of Guatemala">Guatemala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Lima" title="Real Audiencia of Lima">Lima</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Manila" title="Real Audiencia of Manila">Manila</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Audiencia_of_Mexico" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal Audiencia of Mexico">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Panama" title="Real Audiencia of Panama">Panamá</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Quito" title="Real Audiencia of Quito">Quito</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Santiago" title="Real Audiencia of Santiago">Santiago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Santo_Domingo" title="Real Audiencia of Santo Domingo">Santo Domingo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div id="Economy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Economy</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Currency_of_Spanish_America" title="Currency of Spanish America">Currencies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_dollar" title="Spanish dollar">Dollar (Peso)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_colonial_real" title="Spanish colonial real">Real</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maraved%C3%AD" title="Maravedí">Maravedí</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_escudo" title="Spanish escudo">Escudo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columnarios" class="mw-redirect" title="Columnarios">Columnario</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doubloon" title="Doubloon">Doubloon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Trade</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Manila_galleon" title="Manila galleon">Manila galleon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_treasure_fleet" title="Spanish treasure fleet">Spanish treasure fleet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casa_de_Contrataci%C3%B3n" title="Casa de Contratación">Casa de Contratación</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Road" title="Spanish Road">Spanish Road</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guipuzcoan_Company_of_Caracas" title="Guipuzcoan Company of Caracas">Guipuzcoan Company of Caracas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barcelona_Trading_Company" title="Barcelona Trading Company">Barcelona Trading Company</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consulate_of_the_Sea" title="Consulate of the Sea">Consulate of the Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camino_Real_de_Tierra_Adentro" title="Camino Real de Tierra Adentro">Camino Real de Tierra Adentro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commerce_Consulate_of_Buenos_Aires" title="Commerce Consulate of Buenos Aires">Commerce Consulate of Buenos Aires</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div id="Military" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Military</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: nowrap; text-align: right;">Armies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: white; text-align: left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tercio" title="Tercio">Tercio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Army_of_Flanders" title="Army of Flanders">Army of Flanders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_Company_of_Volunteers_of_Catalonia" title="Free Company of Volunteers of Catalonia">Free Company of Volunteers of Catalonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_auxiliaries" title="Indian auxiliaries">Indian auxiliaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Armada" title="Spanish Armada">Spanish Armada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ships_of_the_line_of_Spain" title="List of ships of the line of Spain">Ships of the line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royalist_(Spanish_American_independence)" title="Royalist (Spanish American independence)">Royalists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Legion" title="Spanish Legion">Legión</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Army_of_Africa_(Spain)" title="Army of Africa (Spain)">Army of Africa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: nowrap; text-align: right;">Strategists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: white; text-align: left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fernando_%C3%81lvarez_de_Toledo,_3rd_Duke_of_Alba" title="Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke of Alba">Duke of Alba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_de_Leyva,_Duke_of_Terranova" title="Antonio de Leyva, Duke of Terranova">Antonio de Leyva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mart%C3%ADn_de_Goiti" title="Martín de Goiti">Martín de Goiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfonso_d%27Avalos" title="Alfonso d'Avalos">Alfonso d'Avalos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garc%C3%ADa_de_Toledo_Osorio,_4th_Marquis_of_Villafranca" class="mw-redirect" title="García de Toledo Osorio, 4th Marquis of Villafranca">García de Toledo Osorio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmanuel_Philibert,_Duke_of_Savoy" title="Emmanuel Philibert, Duke of Savoy">Duke of Savoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%81lvaro_de_Baz%C3%A1n_the_Elder" title="Álvaro de Bazán the Elder">Álvaro de Bazán the Elder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_of_Austria" title="John of Austria">John of Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Bonaventure_de_Longueval,_Count_of_Bucquoy" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles Bonaventure de Longueval, Count of Bucquoy">Charles Bonaventure de Longueval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedro_de_Zubiaur" title="Pedro de Zubiaur">Pedro de Zubiaur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ambrogio_Spinola,_1st_Marquis_of_the_Balbases" class="mw-redirect" title="Ambrogio Spinola, 1st Marquis of the Balbases">Ambrosio Spinola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blas_de_Lezo" title="Blas de Lezo">Blas de Lezo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernardo_de_G%C3%A1lvez" title="Bernardo de Gálvez">Bernardo de Gálvez</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: nowrap; text-align: right;">Mariners</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: white; text-align: left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Columbus" title="Christopher Columbus">Christopher Columbus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pinz%C3%B3n_brothers" title="Pinzón brothers">Pinzón brothers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_Magellan" title="Ferdinand Magellan">Ferdinand Magellan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_Sebasti%C3%A1n_Elcano" title="Juan Sebastián Elcano">Juan Sebastián Elcano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_de_la_Cosa" title="Juan de la Cosa">Juan de la Cosa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_Ponce_de_Le%C3%B3n" title="Juan Ponce de León">Juan Ponce de León</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miguel_L%C3%B3pez_de_Legazpi" title="Miguel López de Legazpi">Miguel López de Legazpi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedro_Men%C3%A9ndez_de_Avil%C3%A9s" title="Pedro Menéndez de Avilés">Pedro Menéndez de Avilés</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sebasti%C3%A1n_de_Ocampo" title="Sebastián de Ocampo">Sebastián de Ocampo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%81lvar_N%C3%BA%C3%B1ez_Cabeza_de_Vaca" title="Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca">Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alonso_de_Ojeda" title="Alonso de Ojeda">Alonso de Ojeda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasco_N%C3%BA%C3%B1ez_de_Balboa" title="Vasco Núñez de Balboa">Vasco Núñez de Balboa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alonso_de_Salazar" title="Alonso de Salazar">Alonso de Salazar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9s_de_Urdaneta" title="Andrés de Urdaneta">Andrés de Urdaneta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_de_Ulloa" title="Antonio de Ulloa">Antonio de Ulloa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruy_L%C3%B3pez_de_Villalobos" title="Ruy López de Villalobos">Ruy López de Villalobos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diego_Columbus" title="Diego Columbus">Diego Columbus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alonso_de_Ercilla" title="Alonso de Ercilla">Alonso de Ercilla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicol%C3%A1s_de_Ovando" title="Nicolás de Ovando">Nicolás de Ovando</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_de_Ayala" title="Juan de Ayala">Juan de Ayala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sebasti%C3%A1n_Vizca%C3%ADno" title="Sebastián Vizcaíno">Sebastián Vizcaíno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_Fern%C3%A1ndez_(explorer)" title="Juan Fernández (explorer)">Juan Fernández</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luis_Fajardo_y_Ru%C3%ADz_de_Avenda%C3%B1o" class="mw-redirect" title="Luis Fajardo y Ruíz de Avendaño">Luis Fajardo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Felipe_Gonz%C3%A1lez_de_Ahedo" title="Felipe González de Ahedo">Felipe González de Ahedo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: nowrap; text-align: right;"><a href="/wiki/Conquistador" title="Conquistador">Conquistadors</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: white; text-align: left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hern%C3%A1n_Cort%C3%A9s" title="Hernán Cortés">Hernán Cortés</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Pizarro" title="Francisco Pizarro">Francisco Pizarro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gonzalo_Jim%C3%A9nez_de_Quesada" title="Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada">Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hern%C3%A1n_P%C3%A9rez_de_Quesada" title="Hernán Pérez de Quesada">Hernán Pérez de Quesada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_V%C3%A1zquez_de_Coronado" title="Francisco Vázquez de Coronado">Francisco Vázquez de Coronado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diego_Vel%C3%A1zquez_de_Cu%C3%A9llar" title="Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar">Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedro_de_Valdivia" title="Pedro de Valdivia">Pedro de Valdivia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaspar_de_Portol%C3%A0" class="mw-redirect" title="Gaspar de Portolà">Gaspar de Portolà</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pere_Fages_i_Beleta" class="mw-redirect" title="Pere Fages i Beleta">Pere Fages i Beleta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joan_Orp%C3%AD" title="Joan Orpí">Joan Orpí</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedro_de_Alvarado" title="Pedro de Alvarado">Pedro de Alvarado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mart%C3%ADn_de_Urs%C3%BAa" title="Martín de Ursúa">Martín de Ursúa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diego_de_Almagro" title="Diego de Almagro">Diego de Almagro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P%C3%A1nfilo_de_Narv%C3%A1ez" title="Pánfilo de Narváez">Pánfilo de Narváez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diego_de_Mazariegos" title="Diego de Mazariegos">Diego de Mazariegos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jer%C3%B3nimo_Luis_de_Cabrera" title="Jerónimo Luis de Cabrera">Jerónimo Luis de Cabrera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pere_d%27Albern%C3%AD_i_Teixidor" class="mw-redirect" title="Pere d'Alberní i Teixidor">Pere d'Alberní i Teixidor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garc%C3%ADa_L%C3%B3pez_de_C%C3%A1rdenas" title="García López de Cárdenas">García López de Cárdenas</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: nowrap; text-align: right;">Notable battles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: white; text-align: left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Old World</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Won</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Revolt_of_the_Comuneros" title="Revolt of the Comuneros">Comuneros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bicocca" title="Battle of Bicocca">Bicocca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Rome_(1527)" title="Sack of Rome (1527)">Rome (1527)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Landriano" title="Battle of Landriano">Landriano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pavia" title="Battle of Pavia">Pavia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_Tunis_(1535)" title="Conquest of Tunis (1535)">Tunis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_M%C3%BChlberg" title="Battle of Mühlberg">Mühlberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_St._Quentin_(1557)" title="Battle of St. Quentin (1557)">St. Quentin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Gravelines_(1558)" title="Battle of Gravelines (1558)">Gravelines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Siege_of_Malta" title="Great Siege of Malta">Malta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lepanto" title="Battle of Lepanto">Lepanto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Antwerp" title="Fall of Antwerp">Antwerp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ponta_Delgada" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Ponta Delgada">Azores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Mons_(1572)" title="Siege of Mons (1572)">Mons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Gembloux_(1578)" title="Battle of Gembloux (1578)">Gembloux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Ostend" title="Siege of Ostend">Ostend</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">English Armada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cape_Celidonia" title="Battle of Cape Celidonia">Cape Celidonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_White_Mountain" title="Battle of White Mountain">White Mountain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Breda_(1624)" title="Siege of Breda (1624)">Breda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_N%C3%B6rdlingen_(1634)" title="Battle of Nördlingen (1634)">Nördlingen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Valenciennes_(1656)" title="Battle of Valenciennes (1656)">Valenciennes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sieges_of_Ceuta_(1694%E2%80%931727)" title="Sieges of Ceuta (1694–1727)">Ceuta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bitonto" title="Battle of Bitonto">Bitonto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bail%C3%A9n" title="Battle of Bailén">Bailén</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Vitoria" title="Battle of Vitoria">Vitoria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_T%C3%A9touan" title="Battle of Tétouan">Tetouan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alhucemas_landing" title="Alhucemas landing">Alhucemas</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lost</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Capo_d%27Orso" title="Battle of Capo d'Orso">Capo d'Orso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Vienna_(1529)" title="Siege of Vienna (1529)">Vienna (1529)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Preveza" title="Battle of Preveza">Preveza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Castelnuovo" title="Siege of Castelnuovo">Siege of Castelnuovo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algiers_expedition_(1541)" title="Algiers expedition (1541)">Algiers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ceresole" title="Battle of Ceresole">Ceresole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_invasion_of_the_Balearic_Islands_(1558)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman invasion of the Balearic Islands (1558)">Balearic Islands (1558)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Djerba" title="Battle of Djerba">Djerba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_Tunis_(1574)" title="Conquest of Tunis (1574)">Tunis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Armada" title="Spanish Armada">Spanish Armada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Leiden" title="Siege of Leiden">Leiden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Rocroi" title="Battle of Rocroi">Rocroi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Downs" title="Battle of the Downs">Downs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Montes_Claros" title="Battle of Montes Claros">Montes Claros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cape_Passaro" title="Battle of Cape Passaro">Passaro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Manila_Bay" title="Battle of Manila Bay">Manila Bay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Trafalgar" title="Battle of Trafalgar">Trafalgar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Somosierra" title="Battle of Somosierra">Somosierra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Annual" title="Battle of Annual">Annual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mactan" title="Battle of Mactan">Mactan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">New World</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Won</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Tenochtitlan" title="Fall of Tenochtitlan">Tenochtitlan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cajamarca" title="Battle of Cajamarca">Cajamarca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Cusco" title="Siege of Cusco">Cusco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Muisca" title="Spanish conquest of the Muisca">Bogotá savanna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Penco" title="Battle of Penco">Penco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mataquito" title="Battle of Mataquito">Mataquito</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Guadalupe_Island_(1595)" title="Battle of Guadalupe Island (1595)">Guadalupe Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Recife_(1595)" title="Capture of Recife (1595)">Recife</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_San_Juan_(1595)" title="Battle of San Juan (1595)">San Juan (1595)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recapture_of_Bahia" title="Recapture of Bahia">Bahia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Colonia_del_Sacramento" title="Siege of Colonia del Sacramento">Colonia del Sacramento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolt_of_the_Comuneros_(Paraguay)" title="Revolt of the Comuneros (Paraguay)">Comuneros (Paraguay)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cartagena_de_Indias" title="Battle of Cartagena de Indias">Cartagena de Indias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuerno_Verde" title="Cuerno Verde">Cuerno Verde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rebellion_of_T%C3%BApac_Amaru_II" title="Rebellion of Túpac Amaru II">Túpac Amaru II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%C3%BApac_Katari" title="Túpac Katari">Túpac Katari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Pensacola" title="Siege of Pensacola">Pensacola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newfoundland_expedition" title="Newfoundland expedition">Newfoundland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_San_Juan_(1797)" title="Battle of San Juan (1797)">San Juan (1797)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lost</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/La_Noche_Triste" title="La Noche Triste">La Noche Triste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iguape_War" title="Iguape War">Iguape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tucapel" title="Battle of Tucapel">Tucapel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raleigh%27s_El_Dorado_Expedition" class="mw-redirect" title="Raleigh's El Dorado Expedition">Guiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Curalaba" title="Battle of Curalaba">Curalaba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolt_of_the_Comuneros_(New_Granada)" title="Revolt of the Comuneros (New Granada)">Comuneros (New Granada)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Trinidad_(1797)" title="Invasion of Trinidad (1797)">Trinidad (1797)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chacabuco" title="Battle of Chacabuco">Chacabuco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Boyac%C3%A1" title="Battle of Boyacá">Boyacá</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Carabobo" title="Battle of Carabobo">Carabobo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pichincha" title="Battle of Pichincha">Pichincha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ayacucho" title="Battle of Ayacucho">Ayacucho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Guam" title="Capture of Guam">Guam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Santiago_de_Cuba" title="Battle of Santiago de Cuba">Santiago de Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puerto_Rican_Campaign#Battle_of_Asomante" class="mw-redirect" title="Puerto Rican Campaign">Asomante</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div id="Spanish_conquests" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Spanish conquests</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_the_Canary_Islands" title="Conquest of the Canary Islands">Canary Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Spanish colonization of the Americas">The Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Aztec_Empire" title="Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire">Aztec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Maya" title="Spanish conquest of the Maya">Maya</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Chiapas" title="Spanish conquest of Chiapas">Chiapas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Yucat%C3%A1n" title="Spanish conquest of Yucatán">Yucatán</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Guatemala" title="Spanish conquest of Guatemala">Guatemala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Pet%C3%A9n" title="Spanish conquest of Petén">Petén</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_El_Salvador" title="Spanish conquest of El Salvador">El Salvador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Honduras" title="Spanish conquest of Honduras">Honduras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Nicaragua" title="Spanish conquest of Nicaragua">Nicaragua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Chibchan_Nations" class="mw-redirect" title="Spanish conquest of the Chibchan Nations">Chibchan Nations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Muisca" title="Spanish conquest of the Muisca">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_Chile" title="Conquest of Chile">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Inca_Empire" title="Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire">Inca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Philippines_(1521%E2%80%931898)#Spanish_expeditions_and_colonization" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Philippines (1521–1898)">Philippines</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div id="Other_civil_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Other civil topics</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_missions_in_the_Americas" title="Spanish missions in the Americas">Spanish missions in the Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Colonial_architecture" title="Spanish Colonial architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_Codices" title="Mesoamerican Codices">Mesoamerican Codices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cusco_School" class="mw-redirect" title="Cusco School">Cusco painting tradition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indochristian_art" title="Indochristian art">Indochristian painting in New Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quito_School" class="mw-redirect" title="Quito School">Quito painting tradition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tapada_lime%C3%B1a" title="Tapada limeña">Tapada limeña</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Academia_Ant%C3%A1rtica" title="Academia Antártica">Academia Antártica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_colonial_universities_in_Hispanic_America" title="List of colonial universities in Hispanic America">Colonial universities in Hispanic America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_the_oldest_schools_in_the_Philippines" title="List of the oldest schools in the Philippines">Colonial universities in the Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_Archive_of_the_Indies" title="General Archive of the Indies">General Archive of the Indies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonial_Spanish_Horse" class="mw-redirect" title="Colonial Spanish Horse">Colonial Spanish Horse</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mustang" title="Mustang">Mustang</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casta" title="Casta">Castas</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criollo_people#Spanish_colonial_caste_system" title="Criollo people">Criollos in the colonial society</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Inquisition" title="Spanish Inquisition">Old inquisition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Spanish_New_World_colonies" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in the Spanish New World colonies">Slavery in Spanish Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asiento" class="mw-redirect" title="Asiento">Asiento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans#Colonial_era" title="African Americans">Law of coartación (which allowed slaves to buy their freedom, and that of others)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Potos%C3%AD_Mint_Fraud_of_1649" title="Great Potosí Mint Fraud of 1649">Great Potosí Mint Fraud of 1649</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link 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