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<li id="toc-English_dictionaries_in_Britain" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#English_dictionaries_in_Britain"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>English dictionaries in Britain</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-English_dictionaries_in_Britain-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-American_English_dictionaries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#American_English_dictionaries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>American English dictionaries</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-American_English_dictionaries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Types" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Types"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Types</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Types-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Types subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Types-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Specialized_dictionaries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Specialized_dictionaries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Specialized dictionaries</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Specialized_dictionaries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Defining_dictionaries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Defining_dictionaries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Defining dictionaries</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Defining_dictionaries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prescriptive_vs._descriptive" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prescriptive_vs._descriptive"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Prescriptive vs. descriptive</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prescriptive_vs._descriptive-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Historical_dictionaries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historical_dictionaries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Historical dictionaries</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historical_dictionaries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dictionaries_for_natural_language_processing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dictionaries_for_natural_language_processing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Dictionaries for natural language processing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dictionaries_for_natural_language_processing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_types" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_types"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Other types</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_types-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pronunciation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pronunciation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Pronunciation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pronunciation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Examples" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Examples"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Examples</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Examples-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Examples subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Examples-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Major_English_dictionaries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Major_English_dictionaries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Major English dictionaries</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Major_English_dictionaries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dictionaries_of_other_languages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dictionaries_of_other_languages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Dictionaries of other languages</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dictionaries_of_other_languages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Online_dictionaries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Online_dictionaries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Online dictionaries</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Online_dictionaries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Dictionary</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 160 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-160" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">160 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woordeboek" title="Woordeboek – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Woordeboek" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/W%C3%B6rterbuch" title="Wörterbuch – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Wörterbuch" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%88%D8%B3" title="قاموس – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="قاموس" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diccionario" title="Diccionario – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Diccionario" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arc mw-list-item"><a href="https://arc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DC%A3%DC%A6%DC%AA_%DC%A1%DC%A0%DC%90" title="ܣܦܪ ܡܠܐ – Aramaic" lang="arc" hreflang="arc" data-title="ܣܦܪ ܡܠܐ" data-language-autonym="ܐܪܡܝܐ" data-language-local-name="Aramaic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ܐܪܡܝܐ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-roa-rup mw-list-item"><a href="https://roa-rup.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dic%C8%9Biunaru" title="Dicțiunaru – Aromanian" lang="rup" hreflang="rup" data-title="Dicțiunaru" data-language-autonym="Armãneashti" data-language-local-name="Aromanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Armãneashti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%85%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A7%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8" title="অভিধান – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="অভিধান" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diccionariu" title="Diccionariu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Diccionariu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%91e%E2%80%99%E1%BA%BDryru" title="Ñe’ẽryru – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Ñe’ẽryru" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Avañe'ẽ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ay mw-list-item"><a href="https://ay.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aru_pirwa" title="Aru pirwa – Aymara" lang="ay" hreflang="ay" data-title="Aru pirwa" data-language-autonym="Aymar aru" data-language-local-name="Aymara" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aymar aru</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%BC%C4%9F%C9%99t" title="Lüğət – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Lüğət" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D8%A4%D8%B2%D9%84%D9%88%DA%A9" title="سؤزلوک – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="سؤزلوک" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%85%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A7%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8" title="অভিধান – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="অভিধান" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%BB-ti%C3%A1n" title="Sû-tián – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Sû-tián" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-map-bms mw-list-item"><a href="https://map-bms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bausastra" title="Bausastra – Banyumasan" lang="jv-x-bms" hreflang="jv-x-bms" data-title="Bausastra" data-language-autonym="Basa Banyumasan" data-language-local-name="Banyumasan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Basa Banyumasan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%BA%D2%AF%D2%99%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA" title="Һүҙлек – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Һүҙлек" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%9E%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%BA" title="Слоўнік – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Слоўнік" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%9E%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%BA" title="Слоўнік – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Слоўнік" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80" title="डिक्शेनरी – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="डिक्शेनरी" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>भोजपुरी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B5%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Речник – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Речник" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rje%C4%8Dnik" title="Rječnik – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Rječnik" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geriadur" title="Geriadur – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Geriadur" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diccionari" title="Diccionari – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Diccionari" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%C4%83%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%85%D1%81%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Сăмахсар – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Сăмахсар" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diksionaryo" title="Diksionaryo – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Diksionaryo" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cebuano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slovn%C3%ADk" title="Slovník – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Slovník" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn mw-list-item"><a href="https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duramahwi" title="Duramahwi – Shona" lang="sn" hreflang="sn" data-title="Duramahwi" data-language-autonym="ChiShona" data-language-local-name="Shona" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ChiShona</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geiriadur" title="Geiriadur – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Geiriadur" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ordbog" title="Ordbog – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Ordbog" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%83%D8%B3%D9%8A%D9%88%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%B1" title="ديكسيونير – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="ديكسيونير" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>الدارجة</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-se mw-list-item"><a href="https://se.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%A1tnegirji" title="Sátnegirji – Northern Sami" lang="se" hreflang="se" data-title="Sátnegirji" data-language-autonym="Davvisámegiella" data-language-local-name="Northern Sami" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Davvisámegiella</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/W%C3%B6rterbuch" title="Wörterbuch – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Wörterbuch" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%B5naraamat" title="Sõnaraamat – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Sõnaraamat" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9B%CE%B5%CE%BE%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C" title="Λεξικό – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Λεξικό" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diccionario" title="Diccionario – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Diccionario" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vortaro" title="Vortaro – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Vortaro" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hiztegi" title="Hiztegi – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Hiztegi" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%B1%D9%87%D9%86%DA%AF_%D9%84%D8%BA%D8%AA" title="فرهنگ لغت – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="فرهنگ لغت" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dictionnaire" title="Dictionnaire – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Dictionnaire" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wurdboek" title="Wurdboek – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Wurdboek" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Focl%C3%B3ir" title="Foclóir – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Foclóir" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dicionario" title="Dicionario – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Dicionario" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%B6%E0%AA%AC%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%A6%E0%AA%95%E0%AB%8B%E0%AA%B6" title="શબ્દકોશ – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="શબ્દકોશ" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ગુજરાતી</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%82%AC%EC%A0%84" title="사전 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="사전" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C6%98amus" title="Ƙamus – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Ƙamus" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hausa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B2%D5%A1%D5%BC%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%B6" title="Բառարան – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Բառարան" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B6" title="शब्दकोश – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="शब्दकोश" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rje%C4%8Dnik" title="Rječnik – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Rječnik" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gor mw-list-item"><a href="https://gor.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kamus" title="Kamus – Gorontalo" lang="gor" hreflang="gor" data-title="Kamus" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Hulontalo" data-language-local-name="Gorontalo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Hulontalo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vortolibro" title="Vortolibro – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Vortolibro" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kamus" title="Kamus – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Kamus" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dictionario" title="Dictionario – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Dictionario" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-iu mw-list-item"><a href="https://iu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%95%BF%E1%92%A5%E1%95%90%E1%95%88%E1%90%8A%E1%91%A6_%E1%90%85%E1%93%90%E1%93%82%E1%96%85%E1%91%90%E1%96%85_%E1%92%A5%E1%91%A6%E1%93%AF_%E1%91%90%E1%91%AD%E1%90%8A" title="ᕿᒥᕐᕈᐊᑦ ᐅᓐᓂᖅᑐᖅ ᒥᑦᓯ ᑐᑭᐊ – Inuktitut" lang="iu" hreflang="iu" data-title="ᕿᒥᕐᕈᐊᑦ ᐅᓐᓂᖅᑐᖅ ᒥᑦᓯ ᑐᑭᐊ" data-language-autonym="ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ / inuktitut" data-language-local-name="Inuktitut" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ / inuktitut</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zu mw-list-item"><a href="https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isichazamazwi" title="Isichazamazwi – Zulu" lang="zu" hreflang="zu" data-title="Isichazamazwi" data-language-autonym="IsiZulu" data-language-local-name="Zulu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>IsiZulu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Or%C3%B0ab%C3%B3k" title="Orðabók – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Orðabók" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dizionario" title="Dizionario – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Dizionario" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%9F" title="מילון – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מילון" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bausastra" title="Bausastra – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Bausastra" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C9%94m_kpou" title="Tɔm kpou – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Tɔm kpou" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kabɩyɛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%95%E0%B3%8B%E0%B2%B6" title="ಕೋಶ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಕೋಶ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%A5%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98%E1%83%99%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98" title="ლექსიკონი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ლექსიკონი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ks mw-list-item"><a href="https://ks.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%88%D9%90%DA%A9%D8%B4%D9%8E%D9%86%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="ڈِکشَنری – Kashmiri" lang="ks" hreflang="ks" data-title="ڈِکشَنری" data-language-autonym="कॉशुर / کٲشُر" data-language-local-name="Kashmiri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>कॉशुर / کٲشُر</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-csb mw-list-item"><a href="https://csb.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C5%82ow%C3%B4rz" title="Słowôrz – Kashubian" lang="csb" hreflang="csb" data-title="Słowôrz" data-language-autonym="Kaszëbsczi" data-language-local-name="Kashubian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kaszëbsczi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D3%A9%D0%B7%D0%B4%D1%96%D0%BA" title="Сөздік – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Сөздік" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerlyver" title="Gerlyver – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Gerlyver" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kernowek</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kamusi" title="Kamusi – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Kamusi" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diksyon%C3%A8" title="Diksyonè – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Diksyonè" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferheng" title="Ferheng – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Ferheng" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D3%A9%D0%B7%D0%B4%D2%AF%D0%BA_(%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0)" title="Сөздүк (лингвистика) – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Сөздүк (лингвистика)" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lad mw-list-item"><a href="https://lad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diksionario" title="Diksionario – Ladino" lang="lad" hreflang="lad" data-title="Diksionario" data-language-autonym="Ladino" data-language-local-name="Ladino" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ladino</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BA%A7%E0%BA%B1%E0%BA%94%E0%BA%88%E0%BA%B0%E0%BA%99%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%99%E0%BA%B8%E0%BA%81%E0%BA%BB%E0%BA%A1" title="ວັດຈະນານຸກົມ – Lao" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" data-title="ວັດຈະນານຸກົມ" data-language-autonym="ລາວ" data-language-local-name="Lao" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ລາວ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexicon" title="Lexicon – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Lexicon" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C4%81rdn%C4%ABca" title="Vārdnīca – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Vārdnīca" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dictionnaire" title="Dictionnaire – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Dictionnaire" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%BDodynas" title="Žodynas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Žodynas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lij mw-list-item"><a href="https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Di%C3%A7ionaio" title="Diçionaio – Ligurian" lang="lij" hreflang="lij" data-title="Diçionaio" data-language-autonym="Ligure" data-language-local-name="Ligurian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ligure</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dictionair" title="Dictionair – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Dictionair" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disionario" title="Disionario – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Disionario" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sz%C3%B3t%C3%A1r" title="Szótár – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Szótár" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B5%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Речник – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Речник" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rakibolana" title="Rakibolana – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Rakibolana" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%98%E0%B4%A3%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%81" title="നിഘണ്ടു – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="നിഘണ്ടു" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt mw-list-item"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dizzjunarju" title="Dizzjunarju – Maltese" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" data-title="Dizzjunarju" data-language-autonym="Malti" data-language-local-name="Maltese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B6" title="शब्दकोश – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="शब्दकोश" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%88%D8%B3" title="قاموس – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="قاموس" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%DB%8C%DA%A9%D8%B4%D9%86%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="دیکشنری – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="دیکشنری" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مازِرونی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kamus" title="Kamus – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Kamus" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mni mw-list-item"><a href="https://mni.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%AF%84%EA%AF%A8%EA%AF%80%EA%AF%A9%EA%AF%82%EA%AF%A3%EA%AF%9C" title="ꯄꯨꯀꯩꯂꯣꯜ – Manipuri" lang="mni" hreflang="mni" data-title="ꯄꯨꯀꯩꯂꯣꯜ" data-language-autonym="ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ" data-language-local-name="Manipuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%E1%B9%B3%CC%80-di%C4%93ng" title="Sṳ̀-diēng – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Sṳ̀-diēng" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mdf mw-list-item"><a href="https://mdf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BA%D1%81" title="Валкс – Moksha" lang="mdf" hreflang="mdf" data-title="Валкс" data-language-autonym="Мокшень" data-language-local-name="Moksha" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Мокшень</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C_%D0%B1%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B8%D0%B3" title="Толь бичиг – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Толь бичиг" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%A1%E1%80%98%E1%80%AD%E1%80%93%E1%80%AC%E1%80%94%E1%80%BA" title="အဘိဓာန် – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="အဘိဓာန်" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nah mw-list-item"><a href="https://nah.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tlahtoltecpantiliztli" title="Tlahtoltecpantiliztli – Nahuatl" lang="nah" hreflang="nah" data-title="Tlahtoltecpantiliztli" data-language-autonym="Nāhuatl" data-language-local-name="Nahuatl" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nāhuatl</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woordenboek" title="Woordenboek – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Woordenboek" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B6" title="शब्दकोश – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="शब्दकोश" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%96%E0%A4%81%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%83%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%AB%E0%A5%82" title="खँग्वःसफू – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="खँग्वःसफू" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाल भाषा</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%BE%9E%E5%85%B8" title="辞典 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="辞典" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nap mw-list-item"><a href="https://nap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dezziunario" title="Dezziunario – Neapolitan" lang="nap" hreflang="nap" data-title="Dezziunario" data-language-autonym="Napulitano" data-language-local-name="Neapolitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Napulitano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uurterbok" title="Uurterbok – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Uurterbok" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nordfriisk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ordbok" title="Ordbok – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Ordbok" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ordbok" title="Ordbok – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Ordbok" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nrm mw-list-item"><a href="https://nrm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dictionnaithe" title="Dictionnaithe – Norman" lang="nrf" hreflang="nrf" data-title="Dictionnaithe" data-language-autonym="Nouormand" data-language-local-name="Norman" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nouormand</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diccionari" title="Diccionari – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Diccionari" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lug%CA%BBat" title="Lugʻat – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Lugʻat" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BC%E0%A8%AC%E0%A8%A6%E0%A8%95%E0%A9%8B%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BC" title="ਸ਼ਬਦਕੋਸ਼ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਸ਼ਬਦਕੋਸ਼" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pag mw-list-item"><a href="https://pag.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diksionaryo" title="Diksionaryo – Pangasinan" lang="pag" hreflang="pag" data-title="Diksionaryo" data-language-autonym="Pangasinan" data-language-local-name="Pangasinan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Pangasinan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D8%BA%D8%AA" title="لغت – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="لغت" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-blk mw-list-item"><a href="https://blk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%A1%E1%80%98%E1%80%AD%E1%80%93%E1%80%AC%E1%80%94%E1%80%BA%E1%82%8F" title="အဘိဓာန်ႏ – Pa'O" lang="blk" hreflang="blk" data-title="အဘိဓာန်ႏ" data-language-autonym="ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ" data-language-local-name="Pa'O" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D9%84%D8%BA%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%86%D9%88_%D9%BC%D9%88%D9%84%DA%AB%D9%87_(%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%88%D8%B3)" title="د لغتونو ټولګه (قاموس) – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د لغتونو ټولګه (قاموس)" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/W%C3%B6%C3%B6rbook" title="Wöörbook – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Wöörbook" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C5%82ownik" title="Słownik – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Słownik" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dicion%C3%A1rio" title="Dicionário – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Dicionário" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dic%C8%9Bionar" title="Dicționar – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Dicționar" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rm mw-list-item"><a href="https://rm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pledari" title="Pledari – Romansh" lang="rm" hreflang="rm" data-title="Pledari" data-language-autonym="Rumantsch" data-language-local-name="Romansh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Rumantsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simi_qullqa" title="Simi qullqa – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Simi qullqa" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Словник – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Словник" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русиньскый</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8C" title="Словарь – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Словарь" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dictionar" title="Dictionar – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Dictionar" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-stq mw-list-item"><a href="https://stq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woudebouk" title="Woudebouk – Saterland Frisian" lang="stq" hreflang="stq" data-title="Woudebouk" data-language-autonym="Seeltersk" data-language-local-name="Saterland Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Seeltersk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fjalori" title="Fjalori – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Fjalori" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dizziunariu" title="Dizziunariu – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Dizziunariu" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B7%81%E0%B6%B6%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%AF_%E0%B6%9A%E0%B7%9D%E0%B7%82%E0%B6%BA" title="ශබ්ද කෝෂය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="ශබ්ද කෝෂය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dictionary" title="Dictionary – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Dictionary" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%8A%DA%AA%D8%B4%D9%86%D8%B1%D9%8A" title="ڊڪشنري – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="ڊڪشنري" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slovn%C3%ADk_(v%C3%BDklad_slov)" title="Slovník (výklad slov) – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Slovník (výklad slov)" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slovar" title="Slovar – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Slovar" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szl mw-list-item"><a href="https://szl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dykcj%C5%8Dnorz" title="Dykcjōnorz – Silesian" lang="szl" hreflang="szl" data-title="Dykcjōnorz" data-language-autonym="Ślůnski" data-language-local-name="Silesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ślůnski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qaamuus" title="Qaamuus – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Qaamuus" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Soomaaliga</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%DB%95%D8%B1%DA%BE%DB%95%D9%86%DA%AF" title="فەرھەنگ – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="فەرھەنگ" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-srn mw-list-item"><a href="https://srn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wortubuku" title="Wortubuku – Sranan Tongo" lang="srn" hreflang="srn" data-title="Wortubuku" data-language-autonym="Sranantongo" data-language-local-name="Sranan Tongo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sranantongo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B5%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Речник – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Речник" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rje%C4%8Dnik" title="Rječnik – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Rječnik" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kamus" title="Kamus – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Kamus" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanakirja" title="Sanakirja – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Sanakirja" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ordbok" title="Ordbok – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Ordbok" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talahuluganan" title="Talahuluganan – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Talahuluganan" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%85%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%BF" title="அகரமுதலி – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="அகரமுதலி" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amawal" title="Amawal – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Amawal" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Taqbaylit</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D2%AF%D0%B7%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA" title="Сүзлек – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Сүзлек" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-shn mw-list-item"><a href="https://shn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%95%E1%80%95%E1%80%BA%E1%82%89%E1%80%9E%E1%80%95%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8" title="ပပ်ႉသပ်း – Shan" lang="shn" hreflang="shn" data-title="ပပ်ႉသပ်း" data-language-autonym="တႆး" data-language-local-name="Shan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>တႆး</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%A8%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%98%E0%B0%82%E0%B0%9F%E0%B1%81%E0%B0%B5%E0%B1%81" title="నిఘంటువు – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="నిఘంటువు" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%88%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B8%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A1" title="พจนานุกรม – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="พจนานุกรม" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B0%D1%80%D2%B3%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%B8_%D0%BB%D1%83%D2%93%D0%B0%D1%82" title="Фарҳанги луғат – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Фарҳанги луғат" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%B6zl%C3%BCk" title="Sözlük – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Sözlük" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kcg mw-list-item"><a href="https://kcg.wikipedia.org/wiki/A%CC%B1gban_sw%C3%A1ng_a%CC%B1lyiat" title="A̱gban swáng a̱lyiat – Tyap" lang="kcg" hreflang="kcg" data-title="A̱gban swáng a̱lyiat" data-language-autonym="Tyap" data-language-local-name="Tyap" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tyap</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Словник – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Словник" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D8%BA%D8%AA" title="لغت – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="لغت" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%E1%BB%AB_%C4%91i%E1%BB%83n" title="Từ điển – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Từ điển" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vo mw-list-item"><a href="https://vo.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%B6dabuk" title="Vödabuk – Volapük" lang="vo" hreflang="vo" data-title="Vödabuk" data-language-autonym="Volapük" data-language-local-name="Volapük" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Volapük</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%B5naraamat" title="Sõnaraamat – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Sõnaraamat" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="Võro" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Võro</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mot%C3%AE" title="Motî – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="Motî" data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="Walloon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Walon</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-guc mw-list-item"><a href="https://guc.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C3%BCtchimaajat%C3%BC" title="Pütchimaajatü – Wayuu" lang="guc" hreflang="guc" data-title="Pütchimaajatü" data-language-autonym="Wayuunaiki" data-language-local-name="Wayuu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Wayuunaiki</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diksyonaryu" title="Diksyonaryu – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Diksyonaryu" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wo mw-list-item"><a href="https://wo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baatukaay" title="Baatukaay – Wolof" lang="wo" hreflang="wo" data-title="Baatukaay" data-language-autonym="Wolof" data-language-local-name="Wolof" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Wolof</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%95%D7%95%D7%A2%D7%A8%D7%98%D7%A2%D7%A8%D7%91%D7%95%D7%9A" title="ווערטערבוך – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="ווערטערבוך" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%AD%97%E5%85%B8" title="字典 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="字典" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vatebend" title="Vatebend – Dimli" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Vatebend" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Dimli" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Zazaki</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%A9%9E%E5%85%B8" title="詞典 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="詞典" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li><li 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(disambiguation)">Dictionary (disambiguation)</a>.</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For Wikipedia's guideline, see <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:What_Wikipedia_is_not#Wikipedia_is_not_a_dictionary" title="Wikipedia:What Wikipedia is not">Wikipedia:What Wikipedia is not § Wikipedia is not a dictionary</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikipedia_is_not_a_dictionary" title="Wikipedia:Wikipedia is not a dictionary">Wikipedia:Wikipedia is not a dictionary</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Woerterbuchstapel_Langenscheidt.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Woerterbuchstapel_Langenscheidt.jpg/250px-Woerterbuchstapel_Langenscheidt.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="221" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Woerterbuchstapel_Langenscheidt.jpg/330px-Woerterbuchstapel_Langenscheidt.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Woerterbuchstapel_Langenscheidt.jpg/500px-Woerterbuchstapel_Langenscheidt.jpg 2x" data-file-width="933" data-file-height="939" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Langenscheidt" title="Langenscheidt">Langenscheidt</a> dictionaries in various languages</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Latin_dictionary.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Latin_dictionary.jpg/220px-Latin_dictionary.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Latin_dictionary.jpg/330px-Latin_dictionary.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Latin_dictionary.jpg/440px-Latin_dictionary.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1408" data-file-height="1120" /></a><figcaption>A multi-volume Latin dictionary by <a href="/wiki/Egidio_Forcellini" title="Egidio Forcellini">Egidio Forcellini</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Compact_OED_ahoy2_(cropped).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Compact_OED_ahoy2_%28cropped%29.png/220px-Compact_OED_ahoy2_%28cropped%29.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Compact_OED_ahoy2_%28cropped%29.png 1.5x" data-file-width="314" data-file-height="209" /></a><figcaption>Dictionary definition entries</figcaption></figure> <p>A <b>dictionary</b> is a listing of <a href="/wiki/Lexeme" title="Lexeme">lexemes</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Lexicon" title="Lexicon">lexicon</a> of one or more specific <a href="/wiki/Language" title="Language">languages</a>, often arranged <a href="/wiki/Alphabetical_order" title="Alphabetical order">alphabetically</a> (or by <a href="/wiki/Semitic_root" title="Semitic root">consonantal root</a> for <a href="/wiki/Semitic_languages" title="Semitic languages">Semitic languages</a> or <a href="/wiki/Radical-and-stroke_sorting" class="mw-redirect" title="Radical-and-stroke sorting">radical and stroke</a> for <a href="/wiki/Logogram" title="Logogram">logographic</a> languages), which may include information on <a href="/wiki/Definition" title="Definition">definitions</a>, usage, <a href="/wiki/Etymologies" class="mw-redirect" title="Etymologies">etymologies</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pronunciation" title="Pronunciation">pronunciations</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bilingual_dictionary" title="Bilingual dictionary">translation</a>, etc.<sup id="cite_ref-Web1_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Web1-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-thought_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-thought-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-britannica_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-britannica-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is a <a href="/wiki/Lexicography" title="Lexicography">lexicographical</a> reference that shows inter-relationships among the data.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A broad distinction is made between general and <a href="/wiki/Specialized_dictionaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Specialized dictionaries">specialized dictionaries</a>. Specialized dictionaries include words in specialist fields, rather than a comprehensive range of words in the language. Lexical items that describe concepts in specific fields are usually called terms instead of words, although there is no consensus whether <a href="/wiki/Lexicology" title="Lexicology">lexicology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Terminology" title="Terminology">terminology</a> are two different fields of study.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> In theory, general dictionaries are supposed<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2016)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> to be <a href="/wiki/Semasiology" title="Semasiology">semasiological</a>, mapping word to <a href="/wiki/Definition" title="Definition">definition</a>, while specialized dictionaries are supposed to be <a href="/wiki/Onomasiology" title="Onomasiology">onomasiological</a>, first identifying <a href="/wiki/Concept" title="Concept">concepts</a> and then establishing the terms used to designate them. In practice, the two approaches are used for both types.<sup id="cite_ref-Sterkenburg2003_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sterkenburg2003-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are other types of dictionaries that do not fit neatly into the above distinction, for instance <a href="/wiki/Bilingual_dictionary" title="Bilingual dictionary">bilingual (translation) dictionaries</a>, dictionaries of <a href="/wiki/Synonym" title="Synonym">synonyms</a> (<a href="/wiki/Thesaurus" title="Thesaurus">thesauri</a>), and <a href="/wiki/Rhyming" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhyming">rhyming</a> dictionaries. The word dictionary (unqualified) is usually understood to refer to a general purpose <a href="/wiki/Monolingual_dictionary" class="mw-redirect" title="Monolingual dictionary">monolingual dictionary</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Sintro_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sintro-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There is also a contrast between <a href="/wiki/Prescription_and_description" class="mw-redirect" title="Prescription and description"><i>prescriptive</i> or <i>descriptive</i></a> dictionaries; the former reflect what is seen as correct use of the language while the latter reflect recorded actual use. Stylistic indications (e.g. "informal" or "vulgar") in many modern dictionaries are also considered by some to be less than objectively descriptive.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The first recorded dictionaries date back to <a href="/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer">Sumerian</a> times around 2300 BCE, in the form of bilingual dictionaries, and the oldest surviving monolingual dictionaries are <a href="/wiki/Chinese_dictionary" title="Chinese dictionary">Chinese dictionaries</a> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 3rd century BCE</span>. The first purely English alphabetical dictionary was <i><a href="/wiki/Table_Alphabeticall" title="Table Alphabeticall">A Table Alphabeticall</a></i>, written in 1604, and monolingual dictionaries in other languages also began appearing in Europe at around this time. The systematic study of dictionaries as objects of scientific interest arose as a 20th-century enterprise, called <a href="/wiki/Lexicography" title="Lexicography">lexicography</a>, and largely initiated by <a href="/wiki/Ladislav_Zgusta" title="Ladislav Zgusta">Ladislav Zgusta</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Sintro_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sintro-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The birth of the new discipline was not without controversy, with the practical dictionary-makers being sometimes accused by others of having an "astonishing lack of method and critical self-reflection".<sup id="cite_ref-Hartmann2003_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hartmann2003-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Catalano_latinum_1696_Gazophylacium_Dictionary_published_in_Barcelona.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Catalano_latinum_1696_Gazophylacium_Dictionary_published_in_Barcelona.jpg/250px-Catalano_latinum_1696_Gazophylacium_Dictionary_published_in_Barcelona.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="213" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Catalano_latinum_1696_Gazophylacium_Dictionary_published_in_Barcelona.jpg/330px-Catalano_latinum_1696_Gazophylacium_Dictionary_published_in_Barcelona.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Catalano_latinum_1696_Gazophylacium_Dictionary_published_in_Barcelona.jpg/500px-Catalano_latinum_1696_Gazophylacium_Dictionary_published_in_Barcelona.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2436" data-file-height="2357" /></a><figcaption>Catalan-Latin dictionary from the year 1696 with more than 1000 pages. Gazophylacium Dictionary. </figcaption></figure><p> The oldest known dictionaries were <a href="/wiki/Cuneiform" title="Cuneiform">cuneiform</a> tablets with bilingual <a href="/wiki/Sumerian_language" title="Sumerian language">Sumerian</a>–<a href="/wiki/Akkadian_language" title="Akkadian language">Akkadian</a> wordlists, discovered in <a href="/wiki/Ebla" title="Ebla">Ebla</a> (modern <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a>) and dated to roughly 2300 BCE, the time of the <a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkadian Empire</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-imlqdg_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-imlqdg-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The early 2nd millennium BCE <i><a href="/wiki/Urra%3Dhubullu" title="Urra=hubullu">Urra=hubullu</a></i> glossary is the canonical <a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonian</a> version of such bilingual Sumerian wordlists. A <a href="/wiki/Chinese_dictionary" title="Chinese dictionary">Chinese dictionary</a>, the <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 3rd century BCE</span> <i><a href="/wiki/Erya" title="Erya">Erya</a></i>, is the earliest surviving monolingual dictionary; and some sources cite the <i><a href="/wiki/Shizhoupian" title="Shizhoupian">Shizhoupian</a></i> (probably compiled sometime between 700 BCE to 200 BCE, possibly earlier) as a "dictionary", although modern scholarship considers it a calligraphic compendium of <a href="/wiki/Chinese_character" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese character">Chinese characters</a> from <a href="/wiki/Zhou_dynasty" title="Zhou dynasty">Zhou dynasty</a> bronzes.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="The Wikipedia article about the Shizhoupian does not contain any mention of Zhou dynasty bronzes or calligraphy. (September 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> <a href="/wiki/Philitas_of_Cos" title="Philitas of Cos">Philitas of Cos</a> (fl. 4th century BCE) wrote a pioneering vocabulary <i>Disorderly Words</i> (Ἄτακτοι γλῶσσαι, <i><span title="ISO 843 Greek (Greek language) transliteration"><i lang="el-Latn">Átaktoi glôssai</i></span></i>) which explained the meanings of rare <a href="/wiki/Homer" title="Homer">Homeric</a> and other literary words, words from local dialects, and technical terms.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Apollonius_the_Sophist" title="Apollonius the Sophist">Apollonius the Sophist</a> (<a href="/wiki/Floruit" title="Floruit">fl.</a> 1st century CE) wrote the oldest surviving Homeric lexicon.<sup id="cite_ref-imlqdg_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-imlqdg-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a> dictionary, the <a href="/wiki/Amarakosha" title="Amarakosha">Amarakośa</a>, was written by <a href="/wiki/Amarasimha" title="Amarasimha">Amarasimha</a> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 4th century CE</span>. Written in verse, it listed around 10,000 words. According to the <span title="Japanese-language text"><i lang="ja-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Nihon_Shoki" title="Nihon Shoki">Nihon Shoki</a></i></span>, the first <a href="/wiki/Japanese_dictionaries#Early_Japanese_lexicography" class="mw-redirect" title="Japanese dictionaries">Japanese dictionary</a> was the long-lost 682 CE <i>Niina</i> glossary of Chinese characters. <a href="/wiki/Al-Khalil_ibn_Ahmad_al-Farahidi" title="Al-Khalil ibn Ahmad al-Farahidi">Al-Khalil ibn Ahmad al-Farahidi's</a> 8th century <i><a href="/wiki/Kitab_al-%27Ayn" title="Kitab al-'Ayn">Kitab al-'Ayn</a></i> is considered the first dictionary of <a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The oldest existing Japanese dictionary, the <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 835 CE</span> <i><a href="/wiki/Tenrei_Bansh%C5%8D_Meigi" title="Tenrei Banshō Meigi">Tenrei Banshō Meigi</a></i>, was also a glossary of written Chinese. In <i><a href="/wiki/Frahang-i_Pahlavig" title="Frahang-i Pahlavig">Frahang-i Pahlavig</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Aramaic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Aramaic language">Aramaic</a> <a href="/wiki/Heterogram_(linguistics)" title="Heterogram (linguistics)">heterograms</a> are listed together with their translation in the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Persian" title="Middle Persian">Middle Persian</a> language and phonetic transcription in the <a href="/wiki/Pazend" title="Pazend">Pazend</a> alphabet. A 9th-century CE Irish dictionary, <a href="/wiki/Sanas_Cormaic" title="Sanas Cormaic">Sanas Cormaic</a>, contained etymologies and explanations of over 1,400 Irish words. In the 12th century, The <a href="/wiki/Kara-Khanid_Khanate" title="Kara-Khanid Khanate">Karakhanid</a>-<a href="/wiki/Turkic_peoples" title="Turkic peoples">Turkic</a> scholar <a href="/wiki/Mahmud_al-Kashgari" title="Mahmud al-Kashgari">Mahmud Kashgari</a> finished his work "<a href="/wiki/D%C4%ABw%C4%81n_Lugh%C4%81t_al-Turk" title="Dīwān Lughāt al-Turk">Divan-u Lügat'it Türk</a>", a dictionary about the Turkic dialects, but especially <a href="/wiki/Middle_Turkic_languages" title="Middle Turkic languages">Karakhanid Turkic</a>. His work contains about 7500 to 8000 words and it was written to teach non Turkic Muslims, especially the Abbasid Arabs, the Turkic language.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Al-Zamakhshari" title="Al-Zamakhshari">Al-Zamakhshari</a> wrote a small Arabic dictionary called "Muḳaddimetü'l-edeb" for the Turkic-Khwarazm ruler <a href="/wiki/Atsiz" title="Atsiz">Atsiz</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 14th century, the <a href="/wiki/Codex_Cumanicus" title="Codex Cumanicus">Codex Cumanicus</a> was finished and it served as a dictionary about the <a href="/wiki/Cumans" title="Cumans">Cuman</a>-Turkic language. While in <a href="/wiki/Mamluk_Sultanate_(Cairo)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)">Mamluk Egypt</a>, Ebû Hayyân el-Endelüsî finished his work "Kitâbü'l-İdrâk li-lisâni'l-Etrâk", a dictionary about the <a href="/wiki/Kipchaks" title="Kipchaks">Kipchak</a> and <a href="/wiki/Turkoman_(ethnonym)" title="Turkoman (ethnonym)">Turcoman</a> languages spoken in Egypt and the <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A dictionary called "Bahşayiş Lügati", which is written in old Anatolian Turkish, served also as a dictionary between Oghuz Turkish, Arabic and Persian. But it is not clear who wrote the dictionary or in which century exactly it was published. It was written in <a href="/wiki/Old_Anatolian_Turkish" title="Old Anatolian Turkish">old Anatolian Turkish</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Seljuk_Empire" title="Seljuk Empire">Seljuk</a> period and not the late medieval <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman</a> period.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In India around 1320, <a href="/wiki/Amir_Khusro" class="mw-redirect" title="Amir Khusro">Amir Khusro</a> compiled the Khaliq-e-bari, which mainly dealt with <a href="/wiki/Hindustani_language" title="Hindustani language">Hindustani</a> and <a href="/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language">Persian</a> words.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nouveau_Dictionnaire_Larousse_page.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Nouveau_Dictionnaire_Larousse_page.JPG/220px-Nouveau_Dictionnaire_Larousse_page.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Nouveau_Dictionnaire_Larousse_page.JPG/330px-Nouveau_Dictionnaire_Larousse_page.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Nouveau_Dictionnaire_Larousse_page.JPG/440px-Nouveau_Dictionnaire_Larousse_page.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3718" data-file-height="2575" /></a><figcaption>The French-language <i><a href="/wiki/Petit_Larousse" title="Petit Larousse">Petit Larousse</a></i> is an example of an illustrated dictionary.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a> dictionaries were compiled between the 8th and 14th centuries, organizing words in rhyme order (by the last syllable), by alphabetical order of the <a href="/wiki/Root_(linguistics)" title="Root (linguistics)">radicals</a>, or according to the alphabetical order of the first letter (the system used in modern European language dictionaries). The modern system was mainly used in specialist dictionaries, such as those of terms from the <a href="/wiki/Qur%27an" class="mw-redirect" title="Qur'an">Qur'an</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hadith" title="Hadith">hadith</a>, while most general use dictionaries, such as the <i>Lisan al-`Arab</i> (13th century, still the best-known large-scale dictionary of Arabic) and <i>al-Qamus al-Muhit</i> (14th century) listed words in the alphabetical order of the radicals. The <i>Qamus al-Muhit</i> is the first handy dictionary in Arabic, which includes only words and their definitions, eliminating the supporting examples used in such dictionaries as the <i>Lisan</i> and the <i><a href="/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary" title="Oxford English Dictionary">Oxford English Dictionary</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vocabolario_degli_accademici_della_crusca,_prima_edizione_per_giovanni_alberti,_venezia_1612,_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Vocabolario_degli_accademici_della_crusca%2C_prima_edizione_per_giovanni_alberti%2C_venezia_1612%2C_01.jpg/330px-Vocabolario_degli_accademici_della_crusca%2C_prima_edizione_per_giovanni_alberti%2C_venezia_1612%2C_01.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="245" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Vocabolario_degli_accademici_della_crusca%2C_prima_edizione_per_giovanni_alberti%2C_venezia_1612%2C_01.jpg/500px-Vocabolario_degli_accademici_della_crusca%2C_prima_edizione_per_giovanni_alberti%2C_venezia_1612%2C_01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Vocabolario_degli_accademici_della_crusca%2C_prima_edizione_per_giovanni_alberti%2C_venezia_1612%2C_01.jpg/960px-Vocabolario_degli_accademici_della_crusca%2C_prima_edizione_per_giovanni_alberti%2C_venezia_1612%2C_01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4086" data-file-height="3336" /></a><figcaption>1612 <i><a href="/wiki/Vocabolario_degli_Accademici_della_Crusca" title="Vocabolario degli Accademici della Crusca">Vocabolario degli Accademici della Crusca</a></i></figcaption></figure> <p>In medieval Europe, <a href="/wiki/Glossary" title="Glossary">glossaries</a> with equivalents for Latin words in <a href="/wiki/Vernacular" title="Vernacular">vernacular</a> or simpler Latin were in use (e.g. the <a href="/wiki/Leiden_Glossary" title="Leiden Glossary">Leiden Glossary</a>). The <i><a href="/wiki/Catholicon_(1286)" title="Catholicon (1286)">Catholicon</a></i> (1287) by <a href="/wiki/John_of_Genoa" title="John of Genoa">Johannes Balbus</a>, a large grammatical work with an alphabetical lexicon, was widely adopted. It served as the basis for several bilingual dictionaries and was one of the earliest books (in 1460) to be printed. In 1502 <a href="/wiki/Ambrogio_Calepino" title="Ambrogio Calepino">Ambrogio Calepino</a>'s <i>Dictionarium</i> was published, originally a monolingual Latin dictionary, which over the course of the 16th century was enlarged to become a multilingual glossary. In 1532 <a href="/wiki/Robert_Estienne" title="Robert Estienne">Robert Estienne</a> published the <i>Thesaurus linguae latinae</i> and in 1572 his son <a href="/wiki/Henri_Estienne" title="Henri Estienne">Henri Estienne</a> published the <i><a href="/wiki/Thesaurus_linguae_graecae" class="mw-redirect" title="Thesaurus linguae graecae">Thesaurus linguae graecae</a></i>, which served up to the 19th century as the basis of Greek lexicography. The first monolingual Spanish dictionary written was <a href="/wiki/Sebasti%C3%A1n_Covarrubias" class="mw-redirect" title="Sebastián Covarrubias">Sebastián Covarrubias</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Tesoro_de_la_lengua_castellana_o_espa%C3%B1ola" title="Tesoro de la lengua castellana o española">Tesoro de la lengua castellana o española</a></i>, published in 1611 in Madrid, Spain.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1612 the first edition of the <i><a href="/wiki/Vocabolario_degli_Accademici_della_Crusca" title="Vocabolario degli Accademici della Crusca">Vocabolario degli Accademici della Crusca</a></i>, for <a href="/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian</a>, was published. It served as the model for similar works in French and English. In 1690 in <a href="/wiki/Rotterdam" title="Rotterdam">Rotterdam</a> was published, posthumously, the <i>Dictionnaire Universel</i> by <a href="/wiki/Antoine_Fureti%C3%A8re" title="Antoine Furetière">Antoine Furetière</a> for <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>. In 1694 appeared the first edition of the <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Dictionnaire_de_l%27Acad%C3%A9mie_fran%C3%A7aise" title="Dictionnaire de l'Académie française">Dictionnaire de l'Académie française</a></i></span> (still published, with the ninth edition not complete as of 2021<sup class="plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update" style="display:none;"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dictionary&action=edit">[update]</a></sup>). Between 1712 and 1721 was published the <i>Vocabulario portughez e latino</i> written by Raphael Bluteau. The <a href="/wiki/Royal_Spanish_Academy" title="Royal Spanish Academy">Royal Spanish Academy</a> published the first edition of the <span title="Spanish-language text"><i lang="es"><a href="/wiki/Diccionario_de_la_lengua_espa%C3%B1ola" title="Diccionario de la lengua española">Diccionario de la lengua española</a></i></span> (still published, with a new edition about every decade) in 1780; their <i>Diccionario de Autoridades</i>, which included quotes taken from literary works, was published in 1726. The <i>Totius Latinitatis lexicon</i> by <a href="/wiki/Egidio_Forcellini" title="Egidio Forcellini">Egidio Forcellini</a> was firstly published in 1777; it has formed the basis of all similar works that have since been published. </p><p>The first edition of <i><a href="/wiki/A_Greek-English_Lexicon" class="mw-redirect" title="A Greek-English Lexicon">A Greek-English Lexicon</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Henry_George_Liddell" class="mw-redirect" title="Henry George Liddell">Henry George Liddell</a> and <a href="/wiki/Robert_Scott_(philologist)" title="Robert Scott (philologist)">Robert Scott</a> appeared in 1843; this work remained the basic dictionary of Greek until the end of the 20th century. And in 1858 was published the first volume of the <a href="/wiki/Deutsches_W%C3%B6rterbuch" title="Deutsches Wörterbuch">Deutsches Wörterbuch</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Brothers_Grimm" title="Brothers Grimm">Brothers Grimm</a>; the work was completed in 1961. Between 1861 and 1874 was published the <i>Dizionario della lingua italiana</i> by <a href="/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_Tommaseo" title="Niccolò Tommaseo">Niccolò Tommaseo</a>. Between 1862 and 1874 was published the six volumes of <i>A magyar nyelv szótára</i> (Dictionary of Hungarian Language) by Gergely Czuczor and János Fogarasi. <a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Littr%C3%A9" title="Émile Littré">Émile Littré</a> published the <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Dictionnaire_de_la_langue_fran%C3%A7aise_(Littr%C3%A9)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dictionnaire de la langue française (Littré)">Dictionnaire de la langue française</a></i></span> between 1863 and 1872. In the same year 1863 appeared the first volume of the <i><a href="/wiki/Woordenboek_der_Nederlandsche_Taal" title="Woordenboek der Nederlandsche Taal">Woordenboek der Nederlandsche Taal</a></i> which was completed in 1998. Also in 1863 <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Ivanovich_Dahl" class="mw-redirect" title="Vladimir Ivanovich Dahl">Vladimir Ivanovich Dahl</a> published the <i><a href="/wiki/Explanatory_Dictionary_of_the_Living_Great_Russian_Language" title="Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language">Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language</a></i>. The <a href="/wiki/Duden" title="Duden">Duden</a> dictionary dates back to 1880, and is currently the <a href="/wiki/Prescriptive" class="mw-redirect" title="Prescriptive">prescriptive</a> source for the spelling of German. The decision to start work on the <i><a href="/wiki/Svenska_Akademiens_ordbok" title="Svenska Akademiens ordbok">Svenska Akademiens ordbok</a></i> was taken in 1787.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="English_dictionaries_in_Britain">English dictionaries in Britain</h3></div> <p>The earliest dictionaries in the English language were glossaries of French, Spanish or Latin words along with their definitions in English. The word "dictionary" was invented by an Englishman called <a href="/wiki/John_of_Garland" title="John of Garland">John of Garland</a> in 1220 –  he had written a book <i><a href="/wiki/Dictionarius_(Johannes_de_Garlandia)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dictionarius (Johannes de Garlandia)">Dictionarius</a></i> to help with Latin "diction".<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An <a href="/wiki/Early_English_dictionaries" title="Early English dictionaries">early non-alphabetical list of 8000 English words</a> was the <i>Elementarie</i>, created by <a href="/wiki/Richard_Mulcaster" title="Richard Mulcaster">Richard Mulcaster</a> in 1582.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The first purely English alphabetical dictionary was <i><a href="/wiki/Table_Alphabeticall" title="Table Alphabeticall">A Table Alphabeticall</a></i>, written by English schoolteacher <a href="/wiki/Robert_Cawdrey" title="Robert Cawdrey">Robert Cawdrey</a> in 1604.<sup id="cite_ref-thought_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-thought-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-britannica_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-britannica-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The only surviving copy is found at the <a href="/wiki/Bodleian_Library" title="Bodleian Library">Bodleian Library</a> in <a href="/wiki/Oxford" title="Oxford">Oxford</a>. This dictionary, and the many imitators which followed it, was seen as unreliable and nowhere near definitive. <a href="/wiki/Philip_Stanhope,_4th_Earl_of_Chesterfield" title="Philip Stanhope, 4th Earl of Chesterfield">Philip Stanhope, 4th Earl of Chesterfield</a> was still lamenting in 1754, 150 years after Cawdrey's publication, that it is "a sort of disgrace to our nation, that hitherto we have had no… standard of our language; our dictionaries at present being more properly what our neighbors the Dutch and the Germans call theirs, word-books, than dictionaries in the superior sense of that title."<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1616, John Bullokar described the history of the dictionary with his "English Expositor". <i>Glossographia</i> by <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Blount_(lexicographer)" title="Thomas Blount (lexicographer)">Thomas Blount</a>, published in 1656, contains more than 10,000 words along with their etymologies or histories. <a href="/wiki/Edward_Phillips" title="Edward Phillips">Edward Phillips</a> wrote another dictionary in 1658, entitled "<a href="/wiki/The_New_World_of_English_Words" title="The New World of English Words">The New World of English Words</a>: Or a General Dictionary" which boldly <a href="/wiki/Plagiarism" title="Plagiarism">plagiarized</a> Blount's work, and the two criticised each other. This created more interest in the dictionaries. <a href="/wiki/John_Wilkins" title="John Wilkins">John Wilkins</a>' 1668 <a href="/wiki/An_Essay_towards_a_Real_Character_and_a_Philosophical_Language" class="mw-redirect" title="An Essay towards a Real Character and a Philosophical Language">essay on philosophical language</a> contains a list of 11,500 words with careful distinctions, compiled by <a href="/wiki/William_Lloyd_(bishop_of_Worcester)" title="William Lloyd (bishop of Worcester)">William Lloyd</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Elisha_Coles" title="Elisha Coles">Elisha Coles</a> published his "English Dictionary" in 1676. </p><p>It was not until <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Johnson" title="Samuel Johnson">Samuel Johnson</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/A_Dictionary_of_the_English_Language" title="A Dictionary of the English Language">A Dictionary of the English Language</a></i> (1755) that a more reliable English dictionary was produced.<sup id="cite_ref-britannica_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-britannica-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many people today mistakenly believe that Johnson wrote the first English dictionary: a testimony to this legacy.<sup id="cite_ref-thought_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-thought-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-wblqfm_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wblqfm-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By this stage, dictionaries had evolved to contain textual references for most words, and were arranged alphabetically, rather than by topic (a previously popular form of arrangement, which meant all animals would be grouped together, etc.). Johnson's masterwork could be judged as the first to bring all these elements together, creating the first "modern" dictionary.<sup id="cite_ref-wblqfm_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wblqfm-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Johnson's dictionary remained the English-language standard for over 150 years, until the <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a> began writing and releasing the <i><a href="/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary" title="Oxford English Dictionary">Oxford English Dictionary</a></i> in short <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/fascicle" class="extiw" title="wikt:fascicle">fascicles</a> from 1884 onwards.<sup id="cite_ref-britannica_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-britannica-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A complete ten-volume first edition<sup id="cite_ref-c479_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-c479-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was not released until 1928.<sup id="cite_ref-s764_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-s764-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One of the main contributors to this modern dictionary was an ex-army surgeon, <a href="/wiki/William_Chester_Minor" title="William Chester Minor">William Chester Minor</a>, a convicted murderer who was confined to an asylum for the criminally insane.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The OED remains the most comprehensive and trusted English language dictionary to this day, with revisions and updates added by a dedicated team every three months. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="American_English_dictionaries">American English dictionaries</h3></div> <p>In 1806, American <a href="/wiki/Noah_Webster" title="Noah Webster">Noah Webster</a> published his first dictionary, <i><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/A_Compendious_Dictionary_of_the_English_Language" class="extiw" title="s:A Compendious Dictionary of the English Language">A Compendious Dictionary of the English Language</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-britannica_3-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-britannica-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1807 Webster began compiling an expanded and fully comprehensive dictionary, <i>An American Dictionary of the English Language;</i> it took twenty-seven years to complete. To evaluate the etymology of words, Webster learned twenty-six languages, including <a href="/wiki/Old_English" title="Old English">Old English</a> (Anglo-Saxon), German, Greek, Latin, Italian, Spanish, French, Hebrew, Arabic, and <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a>. </p><p>Webster completed his dictionary during his year abroad in 1825 in Paris, France, and at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Cambridge" title="University of Cambridge">University of Cambridge</a>. His book contained seventy thousand words, of which twelve thousand had never appeared in a published dictionary before. As a <a href="/wiki/Spelling_reform" title="Spelling reform">spelling reformer</a>, Webster believed that English spelling rules were unnecessarily complex, so his dictionary introduced spellings that became <a href="/wiki/American_English" title="American English">American English</a>, replacing "colour" with "color", substituting "wagon" for "waggon", and printing "center" instead of "centre". He also added American words, like "skunk" and "squash", which did not appear in British dictionaries. At the age of seventy, Webster published his dictionary in 1828; it sold 2500 copies. In 1840, the second edition was published in two volumes. Webster's dictionary was acquired by G & C Merriam Co. in 1843, after his death, and has since been published in many revised editions. <a href="/wiki/Merriam-Webster" title="Merriam-Webster">Merriam-Webster</a> was acquired by <a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_Britannica" class="mw-redirect" title="Encyclopedia Britannica">Encyclopedia Britannica</a> in 1964. </p><p>Controversy over the lack of usage advice in the 1961 <i><a href="/wiki/Webster%27s_Third_New_International_Dictionary" title="Webster's Third New International Dictionary">Webster's Third New International Dictionary</a></i> spurred publication of the 1969 <i><a href="/wiki/The_American_Heritage_Dictionary_of_the_English_Language" title="The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language">The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language</a></i>, the first dictionary to use <a href="/wiki/Corpus_linguistics" title="Corpus linguistics">corpus linguistics</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types">Types</h2></div> <p>In a general dictionary, each word may have multiple meanings. Some dictionaries include each separate meaning in the order of most common usage while others list definitions in historical order, with the oldest usage first.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In many languages, words can appear in many different forms, but only the <a href="/wiki/Lemma_(morphology)" title="Lemma (morphology)">undeclined or unconjugated</a> form appears as the <a href="/wiki/Headword" class="mw-redirect" title="Headword">headword</a> in most dictionaries. Dictionaries are most commonly found in the form of a book, but some newer dictionaries, like <a href="/wiki/StarDict" title="StarDict">StarDict</a> and the <i><a href="/wiki/New_Oxford_American_Dictionary" title="New Oxford American Dictionary">New Oxford American Dictionary</a></i> are dictionary software running on <a href="/wiki/Personal_Digital_Assistant" class="mw-redirect" title="Personal Digital Assistant">PDAs</a> or <a href="/wiki/Computer" title="Computer">computers</a>. There are also many <a href="/wiki/List_of_online_dictionaries" title="List of online dictionaries">online dictionaries</a> accessible via the <a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Specialized_dictionaries">Specialized dictionaries</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Specialized_dictionary" title="Specialized dictionary">Specialized dictionary</a></div> <p>According to the <i>Manual of Specialized Lexicographies</i>, a <a href="/wiki/Specialized_dictionary" title="Specialized dictionary">specialized dictionary</a>, also referred to as a technical dictionary, is a dictionary that focuses upon a specific subject field, as opposed to a dictionary that comprehensively contains words from the lexicon of a specific language or languages. Following the description in <i>The Bilingual LSP Dictionary</i>, <a href="/wiki/Lexicographers" class="mw-redirect" title="Lexicographers">lexicographers</a> categorize specialized dictionaries into three types: A <a href="/wiki/Multi-field_dictionary" title="Multi-field dictionary">multi-field dictionary</a> broadly covers several subject fields (e.g. a <a href="/w/index.php?title=Business_dictionary&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Business dictionary (page does not exist)">business dictionary</a>), a <a href="/wiki/Single-field_dictionary" title="Single-field dictionary">single-field dictionary</a> narrowly covers one particular subject field (e.g. law), and a <a href="/wiki/Sub-field_dictionary" title="Sub-field dictionary">sub-field dictionary</a> covers a more specialized field (e.g. constitutional law). For example, the 23-language <a href="/wiki/Inter-Active_Terminology_for_Europe" class="mw-redirect" title="Inter-Active Terminology for Europe">Inter-Active Terminology for Europe</a> is a multi-field dictionary, the <a href="/wiki/American_National_Biography" title="American National Biography">American National Biography</a> is a single-field, and the <a href="/wiki/African_American_National_Biography_Project" title="African American National Biography Project">African American National Biography Project</a> is a sub-field dictionary. In terms of the coverage distinction between "minimizing dictionaries" and "maximizing dictionaries", multi-field dictionaries tend to minimize coverage across subject fields (for instance, <i><a href="/wiki/Oxford_Dictionary_of_World_Religions" title="Oxford Dictionary of World Religions">Oxford Dictionary of World Religions</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Yadgar_Dictionary_of_Computer_and_Internet_Terms" class="mw-redirect" title="Yadgar Dictionary of Computer and Internet Terms">Yadgar Dictionary of Computer and Internet Terms</a></i>)<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> whereas single-field and sub-field dictionaries tend to maximize coverage within a limited subject field (<i><a href="/wiki/The_Oxford_Dictionary_of_English_Etymology" title="The Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology">The Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology</a></i>). </p><p>Another variant is the <a href="/wiki/Glossary" title="Glossary">glossary</a>, an alphabetical list of defined terms in a specialized field, such as medicine (<a href="/wiki/Medical_dictionary" title="Medical dictionary">medical dictionary</a>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Defining_dictionaries">Defining dictionaries</h3></div> <p>The simplest dictionary, a <a href="/wiki/Defining_dictionary" class="mw-redirect" title="Defining dictionary">defining dictionary</a>, provides a <a href="/wiki/Core_glossary" class="mw-redirect" title="Core glossary">core glossary</a> of the simplest meanings of the simplest concepts. From these, other concepts can be explained and defined, in particular for those who are first learning a language. In English, the commercial defining dictionaries typically include only one or two meanings of under 2000 words. With these, the rest of English, and even the 4000 most common English <a href="/wiki/Idiom" title="Idiom">idioms</a> and <a href="/wiki/Metaphor" title="Metaphor">metaphors</a>, can be defined. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Prescriptive_vs._descriptive">Prescriptive vs. descriptive</h3></div> <p>Lexicographers apply two basic philosophies to the defining of words: <a href="/wiki/Prescription_and_description" class="mw-redirect" title="Prescription and description"><i>prescriptive</i> or <i>descriptive</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Noah_Webster" title="Noah Webster">Noah Webster</a>, intent on forging a distinct identity for the American language, altered spellings and accentuated differences in meaning and pronunciation of some words. This is why <a href="/wiki/American_English" title="American English">American English</a> now uses the spelling <i>color</i> while the rest of the English-speaking world prefers <i>colour</i>. (Similarly, <a href="/wiki/British_English" title="British English">British English</a> subsequently underwent a few spelling changes that did not affect American English; see further at <a href="/wiki/American_and_British_English_spelling_differences" title="American and British English spelling differences">American and British English spelling differences</a>.)<sup id="cite_ref-Benson2002_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Benson2002-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Large 20th-century dictionaries such as the <i><a href="/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary" title="Oxford English Dictionary">Oxford English Dictionary</a></i> (OED) and <i><a href="/wiki/Webster%27s_Third_New_International_Dictionary" title="Webster's Third New International Dictionary">Webster's Third</a></i> are descriptive, and attempt to describe the actual use of words. Most dictionaries of English now apply the descriptive method to a word's definition, and then, outside of the definition itself, provide information alerting readers to attitudes which may influence their choices on words often considered vulgar, offensive, erroneous, or easily confused.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i><a href="/wiki/Merriam-Webster" title="Merriam-Webster">Merriam-Webster</a></i> is subtle, only adding italicized notations such as, <i>sometimes offensive</i> or <i>stand</i> (nonstandard). <i><a href="/wiki/American_Heritage_Dictionary" class="mw-redirect" title="American Heritage Dictionary">American Heritage</a></i> goes further, discussing issues separately in numerous "usage notes." <i><a href="/wiki/Encarta_Webster%27s_Dictionary" title="Encarta Webster's Dictionary">Encarta</a></i> provides similar notes, but is more prescriptive, offering warnings and admonitions against the use of certain words considered by many to be offensive or illiterate, such as, "an offensive term for..." or "a taboo term meaning...". </p><p>Because of the widespread use of dictionaries in schools, and their acceptance by many as language authorities, their treatment of the language does affect usage to some degree, with even the most descriptive dictionaries providing conservative continuity. In the long run, however, the meanings of words in English are primarily determined by usage, and the language is being changed and created every day.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As <a href="/wiki/Jorge_Luis_Borges" title="Jorge Luis Borges">Jorge Luis Borges</a> says in the prologue to "El otro, el mismo": "<i>It is often forgotten that (dictionaries) are artificial repositories, put together well after the languages they define. The roots of language are irrational and of a magical nature.</i>" </p><p>Sometimes the same dictionary can be descriptive in some domains and prescriptive in others. For example, according to <a href="/wiki/Ghil%27ad_Zuckermann" title="Ghil'ad Zuckermann">Ghil'ad Zuckermann</a>, the <i>Oxford English-Hebrew Dictionary</i> is "at war with itself": whereas its coverage (lexical items) and glosses (definitions) are descriptive and colloquial, its <a href="/wiki/Niqqud" title="Niqqud">vocalization</a> is prescriptive. This internal conflict results in absurd sentences such as <i>hi taharóg otí kshetiré me asíti lamkhonít</i> (she'll tear me apart when she sees what I've done to the car). Whereas <i>hi taharóg otí</i>, literally 'she will kill me', is colloquial, <i>me</i> (a variant of <i>ma</i> 'what') is archaic, resulting in a combination that is unutterable in real life.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historical_dictionaries">Historical dictionaries</h3></div> <p>A <a href="/wiki/Historical_dictionary" title="Historical dictionary">historical dictionary</a> is a specific kind of descriptive dictionary which describes the development of words and senses over time, usually using citations to original source material to support its conclusions.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dictionaries_for_natural_language_processing">Dictionaries for natural language processing</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Machine-readable_dictionary" title="Machine-readable dictionary">Machine-readable dictionary</a></div> <p>In contrast to traditional dictionaries, which are designed to be used by human beings, dictionaries for <a href="/wiki/Natural_language_processing" title="Natural language processing">natural language processing</a> (NLP) are built to be used by computer programs. The final user is a human being but the direct user is a program. Such a dictionary does not need to be able to be printed on paper. The structure of the content is not linear, ordered entry by entry but has the form of a complex network (see <a href="/wiki/Diathesis_alternation" title="Diathesis alternation">Diathesis alternation</a>). Because most of these dictionaries are used to control <a href="/wiki/Machine_translation" title="Machine translation">machine translations</a> or <a href="/wiki/Cross-lingual_information_retrieval" class="mw-redirect" title="Cross-lingual information retrieval">cross-lingual information retrieval</a> (CLIR) the content is usually multilingual and usually of huge size. In order to allow formalized exchange and merging of dictionaries, an ISO standard called <a href="/wiki/Lexical_Markup_Framework" title="Lexical Markup Framework">Lexical Markup Framework</a> (LMF) has been defined and used among the industrial and academic community.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_types">Other types</h3></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bilingual_dictionary" title="Bilingual dictionary">Bilingual dictionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collegiate_dictionary" class="mw-redirect" title="Collegiate dictionary">Collegiate dictionary</a> (American)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Learner%27s_dictionary" class="mw-redirect" title="Learner's dictionary">Learner's dictionary</a> (mostly British)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_dictionary" title="Electronic dictionary">Electronic dictionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedic_dictionary" title="Encyclopedic dictionary">Encyclopedic dictionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monolingual_learner%27s_dictionary" title="Monolingual learner's dictionary">Monolingual learner's dictionary</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Advanced_learner%27s_dictionary" title="Advanced learner's dictionary">Advanced learner's dictionary</a></li></ul></li> <li>By sound <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rhyming_dictionary" title="Rhyming dictionary">Rhyming dictionary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_dictionary" title="Reverse dictionary">Reverse dictionary</a> (<a href="/wiki/Conceptual_dictionary" title="Conceptual dictionary">Conceptual dictionary</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_dictionary" title="Visual dictionary">Visual dictionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Devil%27s_Dictionary" title="The Devil's Dictionary">Satirical dictionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonetic_dictionary" class="mw-redirect" title="Phonetic dictionary">Phonetic dictionary</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Pronunciation">Pronunciation</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Pronunciation_respelling_for_English" title="Pronunciation respelling for English">Pronunciation respelling for English</a></div> <p>In many languages, such as the English language, the pronunciation of some words is not consistently apparent from their spelling. In these languages, dictionaries usually provide the pronunciation. For example, the definition for the word <i>dictionary</i> might be followed by the <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">International Phonetic Alphabet</a> spelling <span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'d' in 'dye'">d</span><span title="/ɪ/: 'i' in 'kit'">ɪ</span><span title="'k' in 'kind'">k</span><span title="/ʃ/: 'sh' in 'shy'">ʃ</span><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span><span title="'n' in 'nigh'">n</span><span title="/ər/: 'er' in 'letter'">ər</span><span title="/i/: 'y' in 'happy'">i</span></span>/</a></span></span> (in British English) or <span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'d' in 'dye'">d</span><span title="/ɪ/: 'i' in 'kit'">ɪ</span><span title="'k' in 'kind'">k</span><span title="/ʃ/: 'sh' in 'shy'">ʃ</span><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span><span title="'n' in 'nigh'">n</span><span title="/ɛr/: 'err' in 'merry'">ɛr</span><span title="/i/: 'y' in 'happy'">i</span></span>/</a></span></span> (in American English). American English dictionaries often use their own <a href="/wiki/Pronunciation_respelling" title="Pronunciation respelling">pronunciation respelling</a> systems with <a href="/wiki/Diacritic" title="Diacritic">diacritics</a>, for example <i>dictionary</i> is respelled as "dĭk<b>′</b>shə-nĕr′ē" in the <a href="/wiki/The_American_Heritage_Dictionary_of_the_English_Language" title="The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language">American Heritage Dictionary</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The IPA is more commonly used within the British Commonwealth countries. Yet others use their own pronunciation respelling systems without diacritics: for example, <i>dictionary</i> may be respelled as <a href="/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key" title="Help:Pronunciation respelling key"><i title="English pronunciation respelling"><span style="font-size:90%">DIK</span>-shə-nerr-ee</i></a>. Some online or electronic dictionaries provide audio recordings of words being spoken. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Examples">Examples</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Major_English_dictionaries">Major English dictionaries</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Dictionary_of_the_English_Language" title="A Dictionary of the English Language">A Dictionary of the English Language</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Johnson" title="Samuel Johnson">Samuel Johnson</a> (prescriptive)</li> <li><i>The <a href="/wiki/American_College_Dictionary" title="American College Dictionary">American College Dictionary</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Clarence_L._Barnhart" class="mw-redirect" title="Clarence L. Barnhart">Clarence L. Barnhart</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_American_Heritage_Dictionary_of_the_English_Language" title="The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language">The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Black%27s_Law_Dictionary" title="Black's Law Dictionary">Black's Law Dictionary</a></i>, a <a href="/wiki/Law_dictionary" title="Law dictionary">law dictionary</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Brewer%27s_Dictionary_of_Phrase_and_Fable" title="Brewer's Dictionary of Phrase and Fable">Brewer's Dictionary of Phrase and Fable</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Canadian_Oxford_Dictionary" title="Canadian Oxford Dictionary">Canadian Oxford Dictionary</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Century_Dictionary" title="Century Dictionary">Century Dictionary</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Chambers_Dictionary" title="Chambers Dictionary">Chambers Dictionary</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Collins_English_Dictionary" title="Collins English Dictionary">Collins English Dictionary</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Concise_Oxford_English_Dictionary" title="Concise Oxford English Dictionary">Concise Oxford English Dictionary</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Longman_Dictionary_of_Contemporary_English" title="Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English">Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English</a> / <a href="/wiki/Longman" title="Longman">Longman</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Macmillan_Dictionary" class="mw-redirect" title="Macmillan Dictionary">Macmillan Dictionary</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Macquarie_Dictionary" title="Macquarie Dictionary">Macquarie Dictionary</a></i>, a dictionary of <a href="/wiki/Australian_English" title="Australian English">Australian English</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Merriam-Webster" title="Merriam-Webster">Merriam-Webster</a></i>, a dictionary of <a href="/wiki/American_English" title="American English">American English</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Oxford_Dictionary_of_English" title="Oxford Dictionary of English">Oxford Dictionary of English</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary" title="Oxford English Dictionary">Oxford English Dictionary</a></i> (descriptive) (well-known as OED/O.E.D.)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Random_House_Dictionary_of_the_English_Language" class="mw-redirect" title="Random House Dictionary of the English Language">Random House Dictionary of the English Language</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Webster%27s_New_World_Dictionary" title="Webster's New World Dictionary">Webster's New World Dictionary</a></i> (especially the college edition, used as the official desk dictionary of many American press journalists)</li></ul></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_English_dictionaries" title="Comparison of English dictionaries">Comparison of English dictionaries</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dictionaries_of_other_languages">Dictionaries of other languages</h3></div> <p>Histories and descriptions of the dictionaries of other languages on Wikipedia include: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Arabic_dictionaries" title="List of Arabic dictionaries">Arabic dictionaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_dictionary" title="Chinese dictionary">Chinese dictionaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dehkhoda_Dictionary" title="Dehkhoda Dictionary">Dehkhoda Dictionary</a> (<a href="/wiki/Persian_Language" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian Language">Persian Language</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Dutch_dictionaries" title="List of Dutch dictionaries">Dutch dictionaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_French_dictionaries" title="List of French dictionaries">French dictionaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_German_dictionaries" title="List of German dictionaries">German dictionaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_dictionary" title="Japanese dictionary">Japanese dictionaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_dictionaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish dictionaries">Polish dictionaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic_dictionaries" title="Scottish Gaelic dictionaries">Scottish Gaelic dictionaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Language_Dictionaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Scottish Language Dictionaries">Scottish Language Dictionaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sindhi_to_English_Dictionary" class="mw-redirect" title="Sindhi to English Dictionary">Sindhi Language Dictionaries</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Online_dictionaries">Online dictionaries</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/List_of_online_dictionaries" title="List of online dictionaries">List of online dictionaries</a> and <a href="/wiki/Category:Online_dictionaries" title="Category:Online dictionaries">Category:Online dictionaries</a></div> <p>The age of the Internet brought online dictionaries to the desktop and, more recently, to the smart phone. <a href="/wiki/David_Skinner_(journalist)" title="David Skinner (journalist)">David Skinner</a> in 2013 noted that "Among the top ten lookups on Merriam-Webster Online at this moment are <i>holistic, pragmatic, caveat, esoteric</i> and <i>bourgeois.</i> Teaching users about words they don't already know has been, historically, an aim of lexicography, and modern dictionaries do this well."<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There exist a number of websites which operate as online dictionaries, usually with a specialized focus. Some of them have exclusively user driven content, often consisting of <a href="/wiki/Neologisms" class="mw-redirect" title="Neologisms">neologisms</a>. Some of the more notable examples are given in <a href="/wiki/List_of_online_dictionaries" title="List of online dictionaries">List of online dictionaries</a> and <a href="/wiki/Category:Online_dictionaries" title="Category:Online dictionaries">Category:Online dictionaries</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115" /><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Nuvola_apps_bookcase.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Nuvola_apps_bookcase.svg/20px-Nuvola_apps_bookcase.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Nuvola_apps_bookcase.svg/40px-Nuvola_apps_bookcase.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Books" title="Portal:Books">Books portal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_English_dictionaries" title="Comparison of English dictionaries">Comparison of English dictionaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centre_for_Lexicography" title="Centre for Lexicography">Centre for Lexicography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COBUILD" title="COBUILD">COBUILD</a>, a large <a href="/wiki/Text_corpus" title="Text corpus">corpus</a> of English text</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corpus_linguistics" title="Corpus linguistics">Corpus linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DICT" title="DICT">DICT</a>, the dictionary server protocol</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dictionary_Society_of_North_America" title="Dictionary Society of North America">Dictionary Society of North America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fictitious_entry" title="Fictitious entry">Fictitious entry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_language_writing_aid" class="mw-redirect" title="Foreign language writing aid">Foreign language writing aid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lexicographic_error" title="Lexicographic error">Lexicographic error</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_dictionaries" title="Lists of dictionaries">Lists of dictionaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thesaurus" title="Thesaurus">Thesaurus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dreaming_of_Words" title="Dreaming of Words">Dreaming of Words</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vocable_(lexicography)" title="Vocable (lexicography)">Vocable (lexicography)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thumb_index" title="Thumb index">Thumb index</a></li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Web1-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Web1_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Webster's New World College Dictionary, Fourth Edition, 2002</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-thought-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-thought_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-thought_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-thought_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFNordquist2019" class="citation web cs1">Nordquist, Richard (August 9, 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220526182451/https://www.thoughtco.com/what-is-a-dictionary-1690450">"The Features, Functions, and Limitations of Dictionaries"</a>. <i>ThoughtCo</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thoughtco.com/what-is-a-dictionary-1690450">the original</a> on May 26, 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 October</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=andromeda.rutgers.edu&rft.atitle=Lynch%2C+%22How+Johnson%27s+Dictionary+Became+the+First+Dictionary%22&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fandromeda.rutgers.edu%2F~jlynch%2FPapers%2Ffirstdict.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADictionary" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-c479-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-c479_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/The-Oxford-English-Dictionary">"The Oxford English Dictionary (OED)"</a>. <i>Encyclopedia Britannica</i>. 1998-07-20<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-09-14</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Washington+Post&rft.atitle=The+most+influential+crowdsourcing+project+happened+long+before+Wikipedia&rft.date=2023-10-12&rft.aulast=Dirda&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fbooks%2F2023%2F10%2F12%2Fdictionary-people-book-review%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADictionary" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Simon_Winchester" title="Simon Winchester">Simon Winchester</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Surgeon_of_Crowthorne" title="The Surgeon of Crowthorne">The Surgeon of Crowthorne</a></i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100425064041/http://www.tsl.state.tx.us/ld/pubs/corereference/internal/chd.html">"Language Core Reference Sources – Texas State Library"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tsl.state.tx.us/ld/pubs/corereference/internal/chd.html">the original</a> on 2010-04-25<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-08-22</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Language+Core+Reference+Sources+%E2%80%93+Texas+State+Library&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.tsl.state.tx.us%2Fld%2Fpubs%2Fcorereference%2Finternal%2Fchd.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADictionary" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTimes2015" class="citation web cs1">Times, The Sindh (24 February 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171011021439/http://www.thesindhtimes.com/education/the-first-english-to-einglis-and-sindh-dictionary-of-computer-and-internet-terms-published/">"The first English to Einglish and Sindhi Dictionary of Computer and Internet Terms published – The Sindh Times"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thesindhtimes.com/education/the-first-english-to-einglis-and-sindh-dictionary-of-computer-and-internet-terms-published/">the original</a> on 11 October 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 October</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+first+English+to+Einglish+and+Sindhi+Dictionary+of+Computer+and+Internet+Terms+published+%E2%80%93+The+Sindh+Times&rft.date=2015-02-24&rft.aulast=Times&rft.aufirst=The+Sindh&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.thesindhtimes.com%2Feducation%2Fthe-first-english-to-einglis-and-sindh-dictionary-of-computer-and-internet-terms-published%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADictionary" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Benson2002-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Benson2002_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPhil_Benson2002" class="citation book cs1">Phil Benson (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WeuW7oy7-58C&pg=PA8"><i>Ethnocentrism and the English Dictionary</i></a>. Taylor & Francis. pp. <span class="nowrap">8–</span>11. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780203205716" title="Special:BookSources/9780203205716"><bdi>9780203205716</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ethnocentrism+and+the+English+Dictionary&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E8-%3C%2Fspan%3E11&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=9780203205716&rft.au=Phil+Benson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWeuW7oy7-58C%26pg%3DPA8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADictionary" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFIngrid_Tieken-Boon_van_OstadeWim_van_der_Wurff2009" class="citation book cs1">Ingrid Tieken-Boon van Ostade; Wim van der Wurff (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=x91EUnnWwR8C&pg=PA41"><i>Current Issues in Late Modern English</i></a>. Peter Lang. pp. <span class="nowrap">41–</span>42. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783039116607" title="Special:BookSources/9783039116607"><bdi>9783039116607</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Current+Issues+in+Late+Modern+English&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E41-%3C%2Fspan%3E42&rft.pub=Peter+Lang&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9783039116607&rft.au=Ingrid+Tieken-Boon+van+Ostade&rft.au=Wim+van+der+Wurff&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dx91EUnnWwR8C%26pg%3DPA41&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADictionary" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ned Halley, <i>The Wordsworth Dictionary of Modern English Grammar</i> (2005), p. 84</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Ghil%27ad_Zuckermann" title="Ghil'ad Zuckermann">Zuckermann, Ghil'ad</a> (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.professorzuckermann.com/review-of-the-oxford-english-hebrew-">Review of the Oxford English-Hebrew Dictionary</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161011063925/http://www.professorzuckermann.com/review-of-the-oxford-english-hebrew-">Archived</a> 2016-10-11 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/International_Journal_of_Lexicography" title="International Journal of Lexicography">International Journal of Lexicography</a></i> 12.4, pp. 325-346.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See for example Toyin Falola, et al. <i>Historical dictionary of Nigeria</i> (Rowman & Littlefield, 2018) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://shcas.shnu.edu.cn/_upload/article/files/de/94/931b0247425ba03333178c9595d2/de98fbe8-46c3-487e-b684-9d5ba3760418.pdf">excerpt</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220401062344/http://shcas.shnu.edu.cn/_upload/article/files/de/94/931b0247425ba03333178c9595d2/de98fbe8-46c3-487e-b684-9d5ba3760418.pdf">Archived</a> 2022-04-01 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Imad Zeroual, and Abdelhak Lakhouaja, "Data science in light of natural language processing: An overview." <i>Procedia Computer Science</i> 127 (2018): 82-91 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1877050918301121/pdf?md5=2501a29a5fec8aad57d82102639b8631&pid=1-s2.0-S1877050918301121-main.pdf">online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220222054608/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1877050918301121/pdf?md5=2501a29a5fec8aad57d82102639b8631&pid=1-s2.0-S1877050918301121-main.pdf">Archived</a> 2022-02-22 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="Reference-AHD-dictionary" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=dictionary">"dictionary"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_American_Heritage_Dictionary_of_the_English_Language" title="The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language">The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language</a></i> (5th ed.). HarperCollins.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=dictionary&rft.btitle=The+American+Heritage+Dictionary+of+the+English+Language&rft.edition=5th&rft.pub=HarperCollins&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ahdictionary.com%2Fword%2Fsearch.html%3Fq%3Ddictionary&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADictionary" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSkinner2013" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Skinner_(journalist)" title="David Skinner (journalist)">Skinner, David</a> (May 17, 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130518173222/http://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2013/05/17/the-role-of-a-dictionary/">"The Role of a Dictionary"</a>. <i>Opinionator</i>. <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2013/05/17/the-role-of-a-dictionary/">the original</a> on 2013-05-18<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-08-13</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Opinionator&rft.atitle=The+Role+of+a+Dictionary&rft.date=2013-05-17&rft.aulast=Skinner&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fopinionator.blogs.nytimes.com%2F2013%2F05%2F17%2Fthe-role-of-a-dictionary%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADictionary" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBergenholtzTarp1995" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Henning_Bergenholtz" title="Henning Bergenholtz">Bergenholtz, Henning</a>; Tarp, Sven, eds. (1995). <i>Manual of Specialised Lexicography: The Preparation of Specialised Dictionaries</i>. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-272-1612-6" title="Special:BookSources/90-272-1612-6"><bdi>90-272-1612-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Manual+of+Specialised+Lexicography%3A+The+Preparation+of+Specialised+Dictionaries&rft.place=Amsterdam&rft.pub=John+Benjamins+Publishing&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=90-272-1612-6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADictionary" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFErdmannCho" class="citation web cs1">Erdmann, Peter; Cho, See-Young. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080309181613/http://angli02.kgw.tu-berlin.de/lexicography/b_history.html">"A Brief History of English Lexicography"</a>. Technische Universität Berlin. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://angli02.kgw.tu-berlin.de/lexicography/data/b_history.html">the original</a> on 9 March 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 December</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=A+Brief+History+of+English+Lexicography&rft.pub=Technische+Universit%C3%A4t+Berlin&rft.aulast=Erdmann&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft.au=Cho%2C+See-Young&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fangli02.kgw.tu-berlin.de%2Flexicography%2Fdata%2Fb_history.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADictionary" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLandau2001" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sidney_I._Landau&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sidney I. Landau (page does not exist)">Landau, Sidney I.</a> (2001) [1984]. <i>Dictionaries: The Art and Craft of Lexicography</i> (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-78040-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-78040-3"><bdi>0-521-78040-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dictionaries%3A+The+Art+and+Craft+of+Lexicography&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-521-78040-3&rft.aulast=Landau&rft.aufirst=Sidney+I.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADictionary" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFNielsen1994" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Sandro_Nielsen" title="Sandro Nielsen">Nielsen, Sandro</a> (1994). <i>The Bilingual LSP Dictionary: Principles and Practice for Legal Language</i>. Tübingeb: Gunter Narr. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-8233-4533-8" title="Special:BookSources/3-8233-4533-8"><bdi>3-8233-4533-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Bilingual+LSP+Dictionary%3A+Principles+and+Practice+for+Legal+Language&rft.place=T%C3%BCbingeb&rft.pub=Gunter+Narr&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=3-8233-4533-8&rft.aulast=Nielsen&rft.aufirst=Sandro&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADictionary" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFNielsen,_Sandro2008" class="citation journal cs1">Nielsen, Sandro (2008). "The Effect of Lexicographical Information Costs on Dictionary Making and Use". <i>Lexikos</i>. <b>18</b>: <span class="nowrap">170–</span>189. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1684-4904">1684-4904</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Lexikos&rft.atitle=The+Effect+of+Lexicographical+Information+Costs+on+Dictionary+Making+and+Use&rft.volume=18&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E170-%3C%2Fspan%3E189&rft.date=2008&rft.issn=1684-4904&rft.au=Nielsen%2C+Sandro&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADictionary" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Atkins, B.T.S. & Rundell, Michael (2008) <i>The Oxford Guide to Practical Lexicography</i>, Oxford: Oxford University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-927771-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-927771-1">978-0-19-927771-1</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWinchester1998" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Simon_Winchester" title="Simon Winchester">Winchester, Simon</a> (1998). <i><a href="/wiki/The_Professor_and_the_Madman:_A_Tale_of_Murder,_Insanity,_and_the_Making_of_the_Oxford_English_Dictionary" class="mw-redirect" title="The Professor and the Madman: A Tale of Murder, Insanity, and the Making of the Oxford English Dictionary">The Professor and the Madman: A Tale of Murder, Insanity, and the Making of the Oxford English Dictionary</a></i>. New York: HarperPerennial. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-06-099486-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-06-099486-X"><bdi>0-06-099486-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Professor+and+the+Madman%3A+A+Tale+of+Murder%2C+Insanity%2C+and+the+Making+of+the+Oxford+English+Dictionary&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=HarperPerennial&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=0-06-099486-X&rft.aulast=Winchester&rft.aufirst=Simon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADictionary" class="Z3988"></span> (published in the UK as <i>The Surgeon of Crowthorne</i>).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFP._G._J._van_Sterkenburg2003" class="citation book cs1">P. G. J. van Sterkenburg, ed. (2003). <i>A practical guide to lexicography</i>. John Benjamins Publishing Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58811-381-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-58811-381-8"><bdi>978-1-58811-381-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+practical+guide+to+lexicography&rft.pub=John+Benjamins+Publishing+Company&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-1-58811-381-8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADictionary" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <ul><li>Guy Jean Forgue, "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.persee.fr/issue/rfea_0397-7870_1983_num_18_1">The Norm in American English", <i>Revue Française d'Etudes Americaines</i></a>, Nov 1983, Vol. 8 Issue 18, pp. 451–461. An international appreciation of the importance of Webster's dictionaries in setting the norms of the English language.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/120px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/dictionary" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:dictionary">dictionary</a></b></i> or <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/wordbook" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:wordbook">wordbook</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oup.com/elt/catalogue/teachersites/oald7/more_on_dicts/glossary?cc=global">Glossary of dictionary terms</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikisource-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/20px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/40px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></a></span> Texts on Wikisource: <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">"<a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Collier%27s_New_Encyclopedia_(1921)/Dictionary" class="extiw" title="s:Collier's New Encyclopedia (1921)/Dictionary">Dictionary</a>". <i><a href="/wiki/Collier%27s_Encyclopedia" title="Collier's Encyclopedia">Collier's New Encyclopedia</a></i>. 1921.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Dictionary&rft.btitle=Collier%27s+New+Encyclopedia&rft.date=1921&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADictionary" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">"<a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Dictionary" class="extiw" title="s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Dictionary">Dictionary</a>". <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i> (11th ed.). 1911.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Dictionary&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.edition=11th&rft.date=1911&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADictionary" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">"<a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_New_International_Encyclop%C3%A6dia/Dictionary" class="extiw" title="s:The New International Encyclopædia/Dictionary">Dictionary</a>". <i><a href="/wiki/New_International_Encyclopedia" class="mw-redirect" title="New International Encyclopedia">New International Encyclopedia</a></i>. 1905.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Dictionary&rft.btitle=New+International+Encyclopedia&rft.date=1905&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADictionary" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Category:Language" class="extiw" title="s:Category:Language">Wikisource:Language</a> (directory of language-related works on Wikisource – includes dictionaries)</li></ul></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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4em"><a href="/wiki/Lexicography" title="Lexicography">Lexicography</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types of <a href="/wiki/Reference_work" title="Reference work">reference works</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Dictionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary" title="Glossary">Glossary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lexicon" title="Lexicon">Lexicon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phrase_book" title="Phrase book">Phrase book</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thesaurus" title="Thesaurus">Thesaurus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types of <a class="mw-selflink selflink">dictionaries</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a 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dictionary">Picture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_dictionary" title="Reverse dictionary">Reverse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhyme_dictionary" title="Rhyme dictionary">Rhyme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhyming_dictionary" title="Rhyming dictionary">Rhyming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Specialized_dictionary" title="Specialized dictionary">Specialized</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spelling#Standards_and_conventions" title="Spelling">Spelling dictionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_dictionary" title="Visual dictionary">Visual</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_scientific_vocabulary" title="International scientific vocabulary">International scientific vocabulary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lexicographers" title="List of lexicographers">List of lexicographers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_online_dictionaries" title="List of online dictionaries">List of online dictionaries</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/20px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/40px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Linguistics" title="Portal:Linguistics">Linguistics portal</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Dictionaries_of_English322" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Dictionaries_of_English" title="Template:Dictionaries of English"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Dictionaries_of_English" title="Template talk:Dictionaries of English"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Dictionaries_of_English" 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Dictionary</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Catholicon_Anglicum" title="Catholicon Anglicum">Catholicon Anglicum</a></i> (1483)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_English_Schoole-Master" title="The English Schoole-Master">The English Schoole-Master</a></i> (1596)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_New_World_of_English_Words" title="The New World of English Words">The New World of English Words</a></i> (1658)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_New_English_Dictionary" title="A New English Dictionary">A New English Dictionary</a></i> (1702)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/An_Universal_Etymological_English_Dictionary" title="An Universal Etymological English Dictionary">An Universal Etymological English Dictionary</a></i> (1721)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Dictionary_of_the_English_Language" title="A Dictionary of the English Language">Johnson's <i>A Dictionary of the English Language</i></a> (1755)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Webster%27s_Dictionary" title="Webster's Dictionary">Webster's Dictionary</a></i> (1828)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Emerson_Worcester" title="Joseph Emerson Worcester">Worcester's <i>Dictionary</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Richardson_(lexicographer)" title="Charles Richardson (lexicographer)">Richardson's <i>New Dictionary</i></a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Imperial_Dictionary_of_the_English_Language" title="The Imperial Dictionary of the English Language">Imperial Dictionary</a></i> (1847–1850)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Century_Dictionary" title="Century Dictionary">Century Dictionary</a></i> (1889–1891)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/World_Book_Dictionary" title="World Book Dictionary">World Book Dictionary</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_American_English" title="Dictionary of American English">Dictionary of American English</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/British_English" title="British English">British English</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Chambers_Dictionary" title="Chambers Dictionary">Chambers</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Collins_English_Dictionary" title="Collins English Dictionary">Collins</a></i></li> <li><i>Oxford</i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary" title="Oxford English Dictionary">OED</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Oxford_Dictionary_of_English" title="Oxford Dictionary of English">ODE</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Compact_Oxford_English_Dictionary_of_Current_English" title="Compact Oxford English Dictionary of Current English">Compact</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Concise_Oxford_English_Dictionary" title="Concise Oxford English 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cdx-button--action-progressive" id="ca-addsection-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="addsection-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-speechBubbleAdd-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-speechBubbleAdd-progressive"></span> <span>Add topic</span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icon-end"> <div class="vector-user-links"> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="mw-portlet mw-portlet-dock-bottom emptyPortlet" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul> </ul> </div> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-84559f4bd5-z4qnr","wgBackendResponseTime":189,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"0.684","walltime":"0.859","ppvisitednodes":{"value":4651,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":125883,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":15993,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":17,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":18,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":136156,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 718.286 1 -total"," 13.79% 99.028 1 Template:Reflist"," 13.29% 95.444 1 Template:Transliteration"," 10.90% 78.283 1 Template:Refn"," 10.59% 76.098 1 Template:Cite_American_Heritage_Dictionary"," 10.03% 72.016 2 Template:Navbox"," 9.71% 69.781 1 Template:Lexicography"," 7.85% 56.417 1 Template:Short_description"," 5.86% 42.117 1 Template:Pp"," 5.63% 40.475 3 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