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Available in 42 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-42" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">42 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effektiewe_temperatuur" title="Effektiewe temperatuur – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Effektiewe temperatuur" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D8%B1%D8%AC%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%81%D8%B9%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A9" title="درجة الحرارة الفعالة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="درجة الحرارة الفعالة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temperatura_efectivo" title="Temperatura efectivo – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Temperatura efectivo" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D1%84%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Ефективна температура – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Ефективна температура" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temperatura_efectiva" title="Temperatura efectiva – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Temperatura efectiva" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D1%84%D1%84%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%BB%C4%83_%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Эффективлă температура – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Эффективлă температура" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Efektivn%C3%AD_teplota" title="Efektivní teplota – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Efektivní teplota" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effektiv_temperatur_(stjerne)" title="Effektiv temperatur (stjerne) – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Effektiv temperatur (stjerne)" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effektive_Temperatur" title="Effektive Temperatur – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Effektive Temperatur" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%95%CE%BD%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%B3%CF%8C%CF%82_%CE%B8%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%BC%CE%BF%CE%BA%CF%81%CE%B1%CF%83%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Ενεργός θερμοκρασία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ενεργός θερμοκρασία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temperatura_efectiva" title="Temperatura efectiva – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Temperatura efectiva" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Efika_temperaturo" title="Efika temperaturo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Efika temperaturo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tenperatura_efektibo" title="Tenperatura efektibo – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Tenperatura efektibo" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D9%85%D8%A7%DB%8C_%D9%85%D8%A4%D8%AB%D8%B1" title="دمای مؤثر – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="دمای مؤثر" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temp%C3%A9rature_effective" title="Température effective – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Température effective" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9C%A0%ED%9A%A8%EC%98%A8%EB%8F%84" title="유효온도 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="유효온도" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ig mw-list-item"><a href="https://ig.wikipedia.org/wiki/Okpom%E1%BB%8Dk%E1%BB%A5_d%E1%BB%8B_ir%C3%A8" title="Okpomọkụ dị irè – Igbo" lang="ig" hreflang="ig" data-title="Okpomọkụ dị irè" data-language-autonym="Igbo" data-language-local-name="Igbo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Igbo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suhu_efektif" title="Suhu efektif – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Suhu efektif" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temperatura_efficace" title="Temperatura efficace – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Temperatura efficace" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effektiv_Temperatur" title="Effektiv Temperatur – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Effektiv Temperatur" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Efektin%C4%97_temperat%C5%ABra" title="Efektinė temperatūra – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Efektinė temperatūra" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Делотворна температура – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Делотворна температура" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suhu_berkesan" title="Suhu berkesan – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Suhu berkesan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effectieve_temperatuur" title="Effectieve temperatuur – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Effectieve temperatuur" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%9C%89%E5%8A%B9%E6%B8%A9%E5%BA%A6" title="有効温度 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="有効温度" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effektiv_temperatur" title="Effektiv temperatur – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Effektiv temperatur" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effektiv_temperatur" title="Effektiv temperatur – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Effektiv temperatur" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samarador_harorat" title="Samarador harorat – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Samarador harorat" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temperatura_efektywna_(fizyka)" title="Temperatura efektywna (fizyka) – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Temperatura efektywna (fizyka)" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temperatura_efetiva" title="Temperatura efetiva – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Temperatura efetiva" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temperatur%C4%83_efectiv%C4%83" title="Temperatură efectivă – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Temperatură efectivă" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D1%84%D1%84%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Эффективная температура – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Эффективная температура" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effective_temperature" title="Effective temperature – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Effective temperature" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Efektivna_temperatura" title="Efektivna temperatura – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Efektivna temperatura" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pintal%C3%A4mp%C3%B6tila" title="Pintalämpötila – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Pintalämpötila" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effektiv_temperatur" title="Effektiv temperatur – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Effektiv temperatur" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ta%E1%BA%93%C9%A3elt_tamellilt" title="Taẓɣelt tamellilt – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Taẓɣelt tamellilt" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Taqbaylit</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%B8%E0%B8%93%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%A0%E0%B8%B9%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%9C%E0%B8%A5" title="อุณหภูมิยังผล – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="อุณหภูมิยังผล" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etkin_s%C4%B1cakl%C4%B1k" title="Etkin sıcaklık – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Etkin sıcaklık" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D1%84%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Ефективна температура – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Ефективна температура" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nhi%E1%BB%87t_%C4%91%E1%BB%99_hi%E1%BB%87u_d%E1%BB%A5ng" title="Nhiệt độ hiệu dụng – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Nhiệt độ hiệu dụng" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%9C%89%E6%95%88%E6%BA%AB%E5%BA%A6" title="有效溫度 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="有效溫度" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q854050#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" 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data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Temperature of a black body that would emit the same total amount of electromagnetic radiation</div> <p>The <b>effective temperature</b> of a body such as a star or planet is the <a href="/wiki/Temperature" title="Temperature">temperature</a> of a <a href="/wiki/Black_body" title="Black body">black body</a> that would emit the same total amount of <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiation" title="Electromagnetic radiation">electromagnetic radiation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Archie2003_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Archie2003-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Effective temperature is often used as an estimate of a body's surface temperature when the body's <a href="/wiki/Emissivity" title="Emissivity">emissivity</a> curve (as a function of <a href="/wiki/Wavelength" title="Wavelength">wavelength</a>) is not known. </p><p>When the star's or planet's net <a href="/wiki/Emissivity" title="Emissivity">emissivity</a> in the relevant wavelength band is less than unity (less than that of a <a href="/wiki/Black_body" title="Black body">black body</a>), the actual temperature of the body will be higher than the effective temperature. The net emissivity may be low due to surface or atmospheric properties, such as the <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_effect" title="Greenhouse effect">greenhouse effect</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Star">Star</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Effective_temperature&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Star"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:EffectiveTemperature_300dpi_e.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/EffectiveTemperature_300dpi_e.png/250px-EffectiveTemperature_300dpi_e.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="183" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/EffectiveTemperature_300dpi_e.png/375px-EffectiveTemperature_300dpi_e.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/EffectiveTemperature_300dpi_e.png/500px-EffectiveTemperature_300dpi_e.png 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2200" /></a><figcaption>The effective temperature of the <a href="/wiki/Sun" title="Sun">Sun</a> (5778 <a href="/wiki/Kelvin" title="Kelvin">kelvins</a>) is the temperature a black body of the same size must have to yield the same total emissive power.</figcaption></figure> <p>The effective temperature of a <a href="/wiki/Star" title="Star">star</a> is the temperature of a <a href="/wiki/Black_body" title="Black body">black body</a> with the same luminosity per <i>surface area</i> (<span class="texhtml"><span class="mathcal" style="font-family: 'Lucida Calligraphy', 'Monotype Corsiva', 'URW Chancery L', 'Apple Chancery', 'Tex Gyre Chorus', cursive, serif;">F</span><sub>Bol</sub></span>) as the star and is defined according to the <a href="/wiki/Stefan%E2%80%93Boltzmann_law" title="Stefan–Boltzmann law">Stefan–Boltzmann law</a> <span class="texhtml"><span class="mathcal" style="font-family: 'Lucida Calligraphy', 'Monotype Corsiva', 'URW Chancery L', 'Apple Chancery', 'Tex Gyre Chorus', cursive, serif;">F</span><sub>Bol</sub> = <i>σT</i><sub>eff</sub><sup>4</sup></span>. Notice that the total (<a href="/wiki/Absolute_magnitude" title="Absolute magnitude">bolometric</a>) luminosity of a star is then <span class="texhtml"><i>L</i> = 4π<i>R</i><sup>2</sup><i>σT</i><sub>eff</sub><sup>4</sup></span>, where <span class="texhtml"><i>R</i></span> is the <a href="/wiki/Stellar_radius" class="mw-redirect" title="Stellar radius">stellar radius</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The definition of the stellar radius is obviously not straightforward. More rigorously the effective temperature corresponds to the temperature at the radius that is defined by a certain value of the <a href="/wiki/Rosseland_optical_depth" class="mw-redirect" title="Rosseland optical depth">Rosseland optical depth</a> (usually 1) within the <a href="/wiki/Stellar_atmosphere" title="Stellar atmosphere">stellar atmosphere</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Bohm_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bohm-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The effective temperature and the bolometric luminosity are the two fundamental physical parameters needed to place a star on the <a href="/wiki/Hertzsprung%E2%80%93Russell_diagram" title="Hertzsprung–Russell diagram">Hertzsprung–Russell diagram</a>. Both effective temperature and bolometric luminosity depend on the chemical composition of a star. </p><p>The effective temperature of the Sun is around <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7003577800000000000♠"></span>5,778 <a href="/wiki/Kelvin" title="Kelvin">K</a></span>.<sup id="cite_ref-Ref_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ref_-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Jones2004_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jones2004-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The nominal value defined by the <a href="/wiki/International_Astronomical_Union" title="International Astronomical Union">International Astronomical Union</a> for use as a unit of measure of temperature is <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7003577200000000000♠"></span>5,772<span style="margin-left:0.3em;margin-right:0.15em;">±</span>0.8 K</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Stars have a decreasing temperature gradient, going from their central core up to the atmosphere. The "core temperature" of the Sun—the temperature at the centre of the Sun where nuclear reactions take place—is estimated to be 15,000,000 K. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Color_index" title="Color index">color index</a> of a star indicates its temperature from the very cool—by stellar standards—red M stars that radiate heavily in the <a href="/wiki/Infrared" title="Infrared">infrared</a> to the very hot blue O stars that radiate largely in the <a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet" title="Ultraviolet">ultraviolet</a>. Various colour-effective temperature relations exist in the literature. Their relations also have smaller dependencies on other stellar parameters, such as the stellar metallicity and surface gravity.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The effective temperature of a star indicates the amount of heat that the star radiates per unit of surface area. From the hottest surfaces to the coolest is the sequence of <a href="/wiki/Stellar_classification" title="Stellar classification">stellar classifications</a> known as O, B, A, F, G, K, M. </p><p>A red star could be a tiny <a href="/wiki/Red_dwarf" title="Red dwarf">red dwarf</a>, a star of feeble energy production and a small surface or a bloated giant or even <a href="/wiki/Supergiant" title="Supergiant">supergiant</a> star such as <a href="/wiki/Antares" title="Antares">Antares</a> or <a href="/wiki/Betelgeuse" title="Betelgeuse">Betelgeuse</a>, either of which generates far greater energy but passes it through a surface so large that the star radiates little per unit of surface area. A star near the middle of the spectrum, such as the modest <a href="/wiki/Sun" title="Sun">Sun</a> or the giant <a href="/wiki/Capella_(star)" class="mw-redirect" title="Capella (star)">Capella</a> radiates more energy per unit of surface area than the feeble red dwarf stars or the bloated supergiants, but much less than such a white or blue star as <a href="/wiki/Vega" title="Vega">Vega</a> or <a href="/wiki/Rigel" title="Rigel">Rigel</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Planet">Planet</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Effective_temperature&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Planet"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Blackbody_temperature">Blackbody temperature</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Effective_temperature&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Blackbody temperature"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Planetary_equilibrium_temperature" title="Planetary equilibrium temperature">Planetary equilibrium temperature</a></div> <p>To find the effective (blackbody) temperature of a <a href="/wiki/Planet" title="Planet">planet</a>, it can be calculated by equating the power received by the planet to the known power emitted by a blackbody of temperature <span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">T</span>. </p><p>Take the case of a planet at a distance <span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">D</span> from the star, of <a href="/wiki/Luminosity" title="Luminosity">luminosity</a> <span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">L</span>. </p><p>Assuming the star radiates isotropically and that the planet is a long way from the star, the power absorbed by the planet is given by treating the planet as a disc of radius <span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">r</span>, which intercepts some of the power which is spread over the surface of a sphere of radius <span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">D</span> (the distance of the planet from the star). The calculation assumes the planet reflects some of the incoming radiation by incorporating a parameter called the <a href="/wiki/Albedo" title="Albedo">albedo</a> (a). An albedo of 1 means that all the radiation is reflected, an albedo of 0 means all of it is absorbed. The expression for absorbed power is then: </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle P_{\rm {abs}}={\frac {Lr^{2}(1-a)}{4D^{2}}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>P</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">a</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">b</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">s</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi>L</mi> <msup> <mi>r</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mn>1</mn> <mo>−</mo> <mi>a</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mn>4</mn> <msup> <mi>D</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle P_{\rm {abs}}={\frac {Lr^{2}(1-a)}{4D^{2}}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/784d1896283223924529c3312082676decd18403" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.005ex; width:18.771ex; height:6.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle P_{\rm {abs}}={\frac {Lr^{2}(1-a)}{4D^{2}}}}"></span></dd></dl> <p>The next assumption we can make is that the entire planet is at the same temperature <span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">T</span>, and that the planet radiates as a blackbody. The <a href="/wiki/Stefan%E2%80%93Boltzmann_law" title="Stefan–Boltzmann law">Stefan–Boltzmann law</a> gives an expression for the power radiated by the planet: </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle P_{\rm {rad}}=4\pi r^{2}\sigma T^{4}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>P</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">r</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">a</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">d</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mn>4</mn> <mi>π</mi> <msup> <mi>r</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mi>σ</mi> <msup> <mi>T</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>4</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle P_{\rm {rad}}=4\pi r^{2}\sigma T^{4}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/00283d706fa6e7efd576b8f710b16cd794abc5ac" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:15.905ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle P_{\rm {rad}}=4\pi r^{2}\sigma T^{4}}"></span></dd></dl> <p>Equating these two expressions and rearranging gives an expression for the effective temperature: </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle T={\sqrt[{4}]{\frac {L(1-a)}{16\pi \sigma D^{2}}}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>T</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mroot> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi>L</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mn>1</mn> <mo>−</mo> <mi>a</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mn>16</mn> <mi>π</mi> <mi>σ</mi> <msup> <mi>D</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </mfrac> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>4</mn> </mrow> </mroot> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle T={\sqrt[{4}]{\frac {L(1-a)}{16\pi \sigma D^{2}}}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/675d8057a6d70e047acd69ae2bdc3934df5f7d87" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -3.005ex; width:16.519ex; height:7.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle T={\sqrt[{4}]{\frac {L(1-a)}{16\pi \sigma D^{2}}}}}"></span></dd></dl> <p>Where <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \sigma }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>σ</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \sigma }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/59f59b7c3e6fdb1d0365a494b81fb9a696138c36" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.33ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \sigma }"></span> is the Stefan–Boltzmann constant. Note that the planet's radius has cancelled out of the final expression. </p><p>The effective temperature for <a href="/wiki/Jupiter" title="Jupiter">Jupiter</a> from this calculation is 88 K and <a href="/wiki/51_Pegasi_b" title="51 Pegasi b">51 Pegasi b</a> (Bellerophon) is 1,258 K.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2011)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> A better estimate of effective temperature for some planets, such as Jupiter, would need to include the <a href="/wiki/Internal_heating" title="Internal heating">internal heating</a> as a power input. The actual temperature depends on <a href="/wiki/Albedo" title="Albedo">albedo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Atmosphere" title="Atmosphere">atmosphere</a> effects. The actual temperature from <a href="/wiki/Spectroscopic_analysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Spectroscopic analysis">spectroscopic analysis</a> for <a href="/wiki/HD_209458_b" title="HD 209458 b">HD 209458 b</a> (Osiris) is 1,130 K, but the effective temperature is 1,359 K.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2011)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The internal heating within Jupiter raises the effective temperature to about 152 K.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2011)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Surface_temperature_of_a_planet">Surface temperature of a planet</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Effective_temperature&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Surface temperature of a planet"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The surface temperature of a planet can be estimated by modifying the effective-temperature calculation to account for emissivity and temperature variation. </p><p>The area of the planet that absorbs the power from the star is <span class="texhtml"><i>A</i><sub>abs</sub></span> which is some fraction of the total surface area <span class="texhtml"><i>A</i><sub>total</sub> = 4π<i>r</i><sup>2</sup></span>, where <span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">r</span> is the radius of the planet. This area intercepts some of the power which is spread over the surface of a sphere of radius <span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">D</span>. We also allow the planet to reflect some of the incoming radiation by incorporating a parameter <span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">a</span> called the <a href="/wiki/Albedo" title="Albedo">albedo</a>. An albedo of 1 means that all the radiation is reflected, an albedo of 0 means all of it is absorbed. The expression for absorbed power is then: </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle P_{\rm {abs}}={\frac {LA_{\rm {abs}}(1-a)}{4\pi D^{2}}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>P</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">a</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">b</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">s</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi>L</mi> <msub> <mi>A</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">a</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">b</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">s</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mn>1</mn> <mo>−</mo> <mi>a</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mn>4</mn> <mi>π</mi> <msup> <mi>D</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle P_{\rm {abs}}={\frac {LA_{\rm {abs}}(1-a)}{4\pi D^{2}}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/1eca44680313104dc71edbdfb8f29322809392e5" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.171ex; width:21.027ex; height:6.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle P_{\rm {abs}}={\frac {LA_{\rm {abs}}(1-a)}{4\pi D^{2}}}}"></span></dd></dl> <p>The next assumption we can make is that although the entire planet is not at the same temperature, it will radiate as if it had a temperature <span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">T</span> over an area <span class="texhtml"><i>A</i><sub>rad</sub></span> which is again some fraction of the total area of the planet. There is also a factor <span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">ε</span>, which is the <a href="/wiki/Emissivity" title="Emissivity">emissivity</a> and represents atmospheric effects. <span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">ε</span> ranges from 1 to 0 with 1 meaning the planet is a perfect blackbody and emits all the incident power. The <a href="/wiki/Stefan%E2%80%93Boltzmann_law" title="Stefan–Boltzmann law">Stefan–Boltzmann law</a> gives an expression for the power radiated by the planet: </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle P_{\rm {rad}}=A_{\rm {rad}}\varepsilon \sigma T^{4}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>P</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">r</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">a</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">d</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <msub> <mi>A</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">r</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">a</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">d</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> <mi>ε</mi> <mi>σ</mi> <msup> <mi>T</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>4</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle P_{\rm {rad}}=A_{\rm {rad}}\varepsilon \sigma T^{4}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/68872479b981760ee0d8907c2f5f3e7c381e4b27" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:16.747ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle P_{\rm {rad}}=A_{\rm {rad}}\varepsilon \sigma T^{4}}"></span></dd></dl> <p>Equating these two expressions and rearranging gives an expression for the surface temperature: </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle T={\sqrt[{4}]{{\frac {A_{\rm {abs}}}{A_{\rm {rad}}}}{\frac {L(1-a)}{4\pi \sigma \varepsilon D^{2}}}}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>T</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mroot> <mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <msub> <mi>A</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">a</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">b</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">s</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>A</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">r</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">a</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">d</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> </mfrac> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi>L</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mn>1</mn> <mo>−</mo> <mi>a</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mn>4</mn> <mi>π</mi> <mi>σ</mi> <mi>ε</mi> <msup> <mi>D</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>4</mn> </mrow> </mroot> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle T={\sqrt[{4}]{{\frac {A_{\rm {abs}}}{A_{\rm {rad}}}}{\frac {L(1-a)}{4\pi \sigma \varepsilon D^{2}}}}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/3e164234a8f087a0f7d2df1437c618a46854649c" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -3.005ex; width:21.715ex; height:7.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle T={\sqrt[{4}]{{\frac {A_{\rm {abs}}}{A_{\rm {rad}}}}{\frac {L(1-a)}{4\pi \sigma \varepsilon D^{2}}}}}}"></span></dd></dl> <p>Note the ratio of the two areas. Common assumptions for this ratio are <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1214402035">.mw-parser-output .sfrac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .sfrac.tion,.mw-parser-output .sfrac .tion{display:inline-block;vertical-align:-0.5em;font-size:85%;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sfrac .num{display:block;line-height:1em;margin:0.0em 0.1em;border-bottom:1px solid}.mw-parser-output .sfrac .den{display:block;line-height:1em;margin:0.1em 0.1em}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}</style><span class="sfrac">⁠<span class="tion"><span class="num"><a href="/wiki/Area_of_a_disk" class="mw-redirect" title="Area of a disk">1</a></span><span class="sr-only">/</span><span class="den"><a href="/wiki/Sphere#Surface_area" title="Sphere">4</a></span></span>⁠</span> for a rapidly rotating body and <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214402035"><span class="sfrac">⁠<span class="tion"><span class="num">1</span><span class="sr-only">/</span><span class="den">2</span></span>⁠</span> for a slowly rotating body, or a tidally locked body on the sunlit side. This ratio would be 1 for the <a href="/wiki/Subsolar_point" title="Subsolar point">subsolar point</a>, the point on the planet directly below the sun and gives the maximum temperature of the planet — a factor of <span class="nowrap">√<span style="border-top:1px solid; padding:0 0.1em;">2</span></span> (1.414) greater than the effective temperature of a rapidly rotating planet.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Also note here that this equation does not take into account any effects from internal heating of the planet, which can arise directly from sources such as <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_decay" title="Radioactive decay">radioactive decay</a> and also be produced from frictions resulting from <a href="/wiki/Tidal_forces" class="mw-redirect" title="Tidal forces">tidal forces</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Earth_effective_temperature">Earth effective temperature</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Effective_temperature&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Earth effective temperature"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Stefan%E2%80%93Boltzmann_law#Effective_temperature_of_the_Earth" title="Stefan–Boltzmann law">Stefan–Boltzmann law § Effective temperature of the Earth</a></div> <p>Earth has an albedo of about 0.306 and a <a href="/wiki/Solar_irradiance" title="Solar irradiance">solar irradiance</a> (<span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">L / 4 π D<sup>2</sup></span>) of <span class="nowrap">1361 W m<sup>−2</sup></span> at its mean orbital radius of 1.5×10<sup>8</sup> km. The calculation with ε=1 and remaining physical constants then gives an Earth effective temperature of 254 K (−19 °C).<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The actual temperature of Earth's surface is an average 288 K (15 °C) as of 2020.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The difference between the two values is called the <i><a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_effect" title="Greenhouse effect">greenhouse effect</a></i>. The greenhouse effect results from materials in the atmosphere (<a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas" title="Greenhouse gas">greenhouse gases</a> and clouds) absorbing thermal radiation and reducing emissions to space, i.e., reducing the planet's emissivity of thermal radiation from its surface into space. Substituting the surface temperature into the equation and solving for ε gives an <a href="/wiki/Emissivity#Effective_emissivity_due_to_atmosphere" title="Emissivity">effective emissivity</a> of about 0.61 for a 288 K Earth. Furthermore, these values calculate an outgoing thermal radiation flux of <span class="nowrap">238 W m<sup>−2</sup></span> (with ε=0.61 as viewed from space) versus a surface thermal radiation flux of <span class="nowrap">390 W m<sup>−2</sup></span> (with ε≈1 at the surface). Both fluxes are near the confidence ranges reported by the <a href="/wiki/IPCC" class="mw-redirect" title="IPCC">IPCC</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 934">: 934 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Effective_temperature&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/16px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/24px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/32px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="626" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> Learning materials related to <a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Astronomy_college_course/Why_planets_lose_their_atmospheres" class="extiw" title="v:Astronomy college course/Why planets lose their atmospheres">Atmospheric retention</a> at Wikiversity</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Effective_temperature&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 25em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Archie2003-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Archie2003_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFArchie_E._Roy,_David_Clarke2003" class="citation book cs1">Archie E. 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(2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WDll8hA006AC&pg=SA14-PA2">"Properties of the Solar System"</a>. <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/crchandbookofche81lide/page/14"><i>CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics</i></a></span> (85th ed.). <a href="/wiki/CRC_Press" title="CRC Press">CRC Press</a>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/crchandbookofche81lide/page/14">14-2</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780849304859" title="Special:BookSources/9780849304859"><bdi>9780849304859</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Properties+of+the+Solar+System&rft.btitle=CRC+Handbook+of+Chemistry+and+Physics&rft.pages=14-2&rft.edition=85th&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=9780849304859&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWDll8hA006AC%26pg%3DSA14-PA2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEffective+temperature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Jones2004-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Jones2004_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJones2004" class="citation book cs1">Jones, Barrie William (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MmsWioMDiN8C&pg=PA7"><i>Life in the Solar System and Beyond</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Springer_Science%2BBusiness_Media" title="Springer Science+Business Media">Springer</a>. p. 7. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85233-101-1" title="Special:BookSources/1-85233-101-1"><bdi>1-85233-101-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Life+in+the+Solar+System+and+Beyond&rft.pages=7&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=1-85233-101-1&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=Barrie+William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DMmsWioMDiN8C%26pg%3DPA7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEffective+temperature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPršaHarmanecTorresMamajek2016" class="citation journal cs1">Prša, Andrej; Harmanec, Petr; Torres, Guillermo; Mamajek, Eric; Asplund, Martin; Capitaine, Nicole; Christensen-Dalsgaard, Jørgen; Depagne, Éric; Haberreiter, Margit; Hekker, Saskia; Hilton, James; Kopp, Greg; Kostov, Veselin; Kurtz, Donald W.; Laskar, Jacques; Mason, Brian D.; Milone, Eugene F.; Montgomery, Michele; Richards, Mercedes; Schmutz, Werner; Schou, Jesper; Stewart, Susan G. 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"Quantitative Astronomy". Prentice Hall, 1992, Chapter 5, Section 1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/earthfact.html">"Earth Fact Sheet"</a>. <i>nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101030234253/http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/earthfact.html">Archived</a> from the original on 30 October 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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(eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_Full_Report.pdf"><i>Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Contribution of Working Group I to the <a href="/wiki/IPCC_Sixth_Assessment_Report" title="IPCC Sixth Assessment Report">Sixth Assessment Report</a> of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press (In Press).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Climate+Change+2021%3A+The+Physical+Science+Basis&rft.series=Contribution+of+Working+Group+I+to+the+Sixth+Assessment+Report+of+the+Intergovernmental+Panel+on+Climate+Change&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press+%28In+Press%29&rft.date=2021&rft.au=IPCC&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ipcc.ch%2Freport%2Far6%2Fwg1%2Fdownloads%2Freport%2FIPCC_AR6_WGI_Full_Report.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEffective+temperature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Effective_temperature&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006astro.ph..8504C">Effective temperature scale for solar type stars</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060906083917/http://ijolite.geology.uiuc.edu/05SprgClass/geo116/8-1.pdf">Surface Temperature of Planets</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.astro.indiana.edu/~gsimonel/temperature1.html">Planet temperature calculator</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121127093826/http://www.astro.indiana.edu/~gsimonel/temperature1.html">Archived</a> 2012-11-27 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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(astrophysics)">Accretion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_cloud" title="Molecular cloud">Molecular cloud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bok_globule" title="Bok globule">Bok globule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Young_stellar_object" title="Young stellar object">Young stellar object</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Protostar" title="Protostar">Protostar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-main-sequence_star" title="Pre-main-sequence star">Pre-main-sequence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbig_Ae/Be_star" title="Herbig Ae/Be star">Herbig Ae/Be</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T_Tauri_star" title="T Tauri star">T Tauri</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbig%E2%80%93Haro_object" title="Herbig–Haro object">Herbig–Haro object</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hayashi_track" title="Hayashi track">Hayashi track</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henyey_track" title="Henyey track">Henyey track</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Stellar_evolution" title="Stellar evolution">Evolution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Main_sequence" title="Main sequence">Main sequence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red-giant_branch" title="Red-giant branch">Red-giant branch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horizontal_branch" title="Horizontal branch">Horizontal branch</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Red_clump" title="Red clump">Red clump</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asymptotic_giant_branch" title="Asymptotic giant branch">Asymptotic giant branch</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Post-AGB_star" title="Post-AGB star">post-AGB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Super-AGB_star" title="Super-AGB star">super-AGB</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blue_loop" title="Blue loop">Blue loop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planetary_nebula" title="Planetary nebula">Planetary nebula</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Protoplanetary_nebula" title="Protoplanetary nebula">Protoplanetary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wolf%E2%80%93Rayet_nebula" title="Wolf–Rayet nebula">Wolf–Rayet nebula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PG_1159_star" title="PG 1159 star">PG1159</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dredge-up" title="Dredge-up">Dredge-up</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/OH/IR_star" title="OH/IR star">OH/IR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instability_strip" title="Instability strip">Instability strip</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luminous_blue_variable" title="Luminous blue variable">Luminous blue variable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stellar_population" title="Stellar population">Stellar population</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supernova" title="Supernova">Supernova</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Superluminous_supernova" title="Superluminous supernova">Superluminous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypernova" title="Hypernova">Hypernova</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Stellar_classification" title="Stellar classification">Classification</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early-type_star" class="mw-redirect" title="Early-type star">Early</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late-type_star" class="mw-redirect" title="Late-type star">Late</a></li> <li>Main sequence <ul><li><a href="/wiki/O-type_main-sequence_star" title="O-type main-sequence star">O</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B-type_main-sequence_star" title="B-type main-sequence star">B</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A-type_main-sequence_star" title="A-type main-sequence star">A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F-type_main-sequence_star" title="F-type main-sequence star">F</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G-type_main-sequence_star" title="G-type main-sequence star">G</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K-type_main-sequence_star" title="K-type main-sequence star">K</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_dwarf" title="Red dwarf">M</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subdwarf" title="Subdwarf">Subdwarf</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Subdwarf_O_star" title="Subdwarf O star">O</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subdwarf_B_star" title="Subdwarf B star">B</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wolf%E2%80%93Rayet_star" title="Wolf–Rayet star">WR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/OB_star" title="OB star">OB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subgiant" title="Subgiant">Subgiant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giant_star" title="Giant star">Giant</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blue_giant" title="Blue giant">Blue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_giant" title="Red giant">Red</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yellow_giant" class="mw-redirect" title="Yellow giant">Yellow</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bright_giant" class="mw-redirect" title="Bright giant">Bright giant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supergiant" title="Supergiant">Supergiant</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blue_supergiant" title="Blue supergiant">Blue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_supergiant" title="Red supergiant">Red</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yellow_supergiant" title="Yellow supergiant">Yellow</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypergiant" title="Hypergiant">Hypergiant</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yellow_hypergiant" title="Yellow hypergiant">Yellow</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_star" title="Carbon star">Carbon</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/S-type_star" title="S-type star">S</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CN_star" title="CN star">CN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CH_star" title="CH star">CH</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_dwarf" title="White dwarf">White dwarf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemically_peculiar_star" title="Chemically peculiar star">Chemically peculiar</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Am_star" title="Am star">Am</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ap_and_Bp_stars" title="Ap and Bp stars">Ap/Bp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CEMP_star" title="CEMP star">CEMP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercury-manganese_star" title="Mercury-manganese star">HgMn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helium-weak_star" title="Helium-weak star">He-weak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barium_star" title="Barium star">Barium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lambda_Bo%C3%B6tis_star" title="Lambda Boötis star">Lambda Boötis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead_star" title="Lead star">Lead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technetium_star" title="Technetium star">Technetium</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Be_star" title="Be star">Be</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shell_star" title="Shell star">Shell</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B(e)_star" title="B(e) star">B[e]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helium_star" title="Helium star">Helium</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Extreme_helium_star" title="Extreme helium star">Extreme</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blue_straggler" title="Blue straggler">Blue straggler</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Compact_star" class="mw-redirect" title="Compact star">Remnants</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compact_star" class="mw-redirect" title="Compact star">Compact star</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IRAS_00500%2B6713" title="IRAS 00500+6713">Parker's star</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_dwarf" title="White dwarf">White dwarf</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Helium_planet" title="Helium planet">Helium planet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_star" title="Neutron star">Neutron</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Radio-quiet_neutron_star" title="Radio-quiet neutron star">Radio-quiet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulsar" title="Pulsar">Pulsar</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Binary_pulsar" title="Binary pulsar">Binary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/X-ray_pulsar" title="X-ray pulsar">X-ray</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetar" title="Magnetar">Magnetar</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stellar_black_hole" title="Stellar black hole">Stellar black hole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/X-ray_binary" title="X-ray binary">X-ray binary</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/X-ray_burster" title="X-ray burster">Burster</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soft_gamma_repeater" title="Soft gamma repeater">SGR</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hypothetical_star" title="Hypothetical star">Hypothetical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blue_dwarf_(red-dwarf_stage)" title="Blue dwarf (red-dwarf stage)">Blue dwarf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_dwarf" title="Black dwarf">Black dwarf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exotic_star" title="Exotic star">Exotic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boson_star" class="mw-redirect" title="Boson star">Boson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electroweak_star" class="mw-redirect" title="Electroweak star">Electroweak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strange_star" title="Strange star">Strange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preon_star" class="mw-redirect" title="Preon star">Preon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planck_star" title="Planck star">Planck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dark_star_(dark_matter)" title="Dark star (dark matter)">Dark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dark-energy_star" title="Dark-energy star">Dark-energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quark_star" title="Quark star">Quark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Q_star" title="Q star">Q</a></li></ul></li> <li>Black hole star <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_star_(semiclassical_gravity)" title="Black star (semiclassical gravity)">Black</a></li> <li>Hawking</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quasi-star" title="Quasi-star">Quasi-star</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravastar" title="Gravastar">Gravastar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorne%E2%80%93%C5%BBytkow_object" title="Thorne–Żytkow object">Thorne–Żytkow object</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_star" title="Iron star">Iron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blitzar" title="Blitzar">Blitzar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_hole" title="White hole">White hole</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Stellar_nucleosynthesis" title="Stellar nucleosynthesis">Nucleosynthesis</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deuterium_fusion" title="Deuterium fusion">Deuterium burning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithium_burning" title="Lithium burning">Lithium burning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proton%E2%80%93proton_chain" title="Proton–proton chain">Proton–proton chain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CNO_cycle" title="CNO cycle">CNO cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helium_flash" title="Helium flash">Helium flash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triple-alpha_process" title="Triple-alpha process">Triple-alpha process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alpha_process" title="Alpha process">Alpha process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon-burning_process" title="Carbon-burning process">C burning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neon-burning_process" title="Neon-burning process">Ne burning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxygen-burning_process" title="Oxygen-burning process">O burning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silicon-burning_process" title="Silicon-burning process">Si burning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S-process" title="S-process">s-process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R-process" title="R-process">r-process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P-process" title="P-process">p-process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nova" title="Nova">Nova</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Symbiotic_nova" title="Symbiotic nova">Symbiotic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nova_remnant" title="Nova remnant">Remnant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luminous_red_nova" title="Luminous red nova">Luminous red nova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nova#Recurrent_novae" title="Nova">Recurrent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micronova" title="Micronova">Micronova</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supernova_nucleosynthesis" title="Supernova nucleosynthesis">Supernova</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Stellar_structure" title="Stellar structure">Structure</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stellar_core" title="Stellar core">Core</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convection_zone" title="Convection zone">Convection zone</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microturbulence" title="Microturbulence">Microturbulence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar-like_oscillations" title="Solar-like oscillations">Oscillations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_zone" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiation zone">Radiation zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stellar_atmosphere" title="Stellar atmosphere">Atmosphere</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Photosphere" title="Photosphere">Photosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Starspot" title="Starspot">Starspot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromosphere" title="Chromosphere">Chromosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stellar_corona" title="Stellar corona">Stellar corona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfv%C3%A9n_surface" title="Alfvén surface">Alfvén surface</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stellar_wind" title="Stellar wind">Stellar wind</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stellar-wind_bubble" title="Stellar-wind bubble">Bubble</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bipolar_outflow" title="Bipolar outflow">Bipolar outflow</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Accretion_disk" title="Accretion disk">Accretion disk</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Protoplanetary_disk" title="Protoplanetary disk">Protoplanetary disk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proplyd" title="Proplyd">Proplyd</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asteroseismology" title="Asteroseismology">Asteroseismology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Helioseismology" title="Helioseismology">Helioseismology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circumstellar_dust" title="Circumstellar dust">Circumstellar dust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmic_dust" title="Cosmic dust">Cosmic dust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circumstellar_envelope" title="Circumstellar envelope">Circumstellar envelope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eddington_luminosity" title="Eddington luminosity">Eddington luminosity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelvin%E2%80%93Helmholtz_mechanism" title="Kelvin–Helmholtz mechanism">Kelvin–Helmholtz mechanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Properties</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stellar_designations_and_names" title="Stellar designations and names">Designation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stellar_dynamics" title="Stellar dynamics">Dynamics</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Effective temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luminosity" title="Luminosity">Luminosity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stellar_kinematics" title="Stellar kinematics">Kinematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stellar_magnetic_field" title="Stellar magnetic field">Magnetic field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_magnitude" title="Absolute magnitude">Absolute magnitude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stellar_mass" title="Stellar mass">Mass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metallicity" title="Metallicity">Metallicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stellar_rotation" title="Stellar rotation">Rotation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Starlight" title="Starlight">Starlight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variable_star" title="Variable star">Variable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photometric_system" title="Photometric system">Photometric system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_index" title="Color index">Color index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hertzsprung%E2%80%93Russell_diagram" title="Hertzsprung–Russell diagram">Hertzsprung–Russell diagram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color%E2%80%93color_diagram" title="Color–color diagram">Color–color diagram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Str%C3%B6mgren_sphere" title="Strömgren sphere">Strömgren sphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kraft_break" title="Kraft break">Kraft break</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Star_system" title="Star system">Star systems</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Binary_star" title="Binary star">Binary</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Contact_binary" title="Contact binary">Contact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_envelope" title="Common envelope">Common envelope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eclipsing_binary" class="mw-redirect" title="Eclipsing binary">Eclipsing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbiotic_binary" title="Symbiotic binary">Symbiotic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Star_system#Multiple_star_systems" title="Star system">Multiple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Star_cluster" title="Star cluster">Cluster</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Open_cluster" title="Open cluster">Open</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Globular_cluster" title="Globular cluster">Globular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Super_star_cluster" title="Super star cluster">Super</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planetary_system" title="Planetary system">Planetary system</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Earth-centric<br />observations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sun" title="Sun">Sun</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solar_eclipse" title="Solar eclipse">Solar eclipse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_radio_emission" title="Solar radio emission">Solar radio emission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_System" title="Solar System">Solar System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunlight" title="Sunlight">Sunlight</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pole_star" title="Pole star">Pole star</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circumpolar_star" title="Circumpolar star">Circumpolar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constellation" title="Constellation">Constellation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asterism_(astronomy)" title="Asterism (astronomy)">Asterism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnitude_(astronomy)" title="Magnitude (astronomy)">Magnitude</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apparent_magnitude" title="Apparent magnitude">Apparent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extinction_(astronomy)" title="Extinction (astronomy)">Extinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photographic_magnitude" title="Photographic magnitude">Photographic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radial_velocity" title="Radial velocity">Radial velocity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proper_motion" title="Proper motion">Proper motion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stellar_parallax" title="Stellar parallax">Parallax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photometric-standard_star" title="Photometric-standard star">Photometric-standard</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_stars" title="Lists of stars">Lists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_proper_names_of_stars" title="List of proper names of stars">Proper names</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Arabic_star_names" title="List of Arabic star names">Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_star_names" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese star names">Chinese</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_star_extremes" title="List of star extremes">Extremes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_most_massive_stars" title="List of most massive stars">Most massive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_hottest_stars" title="List of hottest stars">Highest temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_coolest_stars" title="List of coolest stars">Lowest temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_known_stars" class="mw-redirect" title="List of largest known stars">Largest volume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_smallest_known_stars" title="List of smallest known stars">Smallest volume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_brightest_stars" title="List of brightest stars">Brightest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_brightest_stars" title="Historical brightest stars">Historical brightest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_most_luminous_stars" title="List of most luminous stars">Most luminous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_nearest_stars" title="List of nearest stars">Nearest</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_nearest_bright_stars" title="List of nearest bright stars">bright</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_the_most_distant_astronomical_objects#List_of_most_distant_objects_by_type" title="List of the most distant astronomical objects">Most distant</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_stars_with_resolved_images" title="List of stars with resolved images">With resolved images</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_multiplanetary_systems" title="List of multiplanetary systems">With multiple exoplanets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_brown_dwarfs" title="List of brown dwarfs">Brown dwarfs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_red_dwarfs" title="List of red dwarfs">Red dwarfs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_white_dwarfs" title="List of white dwarfs">White dwarfs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_novae_in_the_Milky_Way_galaxy" title="List of novae in the Milky Way galaxy">Milky Way novae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_supernovae" title="List of supernovae">Supernovae</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_supernova_candidates" title="List of supernova candidates">Candidates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_supernova_remnants" title="List of supernova remnants">Remnants</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_planetary_nebulae" title="List of planetary nebulae">Planetary nebulae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_stellar_astronomy" title="Timeline of stellar astronomy">Timeline of stellar astronomy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Substellar_object" title="Substellar object">Substellar object</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brown_dwarf" title="Brown dwarf">Brown dwarf</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brown-dwarf_desert" title="Brown-dwarf desert">Desert</a></li> <li><a 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