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vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scottish_attempt_to_expand_overseas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Scottish attempt to expand overseas </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Scottish_attempt_to_expand_overseas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-British_Empire_(1707–1783)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#British_Empire_(1707–1783)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 British Empire (1707–1783) </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-British_Empire_(1707–1783)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle British Empire (1707–1783) subsection </button> <ul id="toc-British_Empire_(1707–1783)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Loss_of_the_Thirteen_American_Colonies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Loss_of_the_Thirteen_American_Colonies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Loss of the Thirteen American Colonies </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Loss_of_the_Thirteen_American_Colonies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-British_Empire_(1783–1815)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#British_Empire_(1783–1815)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 British Empire (1783–1815) </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-British_Empire_(1783–1815)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle British Empire (1783–1815) subsection </button> <ul id="toc-British_Empire_(1783–1815)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Exploration_of_the_Pacific" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Exploration_of_the_Pacific"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Exploration of the Pacific </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Exploration_of_the_Pacific-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Continued_conquest_in_India" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Continued_conquest_in_India"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Continued conquest in India </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Continued_conquest_in_India-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Wars_with_France" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wars_with_France"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Wars with France </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Wars_with_France-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Abolition_of_slavery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Abolition_of_slavery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4 Abolition of slavery </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Abolition_of_slavery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Britain's_imperial_century_(1815–1914)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Britain's_imperial_century_(1815–1914)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Britain's imperial century (1815–1914) </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Britain's_imperial_century_(1815–1914)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Britain's imperial century (1815–1914) subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Britain's_imperial_century_(1815–1914)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-East_India_Company_rule_and_the_British_Raj_in_India" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#East_India_Company_rule_and_the_British_Raj_in_India"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 East India Company rule and the British Raj in India </div> </a> <ul id="toc-East_India_Company_rule_and_the_British_Raj_in_India-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-New_Zealand" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#New_Zealand"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 New Zealand </div> </a> <ul id="toc-New_Zealand-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rivalry_with_Russia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rivalry_with_Russia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 Rivalry with Russia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rivalry_with_Russia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cape_to_Cairo" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cape_to_Cairo"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4 Cape to Cairo </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cape_to_Cairo-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Changing_status_of_the_white_colonies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Changing_status_of_the_white_colonies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.5 Changing status of the white colonies </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Changing_status_of_the_white_colonies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-World_wars_(1914–1945)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#World_wars_(1914–1945)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 World wars (1914–1945) </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-World_wars_(1914–1945)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle World wars (1914–1945) subsection </button> <ul id="toc-World_wars_(1914–1945)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-First_World_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#First_World_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 First World War </div> </a> <ul id="toc-First_World_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Inter-war_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Inter-war_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Inter-war period </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Inter-war_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Second_World_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Second_World_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 Second World War </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Second_World_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Decolonisation_and_decline_(1945–1997)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Decolonisation_and_decline_(1945–1997)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Decolonisation and decline (1945–1997) </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Decolonisation_and_decline_(1945–1997)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Decolonisation and decline (1945–1997) subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Decolonisation_and_decline_(1945–1997)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Initial_disengagement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Initial_disengagement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Initial disengagement </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Initial_disengagement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Suez_and_its_aftermath" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Suez_and_its_aftermath"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2 Suez and its aftermath </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Suez_and_its_aftermath-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Wind_of_change" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wind_of_change"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.3 Wind of change </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Wind_of_change-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-End_of_empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#End_of_empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.4 End of empire </div> </a> <ul id="toc-End_of_empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Legacy </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Legacy subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Interpretations_of_Empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Interpretations_of_Empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1 Interpretations of Empire </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Interpretations_of_Empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Works_cited" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Works_cited"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.1 Works cited </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Works_cited-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">British Empire</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 141 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-141" aria-hidden="true" > 141 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Britse_Ryk" title="Britse Ryk – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Britse Ryk" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Britisches_Weltreich" title="Britisches Weltreich – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Britisches Weltreich" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8B%A8%E1%89%A5%E1%88%AA%E1%89%B3%E1%8A%95%E1%8B%AB_%E1%88%98%E1%8A%95%E1%8C%8D%E1%88%A5%E1%89%B5" title="የብሪታንያ መንግሥት – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="የብሪታንያ መንግሥት" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target">አማርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ang mw-list-item"><a href="https://ang.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bryttisce_R%C4%ABce" title="Bryttisce Rīce – Old English" lang="ang" hreflang="ang" data-title="Bryttisce Rīce" data-language-autonym="Ænglisc" data-language-local-name="Old English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ænglisc</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A5%D9%85%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B7%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%B7%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="الإمبراطورية البريطانية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="الإمبراطورية البريطانية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperio_Britanico" title="Imperio Britanico – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Imperio Britanico" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperiu_brit%C3%A1nicu" title="Imperiu británicu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Imperiu británicu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vyret%C3%A1%C3%B1a_Mburuvi" title="Vyretáña Mburuvi – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Vyretáña Mburuvi" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Avañe'ẽ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-av mw-list-item"><a href="https://av.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F%D0%BB%D1%8A%D1%83%D0%BB_%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Британиялъул империя – Avaric" lang="av" hreflang="av" data-title="Британиялъул империя" data-language-autonym="Авар" data-language-local-name="Avaric" class="interlanguage-link-target">Авар</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Britaniya_imperiyas%C4%B1" title="Britaniya imperiyası – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Britaniya imperiyası" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C%D8%A7_%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%85%D9%BE%DB%8C%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%84%D9%88%D8%BA%D9%88" title="بریتانیا ایمپیراتورلوغو – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="بریتانیا ایمپیراتورلوغو" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9F%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B6_%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF" title="ব্রিটিশ সাম্রাজ্য – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ব্রিটিশ সাম্রাজ্য" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C4%81i-eng_T%C3%A8-kok" title="Tāi-eng Tè-kok – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Tāi-eng Tè-kok" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F%D2%BB%D1%8B" title="Британия империяһы – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Британия империяһы" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%96%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%8F" title="Брытанская імперыя – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Брытанская імперыя" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%96%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%8D%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%8F" title="Брытанская імпэрыя – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Брытанская імпэрыя" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B6_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF" title="ब्रिटिश साम्राज्य – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="ब्रिटिश साम्राज्य" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target">भोजपुरी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperyong_Britaniko" title="Imperyong Britaniko – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Imperyong Britaniko" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bikol Central</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Британска империя – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Британска империя" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Britansko_Carstvo" title="Britansko Carstvo – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Britansko Carstvo" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impalaeriezh_Breizh-Veur" title="Impalaeriezh Breizh-Veur – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Impalaeriezh Breizh-Veur" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D1%8D%D0%B7%D1%8D%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%8D_%D0%B3%D2%AF%D1%80%D1%8D%D0%BD" title="Британиин эзэнтэ гүрэн – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Британиин эзэнтэ гүрэн" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target">Буряад</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperi_Brit%C3%A0nic" title="Imperi Britànic – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Imperi Britànic" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B9%C4%95" title="Британи империйĕ – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Британи империйĕ" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Britsk%C3%A9_imp%C3%A9rium" title="Britské impérium – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Britské impérium" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yr_Ymerodraeth_Brydeinig" title="Yr Ymerodraeth Brydeinig – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Yr Ymerodraeth Brydeinig" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Britiske_Imperium" title="Britiske Imperium – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Britiske Imperium" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Britisches_Weltreich" title="Britisches Weltreich – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Britisches Weltreich" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Briti_impeerium" title="Briti impeerium – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Briti impeerium" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%92%CF%81%CE%B5%CF%84%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CE%91%CF%85%CF%84%CE%BF%CE%BA%CF%81%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%81%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Βρετανική Αυτοκρατορία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Βρετανική Αυτοκρατορία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperio_brit%C3%A1nico" title="Imperio británico – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Imperio británico" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brita_imperio" title="Brita imperio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Brita imperio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Britainiar_Inperioa" title="Britainiar Inperioa – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Britainiar Inperioa" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%BE%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B1%DB%8C_%D8%A8%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C%D8%A7" title="امپراتوری بریتانیا – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="امپراتوری بریتانیا" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Samrajya" title="British Samrajya – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="British Samrajya" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fiji Hindi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empire_britannique" title="Empire britannique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Empire britannique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Britske_Ryk" title="Britske Ryk – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Britske Ryk" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impireacht_na_Breataine" title="Impireacht na Breataine – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Impireacht na Breataine" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yn_Impiraght_Ghoaldagh" title="Yn Impiraght Ghoaldagh – Manx" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Yn Impiraght Ghoaldagh" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="Manx" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaelg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%8Cmpireachd_Bhreatainn" title="Ìmpireachd Bhreatainn – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Ìmpireachd Bhreatainn" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gàidhlig</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperio_Brit%C3%A1nico" title="Imperio Británico – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Imperio Británico" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thai-y%C3%AEn_Ti-koet" title="Thai-yîn Ti-koet – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Thai-yîn Ti-koet" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%8C%80%EC%98%81_%EC%A0%9C%EA%B5%AD" title="대영 제국 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="대영 제국" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daular_Biritaniya" title="Daular Biritaniya – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Daular Biritaniya" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hausa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B2%D6%80%D5%AB%D5%BF%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%BD%D6%80%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Բրիտանական կայսրություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Բրիտանական կայսրություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B6_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF" title="ब्रिटिश साम्राज्य – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="ब्रिटिश साम्राज्य" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Britansko_Carstvo" title="Britansko Carstvo – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Britansko Carstvo" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Britanian_imperio" title="Britanian imperio – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Britanian imperio" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperio_a_Britaniko" title="Imperio a Britaniko – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Imperio a Britaniko" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ilokano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperium_Britania_Raya" title="Imperium Britania Raya – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Imperium Britania Raya" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperio_Britannic" title="Imperio Britannic – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Imperio Britannic" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-os mw-list-item"><a href="https://os.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%8B_%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8" title="Британийы импери – Ossetic" lang="os" hreflang="os" data-title="Британийы импери" data-language-autonym="Ирон" data-language-local-name="Ossetic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ирон</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xh mw-list-item"><a href="https://xh.wikipedia.org/wiki/UbuKumkani_bamaBritane" title="UbuKumkani bamaBritane – Xhosa" lang="xh" hreflang="xh" data-title="UbuKumkani bamaBritane" data-language-autonym="IsiXhosa" data-language-local-name="Xhosa" class="interlanguage-link-target">IsiXhosa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breska_heimsveldi%C3%B0" title="Breska heimsveldið – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Breska heimsveldið" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impero_britannico" title="Impero britannico – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Impero britannico" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%90%D7%99%D7%9E%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%94_%D7%94%D7%91%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%98%D7%99%D7%AA" title="האימפריה הבריטית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="האימפריה הבריטית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperium_Britania" title="Imperium Britania – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Imperium Britania" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AC%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%9F%E0%B3%80%E0%B2%B7%E0%B3%8D_%E0%B2%B8%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%AE%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%9C%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AF" title="ಬ್ರಿಟೀಷ್ ಸಾಮ್ರಾಜ್ಯ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಬ್ರಿಟೀಷ್ ಸಾಮ್ರಾಜ್ಯ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-krc badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://krc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Британ империя – Karachay-Balkar" lang="krc" hreflang="krc" data-title="Британ империя" data-language-autonym="Къарачай-малкъар" data-language-local-name="Karachay-Balkar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Къарачай-малкъар</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%91%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%A2%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94%E1%83%97%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%98%E1%83%9B%E1%83%9E%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ბრიტანეთის იმპერია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ბრიტანეთის იმპერია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F%D1%81%D1%8B" title="Британ империясы – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Британ империясы" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperoureth_Breten_Veur" title="Emperoureth Breten Veur – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Emperoureth Breten Veur" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kernowek</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milki_ya_Uingereza" title="Milki ya Uingereza – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Milki ya Uingereza" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ampir_britanik" title="Ampir britanik – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Ampir britanik" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kriyòl gwiyannen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%8Emperatoriya_Br%C3%AEtan%C3%AE" title="Împeratoriya Brîtanî – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Împeratoriya Brîtanî" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F%D1%81%D1%8B" title="Британ империясы – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Британ империясы" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BA%AD%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%99%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%88%E0%BA%B1%E0%BA%81%E0%BA%AD%E0%BA%B1%E0%BA%87%E0%BA%81%E0%BA%B4%E0%BA%94" title="ອານາຈັກອັງກິດ – Lao" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" data-title="ອານາຈັກອັງກິດ" data-language-autonym="ລາວ" data-language-local-name="Lao" class="interlanguage-link-target">ລາວ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperium_Britannicum" title="Imperium Britannicum – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Imperium Britannicum" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Britu_imp%C4%93rija" title="Britu impērija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Britu impērija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lez mw-list-item"><a href="https://lez.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Британиядин империя – Lezghian" lang="lez" hreflang="lez" data-title="Британиядин империя" data-language-autonym="Лезги" data-language-local-name="Lezghian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Лезги</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brit%C5%B3_imperija" title="Britų imperija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Britų imperija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impero_Brites" title="Impero Brites – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Impero Brites" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brit_Birodalom" title="Brit Birodalom – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Brit Birodalom" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%98%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Британска Империја – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Британска Империја" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AC%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%80%E0%B4%B7%E0%B5%8D_%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%AE%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%9C%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%82" title="ബ്രിട്ടീഷ് സാമ്രാജ്യം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ബ്രിട്ടീഷ് സാമ്രാജ്യം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt mw-list-item"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperu_Brittaniku" title="Imperu Brittaniku – Maltese" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" data-title="Imperu Brittaniku" data-language-autonym="Malti" data-language-local-name="Maltese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B6_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF" title="ब्रिटिश साम्राज्य – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="ब्रिटिश साम्राज्य" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%91%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%A2%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94%E1%83%97%E1%83%98%E1%83%A8_%E1%83%98%E1%83%9B%E1%83%9E%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ბრიტანეთიშ იმპერია – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ბრიტანეთიშ იმპერია" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empayar_British" title="Empayar British – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Empayar British" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperium_Baritania" title="Imperium Baritania – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Imperium Baritania" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target">Minangkabau</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amp%C3%A9rio_Brit%C3%A1nico" title="Ampério Británico – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Ampério Británico" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Mirandés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9%D0%BD_%D1%8D%D0%B7%D1%8D%D0%BD%D1%82_%D0%B3%D2%AF%D1%80%D1%8D%D0%BD" title="Британийн эзэнт гүрэн – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Британийн эзэнт гүрэн" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%97%E1%80%BC%E1%80%AD%E1%80%90%E1%80%AD%E1%80%9E%E1%80%BB%E1%80%BE%E1%80%A1%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%95%E1%80%AB%E1%80%9A%E1%80%AC" title="ဗြိတိသျှအင်ပါယာ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ဗြိတိသျှအင်ပါယာ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Britse_Rijk" title="Britse Rijk – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Britse Rijk" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF" title="ब्रिटिस साम्राज्य – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="ब्रिटिस साम्राज्य" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF" title="बेलायती साम्राज्य – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="बेलायती साम्राज्य" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja badge-Q17559452 badge-recommendedarticle mw-list-item" title="recommended article"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A4%E3%82%AE%E3%83%AA%E3%82%B9%E5%B8%9D%E5%9B%BD" title="イギリス帝国 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="イギリス帝国" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9%D0%BD_%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8" title="Британийн импери – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Британийн импери" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Нохчийн</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Britisk_Weltrik" title="Britisk Weltrik – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Britisk Weltrik" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nordfriisk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Det_britiske_imperiet" title="Det britiske imperiet – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Det britiske imperiet" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Det_britiske_imperiet" title="Det britiske imperiet – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Det britiske imperiet" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emp%C3%A8ri_Britanic" title="Empèri Britanic – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Empèri Britanic" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Britaniya_imperiyasi" title="Britaniya imperiyasi – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Britaniya imperiyasi" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AC%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%A4%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%A8%E0%A8%B5%E0%A9%80_%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%AE%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%9C" title="ਬਰਤਾਨਵੀ ਸਾਮਰਾਜ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਬਰਤਾਨਵੀ ਸਾਮਰਾਜ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%B7%D9%86%D8%AA_%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%B7%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C%D8%A7" title="سلطنت برطانیا – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="سلطنت برطانیا" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-blk mw-list-item"><a href="https://blk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%97%E1%80%AD%E1%80%90%E1%80%AD%E1%80%9E%E1%80%BB%E1%80%A1%E1%80%89%E1%80%BA%E1%80%95%E1%80%AB%E1%80%9A%E1%80%AC" title="ဗိတိသျအဉ်ပါယာ – Pa'O" lang="blk" hreflang="blk" data-title="ဗိတိသျအဉ်ပါယာ" data-language-autonym="ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ" data-language-local-name="Pa'O" class="interlanguage-link-target">ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D8%A8%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C%D8%A7_%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A7%DA%A9%D9%8A%D8%8C_%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%BE%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A" title="د بریتانیا سترواکي، امپراتوري – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د بریتانیا سترواکي، امپراتوري" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Empaya" title="British Empaya – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="British Empaya" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Patois</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Britsch_Weltriek" title="Britsch Weltriek – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Britsch Weltriek" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperium_brytyjskie" title="Imperium brytyjskie – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Imperium brytyjskie" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imp%C3%A9rio_Brit%C3%A2nico" title="Império Britânico – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Império Britânico" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-crh mw-list-item"><a href="https://crh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Britaniya_%C4%B0mperiyas%C4%B1" title="Britaniya İmperiyası – Crimean Tatar" lang="crh" hreflang="crh" data-title="Britaniya İmperiyası" data-language-autonym="Qırımtatarca" data-language-local-name="Crimean Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Qırımtatarca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperiul_Britanic" title="Imperiul Britanic – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Imperiul Britanic" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%80%D1%96%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%8C%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D1%96%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Брітаньска імперія – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Брітаньска імперія" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русиньскый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Британская империя – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Британская империя" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%98%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%B0" title="Британия Империята – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Британия Империята" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target">Саха тыла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imp%C3%A8riu_Brit%C3%A0nnicu" title="Impèriu Britànnicu – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Impèriu Britànnicu" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sardu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breetish_Empire" title="Breetish Empire – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Breetish Empire" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perandoria_Britanike" title="Perandoria Britanike – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Perandoria Britanike" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B6%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%AD%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BA_%E0%B6%85%E0%B6%B0%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%A2%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BA%E0%B6%BA" title="බ්‍රිතාන්‍ය අධිරාජ්‍යය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="බ්‍රිතාන්‍ය අධිරාජ්‍යය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="British Empire" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%B7%D9%86%D8%AA_%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%B7%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A7" title="سلطنت برطانيا – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="سلطنت برطانيا" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">سنڌي</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Britsk%C3%A9_imp%C3%A9rium" title="Britské impérium – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Britské impérium" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Britanski_imperij" title="Britanski imperij – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Britanski imperij" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A6%DB%8C%D9%85%D9%BE%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA%DB%86%D8%B1%DB%8C%DB%95%D8%AA%DB%8C%DB%8C_%D8%A8%DB%95%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C" title="ئیمپراتۆریەتیی بەریتانی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ئیمپراتۆریەتیی بەریتانی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Британска империја – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Британска империја" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Britansko_Carstvo" title="Britansko Carstvo – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Britansko Carstvo" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brittil%C3%A4inen_imperiumi" title="Brittiläinen imperiumi – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Brittiläinen imperiumi" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brittiska_imperiet" title="Brittiska imperiet – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Brittiska imperiet" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperyong_Britaniko" title="Imperyong Britaniko – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Imperyong Britaniko" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%A9%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%87%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%81" title="பிரித்தானியப் பேரரசு – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="பிரித்தானியப் பேரரசு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F%D1%81%D0%B5" title="Британия империясе – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Британия империясе" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%AC%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%9F%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%B7%E0%B1%8D_%E0%B0%B8%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%AE%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%9C%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%AF%E0%B0%82" title="బ్రిటిష్ సామ్రాజ్యం – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="బ్రిటిష్ సామ్రాజ్యం" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%88%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%8A" title="จักรวรรดิบริติช – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="จักรวรรดิบริติช" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F%D0%B8_%D0%91%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%91" title="Империяи Бритониё – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Империяи Бритониё" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Britanya_%C4%B0mparatorlu%C4%9Fu" title="Britanya İmparatorluğu – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Britanya İmparatorluğu" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tk mw-list-item"><a href="https://tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Britan_imperi%C3%BDasy" title="Britan imperiýasy – Turkmen" lang="tk" hreflang="tk" data-title="Britan imperiýasy" data-language-autonym="Türkmençe" data-language-local-name="Turkmen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkmençe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D1%96%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Британська імперія – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Британська імперія" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%B7%D9%86%D8%AA_%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%B7%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C%DB%81" title="سلطنت برطانیہ – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="سلطنت برطانیہ" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug mw-list-item"><a href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%89%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%89%D9%8A%DB%95_%D8%A6%D9%89%D9%85%D9%BE%DB%90%D8%B1%D9%89%D9%8A%DB%95%D8%B3%D9%89" title="برىتانىيە ئىمپېرىيەسى – Uyghur" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" data-title="برىتانىيە ئىمپېرىيەسى" data-language-autonym="ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche" data-language-local-name="Uyghur" class="interlanguage-link-target">ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inpero_brit%C3%A0nego" title="Inpero britànego – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Inpero britànego" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vèneto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vep mw-list-item"><a href="https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Britanine_imperii" title="Britanine imperii – Veps" lang="vep" hreflang="vep" data-title="Britanine imperii" data-language-autonym="Vepsän kel’" data-language-local-name="Veps" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vepsän kel’</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BA%BF_qu%E1%BB%91c_Anh" title="Đế quốc Anh – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Đế quốc Anh" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Briti_impeerium" title="Briti impeerium – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Briti impeerium" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="Võro" class="interlanguage-link-target">Võro</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperyo_Britaniko" title="Imperyo Britaniko – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Imperyo Britaniko" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%A4%A7%E8%8B%B1%E5%B8%9D%E5%9C%8B" title="大英帝國 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="大英帝國" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%91%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%98%D7%99%D7%A9%D7%A2_%D7%90%D7%99%D7%9E%D7%A4%D7%A2%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%A2" title="בריטישע אימפעריע – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="בריטישע אימפעריע" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target">ייִדיש</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo mw-list-item"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Il%E1%BA%B9%CC%80_%E1%BB%8Dbal%C3%BAay%C3%A9_Br%C3%ADt%C3%A1n%C3%AC%C3%AC" title="Ilẹ̀ ọbalúayé Brítánìì – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" data-title="Ilẹ̀ ọbalúayé Brítánìì" data-language-autonym="Yorùbá" data-language-local-name="Yoruba" class="interlanguage-link-target">Yorùbá</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%A4%A7%E8%8B%B1%E5%B8%9D%E5%9C%8B" title="大英帝國 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="大英帝國" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Br%C4%97tu_imper%C4%97j%C4%97" title="Brėtu imperėjė – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Brėtu imperėjė" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Žemaitėška</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%A4%A7%E8%8B%B1%E5%B8%9D%E5%9B%BD" title="大英帝国 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="大英帝国" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q8680#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div 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.ib-country-map-caption3{position:relative;top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn{text-align:left;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-num{margin-left:1em}</style><table class="infobox ib-country vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above adr"><div class="ib-country-names"><div class="ib-country-name-style fn org country-name">British Empire</div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><div class="noresize" style="display:table; width:100%;"> <div style="display:table-cell; vertical-align:middle; padding: 0px 5px 3px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_Great_Britain_(1707%E2%80%931800).svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Flag of British Empire"><img alt="Flag of British Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Flag_of_Great_Britain_%281707%E2%80%931800%29.svg/125px-Flag_of_Great_Britain_%281707%E2%80%931800%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="125" height="75" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Flag_of_Great_Britain_%281707%E2%80%931800%29.svg/188px-Flag_of_Great_Britain_%281707%E2%80%931800%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Flag_of_Great_Britain_%281707%E2%80%931800%29.svg/250px-Flag_of_Great_Britain_%281707%E2%80%931800%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></a></div><div style="display:table-cell; vertical-align:middle; padding: 0px 5px 3px 0px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/125px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png" decoding="async" width="125" height="63" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/188px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/250px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a></div> </div> <div>Left: <a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Great_Britain" title="Flag of Great Britain">Flag of Great Britain</a> (<a href="/wiki/Acts_of_Union_1707" title="Acts of Union 1707">1707–1801</a>) Right: <a href="/wiki/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Flag of the United Kingdom">Flag of the United Kingdom</a> (<a href="/wiki/Acts_of_Union_1800" title="Acts of Union 1800">1801–present</a>)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/File:The_British_Empire_5.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/The_British_Empire_5.png/300px-The_British_Empire_5.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/The_British_Empire_5.png/450px-The_British_Empire_5.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/The_British_Empire_5.png/600px-The_British_Empire_5.png 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="976" /></a><div class="ib-country-map-caption">Areas of the world that were part of the British Empire at various points in history with current <a href="/wiki/British_Overseas_Territories" title="British Overseas Territories">British Overseas Territories</a> underlined in red. Mandates and protected states are shown in a lighter shade.</div></td></tr></tbody></table> The British Empire comprised the <a href="/wiki/Dominion" title="Dominion">dominions</a>, <a href="/wiki/Crown_colony" title="Crown colony">colonies</a>, <a href="/wiki/Protectorate" title="Protectorate">protectorates</a>, <a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations_mandate" title="League of Nations mandate">mandates</a>, and other <a href="/wiki/Dependent_territory" title="Dependent territory">territories</a> ruled or administered by the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> and its predecessor states. It began with the <a href="/wiki/English_overseas_possessions" title="English overseas possessions">overseas possessions</a> and <a href="/wiki/Trading_post" title="Trading post">trading posts</a> established by <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_England" title="Kingdom of England">England</a> in the late 16th and early 17th centuries. At its height in the 19th and early 20th centuries, it was the <a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_empires" title="List of largest empires">largest empire in history</a> and, for a century, was the foremost global power.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerguson2002-1">[1]</a> By 1913, the British Empire held sway over 412 million people, 23 percent of the world population at the time,<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> and by 1920, it covered 35.5 million km2 (13.7 million sq mi),<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaagepera1997502-3">[3]</a> 24 per cent of the Earth's total land area. As a result, <a href="/wiki/Westminster_system" title="Westminster system">its constitutional</a>, <a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">legal</a>, <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">linguistic</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Culture_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Culture of the United Kingdom">cultural</a> legacy is widespread. At the peak of its power, it was described as "<a href="/wiki/The_empire_on_which_the_sun_never_sets" title="The empire on which the sun never sets">the empire on which the sun never sets</a>", as the sun was always shining on at least one of its territories.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJackson20135–6-4">[4]</a> During the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a> in the 15th and 16th centuries, <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portugal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spain</a> pioneered European exploration of the globe, and in the process established large overseas empires. Envious of the great wealth these empires generated,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERusso201215chapter_1_'Great_Expectations':_"The_dramatic_rise_in_Spanish_fortunes_sparked_both_envy_and_fear_among_northern,_mostly_Protestant,_Europeans."-5">[5]</a> England, <a href="/wiki/French_colonial_empire" title="French colonial empire">France</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Dutch Empire">Netherlands</a> began to establish colonies and trade networks of their own in the <a href="/wiki/Americas" title="Americas">Americas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Asia" title="Asia">Asia</a>. A series of wars in the 17th and 18th centuries with the Netherlands and France left <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Great_Britain" title="Kingdom of Great Britain">Britain</a> the dominant <a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">colonial power</a> in <a href="/wiki/North_America" title="North America">North America</a>. Britain became a major power in the <a href="/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</a> after the <a href="/wiki/East_India_Company" title="East India Company">East India Company</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Bengal_Subah#British_colonization" title="Bengal Subah">conquest</a> of <a href="/wiki/Mughal_Bengal" class="mw-redirect" title="Mughal Bengal">Mughal Bengal</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Plassey" title="Battle of Plassey">Battle of Plassey</a> in 1757. The <a href="/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">American War of Independence</a> resulted in Britain losing some of its oldest and most populous colonies in North America by 1783. While retaining control of <a href="/wiki/British_North_America" title="British North America">British North America</a> (now <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a>) and territories in and near the <a href="/wiki/Caribbean" title="Caribbean">Caribbean</a> in the <a href="/wiki/British_West_Indies" title="British West Indies">British West Indies</a>, British colonial expansion turned towards Asia, <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Oceania" title="Oceania">Pacific</a>. After the defeat of France in the <a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</a> (1803–1815), Britain emerged as the principal <a href="/wiki/Royal_Navy" title="Royal Navy">naval</a> and imperial power of the 19th century and expanded its imperial holdings. It pursued trade concessions in China and Japan, and territory in <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia" title="Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a>. The "<a href="/wiki/Great_Game" title="Great Game">Great Game</a>" and "<a href="/wiki/Scramble_for_Africa" title="Scramble for Africa">Scramble for Africa</a>" also ensued. The period of relative peace (1815–1914) during which the British Empire became the global <a href="/wiki/Hegemon" class="mw-redirect" title="Hegemon">hegemon</a> was later described as <a href="/wiki/Pax_Britannica" title="Pax Britannica">Pax Britannica</a> (Latin for "British Peace"). Alongside the formal control that Britain exerted over its colonies, its dominance of much of world trade, and of its oceans, meant that it effectively <a href="/wiki/Informal_empire#United_Kingdom" title="Informal empire">controlled the economies of, and readily enforced its interests in, many regions</a>, such as Asia and <a href="/wiki/Latin_America" title="Latin America">Latin America</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Porter_1998_8-6">[6]</a> It also came to dominate the <a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a>. Increasing degrees of autonomy were granted to its white <a href="/wiki/Settler_colonialism" title="Settler colonialism">settler colonies</a>, some of which were formally reclassified as <a href="/wiki/Dominion" title="Dominion">Dominions</a> by the 1920s. By the start of the 20th century, <a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">Germany</a> and the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> had begun to challenge Britain's economic lead. Military, economic and colonial tensions between Britain and Germany were major causes of the <a href="/wiki/First_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="First World War">First World War</a>, during which Britain relied heavily on its empire. The conflict placed enormous strain on its military, financial, and manpower resources. Although the empire achieved its largest territorial extent immediately after the First World War, Britain was no longer the world's preeminent industrial or military power. In the <a href="/wiki/Second_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second World War">Second World War</a>, Britain's colonies in <a href="/wiki/East_Asia" title="East Asia">East Asia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia" title="Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a> were occupied by the <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Empire of Japan</a>. Despite the final victory of Britain and <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II" title="Allies of World War II">its allies</a>, the damage to British prestige and the <a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_British_Empire" title="Economy of the British Empire">British economy</a> helped accelerate the decline of the empire. <a href="/wiki/British_Raj" title="British Raj">India</a>, Britain's most valuable and populous possession, achieved <a href="/wiki/Indian_independence_movement" title="Indian independence movement">independence</a> in 1947 as part of a larger <a href="/wiki/Decolonisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Decolonisation">decolonisation</a> movement, in which Britain granted independence to most territories of the empire. The <a href="/wiki/Suez_Crisis" title="Suez Crisis">Suez Crisis</a> of 1956 confirmed Britain's decline as a global power, and the <a href="/wiki/Handover_of_Hong_Kong" title="Handover of Hong Kong">handover of Hong Kong to China</a> on 1 July 1997 symbolised for many the end of the British Empire,<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> though fourteen <a href="/wiki/British_Overseas_Territories" title="British Overseas Territories">overseas territories</a> that are remnants of the empire remain under <a href="/wiki/British_sovereignty" class="mw-redirect" title="British sovereignty">British sovereignty</a>. After independence, many former British colonies, along with most of the dominions, joined the <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Nations" title="Commonwealth of Nations">Commonwealth of Nations</a>, a free association of independent states. Fifteen of these, including the United Kingdom, <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_realm" title="Commonwealth realm">retain the same person as monarch</a>, currently <a href="/wiki/Charles_III" title="Charles III">King Charles III</a>. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Origins_(1497–1583)">Origins (1497–1583)</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Matthew-BristolHarbour-Aug2004.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Matthew-BristolHarbour-Aug2004.jpg/220px-Matthew-BristolHarbour-Aug2004.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="328" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Matthew-BristolHarbour-Aug2004.jpg/330px-Matthew-BristolHarbour-Aug2004.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Matthew-BristolHarbour-Aug2004.jpg/440px-Matthew-BristolHarbour-Aug2004.jpg 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="764" /></a><figcaption>A replica of the <a href="/wiki/Matthew_(1497_ship)" title="Matthew (1497 ship)">Matthew</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Cabot" title="John Cabot">John Cabot</a>'s ship used for his second voyage to the <a href="/wiki/New_World" title="New World">New World</a> in 1497</figcaption></figure> The foundations of the British Empire were laid when <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_England" title="Kingdom of England">England</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Scotland" title="Kingdom of Scotland">Scotland</a> were separate kingdoms. In 1496, King <a href="/wiki/Henry_VII_of_England" title="Henry VII of England">Henry VII of England</a>, following the successes of <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spain</a> and <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portugal</a> in overseas exploration, commissioned <a href="/wiki/John_Cabot" title="John Cabot">John Cabot</a> to lead an expedition to discover a <a href="/wiki/Northwest_Passage" title="Northwest Passage">northwest passage</a> to Asia via the North Atlantic.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerguson20023-8">[8]</a> Cabot sailed in 1497, five years after the <a href="/wiki/Voyages_of_Christopher_Columbus" title="Voyages of Christopher Columbus">first voyage of Christopher Columbus</a>, and made landfall on the coast of <a href="/wiki/Newfoundland_(island)" title="Newfoundland (island)">Newfoundland</a>. He believed he had reached Asia,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndrews198445-9">[9]</a> and there was no attempt to found a colony. Cabot led another voyage to the Americas the following year but did not return; it is unknown what happened to his ships.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerguson20024-10">[10]</a> No further attempts to establish English colonies in the Americas were made until well into the <a href="/wiki/Elizabethan_era" title="Elizabethan era">reign of Queen Elizabeth I</a>, during the last decades of the 16th century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECanny199835-11">[11]</a> In the meantime, <a href="/wiki/Henry_VIII" title="Henry VIII">Henry VIII</a>'s 1533 <a href="/wiki/Statute_in_Restraint_of_Appeals" class="mw-redirect" title="Statute in Restraint of Appeals">Statute in Restraint of Appeals</a> had declared "that this realm of England is an Empire".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKoebner195329–52-12">[12]</a> The <a href="/wiki/English_Reformation" title="English Reformation">Protestant Reformation</a> turned <a href="/wiki/England" title="England">England</a> and <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic</a> Spain into implacable enemies.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerguson20023-8">[8]</a> In 1562, Elizabeth I encouraged the <a href="/wiki/Privateer" title="Privateer">privateers</a> <a href="/wiki/John_Hawkins_(naval_commander)" title="John Hawkins (naval commander)">John Hawkins</a> and <a href="/wiki/Francis_Drake" title="Francis Drake">Francis Drake</a> to engage in <a href="/wiki/Slave_raiding" title="Slave raiding">slave-raiding attacks</a> against Spanish and Portuguese ships off the coast of <a href="/wiki/West_Africa" title="West Africa">West Africa</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThomas1997155–158-13">[13]</a> with the aim of establishing an <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a>. This effort was rebuffed and later, as the <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Spanish_War_(1585)" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo-Spanish War (1585)">Anglo-Spanish Wars</a> intensified, <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_I" title="Elizabeth I">Elizabeth I</a> gave her blessing to further privateering raids against Spanish ports in the Americas and shipping that was returning across the Atlantic, <a href="/wiki/Spanish_treasure_fleet" title="Spanish treasure fleet">laden with treasure</a> from the <a href="/wiki/New_World" title="New World">New World</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerguson20027-14">[14]</a> At the same time, influential writers such as <a href="/wiki/Richard_Hakluyt" title="Richard Hakluyt">Richard Hakluyt</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_Dee" title="John Dee">John Dee</a> (who was the first to use the term "British Empire")<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECanny199862-15">[15]</a> were beginning to press for the establishment of England's own empire. By this time, Spain had become the dominant power in the Americas and was exploring the Pacific Ocean, Portugal had established trading posts and forts from the coasts of <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Brazil" title="Brazil">Brazil</a> to <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>, and France had begun to settle the <a href="/wiki/Saint_Lawrence_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint Lawrence River">Saint Lawrence River</a> area, later to become <a href="/wiki/New_France" title="New France">New France</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELloyd19964–8-16">[16]</a> Although England tended to trail behind Portugal, Spain, and France in establishing overseas colonies, it carried out its first modern colonisation, referred to as the <a href="/wiki/Plantations_of_Ireland" title="Plantations of Ireland">Munster Plantations</a>, in 16th century <a href="/wiki/Ireland" title="Ireland">Ireland</a> by settling it with English and Welsh Protestant settlers. England had already colonised part of the country following the <a href="/wiki/Norman_invasion_of_Ireland" class="mw-redirect" title="Norman invasion of Ireland">Norman invasion of Ireland</a> in 1169.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> Several people who helped establish the Munster plantations later played a part in the early colonisation of North America, particularly a group known as the <a href="/wiki/West_Country_Men" title="West Country Men">West Country Men</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor2001119,_123-18">[18]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="English_overseas_possessions_(1583–1707)">English overseas possessions (1583–1707)</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/English_overseas_possessions" title="English overseas possessions">English overseas possessions</a></div> In 1578, <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_I" title="Elizabeth I">Elizabeth I</a> granted a patent to <a href="/wiki/Humphrey_Gilbert" title="Humphrey Gilbert">Humphrey Gilbert</a> for discovery and overseas exploration.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> That year, Gilbert sailed for the <a href="/wiki/Caribbean" title="Caribbean">Caribbean</a> with the intention of engaging in <a href="/wiki/Piracy" title="Piracy">piracy</a> and establishing a colony in North America, but the expedition was aborted before it had crossed the Atlantic.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> In 1583, he embarked on a second attempt. On this occasion, he formally claimed the harbour of the island of Newfoundland, although no settlers were left behind. Gilbert did not survive the return journey to England and was succeeded by his half-brother, <a href="/wiki/Walter_Raleigh" title="Walter Raleigh">Walter Raleigh</a>, who was granted his own patent by Elizabeth in 1584. Later that year, Raleigh founded the <a href="/wiki/Roanoke_Colony" title="Roanoke Colony">Roanoke Colony</a> on the coast of present-day <a href="/wiki/North_Carolina" title="North Carolina">North Carolina</a>, but lack of supplies caused the colony to fail.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECanny199863–64-21">[21]</a> In 1603, <a href="/wiki/James_VI_of_Scotland" class="mw-redirect" title="James VI of Scotland">James VI of Scotland</a> ascended (as James I) to the English throne and in 1604 negotiated the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_London_(1604)" title="Treaty of London (1604)">Treaty of London</a>, ending hostilities with Spain. Now at peace with its main rival, English attention shifted from preying on other nations' colonial infrastructures to the business of establishing its own overseas colonies.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECanny199870-22">[22]</a> The British Empire began to take shape during the early 17th century, with the <a href="/wiki/British_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="British colonization of the Americas">English settlement</a> of North America and the smaller islands of the Caribbean, and the establishment of <a href="/wiki/Joint-stock_company" title="Joint-stock company">joint-stock companies</a>, most notably the <a href="/wiki/East_India_Company" title="East India Company">East India Company</a>, to administer colonies and overseas trade. This period, until the loss of the <a href="/wiki/Thirteen_Colonies" title="Thirteen Colonies">Thirteen Colonies</a> after the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">American War of Independence</a> towards the end of the 18th century, has been referred to by some historians as the "First British Empire".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECanny199834-23">[23]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Americas,_Africa_and_the_slave_trade">Americas, Africa and the slave trade</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/British_colonisation_of_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="British colonisation of the Americas">British colonisation of the Americas</a>, <a href="/wiki/British_America" title="British America">British America</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thirteen_Colonies" title="Thirteen Colonies">Thirteen Colonies</a>, <a href="/wiki/British_West_Indies" title="British West Indies">British West Indies</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tobacco_cultivation_(Virginia,_ca._1670).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Tobacco_cultivation_%28Virginia%2C_ca._1670%29.jpg/220px-Tobacco_cultivation_%28Virginia%2C_ca._1670%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="114" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Tobacco_cultivation_%28Virginia%2C_ca._1670%29.jpg/330px-Tobacco_cultivation_%28Virginia%2C_ca._1670%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Tobacco_cultivation_%28Virginia%2C_ca._1670%29.jpg/440px-Tobacco_cultivation_%28Virginia%2C_ca._1670%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="794" data-file-height="411" /></a><figcaption>A 1670 illustration of African slaves working in 17th-century <a href="/wiki/Colony_of_Virginia" title="Colony of Virginia">colonial Virginia</a> in <a href="/wiki/British_America" title="British America">British America</a></figcaption></figure> England's early efforts at colonisation in the Americas met with mixed success. An attempt to establish a colony in <a href="/wiki/British_Guiana" title="British Guiana">Guiana</a> in 1604 lasted only two years and failed in its main objective to find gold deposits.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECanny199871-24">[24]</a> Colonies on the Caribbean islands of <a href="/wiki/Saint_Lucia" title="Saint Lucia">St Lucia</a> (1605) and <a href="/wiki/Grenada" title="Grenada">Grenada</a> (1609) rapidly folded.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECanny1998221-25">[25]</a> The first permanent English settlement in the Americas was founded in 1607 in <a href="/wiki/Jamestown,_Virginia" title="Jamestown, Virginia">Jamestown</a> by Captain <a href="/wiki/John_Smith_(explorer)" title="John Smith (explorer)">John Smith</a>, and managed by the <a href="/wiki/London_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="London Company">Virginia Company</a>; the Crown took direct control of the venture in 1624, thereby founding the <a href="/wiki/Colony_of_Virginia" title="Colony of Virginia">Colony of Virginia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndrews1984316,_324–326-26">[26]</a> <a href="/wiki/Bermuda" title="Bermuda">Bermuda</a> was settled and claimed by England as a result of the 1609 shipwreck of the Virginia Company's <a href="/wiki/Sea_Venture" title="Sea Venture">flagship</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELloyd199615–20-27">[27]</a> while <a href="/wiki/London_and_Bristol_Company" title="London and Bristol Company">attempts to settle Newfoundland</a> were largely unsuccessful.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndrews198420–22-28">[28]</a> In 1620, <a href="/wiki/Plymouth_Colony" title="Plymouth Colony">Plymouth</a> was founded as a haven by <a href="/wiki/Puritan" class="mw-redirect" title="Puritan">Puritan</a> religious separatists, later known as the <a href="/wiki/Pilgrims_(Plymouth_Colony)" title="Pilgrims (Plymouth Colony)">Pilgrims</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJames20018-29">[29]</a> Fleeing from <a href="/wiki/Religious_persecution" title="Religious persecution">religious persecution</a> would become the motive for many English would-be colonists to risk the arduous <a href="/wiki/Transatlantic_crossing" title="Transatlantic crossing">trans-Atlantic voyage</a>: <a href="/wiki/Province_of_Maryland" title="Province of Maryland">Maryland</a> was established by <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_in_England_and_Wales" title="Catholic Church in England and Wales">English Roman Catholics</a> (1634), <a href="/wiki/Colony_of_Rhode_Island_and_Providence_Plantations" title="Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations">Rhode Island</a> (1636) as a colony <a href="/wiki/Religious_tolerance" title="Religious tolerance">tolerant of all religions</a> and Connecticut (1639) for <a href="/wiki/Congregational_church" class="mw-redirect" title="Congregational church">Congregationalists</a>. England's North American holdings were further expanded by the annexation of the Dutch colony of <a href="/wiki/New_Netherland" title="New Netherland">New Netherland</a> in 1664, following the capture of <a href="/wiki/New_Amsterdam" title="New Amsterdam">New Amsterdam</a>, which was renamed <a href="/wiki/New_York_(state)" title="New York (state)">New York</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELloyd199640-30">[30]</a> Although less financially successful than colonies in the Caribbean, these territories had large areas of good agricultural land and attracted far greater numbers of English emigrants, who preferred their temperate climates.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerguson200272–73-31">[31]</a> The <a href="/wiki/British_West_Indies" title="British West Indies">British West Indies</a> initially provided England's most important and lucrative colonies.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJames200117-32">[32]</a> Settlements were successfully established in <a href="/wiki/Saint_Kitts" title="Saint Kitts">St. Kitts</a> (1624), <a href="/wiki/Barbados" title="Barbados">Barbados</a> (1627) and <a href="/wiki/Nevis" title="Nevis">Nevis</a> (1628),<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECanny1998221-25">[25]</a> but struggled until the "Sugar Revolution" transformed the Caribbean economy in the mid-17th century.<a href="#cite_note-BBC_Watson-33">[33]</a> Large <a href="/wiki/Sugar_plantations_in_the_Caribbean" title="Sugar plantations in the Caribbean">sugarcane plantations</a> were first established in the 1640s on Barbados, with assistance from Dutch merchants and <a href="/wiki/Sephardi_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Sephardi Jews">Sephardic Jews</a> fleeing <a href="/wiki/Colonial_Brazil" title="Colonial Brazil">Portuguese Brazil</a>. At first, sugar was grown primarily using white <a href="/wiki/Indentured_servitude_in_British_America" title="Indentured servitude in British America">indentured labour</a>, but rising costs soon led English traders to embrace the use of imported African slaves.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> The enormous wealth generated by slave-produced sugar made Barbados the most successful colony in the Americas,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHigman2000224–225-35">[35]</a> and one of the most densely populated places in the world.<a href="#cite_note-BBC_Watson-33">[33]</a> This boom led to the spread of sugar cultivation across the Caribbean, financed the development of non-plantation colonies in North America, and accelerated the growth of the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a>, particularly the <a href="/wiki/Triangular_trade" title="Triangular trade">triangular trade</a> of slaves, sugar and provisions between Africa, the West Indies and Europe.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHigman2000225–226-36">[36]</a> To ensure that the increasingly healthy profits of colonial trade remained in English hands, Parliament <a href="/wiki/Navigation_Acts" title="Navigation Acts">decreed</a> in 1651 that only English ships would be able to ply their trade in English colonies. This led to hostilities with the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">United Dutch Provinces</a>—a series of <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Dutch_Wars" title="Anglo-Dutch Wars">Anglo-Dutch Wars</a>—which would eventually strengthen England's position in the Americas at the expense of the Dutch.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELloyd199632-37">[37]</a> In 1655, England annexed the island of <a href="/wiki/Jamaica" title="Jamaica">Jamaica</a> from the Spanish, and in 1666 succeeded in colonising the <a href="/wiki/The_Bahamas" title="The Bahamas">Bahamas</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELloyd199633,_43-38">[38]</a> In 1670, <a href="/wiki/Charles_II_of_England" title="Charles II of England">Charles II</a> incorporated by royal charter the <a href="/wiki/Hudson%27s_Bay_Company" title="Hudson's Bay Company">Hudson's Bay Company</a> (HBC), granting it a monopoly on the <a href="/wiki/North_American_fur_trade" title="North American fur trade">fur trade</a> in the area known as <a href="/wiki/Rupert%27s_Land" title="Rupert's Land">Rupert's Land</a>, which would later form a large proportion of the <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Dominion of Canada</a>. Forts and trading posts established by the HBC were frequently the subject of attacks by the French, who had established their own fur trading colony in adjacent <a href="/wiki/New_France" title="New France">New France</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBuckner200825-39">[39]</a> Two years later, the <a href="/wiki/Royal_African_Company" title="Royal African Company">Royal African Company</a> was granted a monopoly on the supply of slaves to the British colonies in the Caribbean.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELloyd199637-40">[40]</a> The company would transport more slaves across the Atlantic than any other, and significantly grew England's share of the trade, from 33 per cent in 1673 to 74 per cent in 1683.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPettigrew2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8osqAgAAQBAJpgPA11_11]-41">[41]</a> The removal of this monopoly between 1688 and 1712 allowed independent British slave traders to thrive, leading to a rapid escalation in the number of slaves transported.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPettigrew20073–38-42">[42]</a> British ships carried a third of all slaves shipped across the Atlantic—approximately 3.5 million Africans<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerguson200262-43">[43]</a>—until the abolition of the trade by Parliament in 1807 (see <a href="#Abolition_of_slavery">§ Abolition of slavery</a>).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERichardson202223-44">[44]</a> To facilitate the shipment of slaves, forts were established on the coast of West Africa, such as <a href="/wiki/Kunta_Kinteh_Island" title="Kunta Kinteh Island">James Island</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jamestown,_Ghana" class="mw-redirect" title="Jamestown, Ghana">Accra</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bunce_Island" title="Bunce Island">Bunce Island</a>. In the British Caribbean, the percentage of the population of African descent rose from 25 per cent in 1650 to around 80 per cent in 1780, and in the Thirteen Colonies from 10 per cent to 40 per cent over the same period (the majority in the southern colonies).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECanny1998228-45">[45]</a> The transatlantic slave trade played a pervasive role in British economic life, and became a major economic mainstay for western port cities.<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> Ships registered in <a href="/wiki/Bristol" title="Bristol">Bristol</a>, <a href="/wiki/Liverpool" title="Liverpool">Liverpool</a> and <a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a> were responsible for the bulk of British slave trading.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENellis201330-47">[47]</a> For the transported, harsh and unhygienic conditions on the slaving ships and poor diets meant that the average <a href="/wiki/Mortality_rate" title="Mortality rate">mortality rate</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Passage" title="Middle Passage">Middle Passage</a> was one in seven.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarshall1998440–464-48">[48]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rivalry_with_other_European_empires">Rivalry with other European empires</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/East_India_Company" title="East India Company">East India Company</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fort_St._George,_Chennai.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Fort_St._George%2C_Chennai.jpg/350px-Fort_St._George%2C_Chennai.jpg" decoding="async" width="350" height="226" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Fort_St._George%2C_Chennai.jpg/525px-Fort_St._George%2C_Chennai.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Fort_St._George%2C_Chennai.jpg/700px-Fort_St._George%2C_Chennai.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="826" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Fort_St._George,_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Fort St. George, India">Fort St. George</a> in <a href="/wiki/Chennai" title="Chennai">Madras</a>, India was founded in 1639.</figcaption></figure> At the end of the 16th century, England and the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Dutch Empire">Dutch Empire</a> began to challenge the <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese Empire</a>'s monopoly of trade with Asia, forming private joint-stock companies to finance the voyages—the English, later British, East India Company and the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_East_India_Company" title="Dutch East India Company">Dutch East India Company</a>, chartered in 1600 and 1602 respectively. The primary aim of these companies was to tap into the lucrative <a href="/wiki/Spice_trade" title="Spice trade">spice trade</a>, an effort focused mainly on two regions: the <a href="/wiki/Malay_Archipelago" title="Malay Archipelago">East Indies archipelago</a>, and an important hub in the trade network, India. There, they competed for trade supremacy with Portugal and with each other.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELloyd199613-49">[49]</a> Although England eclipsed the Netherlands as a colonial power, in the short term the Netherlands' more advanced financial system<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerguson200219-50">[50]</a> and the three <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Dutch_Wars" title="Anglo-Dutch Wars">Anglo-Dutch Wars</a> of the 17th century left it with a stronger position in Asia. Hostilities ceased after the <a href="/wiki/Glorious_Revolution" title="Glorious Revolution">Glorious Revolution</a> of 1688 when the Dutch <a href="/wiki/William_III_of_England" title="William III of England">William of Orange</a> ascended the English throne, bringing peace between the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Dutch Republic</a> and England. A deal between the two nations left the <a href="/wiki/Spice_trade" title="Spice trade">spice trade</a> of the <a href="/wiki/East_Indies" title="East Indies">East Indies</a> archipelago to the Netherlands and the <a href="/wiki/Textile_industry_in_India" title="Textile industry in India">textiles industry of India</a> to England, but textiles soon overtook spices in terms of profitability.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerguson200219-50">[50]</a> Peace between England and the Netherlands in 1688 meant the two countries entered the <a href="/wiki/Nine_Years%27_War" title="Nine Years' War">Nine Years' War</a> as allies, but the conflict—waged in Europe and overseas between France, Spain and the Anglo-Dutch alliance—left the English a stronger colonial power than the Dutch, who were forced to devote a larger proportion of their <a href="/wiki/Military_budget" title="Military budget">military budget</a> to the costly land war in Europe.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECanny1998441-51">[51]</a> The death of <a href="/wiki/Charles_II_of_Spain" title="Charles II of Spain">Charles II of Spain</a> in 1700 and his bequeathal of Spain and its colonial empire to <a href="/wiki/Philip_V_of_Spain" title="Philip V of Spain">Philip V of Spain</a>, a grandson of the <a href="/wiki/Louis_XIV_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis XIV of France">King of France</a>, raised the prospect of the unification of France, Spain and their respective colonies, an unacceptable state of affairs for England and the other powers of Europe.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShennan199511–17-52">[52]</a> In 1701, England, Portugal and the Netherlands sided with the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a> against Spain and France in the <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Spanish_Succession" title="War of the Spanish Succession">War of the Spanish Succession</a>, which lasted for thirteen years.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShennan199511–17-52">[52]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Scottish_attempt_to_expand_overseas">Scottish attempt to expand overseas</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Scottish_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Scottish colonization of the Americas">Scottish colonization of the Americas</a></div> In 1695, the <a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_Scotland" title="Parliament of Scotland">Parliament of Scotland</a> granted a charter to the <a href="/wiki/Company_of_Scotland" title="Company of Scotland">Company of Scotland</a>, which established a settlement in 1698 on the <a href="/wiki/Isthmus_of_Panama" title="Isthmus of Panama">Isthmus of Panama</a>. Besieged by neighbouring <a href="/wiki/Spanish_empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Spanish empire">Spanish</a> colonists of <a href="/wiki/New_Kingdom_of_Granada" title="New Kingdom of Granada">New Granada</a>, and affected by <a href="/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria">malaria</a>, the colony was abandoned two years later. The <a href="/wiki/Darien_scheme" title="Darien scheme">Darien scheme</a> was a financial disaster for Scotland: a quarter of Scottish capital was lost in the enterprise.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMagnusson2003531-53">[53]</a> The episode had major political consequences, helping to persuade the government of the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Scotland" title="Kingdom of Scotland">Kingdom of Scotland</a> of the merits of turning the <a href="/wiki/Personal_union" title="Personal union">personal union</a> with <a href="/wiki/England" title="England">England</a> into a political and economic one under the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Great_Britain" title="Kingdom of Great Britain">Kingdom of Great Britain</a> established by the <a href="/wiki/Acts_of_Union_1707" title="Acts of Union 1707">Acts of Union 1707</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacaulay1848509-54">[54]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="British_Empire_(1707–1783)">British Empire (1707–1783)</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Clive.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Clive.jpg/220px-Clive.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="171" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Clive.jpg/330px-Clive.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Clive.jpg/440px-Clive.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2400" data-file-height="1870" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Robert_Clive" title="Robert Clive">Robert Clive</a>'s victory at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Plassey" title="Battle of Plassey">Battle of Plassey</a> established the <a href="/wiki/East_India_Company" title="East India Company">East India Company</a> as both a military and commercial power.</figcaption></figure> The 18th century saw the <a href="/wiki/Acts_of_Union_1707" title="Acts of Union 1707">newly united</a> Great Britain rise to be the world's dominant colonial power, with France becoming its main rival on the imperial stage.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPagden200390-55">[55]</a> Great Britain, Portugal, the Netherlands, and the Holy Roman Empire continued the War of the Spanish Succession, which lasted until 1714 and was concluded by the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Utrecht" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaty of Utrecht">Treaty of Utrecht</a>. <a href="/wiki/Philip_V_of_Spain" title="Philip V of Spain">Philip V of Spain</a> renounced his and his descendants' claim to the French throne, and Spain lost its empire in Europe.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShennan199511–17-52">[52]</a> The British Empire was territorially enlarged: from France, Britain gained <a href="/wiki/Newfoundland_Colony" title="Newfoundland Colony">Newfoundland</a> and <a href="/wiki/Acadia" title="Acadia">Acadia</a>, and from Spain, <a href="/wiki/Gibraltar" title="Gibraltar">Gibraltar</a> and <a href="/wiki/Menorca" title="Menorca">Menorca</a>. Gibraltar became a <a href="/wiki/Gibraltar_Squadron" title="Gibraltar Squadron">critical naval base</a> and allowed Britain to control the <a href="/wiki/Strait_of_Gibraltar" title="Strait of Gibraltar">Atlantic entry and exit point</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean</a>. Spain ceded the rights to the lucrative <a href="/wiki/Asiento" class="mw-redirect" title="Asiento">asiento</a> (permission to sell African slaves in <a href="/wiki/Spanish_America" title="Spanish America">Spanish America</a>) to Britain.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJames200158-56">[56]</a> With the outbreak of the Anglo-Spanish <a href="/wiki/War_of_Jenkins%27_Ear" title="War of Jenkins' Ear">War of Jenkins' Ear</a> in 1739, Spanish privateers attacked British merchant shipping along the <a href="/wiki/Triangle_Trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Triangle Trade">Triangle Trade</a> routes. In 1746, the Spanish and British began peace talks, with the King of Spain agreeing to stop all attacks on British shipping; however, in the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Madrid_(5_October_1750)" title="Treaty of Madrid (5 October 1750)">1750 Treaty of Madrid</a> Britain lost its slave-trading rights in <a href="/wiki/Latin_America" title="Latin America">Latin America</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndersonCombe1801277-57">[57]</a> In the East Indies, British and Dutch merchants continued to compete in spices and textiles. With textiles becoming the larger trade, by 1720, in terms of sales, the British company had overtaken the Dutch.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerguson200219-50">[50]</a> During the middle decades of the 18th century, there were <a href="/wiki/Carnatic_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Carnatic Wars">several outbreaks of military conflict</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</a>, as the English East India Company and its <a href="/wiki/French_East_India_Company" title="French East India Company">French counterpart</a>, struggled alongside local rulers to fill the vacuum that had been left by the decline of the <a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughal Empire</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Plassey" title="Battle of Plassey">Battle of Plassey</a> in 1757, in which the British defeated the <a href="/wiki/Nawab_of_Bengal" class="mw-redirect" title="Nawab of Bengal">Nawab of Bengal</a> and his French allies, left the British East India Company in control of <a href="/wiki/Bengal" title="Bengal">Bengal</a> and as a major military and political power in India.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith199817-58">[58]</a> France was left control of its <a href="/wiki/French_India" title="French India">enclaves</a> but with military restrictions and an obligation to support British <a href="/wiki/Client_state" title="Client state">client states</a>, ending French hopes of controlling India.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBandyopādhyāẏa200449–52-59">[59]</a> In the following decades the British East India Company gradually increased the size of the territories under its control, either ruling directly or via local rulers under the threat of force from the <a href="/wiki/Presidency_Armies" class="mw-redirect" title="Presidency Armies">Presidency Armies</a>, the vast majority of which was composed of Indian <a href="/wiki/Sepoy" title="Sepoy">sepoys</a>, led by British officers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith199818–19-60">[60]</a> The British and French struggles in India became but one theatre of the global <a href="/wiki/Seven_Years%27_War" title="Seven Years' War">Seven Years' War</a> (1756–1763) involving France, Britain, and the other major European powers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBuckner200825-39">[39]</a> The signing of the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Paris_(1763)" title="Treaty of Paris (1763)">Treaty of Paris of 1763</a> had important consequences for the future of the British Empire. In North America, France's future as a colonial power effectively ended with the recognition of British claims to Rupert's Land,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBuckner200825-39">[39]</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_New_France_(1758%E2%80%931760)" class="mw-redirect" title="Conquest of New France (1758–1760)">ceding of New France to Britain</a> (leaving a sizeable <a href="/wiki/French_Canadian" class="mw-redirect" title="French Canadian">French-speaking population</a> under British control) and <a href="/wiki/Louisiana_(New_France)" title="Louisiana (New France)">Louisiana</a> to Spain. Spain ceded Florida to Britain. Along with its victory over France in India, the Seven Years' War therefore left Britain as the world's most powerful <a href="/wiki/Maritime_power" title="Maritime power">maritime power</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPagden200391-61">[61]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Loss_of_the_Thirteen_American_Colonies">Loss of the Thirteen American Colonies</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a>, <a href="/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">American Revolutionary War</a>, <a href="/wiki/Decolonization_of_the_Americas" title="Decolonization of the Americas">Decolonization of the Americas</a>, <a href="/wiki/British_North_America" title="British North America">British North America</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_Canada_(1763%E2%80%931867)" title="History of Canada (1763–1867)">History of Canada (1763–1867)</a>, and <a href="/wiki/War_of_1812" title="War of 1812">War of 1812</a></div> During the 1760s and early 1770s, relations between the Thirteen Colonies and Britain became increasingly strained, primarily because of resentment of the British Parliament's attempts to govern and tax American colonists without their consent.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerguson200284-62">[62]</a> This was summarised at the time by the colonists' slogan "<a href="/wiki/No_taxation_without_representation" title="No taxation without representation">No taxation without representation</a>", a perceived violation of the guaranteed <a href="/wiki/Rights_of_Englishmen" title="Rights of Englishmen">Rights of Englishmen</a>. The <a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a> began with a rejection of Parliamentary authority and moves towards self-government. In response, Britain sent troops to reimpose direct rule, leading to the outbreak of war in 1775. The following year, in 1776, the <a href="/wiki/Second_Continental_Congress" title="Second Continental Congress">Second Continental Congress</a> issued the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" title="United States Declaration of Independence">Declaration of Independence</a> proclaiming the colonies' sovereignty from the British Empire as the new <a href="/wiki/United_States_of_America" class="mw-redirect" title="United States of America">United States of America</a>. The entry of <a href="/wiki/France_in_the_American_Revolutionary_War" title="France in the American Revolutionary War">French</a> and <a href="/wiki/Spain_and_the_American_Revolutionary_War" title="Spain and the American Revolutionary War">Spanish forces</a> into the war tipped the military balance in the Americans' favour and after a decisive defeat at <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Yorktown" title="Siege of Yorktown">Yorktown</a> in 1781, Britain began negotiating peace terms. American independence was acknowledged at the <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Paris_(1783)" title="Peace of Paris (1783)">Peace of Paris</a> in 1783.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarshall1996312–223-63">[63]</a> The loss of such a large portion of <a href="/wiki/British_America" title="British America">British America</a>, at the time Britain's most populous overseas possession, is seen by some historians as the event defining the transition between the first and second empires,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECanny199892-64">[64]</a> in which Britain shifted its attention away from the Americas to Asia, the Pacific and later Africa.<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> <a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Adam Smith</a>'s <a href="/wiki/The_Wealth_of_Nations" title="The Wealth of Nations">Wealth of Nations</a>, published in 1776, had argued that colonies were redundant, and that <a href="/wiki/Free_trade" title="Free trade">free trade</a> should replace the old <a href="/wiki/Mercantilism" title="Mercantilism">mercantilist</a> policies that had characterised the first period of colonial expansion, dating back to the <a href="/wiki/Protectionism" title="Protectionism">protectionism</a> of Spain and Portugal.<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> The growth of trade between the newly independent <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> and Britain after 1783 seemed to confirm Smith's view that political control was not necessary for economic success.<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> The war to the south influenced British policy in Canada, where between 40,000 and 100,000<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZolberg2006496-68">[68]</a> defeated <a href="/wiki/Loyalist_(American_Revolution)" title="Loyalist (American Revolution)">Loyalists</a> had migrated from the new United States following independence.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGames200246–48-69">[69]</a> The 14,000 Loyalists who went to the <a href="/wiki/Saint_John_River_(New_Brunswick)" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint John River (New Brunswick)">Saint John</a> and <a href="/wiki/Saint_Croix_River_(Maine_%E2%80%93_New_Brunswick)" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint Croix River (Maine – New Brunswick)">Saint Croix river</a> valleys, then part of <a href="/wiki/Nova_Scotia" title="Nova Scotia">Nova Scotia</a>, felt too far removed from the provincial government in <a href="/wiki/Halifax,_Nova_Scotia" title="Halifax, Nova Scotia">Halifax</a>, so London split off <a href="/wiki/New_Brunswick" title="New Brunswick">New Brunswick</a> as a separate colony in 1784.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKelleyTrebilcock201043-70">[70]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Act_of_1791" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitutional Act of 1791">Constitutional Act of 1791</a> created the provinces of <a href="/wiki/Upper_Canada" title="Upper Canada">Upper Canada</a> (mainly <a href="/wiki/English_Canada" title="English Canada">English speaking</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Lower_Canada" title="Lower Canada">Lower Canada</a> (mainly <a href="/wiki/French_Canadians" title="French Canadians">French-speaking</a>) to defuse tensions between the French and British communities, and implemented governmental systems similar to those employed in Britain, with the intention of asserting imperial authority and not allowing the sort of popular control of government that was perceived to have led to the American Revolution.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith199828-71">[71]</a> Tensions between Britain and the United States escalated again during the <a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</a>, as Britain tried to cut off American trade with France and boarded American ships to <a href="/wiki/Impressment" title="Impressment">impress</a> men into the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Navy" title="Royal Navy">Royal Navy</a>. The <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">United States Congress</a> declared war, the <a href="/wiki/War_of_1812" title="War of 1812">War of 1812</a>, and invaded Canadian territory. In response, Britain invaded the US, but the pre-war boundaries were reaffirmed by the 1814 <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Ghent" title="Treaty of Ghent">Treaty of Ghent</a>, ensuring Canada's future would be separate from that of the United States.<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="British_Empire_(1783–1815)">British Empire (1783–1815)</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Exploration_of_the_Pacific">Exploration of the Pacific</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Australia_(1788%E2%80%931850)" title="History of Australia (1788–1850)">History of Australia (1788–1850)</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_New_Zealand" title="History of New Zealand">History of New Zealand</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Captainjamescookportrait.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Captainjamescookportrait.jpg/220px-Captainjamescookportrait.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="276" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Captainjamescookportrait.jpg/330px-Captainjamescookportrait.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Captainjamescookportrait.jpg/440px-Captainjamescookportrait.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6131" data-file-height="7692" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/James_Cook" title="James Cook">James Cook</a>'s mission was to find the alleged southern continent <a href="/wiki/Terra_Australis" title="Terra Australis">Terra Australis</a>.</figcaption></figure> Since 1718, <a href="/wiki/Penal_transportation" title="Penal transportation">transportation</a> to the American colonies had been a penalty for various offences in Britain, with approximately one thousand convicts transported per year.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith199820-73">[73]</a> Forced to find an alternative location after the loss of the Thirteen Colonies in 1783, the British government looked for an alternative, eventually turning to <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith199820–21-74">[74]</a> On his first of three voyages commissioned by the government, <a href="/wiki/James_Cook" title="James Cook">James Cook</a> reached New Zealand in October 1769. He was the first European to circumnavigate and map the country.<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> From the late 18th century, the country was regularly visited by explorers and other sailors, <a href="/wiki/Missionaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Missionaries">missionaries</a>, traders and adventurers but no attempt was made to settle the country or establish possession. The <a href="/wiki/New_Holland_(Australia)" title="New Holland (Australia)">coast of Australia</a> had been discovered for Europeans by the Dutch <a href="/wiki/Janszoon_voyage_of_1605%E2%80%9306" class="mw-redirect" title="Janszoon voyage of 1605–06">in 1606</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMulliganHill200120–23-76">[76]</a> but there was no attempt to colonise it. In 1770, after leaving New Zealand, <a href="/wiki/James_Cook" title="James Cook">James Cook</a> charted the eastern coast, claimed the continent for Britain, and named it <a href="/wiki/Colony_of_New_South_Wales" title="Colony of New South Wales">New South Wales</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeters20065–23-77">[77]</a> In 1778, <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Banks" title="Joseph Banks">Joseph Banks</a>, Cook's <a href="/wiki/Botanist" class="mw-redirect" title="Botanist">botanist</a> on the voyage, presented evidence to the government on the suitability of <a href="/wiki/Botany_Bay" title="Botany Bay">Botany Bay</a> for the establishment of a <a href="/wiki/Penal_colony" title="Penal colony">penal settlement</a>, and in 1787 the first shipment of <a href="/wiki/Convicts_in_Australia" title="Convicts in Australia">convicts</a> set sail, arriving in 1788.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJames2001142-78">[78]</a> Unusually, Australia was claimed through proclamation. <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Australians" title="Indigenous Australians">Indigenous Australians</a> were considered too uncivilised to require treaties,<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> and colonisation brought disease and violence that together with the deliberate dispossession of land and culture were devastating to these peoples.<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> Britain continued to transport convicts to New South Wales until 1840, to <a href="/wiki/Colony_of_Tasmania" title="Colony of Tasmania">Tasmania</a> until 1853 and to <a href="/wiki/Colony_of_Western_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Colony of Western Australia">Western Australia</a> until 1868.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrock2011159-81">[81]</a> The Australian colonies became profitable exporters of wool and gold,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFieldhouse1999145–149-82">[82]</a> mainly because of the <a href="/wiki/Victorian_gold_rush" title="Victorian gold rush">Victorian gold rush</a>, making its capital <a href="/wiki/Melbourne" title="Melbourne">Melbourne</a> for a time the richest city in the world.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECervero1998320-83">[83]</a> The British also expanded their mercantile interests in the North Pacific. Spain and Britain had become rivals in the area, culminating in the <a href="/wiki/Nootka_Crisis" title="Nootka Crisis">Nootka Crisis</a> in 1789. Both sides mobilised for war, but when France refused to support Spain it was forced to back down, leading to the <a href="/wiki/Nootka_Convention" title="Nootka Convention">Nootka Convention</a>. The outcome was a humiliation for Spain, which practically renounced all sovereignty on the North Pacific coast.<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> This opened the way to British expansion in the area, and a number of expeditions took place; firstly a <a href="/wiki/Vancouver_Expedition" title="Vancouver Expedition">naval expedition</a> led by <a href="/wiki/George_Vancouver" title="George Vancouver">George Vancouver</a> which explored the inlets around the Pacific North West, particularly around <a href="/wiki/Vancouver_Island" title="Vancouver Island">Vancouver Island</a>.<a href="#cite_note-pethick0-85">[85]</a> On land, expeditions sought to discover a river route to the Pacific for the extension of the <a href="/wiki/North_American_fur_trade" title="North American fur trade">North American fur trade</a>. <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Mackenzie_(explorer)" title="Alexander Mackenzie (explorer)">Alexander Mackenzie</a> of the <a href="/wiki/North_West_Company" title="North West Company">North West Company</a> led the first, starting out in 1792, and a year later he became the first European to reach the Pacific overland north of the <a href="/wiki/Rio_Grande" title="Rio Grande">Rio Grande</a>, reaching the ocean near present-day <a href="/wiki/Bella_Coola,_British_Columbia" title="Bella Coola, British Columbia">Bella Coola</a>. This preceded the <a href="/wiki/Lewis_and_Clark_Expedition" title="Lewis and Clark Expedition">Lewis and Clark Expedition</a> by twelve years. Shortly thereafter, Mackenzie's companion, <a href="/wiki/John_Finlay_(fur_trader)" title="John Finlay (fur trader)">John Finlay</a>, founded the first permanent European settlement in <a href="/wiki/British_Columbia" title="British Columbia">British Columbia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fort_St._John,_British_Columbia" title="Fort St. John, British Columbia">Fort St. John</a>. The North West Company sought further exploration and backed expeditions by <a href="/wiki/David_Thompson_(explorer)" title="David Thompson (explorer)">David Thompson</a>, starting in 1797, and later by <a href="/wiki/Simon_Fraser_(explorer)" title="Simon Fraser (explorer)">Simon Fraser</a>. These pushed into the wilderness territories of the <a href="/wiki/Rocky_Mountains" title="Rocky Mountains">Rocky Mountains</a> and <a href="/wiki/Interior_Plateau" title="Interior Plateau">Interior Plateau</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Strait_of_Georgia" title="Strait of Georgia">Strait of Georgia</a> on the Pacific Coast, expanding <a href="/wiki/British_North_America" title="British North America">British North America</a> westward.<a href="#cite_note-innes-86">[86]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Continued_conquest_in_India">Continued conquest in India</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:342px;max-width:342px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:171px;max-width:171px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:259px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:India-ImperialGazetteer-1765.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/India-ImperialGazetteer-1765.jpg/169px-India-ImperialGazetteer-1765.jpg" decoding="async" width="169" height="260" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/India-ImperialGazetteer-1765.jpg/254px-India-ImperialGazetteer-1765.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/India-ImperialGazetteer-1765.jpg/338px-India-ImperialGazetteer-1765.jpg 2x" data-file-width="781" data-file-height="1200" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:167px;max-width:167px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:259px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:IGI1908India1857b.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/IGI1908India1857b.jpg/165px-IGI1908India1857b.jpg" decoding="async" width="165" height="258" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/IGI1908India1857b.jpg/248px-IGI1908India1857b.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/IGI1908India1857b.jpg/330px-IGI1908India1857b.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1149" data-file-height="1800" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Maps of the <a href="/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</a> in 1765 (left) and 1858 (right) showing British expansion in the region.</div></div></div></div> The East India Company fought a series of <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Mysore_Wars" title="Anglo-Mysore Wars">Anglo-Mysore wars</a> in <a href="/wiki/South_India" title="South India">Southern India</a> with the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Mysore" title="Kingdom of Mysore">Sultanate of Mysore</a> under <a href="/wiki/Hyder_Ali" title="Hyder Ali">Hyder Ali</a> and then <a href="/wiki/Tipu_Sultan" title="Tipu Sultan">Tipu Sultan</a>. Defeats in the <a href="/wiki/First_Anglo-Mysore_War" title="First Anglo-Mysore War">First Anglo-Mysore war</a> and stalemate in the <a href="/wiki/Second_Anglo-Mysore_War" title="Second Anglo-Mysore War">Second</a> were followed by victories in the <a href="/wiki/Third_Anglo-Mysore_War" title="Third Anglo-Mysore War">Third</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Anglo-Mysore_War" title="Fourth Anglo-Mysore War">Fourth</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Naravane3-87">[87]</a> Following Tipu Sultan's death in the fourth war in the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Seringapatam_(1799)" title="Siege of Seringapatam (1799)">Siege of Seringapatam (1799)</a>, the kingdom became a protectorate of the company.<a href="#cite_note-Naravane3-87">[87]</a> The East India Company fought three Anglo-Maratha Wars with the <a href="/wiki/Maratha_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Maratha Empire">Maratha Confederacy</a>. The <a href="/wiki/First_Anglo-Maratha_War" title="First Anglo-Maratha War">First Anglo-Maratha War</a> ended in 1782 with a restoration of the pre-war status quo.<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Second_Anglo-Maratha_War" title="Second Anglo-Maratha War">Second</a> and <a href="/wiki/Third_Anglo-Maratha_War" title="Third Anglo-Maratha War">Third Anglo-Maratha</a> wars resulted in British victories.<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a> After the surrender of Peshwa <a href="/wiki/Baji_Rao_II" title="Baji Rao II">Bajirao II</a> on 1818, the East India Company acquired control of a large majority of the Indian subcontinent.<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Wars_with_France">Wars with France</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/French_Revolutionary_and_Napoleonic_Wars" title="French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars">French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Battle_of_Waterloo_1815.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Battle_of_Waterloo_1815.PNG/330px-Battle_of_Waterloo_1815.PNG" decoding="async" width="330" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Battle_of_Waterloo_1815.PNG/495px-Battle_of_Waterloo_1815.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Battle_of_Waterloo_1815.PNG/660px-Battle_of_Waterloo_1815.PNG 2x" data-file-width="1854" data-file-height="846" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Waterloo" title="Battle of Waterloo">Battle of Waterloo</a> in 1815 ended in the defeat of <a href="/wiki/Napoleon" title="Napoleon">Napoleon</a> and marked the beginning of <a href="/wiki/Pax_Britannica" title="Pax Britannica">Pax Britannica</a>.</figcaption></figure> Britain was challenged again by France under Napoleon, in a struggle that, unlike previous wars, represented a contest of ideologies between the two nations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJames2001152-91">[91]</a> It was not only Britain's position on the world stage that was at risk: Napoleon threatened to invade Britain itself, just as his armies had overrun many countries of <a href="/wiki/Continental_Europe" title="Continental Europe">continental Europe</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJames2001151-92">[92]</a> The Napoleonic Wars were therefore ones in which Britain invested large amounts of capital and resources to win. French ports were blockaded by the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Navy" title="Royal Navy">Royal Navy</a>, which won a decisive victory over a <a href="/wiki/French_Imperial_Navy" title="French Imperial Navy">French Imperial Navy</a>-<a href="/wiki/Spanish_Navy" title="Spanish Navy">Spanish Navy</a> fleet at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Trafalgar" title="Battle of Trafalgar">Battle of Trafalgar</a> in 1805. Overseas colonies were attacked and occupied, including those of the Netherlands, which was annexed by Napoleon in 1810. France was finally defeated by a coalition of European armies in 1815.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELloyd1996115–118-93">[93]</a> Britain was again the beneficiary of peace treaties: France ceded the <a href="/wiki/United_States_of_the_Ionian_Islands" title="United States of the Ionian Islands">Ionian Islands</a>, <a href="/wiki/Malta_Protectorate" title="Malta Protectorate">Malta</a> (which it had occupied in 1798), <a href="/wiki/British_Mauritius" title="British Mauritius">Mauritius</a>, <a href="/wiki/St_Lucia" class="mw-redirect" title="St Lucia">St Lucia</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Seychelles" title="Seychelles">Seychelles</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tobago" title="Tobago">Tobago</a>; Spain ceded <a href="/wiki/Trinidad" title="Trinidad">Trinidad</a>; the Netherlands ceded <a href="/wiki/British_Guiana" title="British Guiana">Guiana</a>, <a href="/wiki/British_Ceylon" title="British Ceylon">Ceylon</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Cape_Colony" title="Cape Colony">Cape Colony</a>, while the Danish ceded <a href="/wiki/British_Administration_of_Heligoland" class="mw-redirect" title="British Administration of Heligoland">Heligoland</a>. Britain returned <a href="/wiki/Guadeloupe" title="Guadeloupe">Guadeloupe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Martinique" title="Martinique">Martinique</a>, <a href="/wiki/French_Guiana" title="French Guiana">French Guiana</a>, and <a href="/wiki/R%C3%A9union" title="Réunion">Réunion</a> to France; <a href="/wiki/Menorca" title="Menorca">Menorca</a> to Spain; <a href="/wiki/Danish_West_Indies" title="Danish West Indies">Danish West Indies</a> to Denmark and <a href="/wiki/Java" title="Java">Java</a> and <a href="/wiki/Suriname" title="Suriname">Suriname</a> to the Netherlands.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJames2001165-94">[94]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Abolition_of_slavery">Abolition of slavery</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Abolitionism in the United Kingdom">Abolitionism in the United Kingdom</a></div> With the advent of the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a>, goods produced by slavery became less important to the <a href="/wiki/British_economy" class="mw-redirect" title="British economy">British economy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a> Added to this was the cost of suppressing regular <a href="/wiki/Slave_rebellion" title="Slave rebellion">slave rebellions</a>. With support from the British <a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Abolitionism in the United Kingdom">abolitionist</a> movement, <a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Parliament of the United Kingdom">Parliament</a> enacted the <a href="/wiki/Slave_Trade_Act_1807" title="Slave Trade Act 1807">Slave Trade Act</a> in 1807, which abolished the <a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery" title="History of slavery">slave trade</a> in the empire. In 1808, <a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone_Colony" class="mw-redirect" title="Sierra Leone Colony">Sierra Leone Colony</a> was designated an official British colony for freed slaves.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPorter199814-96">[96]</a> Parliamentary reform in 1832 saw the influence of the <a href="/wiki/West_India_Committee" title="West India Committee">West India Committee</a> decline. The <a href="/wiki/Slavery_Abolition_Act_1833" title="Slavery Abolition Act 1833">Slavery Abolition Act</a>, passed the following year, abolished slavery in the British Empire on 1 August 1834, finally bringing the empire into line with the law in the UK (with the exception of the territories administered by the East India Company and Ceylon, where slavery was ended in 1844). Under the Act, slaves were granted full emancipation after a period of four to six years of "apprenticeship".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinks2007129-97">[97]</a> Facing further opposition from abolitionists, the apprenticeship system was abolished in 1838.<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> The British government compensated slave-owners.<a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a><a href="#cite_note-Manning-100">[100]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Britain's_imperial_century_(1815–1914)">Britain's imperial century (1815–1914)</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_British_diplomatic_history#1815–1860" title="Timeline of British diplomatic history">Timeline of British diplomatic history § 1815–1860</a>, <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Political_and_diplomatic_history_of_the_Victorian_era" title="Political and diplomatic history of the Victorian era">Political and diplomatic history of the Victorian era</a></div> Between 1815 and 1914, a period referred to as Britain's "imperial century" by some historians,<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a> around 10 million sq mi (26 million km2) of territory and roughly 400 million people were added to the British Empire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParsons19993-102">[102]</a> Victory over Napoleon left Britain without any serious international rival, other than <a href="/wiki/The_Great_Game" class="mw-redirect" title="The Great Game">Russia in Central Asia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPorter1998401-103">[103]</a> Unchallenged at sea, Britain adopted the role of global policeman, a state of affairs later known as the <a href="/wiki/Pax_Britannica" title="Pax Britannica">Pax Britannica</a>,<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a> and a foreign policy of "<a href="/wiki/Splendid_isolation" title="Splendid isolation">splendid isolation</a>".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELee1994254–257-105">[105]</a> Alongside the formal control it exerted over its own colonies, Britain's dominant position in world trade meant that it effectively controlled the economies of many countries, such as China, Argentina and <a href="/wiki/Thailand" title="Thailand">Siam</a>, which has been described by some historians as an "<a href="/wiki/Informal_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Informal Empire">Informal Empire</a>".<a href="#cite_note-Porter_1998_8-6">[6]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Victoria_Disraeli_cartoon.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Victoria_Disraeli_cartoon.jpg/170px-Victoria_Disraeli_cartoon.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="222" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Victoria_Disraeli_cartoon.jpg/255px-Victoria_Disraeli_cartoon.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f2/Victoria_Disraeli_cartoon.jpg 2x" data-file-width="301" data-file-height="393" /></a><figcaption>An 1876 political cartoon of <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Disraeli" title="Benjamin Disraeli">Benjamin Disraeli</a> making Queen Victoria <a href="/wiki/Empress_of_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Empress of India">Empress of India</a>. The caption reads "New crowns for old ones!"</figcaption></figure> British imperial strength was underpinned by the <a href="/wiki/Steamship" title="Steamship">steamship</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Telegraph" class="mw-redirect" title="Telegraph">telegraph</a>, new technologies invented in the second half of the 19th century, allowing it to control and defend the empire. By 1902, the British Empire was linked together by a network of telegraph cables, called the <a href="/wiki/All_Red_Line" title="All Red Line">All Red Line</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDalziel200688–91-106">[106]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="East_India_Company_rule_and_the_British_Raj_in_India">East India Company rule and the British Raj in India</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Presidencies_and_provinces_of_British_India" title="Presidencies and provinces of British India">Presidencies and provinces of British India</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Company_rule_in_India" title="Company rule in India">Company rule in India</a> and <a href="/wiki/British_Raj" title="British Raj">British Raj</a></div> The East India Company drove the expansion of the British Empire in Asia. The company's army had first joined forces with the Royal Navy during the Seven Years' War, and the two continued to co-operate in arenas outside India: the eviction of the French from Egypt (1799),<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMori2014178-107">[107]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Java_(1811)" title="Invasion of Java (1811)">capture of Java</a> from the Netherlands (1811), the <a href="/wiki/Penang_Island#History" title="Penang Island">acquisition of Penang Island</a> (1786), <a href="/wiki/Founding_years_of_modern_Singapore" title="Founding years of modern Singapore">Singapore</a> (1819) and <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Dutch_Treaty_of_1824" title="Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824">Malacca</a> (1824), and the <a href="/wiki/First_Anglo-Burmese_War" title="First Anglo-Burmese War">defeat of Burma</a> (1826).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPorter1998401-103">[103]</a> From its base in India, the company had been engaged in an increasingly profitable opium export trade to <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing China</a> since the 1730s. This trade, illegal since it was outlawed by China in 1729, helped reverse the trade imbalances resulting from the British imports of tea, which saw large outflows of silver from Britain to China.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMartin2007146–148-108">[108]</a> In 1839, the confiscation by the Chinese authorities at <a href="/wiki/Guangzhou" title="Guangzhou">Canton</a> of 20,000 chests of opium led Britain to attack China in the <a href="/wiki/First_Opium_War" title="First Opium War">First Opium War</a>, and resulted in the seizure by Britain of <a href="/wiki/British_Hong_Kong" title="British Hong Kong">Hong Kong Island</a>, at that time a minor settlement, and other <a href="/wiki/Treaty_ports" title="Treaty ports">treaty ports</a> including <a href="/wiki/Shanghai_International_Settlement" title="Shanghai International Settlement">Shanghai</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJanin199928-109">[109]</a> During the late 18th and early 19th centuries, the British Crown began to assume an increasingly large role in the affairs of the company. A series of Acts of Parliament were passed, including the <a href="/wiki/Regulating_Act_of_1773" class="mw-redirect" title="Regulating Act of 1773">Regulating Act of 1773</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pitt%27s_India_Act" title="Pitt's India Act">Pitt's India Act</a> of 1784 and the <a href="/wiki/Charter_Act_of_1813" class="mw-redirect" title="Charter Act of 1813">Charter Act of 1813</a> which regulated the company's affairs and established the sovereignty of the Crown over the territories that it had acquired.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeay1991393-110">[110]</a> The company's eventual end was precipitated by the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Rebellion_of_1857" title="Indian Rebellion of 1857">Indian Rebellion</a> in 1857, a conflict that had begun with the mutiny of sepoys, Indian troops under British officers and discipline.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParsons199944–46-111">[111]</a> The rebellion took six months to suppress, with heavy loss of life on both sides. The following year the British government dissolved the company and assumed direct control over India through the <a href="/wiki/Government_of_India_Act_1858" title="Government of India Act 1858">Government of India Act 1858</a>, establishing the <a href="/wiki/British_Raj" title="British Raj">British Raj</a>, where an appointed <a href="/wiki/Governor-General_of_India" title="Governor-General of India">governor-general</a> administered India and Queen Victoria was crowned the <a href="/wiki/Empress_of_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Empress of India">Empress of India</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith199850–57-112">[112]</a> India became the empire's most valuable possession, "the Jewel in the Crown", and was the most important source of Britain's strength.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown19985-113">[113]</a> A series of serious crop failures in the late 19th century led to <a href="/wiki/Famine_in_India" title="Famine in India">widespread famines</a> on the subcontinent in which it is estimated that over 15 million people died. The East India Company had failed to implement any coordinated policy to deal with the famines during its period of rule. Later, under direct British rule, commissions were set up after each famine to investigate the causes and implement new policies, which took until the early 1900s to have an effect.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarshall1996133–134-114">[114]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="New_Zealand">New Zealand</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Colony_of_New_Zealand" title="Colony of New Zealand">Colony of New Zealand</a></div> On each of his three voyages to the Pacific between 1769 and 1777, James Cook visited <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a>. He was followed by an assortment of Europeans and Americans which including whalers, sealers, escaped convicts from New South Wales, missionaries and adventurers. Initially, contact with the indigenous <a href="/wiki/M%C4%81ori_people" title="Māori people">Māori people</a> was limited to the trading of goods, although interaction increased during the early decades of the 19th century with many trading and missionary stations being set up, especially in the north. The first of several Church of England missionaries arrived in 1814 and as well as their missionary role, they soon become the only form of European authority in a land that was not subject to British jurisdiction: the closest authority being the New South Wales governor in Sydney. The sale of weapons to Māori resulted from 1818 on in the intertribal warfare of the <a href="/wiki/Musket_Wars" title="Musket Wars">Musket Wars</a>, with devastating consequences for the Māori population.<a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a> The UK government finally decided to act, dispatching Captain <a href="/wiki/William_Hobson" title="William Hobson">William Hobson</a> with instructions to take formal possession after obtaining native consent. There was no central Māori authority able to represent all New Zealand so, on 6 February 1840, Hobson and many Māori chiefs signed the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Waitangi" title="Treaty of Waitangi">Treaty of Waitangi</a> in the Bay of Islands; most other chiefs signing in stages over the following months.<a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a> William Hobson declared British sovereignty over all New Zealand on 21 May 1840, over the North Island by cession and over the South Islnd by discovery (the island was sparsely populated and deemed <a href="/wiki/Terra_nullius" title="Terra nullius">terra nullius</a>). Hobson became Lieutenant-Governor, subject to Governor Sir <a href="/wiki/George_Gipps" title="George Gipps">George Gipps</a> in Sydney,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoon200748-117">[117]</a> with British possession of New Zealand initially administered from Australia as a dependency of the New South Wales colony. From 16 June 1840 New South Wales laws applied in New Zealand.<a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a> This transitional arrangement ended with the Charter for Erecting the Colony of New Zealand on 16 November 1840. The Charter stated that New Zealand would be established as a separate <a href="/wiki/Crown_colony" title="Crown colony">Crown colony</a> on 3 May 1841 with Hobson as its governor.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoon201066-119">[119]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rivalry_with_Russia">Rivalry with Russia</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/The_Great_Game" class="mw-redirect" title="The Great Game">The Great Game</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Relief_of_the_Light_Brigade.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Relief_of_the_Light_Brigade.png/220px-Relief_of_the_Light_Brigade.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Relief_of_the_Light_Brigade.png/330px-Relief_of_the_Light_Brigade.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Relief_of_the_Light_Brigade.png/440px-Relief_of_the_Light_Brigade.png 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1056" /></a><figcaption>British cavalry charging against Russian forces at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Balaclava" title="Battle of Balaclava">Balaclava</a> in 1854</figcaption></figure> During the 19th century, Britain and the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a> vied to fill the power vacuums that had been left by the declining <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Qajar_dynasty" title="Qajar dynasty">Qajar dynasty</a> and <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a>. This rivalry in Central Asia came to be known as the "Great Game".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHopkirk19921–12-120">[120]</a> As far as Britain was concerned, defeats inflicted by Russia on <a href="/wiki/Russo-Persian_War_(1826%E2%80%931828)" title="Russo-Persian War (1826–1828)">Persia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_(1828%E2%80%931829)" title="Russo-Turkish War (1828–1829)">Turkey</a> demonstrated its imperial ambitions and capabilities and stoked fears in Britain of an overland invasion of India.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJames2001181-121">[121]</a> In 1839, Britain moved to pre-empt this by invading <a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a>, but the <a href="/wiki/First_Anglo-Afghan_War" title="First Anglo-Afghan War">First Anglo-Afghan War</a> was a disaster for Britain.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJames2001182-122">[122]</a> When Russia invaded the <a href="/wiki/Rumelia" title="Rumelia">Ottoman Balkans</a> in 1853, fears of Russian dominance in the Mediterranean and the Middle East led Britain and France to enter the war in support of the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> and invade the <a href="/wiki/Crimean_Peninsula" class="mw-redirect" title="Crimean Peninsula">Crimean Peninsula</a> to destroy Russian naval capabilities.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJames2001182-122">[122]</a> The ensuing <a href="/wiki/Crimean_War" title="Crimean War">Crimean War</a> (1854–1856), which involved new techniques of <a href="/wiki/Modern_warfare" title="Modern warfare">modern warfare</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoyle2000preface-123">[123]</a> was the only <a href="/wiki/Global_war" class="mw-redirect" title="Global war">global war</a> fought between Britain and another <a href="/wiki/Imperialism" title="Imperialism">imperial power</a> during the Pax Britannica and was a resounding defeat for Russia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJames2001182-122">[122]</a> The situation remained unresolved in Central Asia for two more decades, with Britain annexing <a href="/wiki/Baluchistan_(Chief_Commissioner%27s_Province)" title="Baluchistan (Chief Commissioner's Province)">Baluchistan</a> in 1876 and Russia annexing <a href="/wiki/Kirghizia" class="mw-redirect" title="Kirghizia">Kirghizia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kazakhstan" title="Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Turkmenistan" title="Turkmenistan">Turkmenistan</a>. For a while, it appeared that another war would be inevitable, but the two countries reached an agreement on their respective <a href="/wiki/Sphere_of_influence" title="Sphere of influence">spheres of influence</a> in the region in 1878 and on all outstanding matters in 1907 with the signing of the <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Russian_Entente" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo-Russian Entente">Anglo-Russian Entente</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams1966360–373-124">[124]</a> The destruction of the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Russian_Navy" title="Imperial Russian Navy">Imperial Russian Navy</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Navy" title="Imperial Japanese Navy">Imperial Japanese Navy</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tsushima" title="Battle of Tsushima">Battle of Tsushima</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Russo-Japanese_War" title="Russo-Japanese War">Russo-Japanese War</a> of 1904–1905 limited its threat to the British.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHodge200747-125">[125]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cape_to_Cairo">Cape to Cairo</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/History_of_South_Africa_(1815%E2%80%931910)" title="History of South Africa (1815–1910)">History of South Africa (1815–1910)</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_Egypt_under_the_British" title="History of Egypt under the British">History of Egypt under the British</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Scramble_for_Africa" title="Scramble for Africa">Scramble for Africa</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Punch_Rhodes_Colossus.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Punch_Rhodes_Colossus.png/220px-Punch_Rhodes_Colossus.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="285" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Punch_Rhodes_Colossus.png/330px-Punch_Rhodes_Colossus.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Punch_Rhodes_Colossus.png/440px-Punch_Rhodes_Colossus.png 2x" data-file-width="2069" data-file-height="2681" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/The_Rhodes_Colossus" title="The Rhodes Colossus">The Rhodes Colossus</a>—<a href="/wiki/Cecil_Rhodes" title="Cecil Rhodes">Cecil Rhodes</a> spanning "Cape to Cairo"</figcaption></figure> The Dutch East India Company had founded the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Cape_Colony" title="Dutch Cape Colony">Dutch Cape Colony</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Cape_of_Good_Hope" title="Cape of Good Hope">southern tip of Africa</a> in 1652 as a way station for its ships travelling to and from its colonies in the <a href="/wiki/Indies" class="mw-redirect" title="Indies">East Indies</a>. Britain formally acquired the colony, and its large <a href="/wiki/Afrikaner" class="mw-redirect" title="Afrikaner">Afrikaner</a> (or <a href="/wiki/Boer" class="mw-redirect" title="Boer">Boer</a>) population in 1806, having occupied it in 1795 to prevent its falling into French hands during the <a href="/wiki/Low_Countries_theatre_of_the_War_of_the_First_Coalition" title="Low Countries theatre of the War of the First Coalition">Flanders Campaign</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith199885-126">[126]</a> British immigration to the <a href="/wiki/Cape_Colony" title="Cape Colony">Cape Colony</a> began to rise after 1820, and pushed thousands of <a href="/wiki/Boers" title="Boers">Boers</a>, resentful of British rule, northwards to found their own—mostly short-lived—<a href="/wiki/Boer_republics" title="Boer republics">independent republics</a>, during the <a href="/wiki/Great_Trek" title="Great Trek">Great Trek</a> of the late 1830s and early 1840s.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith199885–86-127">[127]</a> In the process the <a href="/wiki/Voortrekkers" class="mw-redirect" title="Voortrekkers">Voortrekkers</a> clashed repeatedly with the British, who had their own agenda with regard to colonial expansion in South Africa and to the various native African polities, including those of the <a href="/wiki/Sotho_people" title="Sotho people">Sotho people</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Zulu_Kingdom" title="Zulu Kingdom">Zulu Kingdom</a>. Eventually, the Boers established two republics that had a longer lifespan: the <a href="/wiki/South_African_Republic" title="South African Republic">South African Republic</a> or Transvaal Republic (1852–1877; 1881–1902) and the <a href="/wiki/Orange_Free_State" title="Orange Free State">Orange Free State</a> (1854–1902).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELloyd1996168,_186,_243-128">[128]</a> In 1902 Britain occupied both republics, concluding a treaty with the two <a href="/wiki/Boer_Republics" class="mw-redirect" title="Boer Republics">Boer Republics</a> following the <a href="/wiki/Second_Boer_War" title="Second Boer War">Second Boer War</a> (1899–1902).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELloyd1996255-129">[129]</a> In 1869 the <a href="/wiki/Suez_Canal" title="Suez Canal">Suez Canal</a> opened under <a href="/wiki/Napoleon_III_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Napoleon III of France">Napoleon III</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indo-Mediterranean" title="Indo-Mediterranean">linking</a> the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean Sea</a> with the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a>. Initially the Canal was opposed by the British;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETilby2009256-130">[130]</a> but once opened, its strategic value was quickly recognised and became the "jugular vein of the Empire".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELouis1986718-131">[131]</a> In 1875, the <a href="/wiki/Conservative_Party_(UK)" title="Conservative Party (UK)">Conservative</a> government of <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Disraeli" title="Benjamin Disraeli">Benjamin Disraeli</a> bought the indebted Egyptian ruler <a href="/wiki/Isma%27il_Pasha" class="mw-redirect" title="Isma'il Pasha">Isma'il Pasha</a>'s 44 per cent shareholding in the Suez Canal for £4 million (equivalent to £480 million in 2023). Although this did not grant outright control of the strategic waterway, it did give Britain leverage. Joint Anglo-French financial control over Egypt ended in outright British occupation in 1882.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerguson2002230–233-132">[132]</a> Although Britain controlled the <a href="/wiki/Khedivate_of_Egypt" title="Khedivate of Egypt">Khedivate of Egypt</a> into the 20th century, it was officially a <a href="/wiki/Vassal_and_tributary_states_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Vassal and tributary states of the Ottoman Empire">vassal state of the Ottoman Empire</a> and not part of the British Empire. The French were still majority shareholders and attempted to weaken the British position,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJames2001274-133">[133]</a> but a compromise was reached with the 1888 <a href="/wiki/Convention_of_Constantinople" title="Convention of Constantinople">Convention of Constantinople</a>, which made the Canal officially neutral territory.<a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a> With competitive French, <a href="/wiki/Belgian_colonial_empire" title="Belgian colonial empire">Belgian</a> and Portuguese activity in the lower <a href="/wiki/Congo_River" title="Congo River">Congo River</a> region undermining orderly colonisation of tropical Africa, the <a href="/wiki/Berlin_Conference" title="Berlin Conference">Berlin Conference</a> of 1884–85 was held to regulate the competition between the European powers in what was called the "<a href="/wiki/Scramble_for_Africa" title="Scramble for Africa">Scramble for Africa</a>" by defining "effective occupation" as the criterion for international recognition of territorial claims.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerbst200071–72-135">[135]</a> The scramble continued into the 1890s, and caused Britain to reconsider its decision in 1885 to withdraw from <a href="/wiki/Sudan" title="Sudan">Sudan</a>. A joint force of British and Egyptian troops defeated the <a href="/wiki/Mahdist_War" title="Mahdist War">Mahdist Army</a> in 1896 and rebuffed an attempted French invasion <a href="/wiki/Fashoda_Incident" title="Fashoda Incident">at Fashoda</a> in 1898. Sudan was nominally made an <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Egyptian_Sudan" title="Anglo-Egyptian Sudan">Anglo-Egyptian condominium</a>, but a British colony in reality.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVandervort1998169–183-136">[136]</a> British gains in Southern and East Africa prompted <a href="/wiki/Cecil_Rhodes" title="Cecil Rhodes">Cecil Rhodes</a>, pioneer of British expansion in <a href="/wiki/Southern_Africa" title="Southern Africa">Southern Africa</a>, to urge a "<a href="/wiki/Cape_to_Cairo_Railway" title="Cape to Cairo Railway">Cape to Cairo</a>" railway linking the strategically important Suez Canal to the mineral-rich south of the continent.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJames2001298-137">[137]</a> During the 1880s and 1890s, Rhodes, with his privately owned <a href="/wiki/British_South_Africa_Company" title="British South Africa Company">British South Africa Company</a>, <a href="/wiki/Company_rule_in_Rhodesia" title="Company rule in Rhodesia">occupied and annexed</a> territories named after him, <a href="/wiki/Rhodesia_(name)" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhodesia (name)">Rhodesia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELloyd1996215-138">[138]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Changing_status_of_the_white_colonies">Changing status of the white colonies</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Dominions" class="mw-redirect" title="Dominions">Dominions</a>, <a href="/wiki/Canadian_Confederation" title="Canadian Confederation">Canadian Confederation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Federation_of_Australia" title="Federation of Australia">Federation of Australia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Irish_Home_Rule_movement" title="Irish Home Rule movement">Irish Home Rule movement</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Independence_of_New_Zealand" title="Independence of New Zealand">Independence of New Zealand</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:British_Empire_flag_RMG_L0088.tiff" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/British_Empire_flag_RMG_L0088.tiff/lossy-page1-220px-British_Empire_flag_RMG_L0088.tiff.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/British_Empire_flag_RMG_L0088.tiff/lossy-page1-330px-British_Empire_flag_RMG_L0088.tiff.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/British_Empire_flag_RMG_L0088.tiff/lossy-page1-440px-British_Empire_flag_RMG_L0088.tiff.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6942" data-file-height="3928" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/British_Empire_flag" title="British Empire flag">British Empire flag</a> combining the arms of the dominions to represent their growing significance</figcaption></figure> The path to independence for the white colonies of the British Empire began with the 1839 <a href="/wiki/Report_on_the_Affairs_of_British_North_America" class="mw-redirect" title="Report on the Affairs of British North America">Durham Report</a>, which proposed unification and self-government for Upper and Lower Canada, as a solution to political unrest which had erupted in <a href="/wiki/Rebellions_of_1837" class="mw-redirect" title="Rebellions of 1837">armed rebellions</a> in 1837.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith199828–29-139">[139]</a> This began with the passing of the <a href="/wiki/Act_of_Union_1840" title="Act of Union 1840">Act of Union</a> in 1840, which created the <a href="/wiki/Province_of_Canada" title="Province of Canada">Province of Canada</a>. <a href="/wiki/Responsible_government" title="Responsible government">Responsible government</a> was first granted to Nova Scotia in 1848, and was soon extended to the other British North American colonies. With the passage of the <a href="/wiki/British_North_America_Act,_1867" class="mw-redirect" title="British North America Act, 1867">British North America Act, 1867</a> by the <a href="/wiki/British_Parliament" class="mw-redirect" title="British Parliament">British Parliament</a>, the Province of Canada, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia were formed into Canada, a confederation enjoying full self-government with the exception of <a href="/wiki/International_relations" title="International relations">international relations</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPorter1998187-140">[140]</a> Australia and New Zealand achieved similar levels of self-government after 1900, with the Australian colonies <a href="/wiki/Federation_of_Australia" title="Federation of Australia">federating in 1901</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith199830-141">[141]</a> The term "dominion status" was officially introduced at the <a href="/wiki/1907_Imperial_Conference" title="1907 Imperial Conference">1907 Imperial Conference</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERhodesWannaWeller20095–15-142">[142]</a> As the dominions gained greater autonomy, they would come to be recognized as distinct realms of the empire with unique customs and symbols of their own. Imperial identity, through imagery such as patriotic artworks and banners, began developing into a form that attempted to be more inclusive by showcasing the empire as a family of newly birthed nations with common roots.<a href="#cite_note-:12-143">[143]</a><a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a> The last decades of the 19th century saw concerted <a href="/wiki/Political_campaign" title="Political campaign">political campaigns</a> for Irish <a href="/wiki/Home_rule" title="Home rule">home rule</a>. Ireland had been united with Britain into the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland with the <a href="/wiki/Act_of_Union_1800" class="mw-redirect" title="Act of Union 1800">Act of Union 1800</a> after the <a href="/wiki/Irish_Rebellion_of_1798" title="Irish Rebellion of 1798">Irish Rebellion of 1798</a>, and had suffered a severe <a href="/wiki/Great_Famine_(Ireland)" title="Great Famine (Ireland)">famine</a> between 1845 and 1852. Home rule was supported by the British <a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Prime Minister of the United Kingdom">prime minister</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_Ewart_Gladstone" title="William Ewart Gladstone">William Gladstone</a>, who hoped that Ireland might follow in Canada's footsteps as a Dominion within the empire, but his 1886 <a href="/wiki/Government_of_Ireland_Bill_1886" title="Government of Ireland Bill 1886">Home Rule bill</a> was defeated in Parliament. Although the bill, if passed, would have granted Ireland less autonomy within the UK than the Canadian provinces had within their own federation,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELloyd1996213-145">[145]</a> many MPs feared that a partially independent Ireland might pose a security threat to Great Britain or mark the beginning of the break-up of the empire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJames2001315-146">[146]</a> A <a href="/wiki/Irish_Government_Bill_1893" class="mw-redirect" title="Irish Government Bill 1893">second Home Rule bill</a> was defeated for similar reasons.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJames2001315-146">[146]</a> A <a href="/wiki/Home_Rule_Act_1914" class="mw-redirect" title="Home Rule Act 1914">third bill</a> was passed by Parliament in 1914, but not implemented because of the outbreak of the <a href="/wiki/First_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="First World War">First World War</a> leading to the 1916 <a href="/wiki/Easter_Rising" title="Easter Rising">Easter Rising</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith199892-147">[147]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="World_wars_(1914–1945)">World wars (1914–1945)</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Empire_Needs_Men_WWI.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/The_Empire_Needs_Men_WWI.jpg/170px-The_Empire_Needs_Men_WWI.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="251" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/The_Empire_Needs_Men_WWI.jpg/255px-The_Empire_Needs_Men_WWI.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/The_Empire_Needs_Men_WWI.jpg/340px-The_Empire_Needs_Men_WWI.jpg 2x" data-file-width="407" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>A poster urging men from countries of the British Empire to enlist</figcaption></figure> By the turn of the 20th century, fears had begun to grow in Britain that it would no longer be able to defend the <a href="/wiki/Metropole" title="Metropole">metropole</a> and the entirety of the empire while at the same time maintaining the policy of "splendid isolation".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Brien20041-148">[148]</a> <a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">Germany</a> was rapidly rising as a military and industrial power and was now seen as the most likely opponent in any future war. Recognising that it was overstretched in the Pacific<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown1998667-149">[149]</a> and threatened at home by the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_German_Navy" title="Imperial German Navy">Imperial German Navy</a>, Britain <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Japanese_Alliance" title="Anglo-Japanese Alliance">formed an alliance with Japan</a> in 1902 and with its old enemies <a href="/wiki/Entente_cordiale" class="mw-redirect" title="Entente cordiale">France</a> and Russia in 1904 and 1907, respectively.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELloyd1996275-150">[150]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="First_World_War">First World War</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_Kingdom_during_the_First_World_War" title="History of the United Kingdom during the First World War">History of the United Kingdom during the First World War</a></div> Britain's fears of war with Germany were realised in 1914 with the outbreak of the First World War. Britain quickly invaded and occupied most of Germany's overseas colonies in Africa. In the Pacific, Australia and New Zealand occupied <a href="/wiki/German_New_Guinea" title="German New Guinea">German New Guinea</a> and <a href="/wiki/German_Samoa" title="German Samoa">German Samoa</a> respectively. Plans for a post-war division of the Ottoman Empire, which had joined the war on Germany's side, were secretly drawn up by Britain and France under the 1916 <a href="/wiki/Sykes%E2%80%93Picot_Agreement" title="Sykes–Picot Agreement">Sykes–Picot Agreement</a>. This agreement was not divulged to the <a href="/wiki/Hussein_bin_Ali,_Sharif_of_Mecca" class="mw-redirect" title="Hussein bin Ali, Sharif of Mecca">Sharif of Mecca</a>, who the British had been encouraging to launch an Arab revolt against their Ottoman rulers, giving the impression that Britain was supporting the creation of an independent Arab state.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown1998494–495-151">[151]</a> The British declaration of war on Germany and its allies committed the colonies and Dominions, which provided invaluable military, financial and material support. Over 2.5 million men served in the armies of the <a href="/wiki/Dominion" title="Dominion">Dominions</a>, as well as many thousands of volunteers from the Crown colonies.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarshall199678–79-152">[152]</a> The contributions of Australian and New Zealand troops during the 1915 <a href="/wiki/Gallipoli_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Gallipoli Campaign">Gallipoli Campaign</a> against the Ottoman Empire had a great impact on the national consciousness at home and marked a watershed in the transition of Australia and New Zealand from colonies to nations in their own right. The countries continue to commemorate this occasion on <a href="/wiki/Anzac_Day" title="Anzac Day">Anzac Day</a>. Canadians viewed the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Vimy_Ridge" title="Battle of Vimy Ridge">Battle of Vimy Ridge</a> in a similar light.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELloyd1996277-153">[153]</a> The important contribution of the Dominions to the <a href="/wiki/War_effort" title="War effort">war effort</a> was recognised in 1917 by British prime minister <a href="/wiki/David_Lloyd_George" title="David Lloyd George">David Lloyd George</a> when he invited each of the Dominion prime ministers to join an <a href="/wiki/Imperial_War_Cabinet" title="Imperial War Cabinet">Imperial War Cabinet</a> to co-ordinate imperial policy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELloyd1996278-154">[154]</a> Under the terms of the concluding <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles" title="Treaty of Versailles">Treaty of Versailles</a> signed in 1919, the empire reached its greatest extent with the addition of 1.8 million sq mi (4.7 million km2) and 13 million new subjects.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerguson2002315-155">[155]</a> The colonies of Germany and the Ottoman Empire were distributed to the Allied powers as <a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations_mandate" title="League of Nations mandate">League of Nations mandates</a>. Britain gained control of <a href="/wiki/Mandatory_Palestine" title="Mandatory Palestine">Palestine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_Transjordan" title="Emirate of Transjordan">Transjordan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Iraq_(Mandate_administration)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Iraq (Mandate administration)">Iraq</a>, parts of <a href="/wiki/British_Cameroons" title="British Cameroons">Cameroon</a> and <a href="/wiki/British_Togoland" title="British Togoland">Togoland</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tanganyika_(territory)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tanganyika (territory)">Tanganyika</a>. The Dominions themselves acquired mandates of their own: the <a href="/wiki/Union_of_South_Africa" title="Union of South Africa">Union of South Africa</a> gained South West Africa (modern-day <a href="/wiki/Namibia" title="Namibia">Namibia</a>), Australia gained <a href="/wiki/Territory_of_New_Guinea" title="Territory of New Guinea">New Guinea</a>, and New Zealand <a href="/wiki/Western_Samoa_Trust_Territory" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Samoa Trust Territory">Western Samoa</a>. <a href="/wiki/History_of_Nauru#World_War_I_to_World_War_II" title="History of Nauru">Nauru</a> was made a combined mandate of Britain and the two Pacific Dominions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFox200823–29,_35,_60-156">[156]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Inter-war_period">Inter-war period</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Interwar_Britain" title="Interwar Britain">Interwar Britain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Irish_revolutionary_period" title="Irish revolutionary period">Irish revolutionary period</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indian_independence_movement" title="Indian independence movement">Indian independence movement</a>, <a href="/wiki/Partition_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Partition of the Ottoman Empire">Partition of the Ottoman Empire</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Nations" title="Commonwealth of Nations">Commonwealth of Nations</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:British_Empire_1921.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/British_Empire_1921.png/400px-British_Empire_1921.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/British_Empire_1921.png/600px-British_Empire_1921.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/British_Empire_1921.png/800px-British_Empire_1921.png 2x" data-file-width="1425" data-file-height="625" /></a><figcaption>The British Empire at its territorial peak in 1921</figcaption></figure> The changing world order that the war had brought about, in particular the growth of the United States and Japan as naval powers, and the rise of independence movements in India and Ireland, caused a major reassessment of British imperial policy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldstein19944-157">[157]</a> Forced to choose between alignment with the United States or Japan, Britain opted not to renew its <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Japanese_Alliance" title="Anglo-Japanese Alliance">Anglo-Japanese Alliance</a> and instead signed the 1922 <a href="/wiki/Washington_Naval_Treaty" title="Washington Naval Treaty">Washington Naval Treaty</a>, where Britain accepted naval parity with the United States.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELouis2006302-158">[158]</a> This decision was the source of much debate in Britain during the 1930s<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELouis2006294-159">[159]</a> as militaristic governments took hold in Germany and Japan helped in part by the <a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a>, for it was feared that the empire could not survive a simultaneous attack by both nations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELouis2006303-160">[160]</a> The issue of the empire's security was a serious concern in Britain, as it was vital to the <a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Economy of the United Kingdom">British economy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELee1996305-161">[161]</a> In 1919, the frustrations caused by delays to <a href="/wiki/Irish_Home_Rule_movement" title="Irish Home Rule movement">Irish home rule</a> led the MPs of <a href="/wiki/Sinn_F%C3%A9in" title="Sinn Féin">Sinn Féin</a>, a pro-independence party that had won a majority of the Irish seats in the <a href="/wiki/1918_Irish_general_election" class="mw-redirect" title="1918 Irish general election">1918 British general election</a>, to establish an <a href="/wiki/D%C3%A1il_%C3%89ireann_(Irish_Republic)" title="Dáil Éireann (Irish Republic)">independent parliament</a> in <a href="/wiki/Dublin" title="Dublin">Dublin</a>, at which <a href="/wiki/Irish_Declaration_of_Independence" title="Irish Declaration of Independence">Irish independence was declared</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Irish_Republican_Army" title="Irish Republican Army">Irish Republican Army</a> simultaneously began a <a href="/wiki/Guerrilla_warfare" title="Guerrilla warfare">guerrilla war</a> against the British administration.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown1998143-162">[162]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Irish_War_of_Independence" title="Irish War of Independence">Irish War of Independence</a> ended in 1921 with a stalemate and the signing of the <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Irish_Treaty" title="Anglo-Irish Treaty">Anglo-Irish Treaty</a>, creating the <a href="/wiki/Irish_Free_State" title="Irish Free State">Irish Free State</a>, a Dominion within the British Empire, with effective internal independence but still constitutionally linked with the British Crown.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith199895-163">[163]</a> <a href="/wiki/Northern_Ireland" title="Northern Ireland">Northern Ireland</a>, consisting of six of the 32 <a href="/wiki/Counties_of_Ireland" title="Counties of Ireland">Irish counties</a> which had been established as a devolved region under the 1920 <a href="/wiki/Government_of_Ireland_Act_1920" title="Government of Ireland Act 1920">Government of Ireland Act</a>, immediately exercised its option under the treaty to retain its existing status within the United Kingdom.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMagee1974108-164">[164]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ImperialConference.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/ImperialConference.jpg/220px-ImperialConference.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/ImperialConference.jpg/330px-ImperialConference.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/ImperialConference.jpg/440px-ImperialConference.jpg 2x" data-file-width="635" data-file-height="506" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/George_V" title="George V">George V</a> (Seated front) with British and Dominion prime ministers at the <a href="/wiki/1926_Imperial_Conference" title="1926 Imperial Conference">1926 Imperial Conference</a>. Standing (left to right): <a href="/wiki/Walter_Stanley_Monroe" title="Walter Stanley Monroe">W.S. Monroe</a> (<a href="/wiki/Premier_of_Newfoundland_and_Labrador" title="Premier of Newfoundland and Labrador">Newfoundland</a>), <a href="/wiki/Gordon_Coates" title="Gordon Coates">Gordon Coates</a> (<a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_New_Zealand" title="Prime Minister of New Zealand">New Zealand</a>), <a href="/wiki/Stanley_Bruce" title="Stanley Bruce">Stanley Bruce</a> (<a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Australia" title="Prime Minister of Australia">Australia</a>), <a href="/wiki/J._B._M._Hertzog" title="J. B. M. Hertzog">J. B. M. Hertzog</a> (<a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_South_Africa" title="Prime Minister of South Africa">Union of South Africa</a>), <a href="/wiki/W._T._Cosgrave" title="W. T. Cosgrave">W. T. Cosgrave</a> (<a href="/wiki/President_of_the_Executive_Council_of_the_Irish_Free_State" title="President of the Executive Council of the Irish Free State">Irish Free State</a>). Seated left: <a href="/wiki/Stanley_Baldwin" title="Stanley Baldwin">Stanley Baldwin</a> (<a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Prime Minister of the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>), seated right: <a href="/wiki/William_Lyon_Mackenzie_King" title="William Lyon Mackenzie King">William Mackenzie King</a> (<a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Canada" title="Prime Minister of Canada">Canada</a>)</figcaption></figure> A similar struggle began in India when the <a href="/wiki/Government_of_India_Act_1919" title="Government of India Act 1919">Government of India Act 1919</a> failed to satisfy the demand for independence.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerguson2002330-165">[165]</a> Concerns over communist and foreign plots following the <a href="/wiki/Ghadar_conspiracy" class="mw-redirect" title="Ghadar conspiracy">Ghadar conspiracy</a> ensured that war-time strictures were renewed by the <a href="/wiki/Rowlatt_Act" title="Rowlatt Act">Rowlatt Acts</a>. This led to tension,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJames2001416-166">[166]</a> particularly in the <a href="/wiki/Punjab_region" class="mw-redirect" title="Punjab region">Punjab region</a>, where repressive measures culminated in the <a href="/wiki/Jallianwala_Bagh_massacre" title="Jallianwala Bagh massacre">Amritsar Massacre</a>. In Britain, public opinion was divided over the morality of the massacre, between those who saw it as having saved India from anarchy, and those who viewed it with revulsion.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJames2001416-166">[166]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Non-cooperation_movement_(1909%E2%80%9322)" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-cooperation movement (1909–22)">non-cooperation movement</a> was called off in March 1922 following the <a href="/wiki/Chauri_Chaura_incident" title="Chauri Chaura incident">Chauri Chaura incident</a>, and discontent continued to simmer for the next 25 years.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELow1966241–259-167">[167]</a> In 1922, Egypt, which had been declared a British <a href="/wiki/Protectorate" title="Protectorate">protectorate</a> at the outbreak of the First World War, was <a href="/wiki/Unilateral_Declaration_of_Egyptian_Independence" title="Unilateral Declaration of Egyptian Independence">granted formal independence</a>, though it continued to be a British client state until 1954. <a href="/wiki/British_Army" title="British Army">British troops</a> remained stationed in Egypt until the signing of the <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Egyptian_treaty_of_1936" title="Anglo-Egyptian treaty of 1936">Anglo-Egyptian Treaty</a> in 1936,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith1998104-168">[168]</a> under which it was agreed that the troops would withdraw but continue to occupy and defend the Suez Canal zone. In return, Egypt was assisted in joining the <a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations" title="League of Nations">League of Nations</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown1998292-169">[169]</a> Iraq, a British mandate since 1920, gained membership of the League in its own right after achieving independence from Britain in 1932.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith1998101-170">[170]</a> In Palestine, Britain was presented with the problem of mediating between the Arabs and increasing numbers of Jews. The <a href="/wiki/Balfour_Declaration" title="Balfour Declaration">Balfour Declaration</a>, which had been incorporated into the terms of the mandate, stated that a national home for the Jewish people would be established in Palestine, and Jewish immigration allowed up to a limit that would be determined by the mandatory power.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELouis2006271-171">[171]</a> This led to increasing conflict with the Arab population, who openly <a href="/wiki/1936%E2%80%9339_Arab_revolt_in_Palestine" class="mw-redirect" title="1936–39 Arab revolt in Palestine">revolted in 1936</a>. As the threat of war with Germany increased during the 1930s, Britain judged the support of Arabs as more important than the establishment of a Jewish homeland, and shifted to a pro-Arab stance, limiting Jewish immigration and in turn triggering a <a href="/wiki/Jewish_insurgency_in_Palestine" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish insurgency in Palestine">Jewish insurgency</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown1998494–495-151">[151]</a> The right of the Dominions to set their own foreign policy, independent of Britain, was recognised at the <a href="/wiki/1923_Imperial_Conference" title="1923 Imperial Conference">1923 Imperial Conference</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcIntyre1977187-172">[172]</a> Britain's request for military assistance from the Dominions at the outbreak of the <a href="/wiki/Chanak_Crisis" class="mw-redirect" title="Chanak Crisis">Chanak Crisis</a> the previous year had been turned down by Canada and South Africa, and Canada had refused to be bound by the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Lausanne_(1923)" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaty of Lausanne (1923)">1923 Treaty of Lausanne</a>.<a href="#cite_note-173">[173]</a> After pressure from the Irish Free State and South Africa, the <a href="/wiki/1926_Imperial_Conference" title="1926 Imperial Conference">1926 Imperial Conference</a> issued the <a href="/wiki/Balfour_Declaration_of_1926" title="Balfour Declaration of 1926">Balfour Declaration of 1926</a>, declaring Britain and the Dominions to be "autonomous Communities within the British Empire, equal in status, in no way subordinate one to another" within a "British Commonwealth of Nations".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown199869-174">[174]</a> This declaration was given legal substance under the 1931 <a href="/wiki/Statute_of_Westminster_1931" title="Statute of Westminster 1931">Statute of Westminster</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERhodesWannaWeller20095–15-142">[142]</a> The parliaments of Canada, Australia, New Zealand, the Union of South Africa, the Irish Free State and <a href="/wiki/Dominion_of_Newfoundland" title="Dominion of Newfoundland">Newfoundland</a> were now independent of British legislative control, they could nullify <a href="/wiki/Law_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Law of the United Kingdom">British laws</a> and Britain could no longer pass laws for them without their consent.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETurpinTomkins200748-175">[175]</a> Newfoundland reverted to colonial status in 1933, suffering from financial difficulties during the Great Depression.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELloyd1996300-176">[176]</a> In 1937 the Irish Free State introduced a <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Ireland" title="Constitution of Ireland">republican constitution</a> renaming itself Ireland.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGalligan1995122-177">[177]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Second_World_War">Second World War</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/British_Empire_in_World_War_II" title="British Empire in World War II">British Empire in World War II</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:El_Alamein_1942_-_British_infantry.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/El_Alamein_1942_-_British_infantry.jpg/220px-El_Alamein_1942_-_British_infantry.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="219" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/El_Alamein_1942_-_British_infantry.jpg/330px-El_Alamein_1942_-_British_infantry.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/El_Alamein_1942_-_British_infantry.jpg/440px-El_Alamein_1942_-_British_infantry.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1784" data-file-height="1772" /></a><figcaption>During the <a href="/wiki/Second_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second World War">Second World War</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Eighth_Army_(United_Kingdom)" title="Eighth Army (United Kingdom)">Eighth Army</a> was made up of units from many different countries in the British Empire and Commonwealth; it fought in the <a href="/wiki/North_African_campaign" title="North African campaign">North African</a> and <a href="/wiki/Italian_Campaign_(World_War_II)" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian Campaign (World War II)">Italian</a> campaigns.</figcaption></figure> Britain's declaration of war against <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a> in September 1939 included the Crown colonies and India but did not automatically commit the Dominions of Australia, Canada, New Zealand, Newfoundland and South Africa. All soon declared war on Germany. While Britain continued to regard Ireland as still within the British Commonwealth, Ireland chose to remain <a href="/wiki/Irish_neutrality_during_World_War_II" title="Irish neutrality during World War II">legally neutral</a> throughout <a href="/wiki/The_Emergency_(Ireland)" title="The Emergency (Ireland)">the war</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELloyd1996313–314-178">[178]</a> After the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Fall of France">Fall of France</a> in June 1940, Britain and the empire stood alone against Germany, until the <a href="/wiki/German_invasion_of_Greece" title="German invasion of Greece">German invasion of Greece</a> on 7 April 1941. British Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Winston_Churchill" title="Winston Churchill">Winston Churchill</a> successfully lobbied President <a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a> for <a href="/wiki/Military_aid" title="Military aid">military aid</a> from the United States, but Roosevelt was not yet ready to ask <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">Congress</a> to commit the country to war.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGilbert2005234-179">[179]</a> In August 1941, Churchill and Roosevelt met and signed the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Charter" title="Atlantic Charter">Atlantic Charter</a>, which included the statement that "the rights of all peoples to choose the <a href="/wiki/Form_of_government" class="mw-redirect" title="Form of government">form of government</a> under which they live" should be respected. This wording was ambiguous as to whether it referred to European countries invaded by Germany and Italy, or the peoples colonised by European nations, and would later be interpreted differently by the British, Americans, and nationalist movements.<a href="#cite_note-180">[180]</a> Nevertheless, Churchill rejected its universal applicability when it came to the self-determination of subject nations including the <a href="/wiki/British_Raj" title="British Raj">British Indian Empire</a>. Churchill further added that he did not become Prime Minister to oversee the liquidation of the empire.<a href="#cite_note-i203-181">[181]</a> For Churchill, the entry of the United States into the war was the "greatest joy".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChurchill1950539-182">[182]</a> He felt that Britain was now assured of victory,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGilbert2005244-183">[183]</a> but failed to recognise that the "many disasters, immeasurable costs and tribulations [which he knew] lay ahead"<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChurchill1950540-184">[184]</a> in December 1941 would have permanent consequences for the future of the empire. The manner in which British forces were rapidly defeated in the Far East irreversibly harmed Britain's standing and prestige as an imperial power,<a href="#cite_note-185">[185]</a> including, particularly, the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Singapore" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Singapore">Fall of Singapore</a>, which had previously been hailed as an impregnable fortress and the eastern equivalent of Gibraltar.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJames2001460-186">[186]</a> The realisation that Britain could not defend its entire empire pushed Australia and New Zealand, which now appeared threatened by Japanese forces, into closer ties with the United States and, ultimately, the 1951 <a href="/wiki/ANZUS" title="ANZUS">ANZUS Pact</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELloyd1996316-187">[187]</a> The war weakened the empire in other ways: undermining Britain's control of politics in India, inflicting long-term economic damage, and irrevocably changing <a href="/wiki/Geopolitics" title="Geopolitics">geopolitics</a> by pushing the Soviet Union and the United States to the centre of the global stage.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDarwin2012340-188">[188]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Decolonisation_and_decline_(1945–1997)">Decolonisation and decline (1945–1997)</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Decolonization" title="Decolonization">Decolonization</a></div> Though Britain and the empire emerged victorious from the Second World War, the effects of the conflict were profound, both at home and abroad. Much of Europe, a continent that had dominated the world for several centuries, was in ruins, and host to the armies of the United States and the Soviet Union, who now held the balance of global power.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbernethy2000146-189">[189]</a> Britain was left essentially bankrupt, with insolvency only averted in 1946 after the negotiation of <a href="/wiki/Anglo-American_loan" title="Anglo-American loan">a US$3.75 billion loan</a> from the United States,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown1998331-190">[190]</a><a href="#cite_note-191">[191]</a> the last instalment of which was repaid in 2006.<a href="#cite_note-GT-DEX-2006-33-192">[192]</a> At the same time, anti-colonial movements were on the rise in the colonies of European nations. The situation was complicated further by the increasing <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a> rivalry of the United States and the Soviet Union. In principle, both nations were opposed to European colonialism.<a href="#cite_note-:02-193">[193]</a> In practice, American <a href="/wiki/Anti-communism" title="Anti-communism">anti-communism</a> prevailed over <a href="/wiki/Anti-imperialism" title="Anti-imperialism">anti-imperialism</a>, and therefore the United States supported the continued existence of the British Empire to keep Communist expansion in check.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELevine2007193-194">[194]</a> At first, British politicians believed it would be possible to maintain Britain's role as a world power at the head of a re-imagined Commonwealth,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDarwin2012343-195">[195]</a> but by 1960 they were forced to recognise that there was an irresistible "<a href="/wiki/Wind_of_Change_(speech)" title="Wind of Change (speech)">wind of change</a>" blowing. Their priorities changed to maintaining an extensive zone of British influence<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDarwin2012366-196">[196]</a> and ensuring that stable, non-Communist governments were established in former colonies.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeinlein2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidCLYHR196h-0CpgPA113_113ff]-197">[197]</a> In this context, while other European powers such as France and Portugal waged costly and unsuccessful wars to keep their empires intact, Britain generally adopted a policy of peaceful disengagement from its colonies, although violence occurred in <a href="/wiki/British_Malaya" title="British Malaya">Malaya</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kenya_Colony" title="Kenya Colony">Kenya</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mandatory_Palestine" title="Mandatory Palestine">Palestine</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbernethy2000148–150-198">[198]</a> Between 1945 and 1965, the number of people under British rule outside the UK itself fell from 700 million to 5 million, 3 million of whom were in Hong Kong.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown1998330-199">[199]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Initial_disengagement">Initial disengagement</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Partition_of_India" title="Partition of India">Partition of India</a>, <a href="/wiki/1947%E2%80%931949_Palestine_war" class="mw-redirect" title="1947–1949 Palestine war">1947–1949 Palestine war</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Malayan_Emergency" title="Malayan Emergency">Malayan Emergency</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Emergency_trains_crowded_with_desperate_refugees.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Emergency_trains_crowded_with_desperate_refugees.jpg/220px-Emergency_trains_crowded_with_desperate_refugees.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Emergency_trains_crowded_with_desperate_refugees.jpg/330px-Emergency_trains_crowded_with_desperate_refugees.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Emergency_trains_crowded_with_desperate_refugees.jpg/440px-Emergency_trains_crowded_with_desperate_refugees.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="424" /></a><figcaption>About 14.5 million people lost their homes as a result of the <a href="/wiki/Partition_of_India" title="Partition of India">partition of India</a> in 1947.</figcaption></figure> The pro-decolonisation <a href="/wiki/Labour_Party_(UK)" title="Labour Party (UK)">Labour</a> government, elected at the <a href="/wiki/1945_United_Kingdom_general_election" title="1945 United Kingdom general election">1945 general election</a> and led by <a href="/wiki/Clement_Attlee" title="Clement Attlee">Clement Attlee</a>, moved quickly to tackle the most pressing issue facing the empire: <a href="/wiki/Indian_independence_movement" title="Indian independence movement">Indian independence</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELloyd1996322-200">[200]</a> India's major political party—the <a href="/wiki/Indian_National_Congress" title="Indian National Congress">Indian National Congress</a> (led by <a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Mahatma Gandhi</a>) — had been campaigning for independence for decades, but disagreed with <a href="/wiki/All-India_Muslim_League" title="All-India Muslim League">Muslim League</a> (led by <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Ali_Jinnah" title="Muhammad Ali Jinnah">Muhammad Ali Jinnah</a>) as to how it should be implemented. Congress favoured a unified secular Indian state, whereas the League, fearing domination by the Hindu majority, desired a separate <a href="/wiki/Islamic_state" title="Islamic state">Islamic state</a> for Muslim-majority regions. Increasing <a href="/wiki/Civil_disorder" title="Civil disorder">civil unrest</a> led Attlee to promise independence no later than 30 June 1948. When the urgency of the situation and risk of civil war became apparent, the newly appointed (and last) Viceroy, <a href="/wiki/Louis_Mountbatten,_1st_Earl_Mountbatten_of_Burma" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis Mountbatten, 1st Earl Mountbatten of Burma">Lord Mountbatten</a>, hastily brought forward the date to 15 August 1947.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith199867-201">[201]</a> The borders drawn by the British to broadly <a href="/wiki/Partition_of_India" title="Partition of India">partition India</a> into Hindu and Muslim areas left tens of millions as minorities in the newly independent states of India and <a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELloyd1996325-202">[202]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Princely_states" class="mw-redirect" title="Princely states">princely states</a> were provided with a choice to either remain independent or join India or Pakistan.<a href="#cite_note-k567-203">[203]</a> Millions of Muslims crossed from India to Pakistan and Hindus vice versa, and violence between the two communities cost hundreds of thousands of lives. Burma, which had been administered as part of <a href="/wiki/British_India" class="mw-redirect" title="British India">British India</a> until 1937 gained independence the following year in 1948 along with <a href="/wiki/Sri_Lanka" title="Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a> (formerly known as <a href="/wiki/British_Ceylon" title="British Ceylon">British Ceylon</a>). India, Pakistan and Sri Lanka became members of the Commonwealth, while Burma chose not to join.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcIntyre1977355–356-204">[204]</a> That same year, the <a href="/wiki/British_Nationality_Act_1948" title="British Nationality Act 1948">British Nationality Act</a> was enacted, in hopes of strengthening and unifying the Commonwealth: it provided British citizenship and right of entry to all those living within its jurisdiction.<a href="#cite_note-:2-205">[205]</a> The British Mandate in Palestine, where an Arab majority lived alongside a Jewish minority, presented the British with a similar problem to that of India.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELloyd1996327-206">[206]</a> The matter was complicated by large numbers of <a href="/wiki/Jewish_refugees" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish refugees">Jewish refugees</a> seeking to be admitted to Palestine following the <a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">Holocaust</a>, while Arabs were opposed to the creation of a Jewish state. Frustrated by the intractability of the problem, attacks by Jewish paramilitary organisations and the increasing cost of maintaining its military presence, Britain announced in 1947 that it would withdraw in 1948 and leave the matter to the United Nations to solve.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELloyd1996328-207">[207]</a> The <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_General_Assembly" title="United Nations General Assembly">UN General Assembly</a> subsequently voted for a <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Partition_Plan_for_Palestine" title="United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine">plan to partition Palestine</a> into a Jewish and an Arab state. It was immediately followed by the outbreak of a <a href="/wiki/1947%E2%80%931948_civil_war_in_Mandatory_Palestine" title="1947–1948 civil war in Mandatory Palestine">civil war</a> between the Arabs and Jews of Palestine, and British forces withdrew amid the fighting. The British Mandate for Palestine officially terminated at midnight on 15 May 1948 as the State of <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a> declared independence and the <a href="/wiki/1948_Arab%E2%80%93Israeli_War" title="1948 Arab–Israeli War">1948 Arab-Israeli War</a> broke out, during which the territory of the former Mandate was partitioned between Israel and the surrounding Arab states. Amid the fighting, British forces continued to withdraw from Israel, with the last British troops departing from <a href="/wiki/Haifa" title="Haifa">Haifa</a> on 30 June 1948.<a href="#cite_note-208">[208]</a> Following the <a href="/wiki/Surrender_of_Japan" title="Surrender of Japan">surrender of Japan</a> in the Second World War, anti-Japanese <a href="/wiki/Resistance_movement" title="Resistance movement">resistance movements</a> in Malaya turned their attention towards the British, who had moved to quickly retake control of the colony, valuing it as a source of rubber and tin.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELloyd1996335-209">[209]</a> The fact that the guerrillas were primarily <a href="/wiki/Malaysian_Chinese" title="Malaysian Chinese">Malaysian Chinese</a> Communists meant that the British attempt to quell the uprising was supported by the <a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Malaysia" title="Islam in Malaysia">Muslim Malay</a> majority, on the understanding that once the insurgency had been quelled, independence would be granted.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELloyd1996335-209">[209]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Malayan_Emergency" title="Malayan Emergency">Malayan Emergency</a>, as it was called, began in 1948 and lasted until 1960, but by 1957, Britain felt confident enough to grant independence to the <a href="/wiki/Federation_of_Malaya" title="Federation of Malaya">Federation of Malaya</a> within the Commonwealth. In 1963, the 11 states of the federation together with Singapore, Sarawak and <a href="/wiki/Crown_Colony_of_North_Borneo" title="Crown Colony of North Borneo">North Borneo</a> joined to form <a href="/wiki/Malaysia" title="Malaysia">Malaysia</a>, but in 1965 Chinese-majority <a href="/wiki/Singapore" title="Singapore">Singapore</a> was expelled from the union following tensions between the Malay and Chinese populations and became an independent city-state.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELloyd1996364-210">[210]</a> <a href="/wiki/Brunei" title="Brunei">Brunei</a>, which had been a British protectorate since 1888, declined to join the union.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELloyd1996396-211">[211]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Suez_and_its_aftermath">Suez and its aftermath</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Suez_Crisis" title="Suez Crisis">Suez Crisis</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Anthony_Eden_(retouched).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Anthony_Eden_%28retouched%29.jpg/170px-Anthony_Eden_%28retouched%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="228" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Anthony_Eden_%28retouched%29.jpg/255px-Anthony_Eden_%28retouched%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Anthony_Eden_%28retouched%29.jpg/340px-Anthony_Eden_%28retouched%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="968" data-file-height="1300" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Eden" title="Anthony Eden">Eden</a>'s decision to invade <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a> in 1956 revealed Britain's post-war weaknesses.</figcaption></figure> In the <a href="/wiki/1951_United_Kingdom_general_election" title="1951 United Kingdom general election">1951 general election</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Conservative_Party_(UK)" title="Conservative Party (UK)">Conservative Party</a> returned to power in Britain under the leadership of Winston Churchill. Churchill and the Conservatives believed that Britain's position as a world power relied on the continued existence of the empire, with the base at the Suez Canal allowing Britain to maintain its pre-eminent position in the Middle East in spite of the loss of India. Churchill could not ignore <a href="/wiki/Gamal_Abdel_Nasser" title="Gamal Abdel Nasser">Gamal Abdul Nasser</a>'s new revolutionary <a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Egypt" title="Politics of Egypt">government of Egypt</a> that had <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Revolution_of_1952" class="mw-redirect" title="Egyptian Revolution of 1952">taken power in 1952</a>, and the following year it was agreed that British troops would withdraw from the Suez Canal zone and that Sudan would be granted self-determination by 1955, with independence to follow<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown1998339–340-212">[212]</a> Sudan was <a href="/wiki/History_of_Sudan_(1956%E2%80%9369)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Sudan (1956–69)">granted independence</a> on 1 January 1956.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJames2001572-213">[213]</a> In July 1956, Nasser unilaterally nationalised the Suez Canal. The response of <a href="/wiki/Anthony_Eden" title="Anthony Eden">Anthony Eden</a>, who had succeeded Churchill as Prime Minister, was to collude with France to engineer an Israeli attack on <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Egypt_(1953%E2%80%9358)" class="mw-redirect" title="Republic of Egypt (1953–58)">Egypt</a> that would give Britain and France an excuse to intervene militarily and retake the canal.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJames2001581-214">[214]</a> Eden infuriated US President <a href="/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Dwight D. Eisenhower">Dwight D. Eisenhower</a> by his lack of consultation, and Eisenhower refused to back the invasion.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerguson2002355-215">[215]</a> Another of Eisenhower's concerns was the possibility of a wider war with the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> after it threatened to intervene on the Egyptian side. Eisenhower applied <a href="/wiki/Leverage_(finance)" title="Leverage (finance)">financial leverage</a> by threatening to sell US reserves of the <a href="/wiki/Pound_sterling" title="Pound sterling">British pound</a> and thereby precipitate a collapse of the British currency.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerguson2002356-216">[216]</a> Though the invasion force was militarily successful in its objectives,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJames2001583-217">[217]</a> UN intervention and US pressure forced Britain into a humiliating withdrawal of its forces, and Eden resigned.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECombs2008161–163-218">[218]</a><a href="#cite_note-219">[219]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Suez_Crisis" title="Suez Crisis">Suez Crisis</a> very publicly exposed Britain's limitations to the world and confirmed Britain's decline on the world stage and its end as a first-rate power,<a href="#cite_note-220">[220]</a><a href="#cite_note-221">[221]</a> demonstrating that henceforth it could no longer act without at least the acquiescence, if not the full support, of the United States.<a href="#cite_note-222">[222]</a> The events at Suez wounded British <a href="/wiki/Patriotism" title="Patriotism">national pride</a>, leading one <a href="/wiki/Member_of_Parliament_(United_Kingdom)" title="Member of Parliament (United Kingdom)">Member of Parliament</a> (MP) to describe it as "Britain's <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Waterloo" title="Battle of Waterloo">Waterloo</a>"<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown1998343-223">[223]</a> and another to suggest that the country had become an "American <a href="/wiki/Satellite_state" title="Satellite state">satellite</a>".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJames2001585-224">[224]</a> <a href="/wiki/Margaret_Thatcher" title="Margaret Thatcher">Margaret Thatcher</a> later described the mindset she believed had befallen Britain's political leaders after Suez where they "went from believing that Britain could do anything to an almost neurotic belief that Britain could do nothing", from which Britain did not recover until the successful recapture of the <a href="/wiki/Falkland_Islands" title="Falkland Islands">Falkland Islands</a> from Argentina in 1982.<a href="#cite_note-225">[225]</a> While the Suez Crisis caused British power in the Middle East to weaken, it did not collapse.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith1998106-226">[226]</a> Britain again deployed its armed forces to the region, intervening in <a href="/wiki/Muscat_and_Oman" title="Muscat and Oman">Oman</a> (<a href="/wiki/Jebel_Akhdar_War" title="Jebel Akhdar War">1957</a>), <a href="/wiki/Jordan" title="Jordan">Jordan</a> (<a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council_Resolution_127" title="United Nations Security Council Resolution 127">1958</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Sheikhdom_of_Kuwait" title="Sheikhdom of Kuwait">Kuwait</a> (<a href="/wiki/Operation_Vantage" title="Operation Vantage">1961</a>), though on these occasions with American approval,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJames2001586-227">[227]</a> as the new Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Harold_Macmillan" title="Harold Macmillan">Harold Macmillan</a>'s foreign policy was to remain firmly aligned with the United States.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown1998343-223">[223]</a> Although Britain granted Kuwait independence in 1961, it continued to maintain a military presence in the Middle East for another decade. On 16 January 1968, a few weeks after the <a href="/wiki/Pound_sterling#Bretton_Woods" title="Pound sterling">devaluation of the pound</a>, Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Harold_Wilson" title="Harold Wilson">Harold Wilson</a> and his Defence Secretary <a href="/wiki/Denis_Healey" title="Denis Healey">Denis Healey</a> announced that <a href="/wiki/British_Armed_Forces" title="British Armed Forces">British Armed Forces</a> troops would be withdrawn from major military bases <a href="/wiki/East_of_Suez" title="East of Suez">East of Suez</a>, which included the ones in the Middle East, and primarily from Malaysia and Singapore by the end of 1971, instead of 1975 as earlier planned.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPham2010-228">[228]</a> By that time over 50,000 British military personnel were still stationed in the Far East, including 30,000 in Singapore.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGurtov197042-229">[229]</a> The British granted independence to the <a href="/wiki/Maldives" title="Maldives">Maldives</a> in 1965 but continued to station a garrison there until 1976, withdrew from <a href="/wiki/South_Yemen" title="South Yemen">Aden</a> in 1967, and granted independence to <a href="/wiki/Bahrain" title="Bahrain">Bahrain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Qatar" title="Qatar">Qatar</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/United_Arab_Emirates" title="United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a> in 1971.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELloyd1996370–371-230">[230]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Wind_of_change">Wind of change</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Decolonisation_of_Africa" title="Decolonisation of Africa">Decolonisation of Africa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Decolonization_of_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Decolonization of Asia">Decolonization of Asia</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Wind_of_Change_(speech)" title="Wind of Change (speech)">Wind of Change (speech)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:British_Decolonisation_in_Africa.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/British_Decolonisation_in_Africa.png/220px-British_Decolonisation_in_Africa.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/British_Decolonisation_in_Africa.png/330px-British_Decolonisation_in_Africa.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/British_Decolonisation_in_Africa.png/440px-British_Decolonisation_in_Africa.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="2000" /></a><figcaption>British decolonisation in Africa. By the end of the 1960s, all but <a href="/wiki/Rhodesia" title="Rhodesia">Rhodesia</a> (the future Zimbabwe) and the South African mandate of South West Africa (Namibia) had achieved recognised independence.</figcaption></figure> Macmillan gave a speech in <a href="/wiki/Cape_Town" title="Cape Town">Cape Town</a>, South Africa in February 1960 where he spoke of "the wind of change blowing through this continent".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJames2001616-231">[231]</a> Macmillan wished to avoid the same kind of <a href="/wiki/Algerian_War" title="Algerian War">colonial war</a> that France was fighting in <a href="/wiki/French_Algeria" title="French Algeria">Algeria</a>, and under his premiership decolonisation proceeded rapidly.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELouis200646-232">[232]</a> To the three colonies that had been granted independence in the 1950s—Sudan, the <a href="/wiki/Gold_Coast_(British_colony)" title="Gold Coast (British colony)">Gold Coast</a> and Malaya—were added nearly ten times that number during the 1960s.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELloyd1996427–433-233">[233]</a> Owing to the rapid pace of decolonisation during this period, the cabinet post of <a href="/wiki/Secretary_of_State_for_the_Colonies" title="Secretary of State for the Colonies">Secretary of State for the Colonies</a> was abolished in 1966, along with the <a href="/wiki/Colonial_Office" title="Colonial Office">Colonial Office</a>, which merged with the Commonwealth Relations Office to form the Foreign and Commonwealth Office (now the <a href="/wiki/Foreign,_Commonwealth_and_Development_Office" title="Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office">Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office</a>) in October 1968.<a href="#cite_note-Dict_Br_Hist-234">[234]</a> Britain's remaining colonies in Africa, except for self-governing <a href="/wiki/Southern_Rhodesia" title="Southern Rhodesia">Southern Rhodesia</a>, were all granted independence by 1968. British withdrawal from the southern and eastern parts of Africa was not a peaceful process. From 1952 the <a href="/wiki/Kenya_Colony" title="Kenya Colony">Kenya Colony</a> saw the eight-year long <a href="/wiki/Mau_Mau_uprising" class="mw-redirect" title="Mau Mau uprising">Mau Mau rebellion</a>, in which tens of thousands of suspected rebels were interned by the colonial government in detention camps to suppress the rebellion and over 1000 convicts executed, with records systematically destroyed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnderson20054-235">[235]</a><a href="#cite_note-236">[236]</a> Throughout the 1960s, the British government took a "<a href="/wiki/No_independence_before_majority_rule" title="No independence before majority rule">No independence until majority rule</a>" policy towards decolonising the empire, leading the white minority government of Southern Rhodesia to enact the 1965 <a href="/wiki/Rhodesia%27s_Unilateral_Declaration_of_Independence" title="Rhodesia's Unilateral Declaration of Independence">Unilateral Declaration of Independence</a> from Britain, resulting in a <a href="/wiki/Rhodesian_Bush_War" title="Rhodesian Bush War">civil war</a> that lasted until the British-mediated <a href="/wiki/Lancaster_House_Agreement" title="Lancaster House Agreement">Lancaster House Agreement</a> of 1979.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJames2001618–621-237">[237]</a> The agreement saw the British Empire temporarily re-establish the Colony of Southern Rhodesia from 1979 to 1980 as a transitionary government to a majority rule <a href="/wiki/Zimbabwe" title="Zimbabwe">Republic of Zimbabwe</a>. This was the last British possession in Africa. In <a href="/wiki/Cyprus" title="Cyprus">Cyprus</a>, a guerrilla war waged by the <a href="/wiki/Greek_Cypriots" title="Greek Cypriots">Greek Cypriot</a> organisation <a href="/wiki/EOKA" title="EOKA">EOKA</a> against British rule, was ended in 1959 by the <a href="/wiki/London_and_Z%C3%BCrich_Agreements" title="London and Zürich Agreements">London and Zürich Agreements</a>, which resulted in Cyprus being granted independence in 1960. The UK retained the military bases of <a href="/wiki/Akrotiri_and_Dhekelia" title="Akrotiri and Dhekelia">Akrotiri and Dhekelia</a> as sovereign base areas. The <a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_in_the_Mediterranean" title="List of islands in the Mediterranean">Mediterranean</a> colony of <a href="/wiki/Malta_(island)" title="Malta (island)">Malta</a> was amicably granted independence from the UK in 1964 and became the country of <a href="/wiki/Malta" title="Malta">Malta</a>, though the idea had been raised in 1955 of <a href="/wiki/1956_Maltese_United_Kingdom_integration_referendum" title="1956 Maltese United Kingdom integration referendum">integration with Britain</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpringhall2001100–102-238">[238]</a> Most of the UK's Caribbean territories achieved independence after the departure in 1961 and 1962 of Jamaica and Trinidad from the <a href="/wiki/West_Indies_Federation" title="West Indies Federation">West Indies Federation</a>, established in 1958 in an attempt to unite the British Caribbean colonies under one government, but which collapsed following the loss of its two largest members.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKnightPalmer198914–15-239">[239]</a> Jamaica attained independence in 1962, as did <a href="/wiki/Trinidad_and_Tobago" title="Trinidad and Tobago">Trinidad and Tobago</a>. Barbados achieved independence in 1966 and the remainder of the eastern Caribbean islands, including the <a href="/wiki/Bahamas" class="mw-redirect" title="Bahamas">Bahamas</a>, in the 1970s and 1980s,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKnightPalmer198914–15-239">[239]</a> but <a href="/wiki/Anguilla" title="Anguilla">Anguilla</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Turks_and_Caicos_Islands" title="Turks and Caicos Islands">Turks and Caicos Islands</a> opted to revert to British rule after they had already started on the path to independence.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClegg2005128-240">[240]</a> The <a href="/wiki/British_Virgin_Islands" title="British Virgin Islands">British Virgin Islands</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELloyd1996428-241">[241]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Cayman_Islands" title="Cayman Islands">Cayman Islands</a> and <a href="/wiki/Montserrat" title="Montserrat">Montserrat</a> opted to retain ties with Britain,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJames2001622-242">[242]</a> while Guyana achieved independence in 1966. Britain's last colony on the American mainland, <a href="/wiki/British_Honduras" title="British Honduras">British Honduras</a>, became a self-governing colony in 1964 and was renamed <a href="/wiki/Belize" title="Belize">Belize</a> in 1973, achieving full independence in 1981. A <a href="/wiki/Belizean-Guatemalan_territorial_dispute" class="mw-redirect" title="Belizean-Guatemalan territorial dispute">dispute with Guatemala</a> over claims to Belize was left unresolved.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELloyd1996401,_427–429-243">[243]</a> <a href="/wiki/British_Overseas_Territories" title="British Overseas Territories">British Overseas Territories</a> in the Pacific acquired independence in the 1970s beginning with <a href="/wiki/Fiji" title="Fiji">Fiji</a> in 1970 and ending with <a href="/wiki/Vanuatu" title="Vanuatu">Vanuatu</a> in 1980. Vanuatu's independence was delayed because of political conflict between English and French-speaking communities, as the islands had been jointly administered as a <a href="/wiki/Condominium_(international_law)" title="Condominium (international law)">condominium</a> with France.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacdonald1994171–191-244">[244]</a> Fiji, <a href="/wiki/Papua_New_Guinea" title="Papua New Guinea">Papua New Guinea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Solomon_Islands" title="Solomon Islands">Solomon Islands</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tuvalu" title="Tuvalu">Tuvalu</a> became <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_realm" title="Commonwealth realm">Commonwealth realms</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcIntyre201635-245">[245]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="End_of_empire">End of empire</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Falklands_War" title="Falklands War">Falklands War</a>, <a href="/wiki/Handover_of_Hong_Kong" title="Handover of Hong Kong">Handover of Hong Kong</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Patriation" title="Patriation">Patriation</a></div> By 1981, aside from a scattering of islands and outposts, the process of decolonisation that had begun after the Second World War was largely complete. In 1982, Britain's resolve in defending its remaining overseas territories was tested when <a href="/wiki/1982_invasion_of_the_Falkland_Islands" title="1982 invasion of the Falkland Islands">Argentina invaded the Falkland Islands</a>, acting on a long-standing claim that dated back to the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish Empire</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJames2001624–625-246">[246]</a> Britain's successful military response to retake the <a href="/wiki/Falkland_Islands" title="Falkland Islands">Falkland Islands</a> during the ensuing <a href="/wiki/Falklands_War" title="Falklands War">Falklands War</a> contributed to reversing the downward trend in Britain's status as a world power.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJames2001629-247">[247]</a> The 1980s saw Canada, Australia, and New Zealand sever their final constitutional links with Britain. Although granted legislative independence by the <a href="/wiki/Statute_of_Westminster_1931" title="Statute of Westminster 1931">Statute of Westminster 1931</a>, vestigial constitutional links had remained in place. The British Parliament retained the power to amend key Canadian constitutional statutes, meaning that an act of the British Parliament was required to make certain changes to the <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Canada" title="Constitution of Canada">Canadian Constitution</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGérin-Lajoie1951-248">[248]</a> The British Parliament had the power to pass laws extending to Canada at Canadian request. Although no longer able to pass any laws that would apply to Australian Commonwealth law, the British Parliament retained the power to legislate for the individual <a href="/wiki/States_and_territories_of_Australia" title="States and territories of Australia">Australian states</a>. With regard to New Zealand, the British Parliament retained the power to pass legislation applying to New Zealand with the <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand_Parliament" title="New Zealand Parliament">New Zealand Parliament</a>'s consent. In 1982, the last legal link between Canada and Britain was severed by the <a href="/wiki/Canada_Act_1982" title="Canada Act 1982">Canada Act 1982</a>, which was passed by the British parliament, formally <a href="/wiki/Patriation" title="Patriation">patriating</a> the Canadian Constitution. The act ended the need for British involvement in changes to the Canadian constitution.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown1998594-249">[249]</a> Similarly, the <a href="/wiki/Australia_Act_1986" title="Australia Act 1986">Australia Act 1986</a> (effective 3 March 1986) severed the constitutional link between Britain and the Australian states, while New Zealand's <a href="/wiki/Constitution_Act_1986" title="Constitution Act 1986">Constitution Act 1986</a> (effective 1 January 1987) reformed the constitution of New Zealand to sever its constitutional link with Britain.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown1998689-250">[250]</a> On 1 January 1984, Brunei, Britain's last remaining Asian protectorate, was granted full independence.<a href="#cite_note-251">[251]</a> Independence had been delayed due to the opposition of the <a href="/wiki/List_of_sultans_of_Brunei" title="List of sultans of Brunei">Sultan</a>, who had preferred British protection.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown1998202-252">[252]</a> In September 1982 the Prime Minister, <a href="/wiki/Margaret_Thatcher" title="Margaret Thatcher">Margaret Thatcher</a>, travelled to Beijing to negotiate with the Chinese Communist government, on the future of Britain's last major and most populous overseas territory, Hong Kong.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrendon2007654-253">[253]</a> Under the terms of the 1842 <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Nanking" title="Treaty of Nanking">Treaty of Nanking</a> and 1860 <a href="/wiki/Convention_of_Peking" title="Convention of Peking">Convention of Peking</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong_Island" title="Hong Kong Island">Hong Kong Island</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kowloon_Peninsula" title="Kowloon Peninsula">Kowloon Peninsula</a> had been respectively ceded to Britain in perpetuity, but the majority of the colony consisted of the <a href="/wiki/New_Territories" title="New Territories">New Territories</a>, which had been acquired under a <a href="/wiki/Convention_for_the_Extension_of_Hong_Kong_Territory" title="Convention for the Extension of Hong Kong Territory">99-year lease in 1898</a>, due to expire in 1997.<a href="#cite_note-254">[254]</a> Thatcher, seeing parallels with the Falkland Islands, initially wished to hold Hong Kong and proposed British administration with Chinese sovereignty, though this was rejected by China.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrendon2007654–655-255">[255]</a> A deal was reached in 1984—under the terms of the <a href="/wiki/Sino-British_Joint_Declaration" title="Sino-British Joint Declaration">Sino-British Joint Declaration</a>, Hong Kong would become a <a href="/wiki/Special_administrative_region_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Special administrative region of the People's Republic of China">special administrative region of the People's Republic of China</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrendon2007656-256">[256]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong_handover_ceremony" title="Hong Kong handover ceremony">handover ceremony</a> in 1997 marked for many,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrendon2007660-257">[257]</a> including King Charles III, then Prince of Wales, who was in attendance, "the end of Empire", though many British territories that are remnants of the empire still remain.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown1998594-249">[249]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legacy">Legacy</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/British_Overseas_Territories" title="British Overseas Territories">British Overseas Territories</a>, <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Nations" title="Commonwealth of Nations">Commonwealth of Nations</a>, <a href="/wiki/English-speaking_world" title="English-speaking world">English-speaking world</a>, <a href="/wiki/Westminster_system" title="Westminster system">Westminster system</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">Common law</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Location_of_the_BOTs.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Location_of_the_BOTs.svg/220px-Location_of_the_BOTs.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Location_of_the_BOTs.svg/330px-Location_of_the_BOTs.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Location_of_the_BOTs.svg/440px-Location_of_the_BOTs.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="735" data-file-height="433" /></a><figcaption>The fourteen <a href="/wiki/British_Overseas_Territories" title="British Overseas Territories">British Overseas Territories</a></figcaption></figure> Britain retains sovereignty over 14 territories outside the British Isles. In 1983, the <a href="/wiki/British_Nationality_Act_1981" title="British Nationality Act 1981">British Nationality Act 1981</a> renamed the existing <a href="/wiki/Crown_colony" title="Crown colony">Crown Colonies</a> as "British Dependent Territories",<a href="#cite_note-260">[a]</a> and in 2002 they were renamed the <a href="/wiki/British_Overseas_Territories" title="British Overseas Territories">British Overseas Territories</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGapes2008145–147-261">[260]</a> Most former British colonies and protectorates are members of the <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Nations" title="Commonwealth of Nations">Commonwealth of Nations</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Voluntary_association" title="Voluntary association">voluntary association</a> of equal members, comprising a population of around 2.2 billion people.<a href="#cite_note-262">[261]</a> The United Kingdom and 14 other countries, all collectively known as the <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_realm" title="Commonwealth realm">Commonwealth realms</a>, voluntarily continue to share the same person— <a href="/wiki/Charles_III" title="Charles III">King Charles III</a>—as their respective head of state. These 15 nations are distinct and equal legal entities: the <a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Monarchy of the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>, <a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Australia" title="Monarchy of Australia">Australia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Canada" title="Monarchy of Canada">Canada</a>, <a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_New_Zealand" title="Monarchy of New Zealand">New Zealand</a>, <a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Antigua_and_Barbuda" title="Monarchy of Antigua and Barbuda">Antigua and Barbuda</a>, <a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_the_Bahamas" title="Monarchy of the Bahamas">The Bahamas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Belize" title="Monarchy of Belize">Belize</a>, <a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Grenada" title="Monarchy of Grenada">Grenada</a>, <a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Jamaica" title="Monarchy of Jamaica">Jamaica</a>, <a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Papua_New_Guinea" title="Monarchy of Papua New Guinea">Papua New Guinea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Saint_Kitts_and_Nevis" title="Monarchy of Saint Kitts and Nevis">Saint Kitts and Nevis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Saint_Lucia" title="Monarchy of Saint Lucia">Saint Lucia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Saint_Vincent_and_the_Grenadines" title="Monarchy of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines">Saint Vincent and the Grenadines</a>, <a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_the_Solomon_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Monarchy of the Solomon Islands">Solomon Islands</a> and <a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Tuvalu" title="Monarchy of Tuvalu">Tuvalu</a>.<a href="#cite_note-263">[262]</a> Decades, and in some cases centuries, of British rule and <a href="/wiki/British_diaspora" title="British diaspora">emigration</a> have left their mark on the independent nations that rose from the British Empire. The empire established the use of the <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English language</a> in regions around the world. Today it is the primary language of up to 460 million people and is spoken by about 1.5 billion as a first, second or foreign language.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHogg2008424chapter_9_''English_Worldwide''_by_[[David_Crystal]]:_"approximately_one_in_four_of_the_worlds_population_are_capable_of_communicating_to_a_useful_level_in_English"_264-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHogg2008424chapter_9_''English_Worldwide''_by_[[David_Crystal]]:_"approximately_one_in_four_of_the_worlds_population_are_capable_of_communicating_to_a_useful_level_in_English"-264">[263]</a> It has also <a href="/wiki/Englishisation" title="Englishisation">significantly influenced</a> other languages.<a href="#cite_note-265">[264]</a> Individual and team sports <a href="/wiki/British_sports" class="mw-redirect" title="British sports">developed in Britain</a>, particularly <a href="/wiki/Association_football" title="Association football">football</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cricket" title="Cricket">cricket</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lawn_tennis" class="mw-redirect" title="Lawn tennis">lawn tennis</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Golf" title="Golf">golf</a> were exported.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETorkildsen2005347-266">[265]</a> British <a href="/wiki/Missionary" title="Missionary">missionaries</a> who travelled around the globe often in advance of soldiers and civil servants spread <a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestantism</a> (including <a href="/wiki/Anglicanism" title="Anglicanism">Anglicanism</a>) to all continents. The British Empire provided refuge for religiously persecuted continental Europeans for hundreds of years.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPestan2009185-267">[266]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%9F%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%BE_%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D_%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%B3%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%81.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%9F%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%BE_%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D_%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%B3%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%81.jpg/170px-%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%9F%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%BE_%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D_%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%B3%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%81.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="184" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%9F%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%BE_%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D_%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%B3%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%81.jpg/255px-%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%9F%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%BE_%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D_%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%B3%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%81.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%9F%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%BE_%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D_%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%B3%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%81.jpg/340px-%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%9F%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%BE_%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D_%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%B3%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%81.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1194" data-file-height="1294" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Cricket" title="Cricket">Cricket</a> being played in South Asia, where <a href="/wiki/Cricket_in_South_Asia" title="Cricket in South Asia">it is popular</a>. Sports developed in Britain or the former empire continue to be viewed and played.</figcaption></figure> Political boundaries drawn by the British did not always reflect homogeneous ethnicities or religions, contributing to conflicts in formerly colonised areas. The British Empire was responsible for large migrations of peoples (see also: <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_diaspora" title="Commonwealth diaspora">Commonwealth diaspora</a>). Millions left the <a href="/wiki/British_Isles" title="British Isles">British Isles</a>, with the founding <a href="/wiki/Settler_colonialism" title="Settler colonialism">settler colonist</a> populations of the United States, Canada, Australia and New Zealand coming mainly from Britain and Ireland. Millions of people moved between British colonies, with large numbers of <a href="/wiki/South_Asian_diaspora" title="South Asian diaspora">South Asian people emigrating</a> to other parts of the empire, such as Malaysia and Fiji, and <a href="/wiki/Overseas_Chinese" title="Overseas Chinese">Overseas Chinese</a> people to Malaysia, Singapore and the Caribbean.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarshall1996286-268">[267]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Demographics of the United Kingdom">demographics of the United Kingdom</a> changed after the Second World War owing to <a href="/wiki/Immigration_to_the_United_Kingdom_since_1922#Post-war_immigration_(1945–1983)" class="mw-redirect" title="Immigration to the United Kingdom since 1922">immigration to Britain</a> from its former colonies.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDalziel2006135-269">[268]</a> In the 19th century, <a href="/wiki/List_of_British_innovations_and_discoveries" title="List of British innovations and discoveries">innovation in Britain</a> led to revolutionary changes in manufacturing, the development of <a href="/wiki/Factory_system" title="Factory system">factory systems</a>, and the growth of transportation by railway and steamship.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalker1993187–188-270">[269]</a> British colonial architecture, such as in churches, railway stations and government buildings, can be seen in many cities that were once part of the British Empire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarshall1996238–240-271">[270]</a> The British choice of system of measurement, the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_units" title="Imperial units">imperial system</a>, continues to be used in some countries in various ways. The convention of <a href="/wiki/Right-_and_left-hand_traffic" class="mw-redirect" title="Right- and left-hand traffic">driving on the left-hand side of the road</a> has been retained in much of the former empire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParsons19991-272">[271]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Westminster_system" title="Westminster system">Westminster system</a> of <a href="/wiki/Parliamentary_system" title="Parliamentary system">parliamentary democracy</a> has served as the template for the governments of many former colonies,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGo200792–94-273">[272]</a><a href="#cite_note-274">[273]</a> and <a href="/wiki/English_law" title="English law">English common law</a> for legal systems.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerguson2002307-275">[274]</a> International commercial contracts are often based on English common law.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECuniberti2014455-276">[275]</a> The British <a href="/wiki/Judicial_Committee_of_the_Privy_Council" title="Judicial Committee of the Privy Council">Judicial Committee of the Privy Council</a> still serves as the highest court of appeal for twelve former colonies.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYoung202020-277">[276]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Interpretations_of_Empire">Interpretations of Empire</h3></div> Historians' <a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_British_Empire" title="Historiography of the British Empire">approaches to understanding the British Empire</a> are diverse and evolving.<a href="#cite_note-winks-278">[277]</a> Two key sites of debate over recent decades have been the impact of <a href="/wiki/Postcolonialism" title="Postcolonialism">post-colonial studies</a>, which seek to <a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">critically</a> re-evaluate the history of imperialism, and the continued relevance of historians <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Robinson" title="Ronald Robinson">Ronald Robinson</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jack_Gallagher_(historian)" title="Jack Gallagher (historian)">John Gallagher</a>, whose work greatly influenced imperial historiography during the 1950s and 1960s. In addition, differing assessments of the empire's legacy remain relevant to debates over recent history and politics, such as the Anglo-American <a href="/wiki/2003_invasion_of_Iraq" title="2003 invasion of Iraq">invasions of Iraq</a> and <a href="/wiki/United_States_invasion_of_Afghanistan" title="United States invasion of Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a>, as well as Britain's role and identity in the contemporary world.<a href="#cite_note-279">[278]</a><a href="#cite_note-mitter-280">[279]</a> Historians such as <a href="/wiki/Caroline_Elkins" title="Caroline Elkins">Caroline Elkins</a> have argued against perceptions of the British Empire as a primarily liberalising and modernising enterprise, criticising its widespread use of violence and <a href="/wiki/Emergency_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Emergency law">emergency laws</a> to maintain power.<a href="#cite_note-mitter-280">[279]</a><a href="#cite_note-281">[280]</a> Common criticisms of the empire include the use of detention camps in its colonies, massacres of <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples" title="Indigenous peoples">indigenous peoples</a>,<a href="#cite_note-:1-282">[281]</a> and famine-response policies.<a href="#cite_note-283">[282]</a><a href="#cite_note-:0-284">[283]</a> Some scholars, including <a href="/wiki/Amartya_Sen" title="Amartya Sen">Amartya Sen</a>, assert that British policies worsened the <a href="/wiki/Famine_in_India" title="Famine in India">famines in India</a> that killed millions during British rule.<a href="#cite_note-285">[284]</a> Conversely, historians such as <a href="/wiki/Niall_Ferguson" title="Niall Ferguson">Niall Ferguson</a> say that the economic and institutional development the British Empire brought resulted in a net benefit to its colonies.<a href="#cite_note-286">[285]</a> Other historians treat its legacy as varied and ambiguous.<a href="#cite_note-mitter-280">[279]</a> Public attitudes towards the empire within 21st-century Britain have been broadly positive although sentiment towards the Commonwealth has been one of apathy and decline.<a href="#cite_note-:0-284">[283]</a><a href="#cite_note-287">[286]</a><a href="#cite_note-:2-205">[205]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_British_Empire-related_topics" class="mw-redirect" title="List of British Empire-related topics">List of British Empire-related topics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_British_Empire" title="Historiography of the British Empire">Historiography of the British Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_the_British_Empire" title="Demographics of the British Empire">Demographics of the British Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_British_Empire" title="Economy of the British Empire">Economy of the British Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Territorial_evolution_of_the_British_Empire" title="Territorial evolution of the British Empire">Territorial evolution of the British Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_foreign_relations_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="History of the foreign relations of the United Kingdom">History of the foreign relations of the United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_flags_of_the_British_Empire_and_the_overseas_territories" title="Historical flags of the British Empire and the overseas territories">Historical flags of the British Empire and the overseas territories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_that_have_gained_independence_from_the_United_Kingdom" title="List of countries that have gained independence from the United Kingdom">List of countries that have gained independence from the United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_overseas_cities" title="British overseas cities">British overseas cities</a></li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-260"><a href="#cite_ref-260">^</a> Schedule 6 of the <a href="/wiki/British_Nationality_Act_1981" title="British Nationality Act 1981">British Nationality Act 1981</a><a href="#cite_note-258">[258]</a> reclassified the remaining Crown colonies as "British Dependent Territories". The act entered into force on 1 January 1983<a href="#cite_note-259">[259]</a> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerguson2002-1"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerguson2002_1-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFerguson2002">Ferguson 2002</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMaddison2001">Maddison 2001</a>, p. 97, "The total population of the Empire was 412 million [in 1913]"; <a href="#CITEREFMaddison2001">Maddison 2001</a>, p. 241, ""[World population in 1913 (in thousands):] 1 791 020". </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETaagepera1997502-3"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaagepera1997502_3-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTaagepera1997">Taagepera 1997</a>, p. 502. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJackson20135–6-4"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJackson20135–6_4-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFJackson2013">Jackson 2013</a>, pp. 5–6. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERusso201215chapter_1_'Great_Expectations':_"The_dramatic_rise_in_Spanish_fortunes_sparked_both_envy_and_fear_among_northern,_mostly_Protestant,_Europeans."-5"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERusso201215chapter_1_'Great_Expectations':_"The_dramatic_rise_in_Spanish_fortunes_sparked_both_envy_and_fear_among_northern,_mostly_Protestant,_Europeans."_5-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRusso2012">Russo 2012</a>, p. 15, chapter 1 'Great Expectations': "The dramatic rise in Spanish fortunes sparked both envy and fear among northern, mostly Protestant, Europeans.". </li> <li id="cite_note-Porter_1998_8-6">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Porter_1998_8_6-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Porter_1998_8_6-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFPorter1998">Porter 1998</a>, p. 8; 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Bayley</a>, "The Second British Empire"). </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPagden2003">Pagden 2003</a>, p. 91; <a href="#CITEREFJames2001">James 2001</a>, p. 120. </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFJames2001">James 2001</a>, p. 119; <a href="#CITEREFMarshall1998">Marshall 1998</a>, p. 585. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEZolberg2006496-68"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZolberg2006496_68-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFZolberg2006">Zolberg 2006</a>, p. 496. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGames200246–48-69"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGames200246–48_69-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGames2002">Games 2002</a>, pp. 46–48. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKelleyTrebilcock201043-70"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKelleyTrebilcock201043_70-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKelleyTrebilcock2010">Kelley & Trebilcock 2010</a>, p. 43. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith199828-71"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith199828_71-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmith1998">Smith 1998</a>, p. 28. </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLatimer2007">Latimer 2007</a>, pp. 8, 30–34, 389–392; <a href="#CITEREFMarshall1998">Marshall 1998</a>, p. 388. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith199820-73"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith199820_73-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmith1998">Smith 1998</a>, p. 20. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith199820–21-74"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith199820–21_74-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmith1998">Smith 1998</a>, pp. 20–21. </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://webarchive.nla.gov.au/awa/20110205071752/http://southseas.nla.gov.au/journals/cook/17691007.html">"Trove - Archived webpage"</a>. 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Hopkins Press. p. 335. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230114125414/https://books.google.com/books?id=F11GAAAAYAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 14 January 2023. 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Toronto, Ontario: University of Toronto Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8020-8196-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8020-8196-4"><bdi>978-0-8020-8196-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Fur+Trade+in+Canada%3A+An+Introduction+to+Canadian+Economic+History&rft.place=Toronto%2C+Ontario&rft.edition=reprint&rft.pub=University+of+Toronto+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-8020-8196-4&rft.aulast=Innis&rft.aufirst=Harold+A&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DeCgps70cHV4C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Naravane3-87">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Naravane3_87-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Naravane3_87-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNaravane2014" class="citation book cs1">Naravane, M. 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Retrieved 24 November 2019. <q>As a result of public pressure apprenticeships were abolished early, in 1838.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Slavery+After+1807&rft.pub=Historic+England&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhistoricengland.org.uk%2Fresearch%2Finclusive-heritage%2Fthe-slave-trade-and-abolition%2Fsites-of-memory%2Fending-slavery%2Fslavery-after-1807&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pdavis.nl/Legis_07.htm">"Slavery Abolition Act 1833; Section XXIV"</a>. pdavis. 28 August 1833. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080524010152/http://www.pdavis.nl/Legis_07.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 24 May 2008. 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University of Cambridge. 2 December 2013. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131216190945/http://www.cam.ac.uk/research/features/how-the-westminster-parliamentary-system-was-exported-around-the-world">Archived</a> from the original on 16 December 2013. 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Financial Times. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/https://www.ft.com/content/e7c4feac-7123-4e7c-8a7e-bf13107ee6f9">Archived</a> from the original on 10 December 2022. Retrieved 29 June 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Financial+Times&rft.atitle=Legacy+of+Violence+%E2%80%94+the+bloody+ends+of+empire&rft.date=2022-03-17&rft.aulast=Rana&rft.aufirst=Mitter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ft.com%2Fcontent%2Fe7c4feac-7123-4e7c-8a7e-bf13107ee6f9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-281"><a href="#cite_ref-281">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFElkins2022" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Caroline_Elkins" title="Caroline Elkins">Elkins, Caroline</a> (2022). Legacy of Violence: A History of the British Empire. Knopf Doubleday Publishing. pp. 14–16, 680. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-3072-7242-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-3072-7242-3"><bdi>978-0-3072-7242-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Legacy+of+Violence%3A+A+History+of+the+British+Empire&rft.pages=14-16%2C+680&rft.pub=Knopf+Doubleday+Publishing&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=978-0-3072-7242-3&rft.aulast=Elkins&rft.aufirst=Caroline&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-282"><a href="#cite_ref-:1_282-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHowe2010" class="citation journal cs1">Howe, Stephen (2010). "Colonising and Exterminating? Memories of Imperial Violence in Britain and France". Histoire Politique. 11 (2): 13–15. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3917%2Fhp.011.0012">10.3917/hp.011.0012</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Histoire+Politique&rft.atitle=Colonising+and+Exterminating%3F+Memories+of+Imperial+Violence+in+Britain+and+France&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=13-15&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3917%2Fhp.011.0012&rft.aulast=Howe&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-283"><a href="#cite_ref-283">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSheldon2009" class="citation book cs1">Sheldon, Richard (2009). "Development, Poverty & Famines: The Case of British Empire". In Duffield, Mark; Hewitt, Vernon (eds.). Empire, Development and Colonialism: The Past in the Present. Woodbridge, Suffolk: Boydell & Brewer. pp. 74–87. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-8470-1011-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-8470-1011-7"><bdi>978-1-8470-1011-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7722/j.ctt81pqr.10">10.7722/j.ctt81pqr.10</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Development%2C+Poverty+%26+Famines%3A+The+Case+of+British+Empire&rft.btitle=Empire%2C+Development+and+Colonialism%3A+The+Past+in+the+Present&rft.place=Woodbridge%2C+Suffolk&rft.pages=74-87&rft.pub=Boydell+%26+Brewer&rft.date=2009&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F10.7722%2Fj.ctt81pqr.10%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.isbn=978-1-8470-1011-7&rft.aulast=Sheldon&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-284">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_284-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_284-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStone2016" class="citation web cs1">Stone, Jon (21 January 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/british-people-are-proud-of-colonialism-and-the-british-empire-poll-finds-a6821206.html">"British people are proud of colonialism and the British Empire, poll finds"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Independent" title="The Independent">The Independent</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220628013502/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/british-people-are-proud-of-colonialism-and-the-british-empire-poll-finds-a6821206.html">Archived</a> from the original on 28 June 2022. Retrieved 28 June 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Independent&rft.atitle=British+people+are+proud+of+colonialism+and+the+British+Empire%2C+poll+finds&rft.date=2016-01-21&rft.aulast=Stone&rft.aufirst=Jon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.independent.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fuk%2Fpolitics%2Fbritish-people-are-proud-of-colonialism-and-the-british-empire-poll-finds-a6821206.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-285"><a href="#cite_ref-285">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Amartya_Sen" title="Amartya Sen">Sen, Amartya</a>. Development as Freedom. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-3857-2027-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-3857-2027-4">978-0-3857-2027-4</a> ch 7 </li> <li id="cite_note-286"><a href="#cite_ref-286">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFerguson2004" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Niall_Ferguson" title="Niall Ferguson">Ferguson, Niall</a> (3 June 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.independent.co.uk/voices/commentators/niall-ferguson-what-the-british-empire-did-for-the-world-41252.html">"Niall Ferguson: What the British Empire did for the world"</a>. The Independent. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220629225418/https://www.independent.co.uk/voices/commentators/niall-ferguson-what-the-british-empire-did-for-the-world-41252.html">Archived</a> from the original on 29 June 2022. Retrieved 29 June 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Independent&rft.atitle=Niall+Ferguson%3A+What+the+British+Empire+did+for+the+world&rft.date=2004-06-03&rft.aulast=Ferguson&rft.aufirst=Niall&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.independent.co.uk%2Fvoices%2Fcommentators%2Fniall-ferguson-what-the-british-empire-did-for-the-world-41252.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-287"><a href="#cite_ref-287">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBooth2020" class="citation web cs1">Booth, Robert (11 March 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/mar/11/uk-more-nostalgic-for-empire-than-other-ex-colonial-powers">"UK more nostalgic for empire than other ex-colonial powers"</a>. The Guardian. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220625170301/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/mar/11/uk-more-nostalgic-for-empire-than-other-ex-colonial-powers">Archived</a> from the original on 25 June 2022. Retrieved 29 June 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=UK+more+nostalgic+for+empire+than+other+ex-colonial+powers&rft.date=2020-03-11&rft.aulast=Booth&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fworld%2F2020%2Fmar%2F11%2Fuk-more-nostalgic-for-empire-than-other-ex-colonial-powers&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Works_cited">Works cited</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbernethy2000" class="citation book cs1">Abernethy, David (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ennqNS1EOuMC">The Dynamics of Global Dominance, European Overseas Empires 1415–1980</a>. Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-3000-9314-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-3000-9314-8"><bdi>978-0-3000-9314-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111214082531/http://books.google.com/books?id=ennqNS1EOuMC">Archived</a> from the original on 14 December 2011. Retrieved 22 July 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Dynamics+of+Global+Dominance%2C+European+Overseas+Empires+1415%E2%80%931980&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-3000-9314-8&rft.aulast=Abernethy&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DennqNS1EOuMC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAndersonCombe1801" class="citation book cs1">Anderson, Adam; Combe, William (1801). An Historical and Chronological Deduction of the Origin of Commerce, from the Earliest Accounts. J Archer.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Historical+and+Chronological+Deduction+of+the+Origin+of+Commerce%2C+from+the+Earliest+Accounts&rft.pub=J+Archer&rft.date=1801&rft.aulast=Anderson&rft.aufirst=Adam&rft.au=Combe%2C+William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnderson2005" class="citation book cs1">Anderson, David (2005). Histories of the Hanged: The Dirty War in Kenya and the End of Empire. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-297-84719-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-297-84719-9"><bdi>978-0-297-84719-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Histories+of+the+Hanged%3A+The+Dirty+War+in+Kenya+and+the+End+of+Empire&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Weidenfeld+%26+Nicolson&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-297-84719-9&rft.aulast=Anderson&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAndrews1984" class="citation book cs1">Andrews, Kenneth (1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/tradeplundersett0000andr">Trade, Plunder and Settlement: Maritime Enterprise and the Genesis of the British Empire, 1480–1630</a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-5212-7698-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-5212-7698-6"><bdi>978-0-5212-7698-6</bdi></a>. Retrieved 22 July 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Trade%2C+Plunder+and+Settlement%3A+Maritime+Enterprise+and+the+Genesis+of+the+British+Empire%2C+1480%E2%80%931630&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=978-0-5212-7698-6&rft.aulast=Andrews&rft.aufirst=Kenneth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ftradeplundersett0000andr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBandyopādhyāẏa2004" class="citation book cs1">Bandyopādhyāẏa, Śekhara (2004). From Plassey to partition: a history of modern India. Orient Longman. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8-1250-2596-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-8-1250-2596-2"><bdi>978-8-1250-2596-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Plassey+to+partition%3A+a+history+of+modern+India&rft.pub=Orient+Longman&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-8-1250-2596-2&rft.aulast=Bandyop%C4%81dhy%C4%81%E1%BA%8Fa&rft.aufirst=%C5%9Aekhara&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrendon2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Piers_Brendon" title="Piers Brendon">Brendon, Piers</a> (2007). The Decline and Fall of the British Empire, 1781–1997. Random House. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-2240-6222-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-2240-6222-0"><bdi>978-0-2240-6222-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Decline+and+Fall+of+the+British+Empire%2C+1781%E2%80%931997&rft.pub=Random+House&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-2240-6222-0&rft.aulast=Brendon&rft.aufirst=Piers&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrock2011" class="citation book cs1">Brock, W.R. (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cambridge.org/gb/knowledge/isbn/item6480148/?site_locale=en_GB">Britain and the Dominions</a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-1076-8833-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-1076-8833-9"><bdi>978-1-1076-8833-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130309165846/http://www.cambridge.org/gb/knowledge/isbn/item6480148/?site_locale=en_GB">Archived</a> from the original on 9 March 2013. Retrieved 26 August 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Britain+and+the+Dominions&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-1076-8833-9&rft.aulast=Brock&rft.aufirst=W.R.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fgb%2Fknowledge%2Fisbn%2Fitem6480148%2F%3Fsite_locale%3Den_GB&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBroome2010" class="citation book cs1">Broome, Richard (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=prDiOdI4H9IC">Aboriginal Australians: A history since 1788</a>. Allen & Unwin. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-7417-6554-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-7417-6554-0"><bdi>978-1-7417-6554-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210818055212/https://books.google.com/books?id=prDiOdI4H9IC">Archived</a> from the original on 18 August 2021. Retrieved 17 January 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aboriginal+Australians%3A+A+history+since+1788&rft.pub=Allen+%26+Unwin&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-7417-6554-0&rft.aulast=Broome&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DprDiOdI4H9IC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrown1998" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Judith_M._Brown" title="Judith M. Brown">Brown, Judith M.</a> (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CpSvK3An3hwC">The Twentieth Century, The Oxford History of the British Empire Volume IV</a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-1992-4679-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-1992-4679-3"><bdi>978-0-1992-4679-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140103114315/http://books.google.com/books?id=CpSvK3An3hwC">Archived</a> from the original on 3 January 2014. Retrieved 22 July 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Twentieth+Century%2C+The+Oxford+History+of+the+British+Empire+Volume+IV&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-1992-4679-3&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=Judith+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DCpSvK3An3hwC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBuckner2008" class="citation book cs1">Buckner, Phillip, ed. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SJA7OIinf4MC">Canada and the British Empire</a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-1992-7164-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-1992-7164-1"><bdi>978-0-1992-7164-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210816035421/https://books.google.com/books?id=SJA7OIinf4MC">Archived</a> from the original on 16 August 2021. Retrieved 22 July 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Canada+and+the+British+Empire&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-1992-7164-1&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSJA7OIinf4MC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurk2008" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Kathleen_Burk" title="Kathleen Burk">Burk, Kathleen</a> (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/oldworldnewworld00kath">Old World, New World: Great Britain and America from the Beginning</a>. Atlantic Monthly Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8711-3971-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8711-3971-9"><bdi>978-0-8711-3971-9</bdi></a>. Retrieved 22 January 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Old+World%2C+New+World%3A+Great+Britain+and+America+from+the+Beginning&rft.pub=Atlantic+Monthly+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-8711-3971-9&rft.aulast=Burk&rft.aufirst=Kathleen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Foldworldnewworld00kath&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCanny1998" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Canny" title="Nicholas Canny">Canny, Nicholas</a>, ed. (1998). The Origins of Empire, The Oxford History of the British Empire Volume I. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-1992-4676-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-1992-4676-2"><bdi>978-0-1992-4676-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL7403653M">7403653M</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Origins+of+Empire%2C+The+Oxford+History+of+the+British+Empire+Volume+I&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL7403653M%23id-name%3DOL&rft.isbn=978-0-1992-4676-2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCapper1997" class="citation book cs1">Capper, John (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=aqqBPS1TDUgC&pg=PA28">Delhi, the Capital of India</a>. Asian Educational Services. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8-1206-1282-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-8-1206-1282-2"><bdi>978-8-1206-1282-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Delhi%2C+the+Capital+of+India&rft.pub=Asian+Educational+Services&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-8-1206-1282-2&rft.aulast=Capper&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DaqqBPS1TDUgC%26pg%3DPA28&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCervero1998" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Cervero" title="Robert Cervero">Cervero, Robert B.</a> (1998). The Transit Metropolis: A Global Inquiry. Island Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5596-3591-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-5596-3591-2"><bdi>978-1-5596-3591-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Transit+Metropolis%3A+A+Global+Inquiry&rft.pub=Island+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-1-5596-3591-2&rft.aulast=Cervero&rft.aufirst=Robert+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChurchill1950" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Winston_Churchill" title="Winston Churchill">Churchill, Winston</a> (1950). The Second World War, The Grand Alliance, Volume III. Cassell & Co Ltd. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-3049-2114-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-3049-2114-0"><bdi>978-0-3049-2114-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Second+World+War%2C+The+Grand+Alliance%2C+Volume+III&rft.pub=Cassell+%26+Co+Ltd&rft.date=1950&rft.isbn=978-0-3049-2114-0&rft.aulast=Churchill&rft.aufirst=Winston&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClegg2005" class="citation book cs1">Clegg, Peter (2005). "The UK Caribbean Overseas Territories". In de Jong, Lammert; Kruijt, Dirk (eds.). Extended Statehood in the Caribbean. Rozenberg Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9-0517-0686-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-9-0517-0686-4"><bdi>978-9-0517-0686-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+UK+Caribbean+Overseas+Territories&rft.btitle=Extended+Statehood+in+the+Caribbean&rft.pub=Rozenberg+Publishers&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-9-0517-0686-4&rft.aulast=Clegg&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCombs2008" class="citation book cs1">Combs, Jerald A. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofamerica0003comb">The History of American Foreign Policy: From 1895</a>. M.E. Sharpe. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7656-2056-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7656-2056-9"><bdi>978-0-7656-2056-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+American+Foreign+Policy%3A+From+1895&rft.pub=M.E.+Sharpe&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-7656-2056-9&rft.aulast=Combs&rft.aufirst=Jerald+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoryofamerica0003comb&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCuniberti2014" class="citation journal cs1">Cuniberti, Gilles (8 October 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://scholarlycommons.law.northwestern.edu/njilb/vol34/iss3/3">"The International Market for Contracts: The Most Attractive Contract Laws"</a>. Nw. J. Int'l L. & Bus. 34 (3). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200925072209/https://scholarlycommons.law.northwestern.edu/njilb/vol34/iss3/3">Archived</a> from the original on 25 September 2020. Retrieved 30 October 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nw.+J.+Int%27l+L.+%26+Bus.&rft.atitle=The+International+Market+for+Contracts%3A+The+Most+Attractive+Contract+Laws&rft.volume=34&rft.issue=3&rft.date=2014-10-08&rft.aulast=Cuniberti&rft.aufirst=Gilles&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fscholarlycommons.law.northwestern.edu%2Fnjilb%2Fvol34%2Fiss3%2F3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDalziel2006" class="citation book cs1">Dalziel, Nigel (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=u0wUAQAAIAAJ">The Penguin Historical Atlas of the British Empire</a>. Penguin. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-1410-1844-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-1410-1844-7"><bdi>978-0-1410-1844-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150514173848/https://books.google.com/books?id=u0wUAQAAIAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 14 May 2015. Retrieved 22 July 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Penguin+Historical+Atlas+of+the+British+Empire&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-1410-1844-7&rft.aulast=Dalziel&rft.aufirst=Nigel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Du0wUAQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDarwin2012" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Darwin_(historian)" title="John Darwin (historian)">Darwin, John</a> (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GHA7oAWZCmIC">Unfinished Empire, The Global Expansion of Britain</a>. Penguin. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-8461-4089-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-8461-4089-1"><bdi>978-1-8461-4089-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210418000302/https://books.google.com/books?id=GHA7oAWZCmIC">Archived</a> from the original on 18 April 2021. Retrieved 26 November 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Unfinished+Empire%2C+The+Global+Expansion+of+Britain&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-8461-4089-1&rft.aulast=Darwin&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGHA7oAWZCmIC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFerguson2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Niall_Ferguson" title="Niall Ferguson">Ferguson, Niall</a> (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/empire00nial">Empire: The Rise and Demise of the British World Order and the Lessons for Global Power</a>. Basic Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-4650-2329-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-4650-2329-5"><bdi>978-0-4650-2329-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Empire%3A+The+Rise+and+Demise+of+the+British+World+Order+and+the+Lessons+for+Global+Power&rft.pub=Basic+Books&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-4650-2329-5&rft.aulast=Ferguson&rft.aufirst=Niall&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fempire00nial&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFieldhouse1999" class="citation book cs1">Fieldhouse, David Kenneth (1999). The West and the Third World: trade, colonialism, dependence, and development. Blackwell Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-6311-9439-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-6311-9439-2"><bdi>978-0-6311-9439-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+West+and+the+Third+World%3A+trade%2C+colonialism%2C+dependence%2C+and+development&rft.pub=Blackwell+Publishing&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-6311-9439-2&rft.aulast=Fieldhouse&rft.aufirst=David+Kenneth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFox2008" class="citation book cs1">Fox, Gregory H. (2008). Humanitarian Occupation. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-5218-5600-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-5218-5600-3"><bdi>978-0-5218-5600-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Humanitarian+Occupation&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-5218-5600-3&rft.aulast=Fox&rft.aufirst=Gregory+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGalligan1995" class="citation book cs1">Galligan, Brian (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/federal-republic/D866D777B09A02F2F300ED6A6E5F74C6">A Federal Republic: Australia's Constitutional System of Government</a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCBO9781139084932">10.1017/CBO9781139084932</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-1390-8493-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-1390-8493-2"><bdi>978-1-1390-8493-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210220101950/https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/federal-republic/D866D777B09A02F2F300ED6A6E5F74C6">Archived</a> from the original on 20 February 2021. Retrieved 8 February 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Federal+Republic%3A+Australia%27s+Constitutional+System+of+Government&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FCBO9781139084932&rft.isbn=978-1-1390-8493-2&rft.aulast=Galligan&rft.aufirst=Brian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fbooks%2Ffederal-republic%2FD866D777B09A02F2F300ED6A6E5F74C6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGames2002" class="citation book cs1">Games, Alison (2002). Armitage, David; <a href="/wiki/Michael_Braddick" title="Michael Braddick">Braddick, Michael J</a> (eds.). The British Atlantic world, 1500–1800. Palgrave Macmillan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-3339-6341-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-3339-6341-8"><bdi>978-0-3339-6341-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+British+Atlantic+world%2C+1500%E2%80%931800&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-3339-6341-8&rft.aulast=Games&rft.aufirst=Alison&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGérin-Lajoie1951" class="citation journal cs1">Gérin-Lajoie, Paul (1951). "Constitutional Amendment in Canada". The Canadian Journal of Economics and Political Science. 17 (6). Blackwell Publishing on behalf of Canadian Economics Association: 389–394. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F137699">10.2307/137699</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/137699">137699</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Canadian+Journal+of+Economics+and+Political+Science&rft.atitle=Constitutional+Amendment+in+Canada&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=389-394&rft.date=1951&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F137699&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F137699%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=G%C3%A9rin-Lajoie&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGapes2008" class="citation book cs1">Gapes, Mike (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200708/cmselect/cmfaff/147/147ii.pdf">HC Paper 147-II House of Commons Foreign Affairs Committee: Overseas Territories, Volume II</a> (PDF). The Stationery Office. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-2155-2150-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-2155-2150-7"><bdi>978-0-2155-2150-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161026074009/http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200708/cmselect/cmfaff/147/147ii.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 26 October 2016. Retrieved 21 November 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=HC+Paper+147-II+House+of+Commons+Foreign+Affairs+Committee%3A+Overseas+Territories%2C+Volume+II&rft.pub=The+Stationery+Office&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-2155-2150-7&rft.aulast=Gapes&rft.aufirst=Mike&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpublications.parliament.uk%2Fpa%2Fcm200708%2Fcmselect%2Fcmfaff%2F147%2F147ii.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGilbert2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Martin_Gilbert" title="Martin Gilbert">Gilbert, Martin</a> (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vF7wGAzgwfQC">Churchill and America</a>. Simon and Schuster. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7432-9122-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7432-9122-4"><bdi>978-0-7432-9122-4</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140103103058/http://books.google.com/books?id=vF7wGAzgwfQC">Archived</a> from the original on 3 January 2014. Retrieved 22 July 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Churchill+and+America&rft.pub=Simon+and+Schuster&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-7432-9122-4&rft.aulast=Gilbert&rft.aufirst=Martin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvF7wGAzgwfQC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGo2007" class="citation book cs1">Go, Julian (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kYmmnYKEvE0C&pg=PA94">"A Globalizing Constitutionalism?, Views from the Postcolony, 1945-2000"</a>. In Arjomand, Saïd Amir (ed.). Constitutionalism and political reconstruction. Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9-0041-5174-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-9-0041-5174-1"><bdi>978-9-0041-5174-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200801015306/https://books.google.com/books?id=kYmmnYKEvE0C&lpg=PA93&pg=PA94">Archived</a> from the original on 1 August 2020. Retrieved 30 October 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=A+Globalizing+Constitutionalism%3F%2C+Views+from+the+Postcolony%2C+1945-2000&rft.btitle=Constitutionalism+and+political+reconstruction&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-9-0041-5174-1&rft.aulast=Go&rft.aufirst=Julian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkYmmnYKEvE0C%26pg%3DPA94&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoldstein1994" class="citation book cs1">Goldstein, Erik (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dDmJPPGjfJMC">The Washington Conference, 1921–22: Naval Rivalry, East Asian Stability and the Road to Pearl Harbor</a>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7146-4559-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7146-4559-9"><bdi>978-0-7146-4559-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140103084704/http://books.google.com/books?id=dDmJPPGjfJMC">Archived</a> from the original on 3 January 2014. Retrieved 22 July 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Washington+Conference%2C+1921%E2%80%9322%3A+Naval+Rivalry%2C+East+Asian+Stability+and+the+Road+to+Pearl+Harbor&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-7146-4559-9&rft.aulast=Goldstein&rft.aufirst=Erik&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DdDmJPPGjfJMC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGurtov1970" class="citation book cs1">Gurtov, Melvin (1970). Southeast Asia Tomorrow. The Johns Hopkins Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Southeast+Asia+Tomorrow&rft.pub=The+Johns+Hopkins+Press&rft.date=1970&rft.aulast=Gurtov&rft.aufirst=Melvin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeinlein2002" class="citation book cs1">Heinlein, Frank (2002). British Government Policy and Decolonisation, 1945–1963: Scrutinising the Official Mind. Psychology Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7146-5220-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7146-5220-7"><bdi>978-0-7146-5220-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=British+Government+Policy+and+Decolonisation%2C+1945%E2%80%931963%3A+Scrutinising+the+Official+Mind&rft.pub=Psychology+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-7146-5220-7&rft.aulast=Heinlein&rft.aufirst=Frank&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHerbst2000" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jeffrey_Herbst" title="Jeffrey Herbst">Herbst, Jeffrey Ira</a> (2000). States and power in Africa: comparative lessons in authority and control. Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-6910-1027-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-6910-1027-7"><bdi>0-6910-1027-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=States+and+power+in+Africa%3A+comparative+lessons+in+authority+and+control&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0-6910-1027-7&rft.aulast=Herbst&rft.aufirst=Jeffrey+Ira&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHigman2000" class="citation journal cs1">Higman, B. W. (2000). "The Sugar Revolution". The Economic History Review. 53 (2). Wiley: 213–236. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2F1468-0289.00158">10.1111/1468-0289.00158</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0013-0117">0013-0117</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2598696">2598696</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Economic+History+Review&rft.atitle=The+Sugar+Revolution&rft.volume=53&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=213-236&rft.date=2000&rft.issn=0013-0117&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2598696%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2F1468-0289.00158&rft.aulast=Higman&rft.aufirst=B.+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHinks2007" class="citation book cs1">Hinks, Peter (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_SeZrcBqt-YC">Encyclopedia of antislavery and abolition</a>. Greenwood Publishing Group. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-3133-3143-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-3133-3143-5"><bdi>978-0-3133-3143-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170211101846/https://books.google.com/books?id=_SeZrcBqt-YC">Archived</a> from the original on 11 February 2017. Retrieved 1 August 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+antislavery+and+abolition&rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-3133-3143-5&rft.aulast=Hinks&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_SeZrcBqt-YC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHodge2007" class="citation book cs1">Hodge, Carl Cavanagh (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-hOkx7Gi4OoC">Encyclopedia of the Age of Imperialism, 1800–1914</a>. Greenwood Publishing Group. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-3133-3404-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-3133-3404-7"><bdi>978-0-3133-3404-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210815132949/https://books.google.com/books?id=-hOkx7Gi4OoC">Archived</a> from the original on 15 August 2021. Retrieved 22 July 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+the+Age+of+Imperialism%2C+1800%E2%80%931914&rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-3133-3404-7&rft.aulast=Hodge&rft.aufirst=Carl+Cavanagh&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-hOkx7Gi4OoC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHogg2008" class="citation book cs1">Hogg, Richard (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=U5FDi8WksqYC">A History of the English Language</a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-5216-6227-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-5216-6227-7"><bdi>978-0-5216-6227-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200727135512/https://books.google.com/books?id=U5FDi8WksqYC">Archived</a> from the original on 27 July 2020. Retrieved 13 April 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+English+Language&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-5216-6227-7&rft.aulast=Hogg&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DU5FDi8WksqYC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHopkirk1992" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Peter_Hopkirk" title="Peter Hopkirk">Hopkirk, Peter</a> (1992). <a href="/wiki/The_Great_Game:_The_Struggle_for_Empire_in_Central_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="The Great Game: The Struggle for Empire in Central Asia">The Great Game: The Struggle for Empire in Central Asia</a>. <a href="/wiki/Kodansha_International" class="mw-redirect" title="Kodansha International">Kodansha International</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-4-7700-1703-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-4-7700-1703-1"><bdi>978-4-7700-1703-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Great+Game%3A+The+Struggle+for+Empire+in+Central+Asia&rft.pub=Kodansha+International&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-4-7700-1703-1&rft.aulast=Hopkirk&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHunter1907" class="citation cs2">Hunter, William Wilson (1907), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=koUqAAAAYAAJ">A Brief History of the Indian Peoples</a>, Oxford: Clarendon Press, <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/2027%2Fuc1.%24b196576">2027/uc1.$b196576</a>, <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/464656679">464656679</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Brief+History+of+the+Indian+Peoples&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1907&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F2027%2Fuc1.%24b196576&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F464656679&rft.aulast=Hunter&rft.aufirst=William+Wilson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkoUqAAAAYAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHyam2002" class="citation book cs1">Hyam, Ronald (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2eMoHQAACAAJ">Britain's Imperial Century, 1815–1914: A Study of Empire and Expansion</a>. Palgrave Macmillan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7134-3089-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7134-3089-9"><bdi>978-0-7134-3089-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140103082759/http://books.google.com/books?id=2eMoHQAACAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 3 January 2014. Retrieved 22 July 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Britain%27s+Imperial+Century%2C+1815%E2%80%931914%3A+A+Study+of+Empire+and+Expansion&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-7134-3089-9&rft.aulast=Hyam&rft.aufirst=Ronald&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2eMoHQAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJackson2013" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ashley_Jackson_(historian)" title="Ashley Jackson (historian)">Jackson, Ashley</a> (2013). The British Empire: A Very Short Introduction. OUP. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-1996-0541-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-1996-0541-5"><bdi>978-0-1996-0541-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+British+Empire%3A+A+Very+Short+Introduction&rft.pub=OUP&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-1996-0541-5&rft.aulast=Jackson&rft.aufirst=Ashley&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJames2001" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_James" title="Lawrence James">James, Lawrence</a> (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4DMS3r_BxOYC">The Rise and Fall of the British Empire</a>. Abacus. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-3121-6985-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-3121-6985-5"><bdi>978-0-3121-6985-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210823200524/https://books.google.com/books?id=4DMS3r_BxOYC">Archived</a> from the original on 23 August 2021. Retrieved 22 July 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rise+and+Fall+of+the+British+Empire&rft.pub=Abacus&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-3121-6985-5&rft.aulast=James&rft.aufirst=Lawrence&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4DMS3r_BxOYC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJanin1999" class="citation book cs1">Janin, Hunt (1999). The India–China opium trade in the nineteenth century. McFarland. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7864-0715-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7864-0715-6"><bdi>978-0-7864-0715-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+India%E2%80%93China+opium+trade+in+the+nineteenth+century&rft.pub=McFarland&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-7864-0715-6&rft.aulast=Janin&rft.aufirst=Hunt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohnstonReisman2008" class="citation book cs1">Johnston, Douglas M.; Reisman, W. Michael (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dVuwCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA508">The Historical Foundations of World Order</a>. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9-0474-2393-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-9-0474-2393-5"><bdi>978-9-0474-2393-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210418004923/https://books.google.com/books?id=dVuwCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA508">Archived</a> from the original on 18 April 2021. Retrieved 8 November 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Historical+Foundations+of+World+Order&rft.pub=Martinus+Nijhoff+Publishers&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-9-0474-2393-5&rft.aulast=Johnston&rft.aufirst=Douglas+M.&rft.au=Reisman%2C+W.+Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DdVuwCQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA508&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJoseph2010" class="citation book cs1">Joseph, William A. (2010). Politics in China. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-1953-3530-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-1953-3530-9"><bdi>978-0-1953-3530-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Politics+in+China&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-1953-3530-9&rft.aulast=Joseph&rft.aufirst=William+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeay1991" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Keay" title="John Keay">Keay, John</a> (1991). The Honourable Company. Macmillan Publishing Company.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Honourable+Company&rft.pub=Macmillan+Publishing+Company&rft.date=1991&rft.aulast=Keay&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKelleyTrebilcock2010" class="citation book cs1">Kelley, Ninette; Trebilcock, Michael (2010). The Making of the Mosaic (2nd ed.). University of Toronto Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8020-9536-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8020-9536-7"><bdi>978-0-8020-9536-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Making+of+the+Mosaic&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=University+of+Toronto+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-8020-9536-7&rft.aulast=Kelley&rft.aufirst=Ninette&rft.au=Trebilcock%2C+Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKenny2006" class="citation book cs1">Kenny, Kevin (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qhW7-vYt8PsC">Ireland and the British Empire</a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-1992-5184-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-1992-5184-1"><bdi>978-0-1992-5184-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140103115542/http://books.google.com/books?id=qhW7-vYt8PsC">Archived</a> from the original on 3 January 2014. Retrieved 22 July 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ireland+and+the+British+Empire&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-1992-5184-1&rft.aulast=Kenny&rft.aufirst=Kevin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DqhW7-vYt8PsC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKnightPalmer1989" class="citation book cs1">Knight, Franklin W.; Palmer, Colin A. (1989). The Modern Caribbean. University of North Carolina Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8078-1825-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8078-1825-1"><bdi>978-0-8078-1825-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Modern+Caribbean&rft.pub=University+of+North+Carolina+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-8078-1825-1&rft.aulast=Knight&rft.aufirst=Franklin+W.&rft.au=Palmer%2C+Colin+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKoebner1953" class="citation journal cs1">Koebner, Richard (May 1953). "The Imperial Crown of This Realm: Henry VIII, Constantine the Great, and Polydore Vergil". Historical Research. 26 (73): 29–52. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1468-2281.1953.tb02124.x">10.1111/j.1468-2281.1953.tb02124.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1468-2281">1468-2281</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Historical+Research&rft.atitle=The+Imperial+Crown+of+This+Realm%3A+Henry+VIII%2C+Constantine+the+Great%2C+and+Polydore+Vergil&rft.volume=26&rft.issue=73&rft.pages=29-52&rft.date=1953-05&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1468-2281.1953.tb02124.x&rft.issn=1468-2281&rft.aulast=Koebner&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLatimer2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jon_Latimer" title="Jon Latimer">Latimer, Jon</a> (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wneIGAAACAAJ">War with America</a>. Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-6740-2584-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-6740-2584-4"><bdi>978-0-6740-2584-4</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140103115859/http://books.google.com/books?id=wneIGAAACAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 3 January 2014. Retrieved 22 July 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=War+with+America&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-6740-2584-4&rft.aulast=Latimer&rft.aufirst=Jon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DwneIGAAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLee1994" class="citation book cs1">Lee, Stephen J. (1994). Aspects of British political history, 1815–1914. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-4150-9006-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-4150-9006-3"><bdi>978-0-4150-9006-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aspects+of+British+political+history%2C+1815%E2%80%931914&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-4150-9006-3&rft.aulast=Lee&rft.aufirst=Stephen+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLee1996" class="citation book cs1">—— (1996). Aspects of British political history, 1914–1995. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-4151-3102-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-4151-3102-5"><bdi>978-0-4151-3102-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aspects+of+British+political+history%2C+1914%E2%80%931995&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-4151-3102-5&rft.aulast=Lee&rft.aufirst=Stephen+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLevine2007" class="citation book cs1">Levine, Philippa (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=igb1-UL5Pd0C">The British Empire: Sunrise to Sunset</a>. Pearson Education Limited. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-5824-7281-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-5824-7281-5"><bdi>978-0-5824-7281-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110513024801/http://books.google.com/books?id=igb1-UL5Pd0C">Archived</a> from the original on 13 May 2011. Retrieved 19 August 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+British+Empire%3A+Sunrise+to+Sunset&rft.pub=Pearson+Education+Limited&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-5824-7281-5&rft.aulast=Levine&rft.aufirst=Philippa&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Digb1-UL5Pd0C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLloyd1996" class="citation book cs1">Lloyd, Trevor Owen (1996). The British Empire 1558–1995. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-1987-3134-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-1987-3134-4"><bdi>978-0-1987-3134-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL285566M">285566M</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+British+Empire+1558%E2%80%931995&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL285566M%23id-name%3DOL&rft.isbn=978-0-1987-3134-4&rft.aulast=Lloyd&rft.aufirst=Trevor+Owen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLouis2006" class="citation book cs1">Louis, Wm. Roger (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NQnpQNKeKKAC">Ends of British Imperialism: The Scramble for Empire, Suez and Decolonization</a>. I.B. Tauris. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-8451-1347-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-8451-1347-6"><bdi>978-1-8451-1347-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170222045215/https://books.google.com/books?id=NQnpQNKeKKAC">Archived</a> from the original on 22 February 2017. Retrieved 22 July 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ends+of+British+Imperialism%3A+The+Scramble+for+Empire%2C+Suez+and+Decolonization&rft.pub=I.B.+Tauris&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-1-8451-1347-6&rft.aulast=Louis&rft.aufirst=Wm.+Roger&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNQnpQNKeKKAC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLouis1986" class="citation book cs1">Louis, Roger (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ATQQ0FMS1FQC&pg=PA718">The British Empire in the Middle East, 1945–1951: Arab Nationalism, the United States, and Postwar Imperialism</a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-1982-2960-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-1982-2960-5"><bdi>978-0-1982-2960-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210418015514/https://books.google.com/books?id=ATQQ0FMS1FQC&pg=PA718">Archived</a> from the original on 18 April 2021. Retrieved 24 August 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+British+Empire+in+the+Middle+East%2C+1945%E2%80%931951%3A+Arab+Nationalism%2C+the+United+States%2C+and+Postwar+Imperialism&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-0-1982-2960-5&rft.aulast=Louis&rft.aufirst=Roger&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DATQQ0FMS1FQC%26pg%3DPA718&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLow1966" class="citation journal cs1">Low, D.A. (February 1966). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2051326">"The Government of India and the First Non-Cooperation Movement – 1920–1922"</a>. The Journal of Asian Studies. 25 (2): 241–259. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2051326">10.2307/2051326</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2051326">2051326</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162717788">162717788</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Asian+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Government+of+India+and+the+First+Non-Cooperation+Movement+%E2%80%93+1920%E2%80%931922&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=241-259&rft.date=1966-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A162717788%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2051326%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2051326&rft.aulast=Low&rft.aufirst=D.A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.2307%252F2051326&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMacaulay1848" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Babington_Macaulay,_1st_Baron_Macaulay" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas Babington Macaulay, 1st Baron Macaulay">Macaulay, Thomas</a> (1848). <a href="/wiki/The_History_of_England_from_the_Accession_of_James_the_Second" title="The History of England from the Accession of James the Second">The History of England from the Accession of James the Second</a>. Penguin. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-1404-3133-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-1404-3133-9"><bdi>978-0-1404-3133-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+England+from+the+Accession+of+James+the+Second&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=1848&rft.isbn=978-0-1404-3133-9&rft.aulast=Macaulay&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMacdonald1994" class="citation book cs1">Macdonald, Barrie (1994). "Britain". In Howe, K.R.; Kiste, Robert C.; Lal, Brij V (eds.). Tides of history: the Pacific Islands in the twentieth century. University of Hawaii Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8248-1597-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8248-1597-4"><bdi>978-0-8248-1597-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Britain&rft.btitle=Tides+of+history%3A+the+Pacific+Islands+in+the+twentieth+century&rft.pub=University+of+Hawaii+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-8248-1597-4&rft.aulast=Macdonald&rft.aufirst=Barrie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMacintyre2009" class="citation book cs1">Macintyre, Stuart (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jfKcFdz7gF8C">A Concise History of Australia</a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-5215-1608-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-5215-1608-2"><bdi>978-0-5215-1608-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210817231128/https://books.google.com/books?id=jfKcFdz7gF8C">Archived</a> from the original on 17 August 2021. Retrieved 17 January 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Concise+History+of+Australia&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-5215-1608-2&rft.aulast=Macintyre&rft.aufirst=Stuart&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjfKcFdz7gF8C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcIntyre1977" class="citation book cs1">McIntyre, W. David (1977). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/commonwealthofna0000mcin">The Commonwealth of Nations</a>. University of Minnesota Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8166-0792-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8166-0792-1"><bdi>978-0-8166-0792-1</bdi></a>. Retrieved 22 July 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Commonwealth+of+Nations&rft.pub=University+of+Minnesota+Press&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=978-0-8166-0792-1&rft.aulast=McIntyre&rft.aufirst=W.+David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcommonwealthofna0000mcin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcIntyre2016" class="citation book cs1">—— (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MqzSAgAAQBAJ">Winding up the British Empire in the Pacific Islands</a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-1925-1361-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-1925-1361-8"><bdi>978-0-1925-1361-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191212052205/https://books.google.com/books?id=MqzSAgAAQBAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 12 December 2019. Retrieved 12 February 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Winding+up+the+British+Empire+in+the+Pacific+Islands&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0-1925-1361-8&rft.aulast=McIntyre&rft.aufirst=W.+David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DMqzSAgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaddison2001" class="citation book cs1">Maddison, Angus (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://theunbrokenwindow.com/Development/MADDISON%20The%20World%20Economy--A%20Millennial.pdf">The World Economy: A Millennial Perspective</a> (PDF). Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9-2641-8608-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-9-2641-8608-8"><bdi>978-9-2641-8608-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201111170118/http://theunbrokenwindow.com/Development/MADDISON%20The%20World%20Economy--A%20Millennial.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 11 November 2020. Retrieved 22 July 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+World+Economy%3A+A+Millennial+Perspective&rft.pub=Organisation+for+Economic+Co-operation+and+Development&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-9-2641-8608-8&rft.aulast=Maddison&rft.aufirst=Angus&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftheunbrokenwindow.com%2FDevelopment%2FMADDISON%2520The%2520World%2520Economy--A%2520Millennial.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMagee1974" class="citation book cs1">Magee, John (1974). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=S5c9AAAAIAAJ">Northern Ireland: Crisis and Conflict</a>. Taylor & Francis. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7100-7947-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7100-7947-3"><bdi>978-0-7100-7947-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140103115553/http://books.google.com/books?id=S5c9AAAAIAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 3 January 2014. Retrieved 22 July 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Northern+Ireland%3A+Crisis+and+Conflict&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=1974&rft.isbn=978-0-7100-7947-3&rft.aulast=Magee&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DS5c9AAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMagnusson2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Magnus_Magnusson" title="Magnus Magnusson">Magnusson, Magnus</a> (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sEV4zgXOJLsC">Scotland: The Story of a Nation</a>. Grove Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8021-3932-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8021-3932-0"><bdi>978-0-8021-3932-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140103091200/http://books.google.com/books?id=sEV4zgXOJLsC">Archived</a> from the original on 3 January 2014. Retrieved 22 July 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Scotland%3A+The+Story+of+a+Nation&rft.pub=Grove+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-8021-3932-0&rft.aulast=Magnusson&rft.aufirst=Magnus&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DsEV4zgXOJLsC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarshall1996" class="citation book cs1">Marshall, P.J., ed. (1996). The Cambridge Illustrated History of the British Empire. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-5210-0254-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-5210-0254-7"><bdi>978-0-5210-0254-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL7712614M">7712614M</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Illustrated+History+of+the+British+Empire&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL7712614M%23id-name%3DOL&rft.isbn=978-0-5210-0254-7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarshall1998" class="citation book cs1">——, ed. (1998). The Eighteenth Century, The Oxford History of the British Empire Volume II. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-1992-4677-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-1992-4677-9"><bdi>978-0-1992-4677-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL7403654M">7403654M</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Eighteenth+Century%2C+The+Oxford+History+of+the+British+Empire+Volume+II&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL7403654M%23id-name%3DOL&rft.isbn=978-0-1992-4677-9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMartin2007" class="citation book cs1">Martin, Laura C. (2007). Tea: the drink that changed the world. Tuttle Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8048-3724-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8048-3724-8"><bdi>978-0-8048-3724-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tea%3A+the+drink+that+changed+the+world&rft.pub=Tuttle+Publishing&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-8048-3724-8&rft.aulast=Martin&rft.aufirst=Laura+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcKenna2002" class="citation book cs1">McKenna, Mark (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mYQuQw3jL9kC">Looking for Blackfellas' Point: An Australian History of Place</a>. UNSW Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8684-0644-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8684-0644-2"><bdi>978-0-8684-0644-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210418013544/https://books.google.com/books?id=mYQuQw3jL9kC">Archived</a> from the original on 18 April 2021. Retrieved 17 January 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Looking+for+Blackfellas%27+Point%3A+An+Australian+History+of+Place&rft.pub=UNSW+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-8684-0644-2&rft.aulast=McKenna&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DmYQuQw3jL9kC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMein_Smith2005" class="citation book cs1">Mein Smith, Philippa (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wisr4OGPjwoC">A Concise History of New Zealand</a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-5215-4228-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-5215-4228-9"><bdi>978-0-5215-4228-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150514174101/https://books.google.com/books?id=wisr4OGPjwoC">Archived</a> from the original on 14 May 2015. Retrieved 22 July 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Concise+History+of+New+Zealand&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-5215-4228-9&rft.aulast=Mein+Smith&rft.aufirst=Philippa&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dwisr4OGPjwoC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoon2007" class="citation book cs1">Moon, Paul (2007). The Newest Country in the World - A History of New Zealand in the Decade of the Treaty. Penguin.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Newest+Country+in+the+World+-+A+History+of+New+Zealand+in+the+Decade+of+the+Treaty&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Moon&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoon2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Paul_Moon" title="Paul Moon">Moon, Paul</a>, ed. (2010). New Zealand Birth Certificates – 50 of New Zealand's Founding Documents. AUT Media. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9582997-1-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-9582997-1-8"><bdi>978-0-9582997-1-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=New+Zealand+Birth+Certificates+%E2%80%93+50+of+New+Zealand%27s+Founding+Documents&rft.pub=AUT+Media&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-9582997-1-8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMulliganHill2001" class="citation book cs1">Mulligan, Martin; Hill, Stuart (2001). Ecological pioneers. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-5218-1103-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-5218-1103-3"><bdi>978-0-5218-1103-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ecological+pioneers&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-5218-1103-3&rft.aulast=Mulligan&rft.aufirst=Martin&rft.au=Hill%2C+Stuart&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMori2014" class="citation book cs1">Mori, Jennifer (2014). Britain in the Age of the French Revolution: 1785 - 1820. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-3178-9189-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-3178-9189-5"><bdi>978-1-3178-9189-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Britain+in+the+Age+of+the+French+Revolution%3A+1785+-+1820&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-3178-9189-5&rft.aulast=Mori&rft.aufirst=Jennifer&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNayar2008" class="citation book cs1">Nayar, Pramod K. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wpZ9AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA64">English Writing and India, 1600–1920: Colonizing Aesthetics</a>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-1341-3150-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-1341-3150-1"><bdi>978-1-1341-3150-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=English+Writing+and+India%2C+1600%E2%80%931920%3A+Colonizing+Aesthetics&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-1341-3150-1&rft.aulast=Nayar&rft.aufirst=Pramod+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DwpZ9AgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA64&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNellis2013" class="citation book cs1">Nellis, Eric (2013). Shaping the New World: African Slavery in the Americas, 1500-1888. University of Toronto Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4426-0555-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4426-0555-8"><bdi>978-1-4426-0555-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.3138/j.ctv2gmhh15">10.3138/j.ctv2gmhh15</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Shaping+the+New+World%3A+African+Slavery+in+the+Americas%2C+1500-1888&rft.pub=University+of+Toronto+Press&rft.date=2013&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F10.3138%2Fj.ctv2gmhh15%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.isbn=978-1-4426-0555-8&rft.aulast=Nellis&rft.aufirst=Eric&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'Brien2004" class="citation book cs1">O'Brien, Phillips Payson (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LNbDqOzSvpkC">The Anglo–Japanese Alliance, 1902–1922</a>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-4153-2611-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-4153-2611-7"><bdi>978-0-4153-2611-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140103085651/http://books.google.com/books?id=LNbDqOzSvpkC">Archived</a> from the original on 3 January 2014. Retrieved 22 July 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Anglo%E2%80%93Japanese+Alliance%2C+1902%E2%80%931922&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-4153-2611-7&rft.aulast=O%27Brien&rft.aufirst=Phillips+Payson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLNbDqOzSvpkC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPagden2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Pagden" title="Anthony Pagden">Pagden, Anthony</a> (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-RCeAAAACAAJ">Peoples and Empires: A Short History of European Migration, Exploration, and Conquest, from Greece to the Present</a>. Modern Library. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8129-6761-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8129-6761-6"><bdi>978-0-8129-6761-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210816153546/https://books.google.com/books?id=-RCeAAAACAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 16 August 2021. Retrieved 22 July 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Peoples+and+Empires%3A+A+Short+History+of+European+Migration%2C+Exploration%2C+and+Conquest%2C+from+Greece+to+the+Present&rft.pub=Modern+Library&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-8129-6761-6&rft.aulast=Pagden&rft.aufirst=Anthony&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-RCeAAAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFParsons1999" class="citation book cs1">Parsons, Timothy H. (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=81ZlzUsO8EYC">The British Imperial Century, 1815–1914: A World History Perspective</a>. Rowman & Littlefield. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8476-8825-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8476-8825-8"><bdi>978-0-8476-8825-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140103111133/http://books.google.com/books?id=81ZlzUsO8EYC">Archived</a> from the original on 3 January 2014. Retrieved 22 July 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+British+Imperial+Century%2C+1815%E2%80%931914%3A+A+World+History+Perspective&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-8476-8825-8&rft.aulast=Parsons&rft.aufirst=Timothy+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D81ZlzUsO8EYC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPascoe2018" class="citation book cs1">Pascoe, Bruce (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6iZuDwAAQBAJ">Dark Emu: Aboriginal Australia and the Birth of Agriculture</a>. Magabala Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-9257-6895-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-9257-6895-4"><bdi>978-1-9257-6895-4</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210814154636/https://books.google.com/books?id=6iZuDwAAQBAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 14 August 2021. Retrieved 17 January 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dark+Emu%3A+Aboriginal+Australia+and+the+Birth+of+Agriculture&rft.pub=Magabala+Books&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-1-9257-6895-4&rft.aulast=Pascoe&rft.aufirst=Bruce&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6iZuDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPestan2009" class="citation book cs1">Pestan, Carla Gardina (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tCikDMZCTwgC&pg=PA185">Protestant Empire: Religion and the Making of the British Atlantic World</a>. University of Pennsylvania Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-4150-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-4150-1"><bdi>978-0-8122-4150-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210418014228/https://books.google.com/books?id=tCikDMZCTwgC&pg=PA185">Archived</a> from the original on 18 April 2021. Retrieved 27 January 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Protestant+Empire%3A+Religion+and+the+Making+of+the+British+Atlantic+World&rft.pub=University+of+Pennsylvania+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-8122-4150-1&rft.aulast=Pestan&rft.aufirst=Carla+Gardina&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DtCikDMZCTwgC%26pg%3DPA185&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeters2006" class="citation book cs1">Peters, Nonja (2006). The Dutch down under, 1606–2006. University of Western Australia Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-9206-9475-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-9206-9475-3"><bdi>978-1-9206-9475-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Dutch+down+under%2C+1606%E2%80%932006&rft.pub=University+of+Western+Australia+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-1-9206-9475-3&rft.aulast=Peters&rft.aufirst=Nonja&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPettigrew2007" class="citation journal cs1">Pettigrew, William A. (2007). "Free to Enslave: Politics and the Escalation of Britain's Transatlantic Slave Trade, 1688–1714". The William and Mary Quarterly. 64 (1): 3–38. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0043-5597">0043-5597</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4491595">4491595</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+William+and+Mary+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Free+to+Enslave%3A+Politics+and+the+Escalation+of+Britain%27s+Transatlantic+Slave+Trade%2C+1688%E2%80%931714&rft.volume=64&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=3-38&rft.date=2007&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4491595%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.issn=0043-5597&rft.aulast=Pettigrew&rft.aufirst=William+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPettigrew2013" class="citation book cs1">—— (2013). Freedom's Debt: The Royal African Company and the Politics of the Atlantic Slave Trade, 1672–1752. UNC Press Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4696-1181-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4696-1181-5"><bdi>978-1-4696-1181-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/879306121">879306121</a>. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL26886628M">26886628M</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Freedom%27s+Debt%3A+The+Royal+African+Company+and+the+Politics+of+the+Atlantic+Slave+Trade%2C+1672%E2%80%931752&rft.pub=UNC+Press+Books&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F879306121&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL26886628M%23id-name%3DOL&rft.isbn=978-1-4696-1181-5&rft.aulast=Pettigrew&rft.aufirst=William+Andrew&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPham2010" class="citation book cs1">Pham, P.L. (2010). Ending 'East of Suez': The British Decision to Withdraw from Malaysia and Singapore, 1964–1968. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-1995-8036-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-1995-8036-1"><bdi>978-0-1995-8036-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ending+%27East+of+Suez%27%3A+The+British+Decision+to+Withdraw+from+Malaysia+and+Singapore%2C+1964%E2%80%931968&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-1995-8036-1&rft.aulast=Pham&rft.aufirst=P.L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPorter1998" class="citation book cs1">Porter, Andrew (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=oo3F2X8IDeEC">The Nineteenth Century, The Oxford History of the British Empire</a>. Vol. III. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-1992-4678-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-1992-4678-6"><bdi>978-0-1992-4678-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210511045527/https://books.google.com/books?id=oo3F2X8IDeEC">Archived</a> from the original on 11 May 2021. Retrieved 22 July 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Nineteenth+Century%2C+The+Oxford+History+of+the+British+Empire&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-1992-4678-6&rft.aulast=Porter&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Doo3F2X8IDeEC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRhodesWannaWeller2009" class="citation book cs1">Rhodes, R.A.W.; Wanna, John; Weller, Patrick (2009). Comparing Westminster. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-1995-6349-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-1995-6349-4"><bdi>978-0-1995-6349-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Comparing+Westminster&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-1995-6349-4&rft.aulast=Rhodes&rft.aufirst=R.A.W.&rft.au=Wanna%2C+John&rft.au=Weller%2C+Patrick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRichardson2022" class="citation book cs1">Richardson, David (2022). Principles and Agents: The British Slave Trade and Its Abolition. New Haven: Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2Fj.ctv240ddz3">10.2307/j.ctv240ddz3</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-3002-5043-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-3002-5043-5"><bdi>978-0-3002-5043-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv240ddz3">j.ctv240ddz3</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:244676008">244676008</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Principles+and+Agents%3A+The+British+Slave+Trade+and+Its+Abolition&rft.place=New+Haven&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2022&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2Fj.ctv240ddz3&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A244676008%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2Fj.ctv240ddz3%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.isbn=978-0-3002-5043-5&rft.aulast=Richardson&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRothermund2006" class="citation book cs1">Rothermund, Dietmar (2006). The Routledge companion to decolonization. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-4153-5632-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-4153-5632-9"><bdi>978-0-4153-5632-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Routledge+companion+to+decolonization&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-4153-5632-9&rft.aulast=Rothermund&rft.aufirst=Dietmar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRusso2012" class="citation book cs1">Russo, Jean (2012). Planting an Empire: The Early Chesapeake in British North America. JHU Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4214-0694-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4214-0694-7"><bdi>978-1-4214-0694-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Planting+an+Empire%3A+The+Early+Chesapeake+in+British+North+America&rft.pub=JHU+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-4214-0694-7&rft.aulast=Russo&rft.aufirst=Jean&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoyle2000" class="citation book cs1">Royle, Trevor (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MrBnHQAACAAJ">Crimea: The Great Crimean War, 1854–1856</a>. Palgrave Macmillan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4039-6416-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4039-6416-8"><bdi>978-1-4039-6416-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210816142609/https://books.google.com/books?id=MrBnHQAACAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 16 August 2021. 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Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-4150-7780-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-4150-7780-4"><bdi>978-0-4150-7780-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=International+relations+in+Europe%2C+1689%E2%80%931789&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-4150-7780-4&rft.aulast=Shennan&rft.aufirst=J.H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith1998" class="citation book cs1">Smith, Simon (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/britishimperiali00smit">British Imperialism 1750–1970</a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-1258-0640-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-1258-0640-5"><bdi>978-3-1258-0640-5</bdi></a>. Retrieved 22 July 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=British+Imperialism+1750%E2%80%931970&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-3-1258-0640-5&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Simon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbritishimperiali00smit&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSondhaus2004" class="citation book cs1">Sondhaus, L. (2004). Navies in Modern World History. Reaktion Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-8618-9202-0" title="Special:BookSources/1-8618-9202-0"><bdi>1-8618-9202-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL8631395M">8631395M</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Navies+in+Modern+World+History&rft.pub=Reaktion+Books&rft.date=2004&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL8631395M%23id-name%3DOL&rft.isbn=1-8618-9202-0&rft.aulast=Sondhaus&rft.aufirst=L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSpringhall2001" class="citation book cs1">Springhall, John (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/decolonizationsi00john">Decolonization since 1945: the collapse of European overseas empires</a>. Palgrave. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-3337-4600-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-3337-4600-4"><bdi>978-0-3337-4600-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Decolonization+since+1945%3A+the+collapse+of+European+overseas+empires&rft.pub=Palgrave&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-3337-4600-4&rft.aulast=Springhall&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdecolonizationsi00john&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaagepera1997" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Rein_Taagepera" title="Rein Taagepera">Taagepera, Rein</a> (September 1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.escholarship.org/uc/item/3cn68807">"Expansion and Contraction Patterns of Large Polities: Context for Russia"</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Studies_Quarterly" title="International Studies Quarterly">International Studies Quarterly</a>. 41 (3): 475–504. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2F0020-8833.00053">10.1111/0020-8833.00053</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2600793">2600793</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181119114740/https://escholarship.org/uc/item/3cn68807">Archived</a> from the original on 19 November 2018. 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Penguin. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-1420-0210-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-1420-0210-0"><bdi>978-0-1420-0210-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/works/OL2443937W">2443937W</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=American+Colonies%2C+The+Settling+of+North+America&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=2001&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fworks%2FOL2443937W%23id-name%3DOL&rft.isbn=978-0-1420-0210-0&rft.aulast=Taylor&rft.aufirst=Alan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomas1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Hugh_Thomas_(writer)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hugh Thomas (writer)">Thomas, Hugh</a> (1997). The Slave Trade: The History of The Atlantic Slave Trade. Picador, Phoenix/Orion. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7538-2056-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7538-2056-8"><bdi>978-0-7538-2056-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL18114975M">18114975M</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Slave+Trade%3A+The+History+of+The+Atlantic+Slave+Trade&rft.pub=Picador%2C+Phoenix%2FOrion&rft.date=1997&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL18114975M%23id-name%3DOL&rft.isbn=978-0-7538-2056-8&rft.aulast=Thomas&rft.aufirst=Hugh&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTilby2009" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/A._Wyatt_Tilby" title="A. 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Psychology Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-4152-1207-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-4152-1207-6"><bdi>978-0-4152-1207-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Literature+and+Nation&rft.pub=Psychology+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-4152-1207-6&rft.aulast=Trivedi&rft.aufirst=Harish&rft.au=Allen%2C+Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DV9ufrUyISBsC%26pg%3DPA30&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTurpinTomkins2007" class="citation book cs1">Turpin, Colin; Tomkins, Adam (2007). British government and the constitution (6th ed.). 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National innovation systems: a comparative analysis. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-1950-7617-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-1950-7617-6"><bdi>0-1950-7617-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=National+Innovation+Systems%3A+Britain&rft.btitle=National+innovation+systems%3A+a+comparative+analysis&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=0-1950-7617-6&rft.aulast=Walker&rft.aufirst=William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYFDGjgxc2CYC%26pg%3DPA187&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliams1966" class="citation journal cs1">Williams, Beryl J. (1966). "The Strategic Background to the Anglo-Russian Entente of August 1907". The Historical Journal. 9 (3): 360–373. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0018246X00026698">10.1017/S0018246X00026698</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2637986">2637986</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162474899">162474899</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Historical+Journal&rft.atitle=The+Strategic+Background+to+the+Anglo-Russian+Entente+of+August+1907&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=360-373&rft.date=1966&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A162474899%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2637986%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0018246X00026698&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=Beryl+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYoung2020" class="citation book cs1">Young, Harold A. (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jijxDwAAQBAJ">The Judicial Committee of the Privy Council and the Caribbean Court of Justice: Navigating Independence and Changing Political Environments</a>. Rowman & Littlefield. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4985-8695-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4985-8695-5"><bdi>978-1-4985-8695-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210324132207/https://books.google.com/books?id=jijxDwAAQBAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 24 March 2021. Retrieved 27 January 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Judicial+Committee+of+the+Privy+Council+and+the+Caribbean+Court+of+Justice%3A+Navigating+Independence+and+Changing+Political+Environments&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-1-4985-8695-5&rft.aulast=Young&rft.aufirst=Harold+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjijxDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZolberg2006" class="citation book cs1">Zolberg, Aristide R. (2006). A nation by design: immigration policy in the fashioning of America. Russell Sage. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-6740-2218-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-6740-2218-8"><bdi>978-0-6740-2218-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+nation+by+design%3A+immigration+policy+in+the+fashioning+of+America&rft.pub=Russell+Sage&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-6740-2218-8&rft.aulast=Zolberg&rft.aufirst=Aristide+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrown1984" class="citation journal cs1">Brown, Derek E. (1 February 1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://online.ucpress.edu/as/article-abstract/24/2/201/22046/Brunei-on-the-Morrow-of-Independence">"Brunei on the Morrow of Independence"</a>. Far Eastern Survey. 24 (2): 201–208. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2644439">10.2307/2644439</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2644439">2644439</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201115063626/https://online.ucpress.edu/as/article-abstract/24/2/201/22046/Brunei-on-the-Morrow-of-Independence">Archived</a> from the original on 15 November 2020. Retrieved 15 November 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Far+Eastern+Survey&rft.atitle=Brunei+on+the+Morrow+of+Independence&rft.volume=24&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=201-208&rft.date=1984-02-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2644439&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2644439%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=Derek+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fonline.ucpress.edu%2Fas%2Farticle-abstract%2F24%2F2%2F201%2F22046%2FBrunei-on-the-Morrow-of-Independence&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavid2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Saul_David" title="Saul David">David, Saul</a> (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=H2KOAAAACAAJ">The Indian Mutiny</a>. Penguin. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-6709-1137-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-6709-1137-0"><bdi>978-0-6709-1137-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140103083707/http://books.google.com/books?id=H2KOAAAACAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 3 January 2014. Retrieved 22 July 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Indian+Mutiny&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-6709-1137-0&rft.aulast=David&rft.aufirst=Saul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DH2KOAAAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFElkins2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Caroline_Elkins" title="Caroline Elkins">Elkins, Caroline</a> (2005). Imperial Reckoning: The Untold Story of Britain's Gulag in Kenya. Owl Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8050-8001-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8050-8001-8"><bdi>978-0-8050-8001-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Imperial+Reckoning%3A+The+Untold+Story+of+Britain%27s+Gulag+in+Kenya&rft.pub=Owl+Books&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-8050-8001-8&rft.aulast=Elkins&rft.aufirst=Caroline&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFerguson2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Niall_Ferguson" title="Niall Ferguson">Ferguson, Niall</a> (2004). Colossus: The Price of America's Empire. Penguin. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5942-0013-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-5942-0013-7"><bdi>978-1-5942-0013-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL17123297M">17123297M</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Colossus%3A+The+Price+of+America%27s+Empire&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=2004&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL17123297M%23id-name%3DOL&rft.isbn=978-1-5942-0013-7&rft.aulast=Ferguson&rft.aufirst=Niall&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoodlad2000" class="citation book cs1">Goodlad, Graham David (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=clnBkEo7za4C">British foreign and imperial policy, 1865–1919</a>. Psychology Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-4152-0338-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-4152-0338-8"><bdi>978-0-4152-0338-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110513025006/http://books.google.com/books?id=clnBkEo7za4C">Archived</a> from the original on 13 May 2011. Retrieved 18 September 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=British+foreign+and+imperial+policy%2C+1865%E2%80%931919&rft.pub=Psychology+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-4152-0338-8&rft.aulast=Goodlad&rft.aufirst=Graham+David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DclnBkEo7za4C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHendryDickson2018" class="citation book cs1">Hendry, Ian; Dickson, Susan (14 June 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CoNeDwAAQBAJ">British Overseas Territories Law</a>. Bloomsbury Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5099-1871-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-5099-1871-3"><bdi>978-1-5099-1871-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210815132947/https://books.google.com/books?id=CoNeDwAAQBAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 15 August 2021. Retrieved 29 November 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=British+Overseas+Territories+Law&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Publishing&rft.date=2018-06-14&rft.isbn=978-1-5099-1871-3&rft.aulast=Hendry&rft.aufirst=Ian&rft.au=Dickson%2C+Susan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DCoNeDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHollowell1992" class="citation book cs1">Hollowell, Jonathan (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VxQxFMV_3IUC">Britain Since 1945</a>. Blackwell Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-6312-0968-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-6312-0968-3"><bdi>978-0-6312-0968-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200727141659/https://books.google.com/books?id=VxQxFMV_3IUC">Archived</a> from the original on 27 July 2020. Retrieved 11 May 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Britain+Since+1945&rft.pub=Blackwell+Publishing&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-6312-0968-3&rft.aulast=Hollowell&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DVxQxFMV_3IUC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcLean2001" class="citation book cs1">McLean, Iain (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_O_ADWrESYQC">Rational Choice and British Politics: An Analysis of Rhetoric and Manipulation from Peel to Blair</a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-1982-9529-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-1982-9529-7"><bdi>978-0-1982-9529-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140103095546/http://books.google.com/books?id=_O_ADWrESYQC">Archived</a> from the original on 3 January 2014. Retrieved 22 July 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rational+Choice+and+British+Politics%3A+An+Analysis+of+Rhetoric+and+Manipulation+from+Peel+to+Blair&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-1982-9529-7&rft.aulast=McLean&rft.aufirst=Iain&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_O_ADWrESYQC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Empire" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235611614">.mw-parser-output .spoken-wikipedia{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);margin:0.5em 0;padding:0.2em;line-height:1.5em;font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .spoken-wikipedia-header{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .spoken-wikipedia-listen-to{font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output 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title="File:En-British Empire-article.oga">This audio file</a> was created from a revision of this article dated 7 March 2014 (2014-03-07), and does not reflect subsequent edits.</div><div class="spoken-wikipedia-footer">(<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Media_help" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Media help">Audio help</a> · <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Spoken_articles" title="Wikipedia:Spoken articles">More spoken articles</a>)</div></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about British Empire <hr /></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=British+Empire&library=OLBP">Online books</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=British+Empire">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=British+Empire&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li> </ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/education/resources/british-empire">British Empire</a> from <a href="/wiki/The_National_Archives_(United_Kingdom)" title="The National Archives (United Kingdom)">the National Archives</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://exchange.umma.umich.edu/resources/23653">Collection: "British Empire"</a> from the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Michigan_Museum_of_Art" title="University of Michigan Museum of Art">University of Michigan Museum of Art</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.metmuseum.org/exhibitions/listings/2020/british-galleries/exhibition-gallery">The New British Galleries</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art" title="Metropolitan Museum of Art">Metropolitan Museum of Art</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://exhibitions.bristolmuseums.org.uk/empire-through-the-lens">"Empire through the Lens"</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Bristol_City_Museum_and_Art_Gallery" class="mw-redirect" title="Bristol City Museum and Art Gallery">Bristol City Museum and Art Gallery</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline 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.navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Former_British_Empire_and_Current_British_Overseas_Territories" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:British_overseas_territories" title="Template:British overseas territories"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:British_overseas_territories" title="Template talk:British overseas territories"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:British_overseas_territories" title="Special:EditPage/Template:British overseas territories"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Former_British_Empire_and_Current_British_Overseas_Territories" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Former <a class="mw-selflink selflink">British Empire</a> and Current <a href="/wiki/British_Overseas_Territories" title="British Overseas Territories">British Overseas Territories</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <dl><dt>Legend</dt> <dd>Former territory</dd> <dd>Current territory</dd> <dd>*Current <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_realm" title="Commonwealth realm">Commonwealth realm</a></dd> <dd>†Current member of the <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Nations" title="Commonwealth of Nations">Commonwealth of Nations</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Europe" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Europe</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Akrotiri_and_Dhekelia" title="Akrotiri and Dhekelia">Akrotiri and Dhekelia</a> since 1960 (before as part of <a href="/wiki/Cyprus" title="Cyprus">Cyprus</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Corsican_Kingdom" title="Anglo-Corsican Kingdom">Corsica</a> 1794–1796</li> <li>†<a href="/wiki/British_Cyprus" title="British Cyprus">Cyprus</a> 1878–1960</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gibraltar" title="Gibraltar">Gibraltar</a> since 1713</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heligoland" title="Heligoland">Heligoland</a> 1807–1890</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_of_the_Ionian_Islands" title="United States of the Ionian Islands">Ionian Islands</a> 1809–1864</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Ireland" title="Kingdom of Ireland">Ireland</a> 1542–1800 (integrated into the UK) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Irish_Free_State" title="Irish Free State">Free State</a> 1921–1931</li></ul></li> <li>†Malta <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Malta_Protectorate" title="Malta Protectorate">Protectorate</a> 1800–1813</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_Colony_of_Malta" title="Crown Colony of Malta">Colony</a> 1813–1964</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menorca" title="Menorca">Minorca</a> 1708–1757, 1763–1782 and 1798–1802</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Africa" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Africa</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ascension_Island" title="Ascension Island">Ascension Island</a>23 since 1815</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basutoland" title="Basutoland">Basutoland</a> (†<a href="/wiki/Lesotho" title="Lesotho">Lesotho</a>) 1868–1966</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bechuanaland_Protectorate" title="Bechuanaland Protectorate">Bechuanaland</a> (†<a href="/wiki/Botswana" title="Botswana">Botswana</a>) 1884–1966</li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Cameroons" title="British Cameroons">Cameroons</a>13 1919–1961</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cape_Colony" title="Cape Colony">Cape Colony</a> 1795–1803</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cape_Colony" title="Cape Colony">Cape of Good Hope</a> 1806–1910</li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Central_Africa_Protectorate" title="British Central Africa Protectorate">Central Africa</a> 1891–1907</li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Africa_Protectorate" title="East Africa Protectorate">East Africa</a> 1895–1920</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Egypt" title="Sultanate of Egypt">Egypt</a> 1882–1922</li> <li>†<a href="/wiki/Gambia_Colony_and_Protectorate" title="Gambia Colony and Protectorate">The Gambia</a> 1816–1965</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gold_Coast_(British_colony)" title="Gold Coast (British colony)">Gold Coast</a> (†<a href="/wiki/Ghana" title="Ghana">Ghana</a>) 1874–1957</li> <li>†<a href="/wiki/Kenya_Colony" title="Kenya Colony">Kenya</a> 1920–1963</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lagos_Colony" title="Lagos Colony">Lagos</a> 1862–1906</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Madeira" title="History of Madeira">Madeira</a> 1807–1808</li> <li>†<a href="/wiki/British_Mauritius" title="British Mauritius">Mauritius</a> 1810–1968</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colony_of_Natal" title="Colony of Natal">Natal</a> 1856–1910</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niger_Coast_Protectorate" title="Niger Coast Protectorate">Niger Coast</a> 1884–1900</li> <li>†<a href="/wiki/Colonial_Nigeria" title="Colonial Nigeria">Nigeria</a> 1914–1960</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Nigeria_Protectorate" title="Northern Nigeria Protectorate">Northern Nigeria</a> 1900–1914</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Rhodesia" title="Northern Rhodesia">Northern Rhodesia</a>15 1924–1964</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyasaland" title="Nyasaland">Nyasaland</a> 1891–1964</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orange_River_Colony" title="Orange River Colony">Orange River</a> 1900–1910</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Helena" title="Saint Helena">Saint Helena</a>23 since 1658</li> <li>†<a href="/wiki/History_of_Seychelles" title="History of Seychelles">Seychelles</a> 1903–1976</li> <li>†<a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone_Colony_and_Protectorate" title="Sierra Leone Colony and Protectorate">Sierra Leone</a> 1792–1961</li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Somaliland" title="British Somaliland">Somaliland</a> 1884–1960</li> <li>†<a href="/wiki/Union_of_South_Africa" title="Union of South Africa">South Africa</a> 1910–1931</li> <li><a href="/wiki/South-West_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="South-West Africa">South-West Africa</a>12 1915–1931</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Rhodesia" title="Southern Rhodesia">Southern Rhodesia</a>14 1923–1965 and 1979–1980</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Nigeria_Protectorate" title="Southern Nigeria Protectorate">Southern Nigeria</a> 1900–1914</li> <li>†<a href="/wiki/History_of_Swaziland" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Swaziland">Swaziland</a> 1893–1968</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Egyptian_Sudan" title="Anglo-Egyptian Sudan">Sudan</a> 1899–1956</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanganyika_Territory" title="Tanganyika Territory">Tanganyika</a>13 1922–1961</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transvaal_Colony" title="Transvaal Colony">Transvaal</a> 1900–1910</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tristan_da_Cunha" title="Tristan da Cunha">Tristan da Cunha</a>23 since 1816</li> <li>†<a href="/wiki/Uganda_Protectorate" class="mw-redirect" title="Uganda Protectorate">Uganda</a> 1890–1962</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zanzibar" title="Zanzibar">Zanzibar</a> 1890–1963</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zulu_Kingdom" title="Zulu Kingdom">Zululand</a> 1887–1897</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li>12Now †<a href="/wiki/Namibia" title="Namibia">Namibia</a></li> <li>13<a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations_mandate" title="League of Nations mandate">League of Nations mandate</a>. British Cameroons is now part of †<a href="/wiki/Cameroon" title="Cameroon">Cameroon</a>, while Tanganyika is part of †<a href="/wiki/Tanzania" title="Tanzania">Tanzania</a>.</li> <li>14<a href="/wiki/Responsible_government" title="Responsible government">Self-governing</a> Southern Rhodesia <a href="/wiki/Rhodesia%27s_Unilateral_Declaration_of_Independence" title="Rhodesia's Unilateral Declaration of Independence">unilaterally declared independence</a> in 1965 (as <a href="/wiki/Rhodesia" title="Rhodesia">Rhodesia</a>) and continued as an <a href="/wiki/Diplomatic_recognition" title="Diplomatic recognition">unrecognised</a> state until the 1979 <a href="/wiki/Lancaster_House_Agreement" title="Lancaster House Agreement">Lancaster House Agreement</a>. After recognised independence in 1980, Zimbabwe was a member of the Commonwealth until it withdrew in 2003.</li> <li>15Now †<a href="/wiki/Zambia" title="Zambia">Zambia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Asia" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Asia</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aden_Colony" title="Aden Colony">Aden Colony</a> 1839–1967</li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Anglo-Afghan_War" title="First Anglo-Afghan War">Afghanistan</a> 1839–1842 <ul><li><a href="/wiki/European_influence_in_Afghanistan" title="European influence in Afghanistan">Protectorate</a> 1879–1919</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Bencoolen" title="British Bencoolen">Bencoolen</a> 1685–1824</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bangka_Island" title="Bangka Island">Banka</a> and <a href="/wiki/Belitung" title="Belitung">Billiton</a> 1812–1824</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bengal_Presidency" title="Bengal Presidency">Bengal</a> 1757–1947</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Bhutan" title="History of Bhutan">Bhutan</a> (protectorate) 1907–1949</li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Borneo" title="British Borneo">Borneo</a> 1874–1963</li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Indian_Ocean_Territory" title="British Indian Ocean Territory">British Indian Ocean Territory</a> since 1965 (before as part of <a href="/wiki/Mauritius" title="Mauritius">Mauritius</a> and <a href="/wiki/Seychelles" title="Seychelles">Seychelles</a>)26</li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_rule_in_Burma" title="British rule in Burma">Burma</a> 1824–1948</li> <li>†<a href="/wiki/Bruneian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Bruneian Empire">Brunei</a> 1888–1984</li> <li>†<a href="/wiki/British_Ceylon" title="British Ceylon">Ceylon</a> 1795–1948</li> <li>†<a href="/wiki/British_Cyprus" title="British Cyprus">Cyprus</a> 1878–1960</li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Hong_Kong" title="British Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a> 1841–1997</li> <li>†<a href="/wiki/British_Raj" title="British Raj">India</a>18 1858–1947</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Java" title="Java">Java</a> 1811–1816</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sheikhdom_of_Kuwait" title="Sheikhdom of Kuwait">Kuwait</a> 1918–1961</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_Colony_of_Labuan" title="Crown Colony of Labuan">Labuan</a> 1848–1946</li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Malaya" title="British Malaya">Malaya</a> 1819–1826 <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Federated_Malay_States" title="Federated Malay States">Federated States</a> 1895–1946</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unfederated_Malay_States" title="Unfederated Malay States">Unfederated States</a> 1885–1946</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malayan_Union" title="Malayan Union">Union</a> 1946–1948</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federation_of_Malaya" title="Federation of Malaya">Federation</a> 1948–1957</li></ul></li> <li>†<a href="/wiki/Independence_of_the_Maldives" title="Independence of the Maldives">Maldives</a> 1796–1965</li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_occupation_of_Manila" title="British occupation of Manila">Manila and Cavite</a> 1762–1764</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandate_for_Mesopotamia" title="Mandate for Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>19 1920–1932</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muscat_and_Oman" title="Muscat and Oman">Muscat and Oman</a> 1891–1971</li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Borneo" title="North Borneo">North Borneo</a> 1882–1963 <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crown_Colony_of_North_Borneo" title="Crown Colony of North Borneo">Crown Colony</a> 1946–1963</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Padang" title="Padang">Padang</a> 1781–1784 and 1795–1819</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandatory_Palestine" title="Mandatory Palestine">Palestine</a>19 1923–1948</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Penang" title="History of Penang">Penang</a> 1786–1946</li> <li><a href="/wiki/C%C3%B4n_S%C6%A1n_Island" title="Côn Sơn Island">Pulo Condore</a> 1702–1705</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raj_of_Sarawak" title="Raj of Sarawak">Sarawak</a> 1841–1946 <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crown_Colony_of_Sarawak" title="Crown Colony of Sarawak">Crown Colony</a> 1946–1963</li></ul></li> <li>†<a href="/wiki/Colony_of_Singapore" title="Colony of Singapore">Singapore</a> 1946–1963</li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_in_Vietnam_(1945%E2%80%931946)" title="War in Vietnam (1945–1946)">South Vietnam</a> 1945–1946</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Straits_Settlements" title="Straits Settlements">Straits Settlements</a> 1826–1946</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_Transjordan" title="Emirate of Transjordan">Transjordan</a> 1921–1946</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trucial_States" title="Trucial States">Trucial States</a> 1892–1971</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weihaiwei_under_British_rule" class="mw-redirect" title="Weihaiwei under British rule">Weihai</a> 1898–1930</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li>18Now †<a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>, †<a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a> and †<a href="/wiki/Bangladesh" title="Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li>19<a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations_mandate" title="League of Nations mandate">League of Nations mandate</a>. Iraq's mandate was not enacted and replaced by the <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Iraqi_Treaty" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo-Iraqi Treaty">Anglo-Iraqi Treaty</a></li> <li>26Legitimacy of territorial establishment <a href="/wiki/Chagos_Archipelago_sovereignty_dispute" title="Chagos Archipelago sovereignty dispute">disputed</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="North_America" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">North America</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anguilla" title="Anguilla">Anguilla</a> since 1650</li> <li>*<a href="/wiki/Antigua" title="Antigua">Antigua</a> 1632–1860</li> <li>*<a href="/wiki/History_of_Antigua_and_Barbuda" title="History of Antigua and Barbuda">Antigua and Barbuda</a> 1860–1981</li> <li>†*<a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Bahamas" title="History of the Bahamas">Bahamas</a> 1670–1973</li> <li>†<a href="/wiki/History_of_Barbados" title="History of Barbados">Barbados</a> 1624–1966</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bay_Islands_Department" title="Bay Islands Department">Bay Islands</a> 1643–1860</li> <li>†*<a href="/wiki/British_Honduras" title="British Honduras">Belize</a> 1871–1981</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bermuda" title="Bermuda">Bermuda</a> since 1619</li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Arctic_Territories" title="British Arctic Territories">British Arctic Territories</a> 16th c.–1880</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colony_of_British_Columbia_(1858%E2%80%931866)" title="Colony of British Columbia (1858–1866)">British Columbia</a> 1858–1866 <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colony_of_British_Columbia_(1866%E2%80%931871)" title="Colony of British Columbia (1866–1871)">1866–1871</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cape_Breton_Island" title="Cape Breton Island">Cape Breton Island</a> 1754–1820</li> <li>†<a href="/wiki/History_of_Dominica" title="History of Dominica">Dominica</a> 1763–1978</li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Florida" title="East Florida">East Florida</a> 1763–1783</li> <li>†*<a href="/wiki/History_of_Grenada" title="History of Grenada">Grenada</a> 1762–1974</li> <li>†*<a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lower_Canada" title="Lower Canada">Lower</a> 1791–1841</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upper_Canada" title="Upper Canada">Upper</a> 1791–1841</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Province_of_Canada" title="Province of Canada">Province</a> 1841–1867</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-Confederation_Canada_(1867%E2%80%931914)" title="Post-Confederation Canada (1867–1914)">Dominion</a> 1867–1931</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Province_of_Carolina" title="Province of Carolina">Carolina</a> 1663–1712</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cayman_Islands" title="Cayman Islands">Cayman Islands</a> since 1670</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columbia_District" title="Columbia District">Columbia District</a>/<a href="/wiki/Oregon_Country" title="Oregon Country">Oregon Country</a> 1818–1846</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Connecticut_Colony" title="Connecticut Colony">Connecticut</a> 1636–1776</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Delaware_Colony" title="Delaware Colony">Delaware</a> 1701–1776</li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Jersey" title="East Jersey">East Jersey</a> 1674–1702</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Province_of_Georgia" title="Province of Georgia">Georgia</a> 1733–1776</li> <li>†*<a href="/wiki/Colony_of_Jamaica" title="Colony of Jamaica">Jamaica</a> 1655–1962</li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Leeward_Islands" title="British Leeward Islands">Leeward Islands</a> 1671–1816, 1833–1960</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Bay_Colony" title="Massachusetts Bay Colony">MassachusettsBay</a> 1629–1691 <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Province_of_Massachusetts_Bay" title="Province of Massachusetts Bay">Province</a>, 1691–1776</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Province_of_Maryland" title="Province of Maryland">Maryland</a> 1632–1776</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montserrat" title="Montserrat">Montserrat</a> since 1632</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mosquito_Coast" title="Mosquito Coast">Mosquito Coast</a> 1655–1860</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nevis" title="Nevis">Nevis</a> 1628–1983</li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Albion" title="New Albion">New Albion</a> 1579</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_Brunswick" title="History of New Brunswick">New Brunswick</a> 1784–1867</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominion_of_New_England" title="Dominion of New England">New England</a> 1686–1689</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Province_of_New_Hampshire" title="Province of New Hampshire">New Hampshire</a> 1680–1776</li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Haven_Colony" title="New Haven Colony">New Haven</a> 1637–1662</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Province_of_New_Jersey" title="Province of New Jersey">New Jersey</a> 1665–1674 and 1702–1776</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Province_of_New_York" title="Province of New York">New York</a> 1664–1776</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominion_of_Newfoundland" title="Dominion of Newfoundland">Newfoundland</a> 1907–1949</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Newfoundland_and_Labrador" title="History of Newfoundland and Labrador">Newfoundland and Labrador</a> 1583–1907</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Province_of_North_Carolina" title="Province of North Carolina">North Carolina</a> 1712–1776</li> <li><a href="/wiki/North-Western_Territory" title="North-Western Territory">North-Western Territory</a> 1859–1870</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Nova_Scotia" title="History of Nova Scotia">Nova Scotia</a> 1713–1867</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paulet_affair_(1843)" class="mw-redirect" title="Paulet affair (1843)">Paulet affair</a> 1843</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Prince_Edward_Island" title="History of Prince Edward Island">Prince Edward Island</a> 1763–1873</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Province_of_Pennsylvania" title="Province of Pennsylvania">Pennsylvania</a> 1681–1776</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plymouth_Colony" title="Plymouth Colony">Plymouth</a> 1620–1691</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Province_of_Quebec_(1763%E2%80%931791)" title="Province of Quebec (1763–1791)">Quebec</a> 1763–1791* <a href="/wiki/Colony_of_the_Queen_Charlotte_Islands" title="Colony of the Queen Charlotte Islands">Queen Charlotte Islands</a> 1853–1863</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colony_of_Rhode_Island_and_Providence_Plantations" title="Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations">Rhode Island</a> 1636–1776</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rupert%27s_Land" title="Rupert's Land">Rupert's Land</a> 1670–1870</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Croix,_U.S._Virgin_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands">Saint Croix</a> 1625–1650</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Kitts" title="Saint Kitts">Saint Kitts</a> 1623–1983</li> <li>†*<a href="/wiki/History_of_Saint_Kitts_and_Nevis" title="History of Saint Kitts and Nevis">Saint Kitts and Nevis</a> 1882–1983</li> <li>†*<a href="/wiki/British_Saint_Lucia" class="mw-redirect" title="British Saint Lucia">Saint Lucia</a> 1605–1979</li> <li>†*<a href="/wiki/History_of_Saint_Vincent_and_the_Grenadines" title="History of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines">Saint Vincent and the Grenadines</a> 1627–1979</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saybrook_Colony" title="Saybrook Colony">Saybrook</a> 1635–1644</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Province_of_South_Carolina" title="Province of South Carolina">South Carolina</a> 1712–1776</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stickeen_Territories" title="Stickeen Territories">Stickeen</a> 1862–1863</li> <li>†<a href="/wiki/History_of_Trinidad_and_Tobago" title="History of Trinidad and Tobago">Trinidad and Tobago</a> 1889–1962</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turks_and_Caicos_Islands" title="Turks and Caicos Islands">Turks and Caicos Islands</a> since 1799</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colony_of_Vancouver_Island" title="Colony of Vancouver Island">Vancouver Island</a> 1849–1866</li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Virgin_Islands" title="British Virgin Islands">Virgin Islands</a> since 1666</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colony_of_Virginia" title="Colony of Virginia">Virginia</a> 1607–1776</li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_West_Florida" title="British West Florida">West Florida</a> 1763–1783</li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Indies_Federation" title="West Indies Federation">West Indies Federation</a> 1958–1962 <ul><li><a href="/wiki/West_Indies_Associated_States" title="West Indies Associated States">Associated States</a> 1967–1983</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Jersey" title="West Jersey">West Jersey</a> 1674–1702</li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Windward_Islands" title="British Windward Islands">Windward Islands</a> 1833–1960</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Navbox_with_columns" title="Template:Navbox with columns"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Navbox_with_columns" title="Template talk:Navbox with columns"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Navbox_with_columns" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Navbox with columns"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Oceania" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Oceania</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:100%;"><tbody><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="font-weight:bold;">18th and 19th centuries</td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;font-weight:bold;">20th century</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td class="navbox-list" style="padding:0px;width:10em;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colony_of_New_South_Wales" title="Colony of New South Wales">New South Wales</a> 1788–1901</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Van_Diemen%27s_Land" title="Van Diemen's Land">Van Diemen's Land</a>/<a href="/wiki/Colony_of_Tasmania" title="Colony of Tasmania">Tasmania</a> 1803–1901</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auckland_Islands" title="Auckland Islands">Auckland Islands</a>20 1807–1863</li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Hebrides" title="New Hebrides">New Hebrides</a>21 1824–1980</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colony_of_Queensland" title="Colony of Queensland">Queensland</a> 1824–1901</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swan_River_Colony" title="Swan River Colony">Swan River</a>/<a href="/wiki/Colony_of_Western_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Colony of Western Australia">Western Australia</a> 1829–1901</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colony_of_South_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Colony of South Australia">South Australia</a> 1836–1901</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Pitcairn_Islands" title="History of the Pitcairn Islands">Pitcairn Islands</a> since 1838</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colony_of_New_Zealand" title="Colony of New Zealand">New Zealand</a> 1841–1907</li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Australia" title="North Australia">North Australia</a> 1846–1847</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colony_of_Victoria" title="Colony of Victoria">Victoria</a> 1851–1901</li> <li>†<a href="/wiki/Colony_of_Fiji" title="Colony of Fiji">Fiji</a> 1874–1970</li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Western_Pacific_Territories" title="British Western Pacific Territories">Western Pacific Territories</a> 1877–1976</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Territory_of_Papua" title="Territory of Papua">Papua</a> 1884–1902</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Rarotonga" title="Kingdom of Rarotonga">Rarotonga</a>/<a href="/wiki/Cook_Islands_Federation" title="Cook Islands Federation">Cook Islands</a>20 1888–1901</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Union_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Union Islands">Union Islands</a>20 1889–1948</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_and_Ellice_Islands" title="Gilbert and Ellice Islands">Gilbert and Ellice Islands</a>22 1892–1979</li> <li>†*<a href="/wiki/British_Solomon_Islands" title="British Solomon Islands">Solomon Islands</a> 1893–1978</li></ul> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;width:10em;"><div> <ul><li>†<a href="/wiki/History_of_Tonga" title="History of Tonga">Tonga</a> 1900–1970</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Niue" title="History of Niue">Niue</a>20 1900–1974</li> <li>†*<a href="/wiki/History_of_Australia_(1901%E2%80%931945)" title="History of Australia (1901–1945)">Australia</a> 1901–1942</li> <li>†*<a href="/wiki/Dominion_of_New_Zealand" title="Dominion of New Zealand">New Zealand</a> 1907–1947</li> <li>†<a href="/wiki/Western_Samoa_Trust_Territory" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Samoa Trust Territory">Samoa</a> 1914–1962</li> <li>†<a href="/wiki/History_of_Nauru" title="History of Nauru">Nauru</a> 1919–1942 and 1945–1968</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li>20Now part of the †<a href="/wiki/Realm_of_New_Zealand" title="Realm of New Zealand">Realm of New Zealand</a></li> <li>21Now †<a href="/wiki/Vanuatu" title="Vanuatu">Vanuatu</a></li> <li>22Now †<a href="/wiki/Kiribati" title="Kiribati">Kiribati</a> and †*<a href="/wiki/Tuvalu" title="Tuvalu">Tuvalu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="South_America" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">South America</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Providence_Island_colony" title="Providence Island colony">Providence Island</a> 1631–1641</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willoughbyland" class="mw-redirect" title="Willoughbyland">Willoughbyland</a> 1651–1667</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archipelago_of_San_Andr%C3%A9s,_Providencia_and_Santa_Catalina" title="Archipelago of San Andrés, Providencia and Santa Catalina">Saint Andrew and Providence Islands</a>4 1670–1688</li> <li>†<a href="/wiki/British_Guiana" title="British Guiana">Guiana</a> 1831–1966</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falkland_Islands" title="Falkland Islands">Falkland Islands</a>5 since 1833</li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Georgia_and_the_South_Sandwich_Islands" title="South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands">South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands</a>5 since 1908</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li>4Now a <a href="/wiki/Departments_of_Colombia" title="Departments of Colombia">department</a> of <a href="/wiki/Colombia" title="Colombia">Colombia</a></li> <li>5Occupied by Argentina during the <a href="/wiki/Falklands_War" title="Falklands War">Falklands War</a> of April–June 1982.</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Antarctica_and_the_South_Atlantic" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Antarctica and the South Atlantic</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Helena" title="Saint Helena">Saint Helena</a>23 since 1658</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ascension_Island" title="Ascension Island">Ascension Island</a>23 since 1815</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tristan_da_Cunha" title="Tristan da Cunha">Tristan da Cunha</a>23 since 1816</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falkland_Islands" title="Falkland Islands">Falkland Islands</a> since 1833</li> <li>†<a href="/wiki/Australian_Antarctic_Territory" title="Australian Antarctic Territory">Australian Antarctic Territory</a> (transferred to the <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Commonwealth of Australia</a>) 1841–1933</li> <li>†<a href="/wiki/Ross_Dependency" title="Ross Dependency">Ross Dependency</a> (transferred to the <a href="/wiki/Realm_of_New_Zealand" title="Realm of New Zealand">Realm of New Zealand</a>) 1841–1947</li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Antarctic_Territory" title="British Antarctic Territory">British Antarctic Territory</a>24 since 1908</li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Georgia_and_the_South_Sandwich_Islands" title="South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands">South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands</a>25 since 1908</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li>23Since 2009 part of <a href="/wiki/Saint_Helena,_Ascension_and_Tristan_da_Cunha" title="Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha">Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha</a>; Ascension Island (1922–) and Tristan da Cunha (1938–) were previously dependencies of Saint Helena.</li> <li>24Claimed in 1908; territory formed 1962; overlaps portions of Argentine and Chilean claims, borders not enforced but claim not renounced under the <a href="/wiki/Antarctic_Treaty" class="mw-redirect" title="Antarctic Treaty">Antarctic Treaty</a>.</li> <li>25Claimed in 1908; territory formed 1985</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historical_flags_of_the_British_Empire_and_the_overseas_territories" title="Historical flags of the British Empire and the overseas territories">Historical flags of the British Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglosphere" title="Anglosphere">Anglosphere</a> culture</li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:British_Empire" title="Category:British Empire">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:British_Empire" title="Portal:British Empire">Portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Links_to_related_articles" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#e8e8ff;"><div id="Links_to_related_articles" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Links to related articles</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-size:114%"><div style="padding:0px"> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_Europe" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_Europe" title="Template:History of Europe"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_Europe" title="Template talk:History of Europe"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_Europe" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of Europe"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_Europe" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Europe" title="History of Europe">History of Europe</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Europe" title="Prehistoric Europe">Prehistory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paleolithic_Europe" title="Paleolithic Europe">Paleolithic Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Europe" title="Neolithic Europe">Neolithic Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age_Europe" title="Bronze Age Europe">Bronze Age Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_Age_Europe" title="Iron Age Europe">Iron Age Europe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Classical antiquity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Greece" title="Classical Greece">Classical Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Christianity" title="Early Christianity">Early Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_late_antiquity" title="Christianity in late antiquity">Christianity in late antiquity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crisis_of_the_Third_Century" title="Crisis of the Third Century">Crisis of the Third Century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">Fall of the Western Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">Late antiquity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">Early Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">Migration Period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Christianity in the Middle Ages">Christianity in the Middle Ages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianization" title="Christianization">Christianization</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francia" title="Francia">Francia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Anglo-Saxon_England" title="History of Anglo-Saxon England">Anglo-Saxon England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a></li> <li>Bulgarian Empire <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Bulgarian_Empire" title="First Bulgarian Empire">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Bulgarian_Empire" title="Second Bulgarian Empire">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_republics" title="Maritime republics">Maritime republics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Venice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Genoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Pisa" title="Republic of Pisa">Pisa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Amalfi" title="Duchy of Amalfi">Amalfi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_Age" title="Viking Age">Viking Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Aragon" title="Crown of Aragon">Crown of Aragon</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aragon" title="Kingdom of Aragon">Aragon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Catalonia" title="Principality of Catalonia">Catalonia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Valencia" title="Kingdom of Valencia">Valencia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Majorca" title="Kingdom of Majorca">Majorca</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">High Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Florence" title="Republic of Florence">Republic of Florence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">Feudalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Europe" title="Mongol invasion of Europe">Mongol invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_Empire" title="Serbian Empire">Serbian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages" title="Late Middle Ages">Late Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">Black Death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalmar_Union" title="Kalmar Union">Kalmar Union</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Modern_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern period">Modern period</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_Europe" title="Early modern Europe">Early modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_modern_era" title="Christianity in the modern era">Christianity in the modern era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baroque" title="Baroque">Baroque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Tuscany" title="Grand Duchy of Tuscany">Grand Duchy of Tuscany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_monarchy" title="Absolute monarchy">Absolute monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Early modern France">Early modern France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cossack_Hetmanate" title="Cossack Hetmanate">Cossack Hetmanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_Empire" title="Swedish Empire">Swedish Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Dutch Republic</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">British Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habsburg_monarchy" title="Habsburg monarchy">Habsburg monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Divergence" title="Great Divergence">Great Divergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rise_of_nationalism_in_Europe" title="Rise of nationalism in Europe">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848" title="Revolutions of 1848">Revolutions of 1848</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interwar_period" title="Interwar period">Interwar period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_integration" title="European integration">European integration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_debt_crisis" title="European debt crisis">European debt crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Europe" title="COVID-19 pandemic in Europe">COVID-19 pandemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" title="Russian invasion of Ukraine">Russian invasion of Ukraine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Europe" title="Art of Europe">Art of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_European_history" title="Bibliography of European history">Bibliography of European history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_Europe" title="Genetic history of Europe">Genetic history of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity" title="History of Christianity">History of Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Mediterranean_region" title="History of the Mediterranean region">History of the Mediterranean region</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_European_Union" title="History of the European Union">History of the European Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Western_civilization" title="History of Western civilization">History of Western civilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_history_of_Europe" title="Maritime history of Europe">Maritime history of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Europe" title="Military history of Europe">Military history of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusading_movement" title="Crusading movement">Crusading movement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Empires" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Empires" title="Template:Empires"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Empires" title="Template talk:Empires"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Empires" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Empires"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Empires" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Empire" title="Empire">Empires</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_history" title="Ancient history">Ancient</a> (<a href="/wiki/Colonies_in_antiquity" title="Colonies in antiquity">colonies</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkadian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Kingdom of Armenia (disambiguation)">Armenian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urartu" title="Urartu">Urartu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satrapy_of_Armenia" title="Satrapy of Armenia">Orontid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_(antiquity)" title="Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)">Ancient</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyrian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Assyrian_Empire" title="Middle Assyrian Empire">Middle Assyrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Babylonian_Empire" title="Old Babylonian Empire">Old Babylonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kassites" title="Kassites">Kassite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Empire" title="Chinese Empire">Chinese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Qin_dynasty" title="Qin dynasty">Qin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(266%E2%80%93420)" title="Jin dynasty (266–420)">Jin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%CA%BFmt" title="Dʿmt">Dʿmt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Egyptian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Old Kingdom of Egypt">Old Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Middle Kingdom of Egypt">Middle Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="New Kingdom of Egypt">New Kingdom</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goguryeo" title="Goguryeo">Goguryeo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harsha" title="Harsha">Harsha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)#Empire" title="Macedonia (ancient kingdom)">Macedonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Kingdom" title="Ptolemaic Kingdom">Ptolemaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Bactrian_Kingdom" title="Greco-Bactrian Kingdom">Bactrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Greek_Kingdom" title="Indo-Greek Kingdom">Indo-Greek</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hittites" title="Hittites">Hittite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Huns" title="History of the Huns">Hunnic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hephthalites" title="Hephthalites">White</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiongnu" title="Xiongnu">Xiongnu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Persian Empire (disambiguation)">Iranian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Median_kingdom" title="Median kingdom">Median</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kush" title="Kingdom of Kush">Kush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kushan_Empire" title="Kushan Empire">Kushan</a></li> <li>Magadha <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haryanka_dynasty" title="Haryanka dynasty">Haryanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaishunaga_dynasty" title="Shaishunaga dynasty">Shaishunaga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanda_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanda Empire">Nanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurya_Empire" title="Maurya Empire">Maurya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shunga_Empire" title="Shunga Empire">Shunga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gupta_Empire" title="Gupta Empire">Gupta</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenician</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Carthage" title="Ancient Carthage">Carthaginian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Eastern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satavahana_dynasty" title="Satavahana dynasty">Satavahana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Dynasty_of_Ur" title="Third Dynasty of Ur">Neo-Sumerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xianbei" title="Xianbei">Xianbei</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rouran_Khaganate" title="Rouran Khaganate">Rouran</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Post-classical_history" title="Post-classical history">Post-classical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Angevin_Empire" title="Angevin Empire">Angevin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Aragon" title="Crown of Aragon">Aragonese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Kingdom of Armenia (disambiguation)">Armenian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bagratid_Armenia" title="Bagratid Armenia">Bagratid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Vaspurakan" title="Kingdom of Vaspurakan">Vaspurakan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Artsakh" title="Kingdom of Artsakh">Artsakh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_Kingdom_of_Cilicia" title="Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia">Cilician</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zakarid_Armenia" title="Zakarid Armenia">Zakarid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayyubid_dynasty" title="Ayyubid dynasty">Ayyubid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_Empire" title="Aztec Empire">Aztec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Benin" title="Kingdom of Benin">Benin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanem%E2%80%93Bornu_Empire#Shift_of_the_Sayfuwa_court_from_Kanem_to_Bornu" title="Kanem–Bornu Empire">Bornu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruneian_Sultanate_(1368%E2%80%931888)" title="Bruneian Sultanate (1368–1888)">Bruneian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Bulgarian Empire (disambiguation)">Bulgarian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Bulgarian_Empire" title="First Bulgarian Empire">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Bulgarian_Empire" title="Second Bulgarian Empire">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Burmese Empire (disambiguation)">Burmese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pagan_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Pagan Kingdom">First</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calakmul" title="Calakmul">Calakmul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate">Caliphate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fatimid_Caliphate" title="Fatimid Caliphate">Fatimid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chalukya_dynasty" title="Chalukya dynasty">Chalukya</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Chalukya_Empire" title="Western Chalukya Empire">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Chalukyas" title="Eastern Chalukyas">Eastern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Empire" title="Chinese Empire">Chinese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sui_dynasty" title="Sui dynasty">Sui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liao_dynasty" title="Liao dynasty">Liao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(1115%E2%80%931234)" title="Jin dynasty (1115–1234)">Jīn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chola_Empire" title="Chola Empire">Chola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Empire" title="Ethiopian Empire">Ethiopian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aksum" title="Kingdom of Aksum">Aksum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zagwe_dynasty" title="Zagwe dynasty">Zagwe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Empire" title="Ethiopian Empire">Solomonic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Genoese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Georgia" title="Kingdom of Georgia">Georgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garabito_Empire" title="Garabito Empire">Huetar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inca_Empire" title="Inca Empire">Inca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tripartite_Struggle" title="Tripartite Struggle">Kannauj</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pala_Empire" title="Pala Empire">Pala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gurjara-Pratihara_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty">Gurjara-Pratihara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rashtrakuta_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Rashtrakuta Empire">Rashtrakuta</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Persian Empire (disambiguation)">Iranian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tahirid_dynasty" title="Tahirid dynasty">Tahirid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saffarid_dynasty" title="Saffarid dynasty">Saffarid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samanid_Empire" title="Samanid Empire">Samanid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buyid_dynasty" title="Buyid dynasty">Buyid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Japan" title="History of Japan">Japanese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yamato_period" title="Yamato period">Yamato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamakura_shogunate" title="Kamakura shogunate">Kamakura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashikaga_shogunate" title="Ashikaga shogunate">Muromachi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tokugawa_shogunate" title="Tokugawa shogunate">Edo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanem%E2%80%93Bornu_Empire" title="Kanem–Bornu Empire">Kanem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khmer_Empire" title="Khmer Empire">Khmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_Empire" title="Latin Empire">Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Lithuania" title="History of Lithuania">Lithuanian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Lithuania" title="Grand Duchy of Lithuania">Grand Duchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Commonwealth</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Majapahit" title="Majapahit">Majapahit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mali_Empire" title="Mali Empire">Mali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_Horde" title="Golden Horde">Golden Horde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chagatai_Khanate" title="Chagatai Khanate">Chagatai Khanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ilkhanate" title="Ilkhanate">Ilkhanate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Morocco" title="History of Morocco">Moroccan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Idrisid_dynasty" title="Idrisid dynasty">Idrisid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Almoravid_dynasty" title="Almoravid dynasty">Almoravid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Almohad_Caliphate" title="Almohad Caliphate">Almohad</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norgesveldet" class="mw-redirect" title="Norgesveldet">Norwegian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Sea_Empire" title="North Sea Empire">North Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oyo_Empire" title="Oyo Empire">Oyo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Poland" title="History of Poland">Polish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Poland" title="Kingdom of Poland">Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Commonwealth</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenization_in_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Hellenization in the Byzantine Empire">Hellenic</a> <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Nicaea" title="Empire of Nicaea">Nicaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Thessalonica" title="Empire of Thessalonica">Thessalonica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Trebizond" title="Empire of Trebizond">Trebizond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Despotate_of_Epirus" title="Despotate of Epirus">Epirus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Despotate_of_the_Morea" title="Despotate of the Morea">Morea</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romano-Germanic_culture" title="Romano-Germanic culture">Romano-Germanic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carolingian_Empire" title="Carolingian Empire">Carolingian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_Empire" title="Serbian Empire">Serbian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singhasari" title="Singhasari">Singhasari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Songhai_Empire" title="Songhai Empire">Songhai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Srivijaya" title="Srivijaya">Srivijaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Empire" title="Tibetan Empire">Tibetan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tikal" title="Tikal">Tikal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiwanaku_Empire" title="Tiwanaku Empire">Tiwanaku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toltec_Empire" title="Toltec Empire">Toltec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turco-Persian_tradition" title="Turco-Persian tradition">Turco-Persian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ghaznavids" title="Ghaznavids">Ghaznavid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seljuk_Empire" title="Seljuk Empire">Great Seljuk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khwarazmian_Empire" title="Khwarazmian Empire">Khwarezmian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timurid_Empire" title="Timurid Empire">Timurid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6kt%C3%BCrks" title="Göktürks">Turkic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Turkic_Khaganate" title="First Turkic Khaganate">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Western Turkic Khaganate">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Eastern Turkic Khaganate">Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Second Turkic Khaganate">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%C3%BCrgesh" title="Türgesh">Türgesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uyghur_Khaganate" title="Uyghur Khaganate">Uighur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyrgyz_Khaganate" title="Kyrgyz Khaganate">Kyrgyz</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Venetian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BA%A1i_Vi%E1%BB%87t" title="Đại Việt">Vietnamese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C4%90inh_dynasty" title="Đinh dynasty">Dinh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_L%C3%AA_dynasty" title="Early Lê dynasty">Early Le</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%BD_dynasty" title="Lý dynasty">Ly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tr%E1%BA%A7n_dynasty" title="Trần dynasty">Tran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H%E1%BB%93_dynasty" title="Hồ dynasty">Ho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Later_Tr%E1%BA%A7n_dynasty" title="Later Trần dynasty">Later Tran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AA_dynasty" title="Lê dynasty">Later Le</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vijayanagara_Empire" title="Vijayanagara Empire">Vijayanagara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghana_Empire" title="Ghana Empire">Wagadou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wari_Empire" title="Wari Empire">Wari</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Modern_era" title="Modern era">Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Durrani_Empire" title="Durrani Empire">Afghan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashanti_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashanti Empire">Ashanti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austrian_Empire" title="Austrian Empire">Austrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austria-Hungary" title="Austria-Hungary">Austro-Hungarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Brazil" title="Empire of Brazil">Brazilian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Burmese Empire (disambiguation)">Burmese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Toungoo_Empire" title="First Toungoo Empire">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konbaung_dynasty" title="Konbaung dynasty">Third</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_African_Empire" title="Central African Empire">Central African</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Empire" title="Chinese Empire">Chinese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_China_(1915%E2%80%931916)" title="Empire of China (1915–1916)">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchukuo" title="Manchukuo">Manchukuo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_imperialism" title="Chinese imperialism">Contemporary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Empire" title="Ethiopian Empire">Ethiopian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Haiti" title="History of Haiti">Haitian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Empire_of_Haiti" title="First Empire of Haiti">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Empire_of_Haiti" title="Second Empire of Haiti">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_France" title="History of France">French</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_French_Empire" title="First French Empire">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_French_Empire" title="Second French Empire">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Germany" title="History of Germany">German</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Raj" title="British Raj">Indian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Persian_culture" title="Indo-Persian culture">Indo-Persian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sikh_Empire" title="Sikh Empire">Sikh</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_peoples" title="Iranian peoples">Iranian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Safavid_Iran" title="Safavid Iran">Safavid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afsharid_Iran" title="Afsharid Iran">Afsharid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zand_dynasty" title="Zand dynasty">Zand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qajar_Iran" title="Qajar Iran">Qajar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pahlavi_dynasty" title="Pahlavi dynasty">Pahlavi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Empire" title="Korean Empire">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maratha_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Maratha Empire">Maratha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Mexico" title="History of Mexico">Mexican</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Mexican_Empire" title="First Mexican Empire">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Mexican_Empire" title="Second Mexican Empire">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Yuan" title="Northern Yuan">Mongol</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oirat_Confederation" title="Oirat Confederation">Oirat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khoshut_Khanate" title="Khoshut Khanate">Khoshut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dzungar_Khanate" title="Dzungar Khanate">Dzungar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalmyk_Khanate" title="Kalmyk Khanate">Kalmyk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bogd_Khanate_of_Mongolia" title="Bogd Khanate of Mongolia">Bogd</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Morocco" title="History of Morocco">Moroccan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Saadi_Sultanate" title="Saadi Sultanate">Saadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alawi_Sultanate" title="Alawi Sultanate">'Alawi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Russia" title="History of Russia">Russian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tsardom_of_Russia" title="Tsardom of Russia">Tsarist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Imperial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_imperialism#Contemporary_Russian_imperialism" title="Russian imperialism">Contemporary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sokoto_Caliphate" title="Sokoto Caliphate">Sokoto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Somalia" title="History of Somalia">Somali</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Isaaq_Sultanate" title="Isaaq Sultanate">Isaaq</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tu%CA%BBi_Tonga_Empire" title="Tuʻi Tonga Empire">Tongan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BA%A1i_Vi%E1%BB%87t" title="Đại Việt">Vietnamese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/M%E1%BA%A1c_dynasty" title="Mạc dynasty">Mạc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revival_L%C3%AA_dynasty" title="Revival Lê dynasty">Revival Lê</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%C3%A2y_S%C6%A1n_dynasty" title="Tây Sơn dynasty">Tay Sơn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nguy%E1%BB%85n_dynasty" title="Nguyễn dynasty">Dainam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Vietnam" title="Empire of Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Colonial" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Colonial_empire" title="Colonial empire">Colonial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_imperialism" title="American imperialism">American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgian_colonial_empire" title="Belgian colonial empire">Belgian</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">British</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_overseas_possessions" title="English overseas possessions">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Scottish colonization of the Americas">Scottish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Empire" title="Chinese Empire">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_overseas_colonies" title="Danish overseas colonies">Danish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_colonial_empire" title="Dutch colonial empire">Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_colonial_empire" title="French colonial empire">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_colonial_empire" title="German colonial empire">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Empire" title="Italian Empire">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_colonial_empire" title="Japanese colonial empire">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omani_Empire" title="Omani Empire">Omani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Curonian_colonisation" title="Curonian colonisation">Couronian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_overseas_colonies" title="Swedish overseas colonies">Swedish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_empires" title="List of empires">Empires</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_empires" title="List of largest empires">largest</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_great_powers" title="List of ancient great powers">Ancient great powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_medieval_great_powers" title="List of medieval great powers">Medieval great powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_modern_great_powers" title="List of modern great powers">Modern great powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_colonialism" title="History of colonialism">European colonialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_empires" class="mw-redirect" title="African empires">African empires</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>"Empire" as a description of foreign policy <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_imperialism" title="American imperialism">American Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_empire" title="Soviet empire">Soviet empire</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Black_British_people_topics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Black_British_topics" title="Template:Black British topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Black_British_topics" title="Template talk:Black British topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Black_British_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Black British topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Black_British_people_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Black_British_people" title="Black British people">Black British people</a> topics</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;"><a href="/wiki/Black_British_people#History" title="Black British people">Black British history</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_presence_in_London" title="History of African presence in London">First Africans in London</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Abolitionism in the United Kingdom">Abolitionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HMT_Empire_Windrush" title="HMT Empire Windrush">Empire Windrush</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Windrush_scandal" title="Windrush scandal">Windrush scandal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bristol_Bus_Boycott" title="Bristol Bus Boycott">Bristol Bus Boycott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_Relations_Act_1965" title="Race Relations Act 1965">Race Relations Act 1965</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Decline and legacy of the British Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Black_British_history" title="Category:Black British history">Race riots</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;"><a href="/wiki/Black_British_people#Culture_and_community" title="Black British people">Black British culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Black_British_music" title="Category:Black British music">Music</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afrobeats" title="Afrobeats">Afrobeats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afroswing" title="Afroswing">Afroswing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Britfunk" class="mw-redirect" title="Britfunk">Britfunk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UK_rap" title="UK rap">British hip hop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ska" title="Ska">Ska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caribbean_music_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Caribbean music in the United Kingdom">Caribbean</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lovers_rock" title="Lovers rock">Lovers rock</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grime_music" title="Grime music">Grime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UK_garage" title="UK garage">UK garage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dubstep" title="Dubstep">Dubstep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jungle_music" title="Jungle music">Jungle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drum_and_bass" title="Drum and bass">Drum and bass</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Civic and economic groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_and_Asian_Studies_Association" title="Black and Asian Studies Association">Black and Asian Studies Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Equity_Organisation" title="Black Equity Organisation">Black Equity Organisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Committee_for_the_Relief_of_the_Black_Poor" title="Committee for the Relief of the Black Poor">Committee for the Relief of the Black Poor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Black_Police_Association_(United_Kingdom)" title="National Black Police Association (United Kingdom)">National Black Police Association</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Ethnic and national sub-divisions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/British_African-Caribbean_people" title="British African-Caribbean people">African-Caribbean</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antiguans_and_Barbudans_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Antiguans and Barbudans in the United Kingdom">Antiguan and Barbudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbadian_British" title="Barbadian British">Barbadian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Jamaicans" title="British Jamaicans">Jamaican</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guyanese_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Guyanese in the United Kingdom">Guyanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montserratians_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Montserratians in the United Kingdom">Montserratians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trinidadian_and_Tobagonian_British" title="Trinidadian and Tobagonian British">Trinidadian and Tobagonian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congolese_(Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo)_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Congolese (Democratic Republic of the Congo) in the United Kingdom">Congolese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghanaians_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Ghanaians in the United Kingdom">Ghanaian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivorians_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Ivorians in the United Kingdom">Ivorian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenyan_migration_to_the_United_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Kenyan migration to the United Kingdom">Kenyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Nigerians" title="British Nigerians">Nigerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leoneans_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Sierra Leoneans in the United Kingdom">Sierra Leonean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanzanians_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Tanzanians in the United Kingdom">Tanzanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ugandan_migration_to_the_United_Kingdom" title="Ugandan migration to the United Kingdom">Ugandan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zimbabweans_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Zimbabweans in the United Kingdom">Zimbabwean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Other_Black" class="mw-redirect" title="Other Black">Other black groups</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/British_English" title="British English">British English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multicultural_London_English" title="Multicultural London English">Multicultural London English</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_British_people" title="Black British people">Black Britons</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;justify-content:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-unbordered{padding:0 1.7em;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;padding:0.15em 0;column-gap:1em;align-items:baseline;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-item{display:inline-block;margin:0.15em 0.2em;min-height:24px;line-height:24px}@media screen and (max-width:768px){.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;flex-flow:column wrap;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{text-align:center;flex:0;padding-left:0.5em;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;align-items:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;align-items:center;flex:0;column-gap:1em;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0 auto;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{border-top:none;margin:0;list-style:none}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.sister-bar{margin-top:-1px}</style><div class="portal-bar noprint metadata noviewer portal-bar-bordered" role="navigation" aria-label="Portals"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Portals" title="Wikipedia:Contents/Portals">Portals</a>:<ul class="portal-bar-content"><li class="portal-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/British_Empire_1897.jpg/21px-British_Empire_1897.jpg" decoding="async" width="21" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/British_Empire_1897.jpg/32px-British_Empire_1897.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/British_Empire_1897.jpg/42px-British_Empire_1897.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1116" data-file-height="849" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:British_Empire" title="Portal:British Empire">British Empire</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/21px-P_history.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/32px-P_history.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/42px-P_history.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="360" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:History" title="Portal:History">History</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><a href="/wiki/File:Imperial_Crown_Heraldry.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Imperial_Crown_Heraldry.svg/20px-Imperial_Crown_Heraldry.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Imperial_Crown_Heraldry.svg/31px-Imperial_Crown_Heraldry.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Imperial_Crown_Heraldry.svg/40px-Imperial_Crown_Heraldry.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="115" data-file-height="108" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Monarchy" title="Portal:Monarchy">Monarchy</a></li></ul></div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236088147">.mw-parser-output .sister-bar{display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline;font-size:88%;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em 0 0;padding:0 2em}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;padding:0.2em 0;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px;line-height:22px}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;align-items:baseline;padding:0.2em 0;column-gap:1em;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-item{display:flex;align-items:baseline;margin:0.15em 0;min-height:24px;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-logo{width:22px;line-height:22px;margin:0 0.2em;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-link{margin:0 0.2em;text-align:left}@media screen and (max-width:960px){.mw-parser-output .sister-bar{flex-flow:column wrap;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-header{flex:0 1}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-content{flex:1;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-item{flex:0 0 20em;min-width:20em}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+link+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+style+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+.navbox-styles+.portal-bar{margin-top:-1px}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sister-bar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="noprint metadata sister-bar" role="navigation" aria-label="sister-projects"><div class="sister-bar-header">British Empire at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects">sister projects</a>:</div><ul class="sister-bar-content"><li class="sister-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/14px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/21px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/28px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /><a 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srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/28px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/36px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Category:British_Empire" class="extiw" title="s:Category:British Empire">Texts</a> from Wikisource</li><li class="sister-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/21px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/32px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/42px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="626" data-file-height="512" /><a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/British_Empire" class="extiw" 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