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<li id="toc-19th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#19th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>19th century</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-19th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_20th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_20th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Early 20th century</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_20th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Solid-state_electronics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Solid-state_electronics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Solid-state electronics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Solid-state_electronics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Subfields" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Subfields"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Subfields</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Subfields-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Subfields subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Subfields-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Power_and_energy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Power_and_energy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Power and energy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Power_and_energy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Telecommunications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Telecommunications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Telecommunications</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Telecommunications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Control_engineering" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Control_engineering"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Control engineering</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Control_engineering-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Electronics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Electronics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Electronics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Electronics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Microelectronics_and_nanoelectronics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Microelectronics_and_nanoelectronics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Microelectronics and nanoelectronics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Microelectronics_and_nanoelectronics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Signal_processing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Signal_processing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Signal processing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Signal_processing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Instrumentation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Instrumentation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7</span> <span>Instrumentation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Instrumentation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Computers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Computers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.8</span> <span>Computers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Computers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Photonics_and_optics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Photonics_and_optics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.9</span> <span>Photonics and optics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Photonics_and_optics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Related_disciplines" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Related_disciplines"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Related disciplines</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Related_disciplines-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Education" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Education"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Education</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Education-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Professional_practice" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Professional_practice"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Professional practice</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Professional_practice-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tools_and_work" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tools_and_work"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Tools and work</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tools_and_work-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Electrical engineering</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 102 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-102" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">102 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektroniese_ingenieurswese" title="Elektroniese ingenieurswese – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Elektroniese ingenieurswese" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrotechnik" title="Elektrotechnik – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Elektrotechnik" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8A%A4%E1%88%8C%E1%8A%AD%E1%89%B5%E1%88%AA%E1%8A%AD_%E1%88%9D%E1%88%85%E1%8A%95%E1%8B%B5%E1%88%B5%E1%8A%93" title="ኤሌክትሪክ ምህንድስና – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ኤሌክትሪክ ምህንድስና" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>አማርኛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%87%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%B3%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%83%D9%87%D8%B1%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%A1" title="هندسة الكهرباء – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="هندسة الكهرباء" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%88%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95_%E0%A6%85%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%80" title="বৈদ্যুতিক অভিযান্ত্ৰিকী – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="বৈদ্যুতিক অভিযান্ত্ৰিকী" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inxenier%C3%ADa_ll%C3%A9trica" title="Inxeniería llétrica – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Inxeniería llétrica" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrik_m%C3%BCh%C9%99ndisliyi" title="Elektrik mühəndisliyi – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Elektrik mühəndisliyi" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%A1%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A7%8E_%E0%A6%93_%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%88%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A8_%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8C%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%B2" title="তড়িৎ ও বৈদ্যুতিন প্রকৌশল – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="তড়িৎ ও বৈদ্যুতিন প্রকৌশল" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ti%C4%81n-ki_kang-t%C3%AAng" title="Tiān-ki kang-têng – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Tiān-ki kang-têng" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%85%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Электротехника – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Электротехника" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%8D%D1%85%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Электратэхніка – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Электратэхніка" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%8D%D1%85%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Электратэхніка – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Электратэхніка" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inhinyeriyang_elektrikal" title="Inhinyeriyang elektrikal – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Inhinyeriyang elektrikal" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bikol Central</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Електроинженерство – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Електроинженерство" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrotechnik" title="Elektrotechnik – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Elektrotechnik" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Boarisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrotehnika" title="Elektrotehnika – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Elektrotehnika" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrot%C3%A8cnia" title="Electrotècnia – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Electrotècnia" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrotechnika" title="Elektrotechnika – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Elektrotechnika" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektroteknik" title="Elektroteknik – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Elektroteknik" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrotechnik" title="Elektrotechnik – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Elektrotechnik" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrotehnika" title="Elektrotehnika – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Elektrotehnika" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingenier%C3%ADa_el%C3%A9ctrica" title="Ingeniería eléctrica – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Ingeniería eléctrica" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrotekniko" title="Elektrotekniko – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Elektrotekniko" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingeniaritza_elektriko" title="Ingeniaritza elektriko – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Ingeniaritza elektriko" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%87%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%B3%DB%8C_%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%82" title="مهندسی برق – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="مهندسی برق" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89lectrotechnique" title="Électrotechnique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Électrotechnique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrotechnyk" title="Elektrotechnyk – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Elektrotechnyk" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Innealt%C3%B3ireacht_leictreach" title="Innealtóireacht leictreach – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Innealtóireacht leictreach" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%B5%E0%AA%BF%E0%AA%A6%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%AF%E0%AB%81%E0%AA%A4_%E0%AA%87%E0%AA%9C%E0%AA%A8%E0%AB%87%E0%AA%B0%E0%AB%80" title="વિદ્યુત ઇજનેરી – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="વિદ્યુત ઇજનેરી" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ગુજરાતી</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A0%84%EA%B8%B0%EA%B3%B5%ED%95%99" title="전기공학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="전기공학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A4_%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%80" title="विद्युत अभियान्त्रिकी – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="विद्युत अभियान्त्रिकी" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrotehnika" title="Elektrotehnika – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Elektrotehnika" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teknik_listrik" title="Teknik listrik – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Teknik listrik" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrotechnica" title="Electrotechnica – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Electrotechnica" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zu mw-list-item"><a href="https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/UmNgcikisho_wamazuba" title="UmNgcikisho wamazuba – Zulu" lang="zu" hreflang="zu" data-title="UmNgcikisho wamazuba" data-language-autonym="IsiZulu" data-language-local-name="Zulu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>IsiZulu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rafmagnsverkfr%C3%A6%C3%B0i" title="Rafmagnsverkfræði – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Rafmagnsverkfræði" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elettrotecnica" title="Elettrotecnica – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Elettrotecnica" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%A0%D7%93%D7%A1%D7%AA_%D7%97%D7%A9%D7%9E%D7%9C" title="הנדסת חשמל – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="הנדסת חשמל" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%A5%E1%83%A2%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A2%E1%83%94%E1%83%A5%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%99%E1%83%90" title="ელექტროტექნიკა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ელექტროტექნიკა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%85%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Электртехника – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Электртехника" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uhandisi_wa_umeme" title="Uhandisi wa umeme – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Uhandisi wa umeme" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endezyariya_elektr%C3%AEk%C3%AA" title="Endezyariya elektrîkê – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Endezyariya elektrîkê" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%85%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Электротехника – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Электротехника" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ars_electrica" title="Ars electrica – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Ars electrica" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrotehnika" title="Elektrotehnika – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Elektrotehnika" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrotechnik" title="Elektrotechnik – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Elektrotechnik" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrotechnika" title="Elektrotechnika – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Elektrotechnika" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-olo mw-list-item"><a href="https://olo.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%A4hk%C3%B6tehniekku" title="Sähkötehniekku – Livvi-Karelian" lang="olo" hreflang="olo" data-title="Sähkötehniekku" data-language-autonym="Livvinkarjala" data-language-local-name="Livvi-Karelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Livvinkarjala</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jbo mw-list-item"><a href="https://jbo.wikipedia.org/wiki/dikca_mi%27irlarcu" title="dikca mi'irlarcu – Lojban" lang="jbo" hreflang="jbo" data-title="dikca mi'irlarcu" data-language-autonym="La .lojban." data-language-local-name="Lojban" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>La .lojban.</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eletrotecnega" title="Eletrotecnega – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Eletrotecnega" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Villamosm%C3%A9rn%C3%B6k" title="Villamosmérnök – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Villamosmérnök" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%85%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Електротехника – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Електротехника" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%87%E0%B4%B2%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%BD_%E0%B4%8E%E0%B5%BB%E0%B4%9C%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%80%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%B1%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%82%E0%B4%97%E0%B5%8D" title="ഇലക്ട്രിക്കൽ എൻജിനീയറിംഗ് – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ഇലക്ട്രിക്കൽ എൻജിനീയറിംഗ്" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A4_%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%80" title="विद्युत अभियांत्रिकी – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="विद्युत अभियांत्रिकी" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%A5%E1%83%A2%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A2%E1%83%94%E1%83%A5%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%99%E1%83%90" title="ელექტროტექნიკა – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ელექტროტექნიკა" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kejuruteraan_elektrik" title="Kejuruteraan elektrik – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Kejuruteraan elektrik" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teknik_listrik" title="Teknik listrik – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Teknik listrik" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Minangkabau</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D0%B0%D1%85%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%85%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Цахилгаан техник – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Цахилгаан техник" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%9C%E1%80%BB%E1%80%BE%E1%80%95%E1%80%BA%E1%80%85%E1%80%85%E1%80%BA%E1%80%A1%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%82%E1%80%BB%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%94%E1%80%AE%E1%80%9A%E1%80%AC_%E1%80%98%E1%80%AC%E1%80%9E%E1%80%AC%E1%80%9B%E1%80%95%E1%80%BA" title="လျှပ်စစ်အင်ဂျင်နီယာ ဘာသာရပ် – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="လျှပ်စစ်အင်ဂျင်နီယာ ဘာသာရပ်" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrotechniek" title="Elektrotechniek – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Elektrotechniek" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF_%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%99" title="विद्युतीय इन्जिनियरिङ – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="विद्युतीय इन्जिनियरिङ" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%9B%BB%E6%B0%97%E5%B7%A5%E5%AD%A6" title="電気工学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="電気工学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektroteknikk" title="Elektroteknikk – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Elektroteknikk" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrofag" title="Elektrofag – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Elektrofag" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or mw-list-item"><a href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%AC%E0%AC%BF%E0%AC%A6%E0%AD%8D%E0%AD%9F%E0%AD%81%E0%AC%A4%E0%AD%8D_%E0%AC%93_%E0%AC%85%E0%AC%AD%E0%AC%BF%E0%AC%AC%E0%AC%BF%E0%AC%A6%E0%AD%8D%E0%AD%9F%E0%AD%81%E0%AC%A4%E0%AD%8D_%E0%AC%B8%E0%AC%99%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%95%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%B0%E0%AC%BE%E0%AC%A8%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%A4%E0%AD%80%E0%AD%9F_%E0%AC%AC%E0%AD%88%E0%AC%B7%E0%AD%9F%E0%AC%BF%E0%AC%95_%E0%AC%AC%E0%AC%BF%E0%AC%9C%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%9E%E0%AC%BE%E0%AC%A8" title="ବିଦ୍ୟୁତ୍ ଓ ଅଭିବିଦ୍ୟୁତ୍ ସଙ୍କ୍ରାନ୍ତୀୟ ବୈଷୟିକ ବିଜ୍ଞାନ – Odia" lang="or" hreflang="or" data-title="ବିଦ୍ୟୁତ୍ ଓ ଅଭିବିଦ୍ୟୁତ୍ ସଙ୍କ୍ରାନ୍ତୀୟ ବୈଷୟିକ ବିଜ୍ଞାନ" data-language-autonym="ଓଡ଼ିଆ" data-language-local-name="Odia" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ଓଡ଼ିଆ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrotexnika" title="Elektrotexnika – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Elektrotexnika" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%87%E0%A8%B2%E0%A9%88%E0%A9%B1%E0%A8%95%E0%A8%9F%E0%A9%8D%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%95%E0%A8%B2_%E0%A8%87%E0%A9%B0%E0%A8%9C%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%A8%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%85%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%BF%E0%A9%B0%E0%A8%97" title="ਇਲੈੱਕਟ੍ਰਿਕਲ ਇੰਜੀਨੀਅਰਿੰਗ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਇਲੈੱਕਟ੍ਰਿਕਲ ਇੰਜੀਨੀਅਰਿੰਗ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%B1%DB%90%DA%9A%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%8A%D9%8A_%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AC%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%B1%D9%8A" title="برېښنايي انجنيري – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="برېښنايي انجنيري" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrotechnik" title="Elektrotechnik – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Elektrotechnik" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrotechnika" title="Elektrotechnika – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Elektrotechnika" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engenharia_el%C3%A9trica" title="Engenharia elétrica – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Engenharia elétrica" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrotehnic%C4%83" title="Electrotehnică – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Electrotehnică" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%85%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Електротехніка – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Електротехніка" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русиньскый</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%85%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Электротехника – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Электротехника" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-stq mw-list-item"><a href="https://stq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrotechnik" title="Elektrotechnik – Saterland Frisian" lang="stq" hreflang="stq" data-title="Elektrotechnik" data-language-autonym="Seeltersk" data-language-local-name="Saterland Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Seeltersk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inxhinieria_elektrike" title="Inxhinieria elektrike – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Inxhinieria elektrike" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%AF%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%94%E0%B6%AD%E0%B7%8A_%E0%B6%89%E0%B6%82%E0%B6%A2%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%9A%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%94_%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%AF%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%80" title="විද්‍යුත් ඉංජිනේරු විද්‍යාව – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="විද්‍යුත් ඉංජිනේරු විද්‍යාව" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_engineering" title="Electrical engineering – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Electrical engineering" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%AC%D9%84%D9%8A_%D8%AC%D9%8A_%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AC%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A6%D8%B1%D9%86%DA%AF" title="بجلي جي انجنيئرنگ – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="بجلي جي انجنيئرنگ" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrotechnika" title="Elektrotechnika – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Elektrotechnika" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrotehnika" title="Elektrotehnika – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Elektrotehnika" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A6%DB%95%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%B2%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%DB%8C_%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%95%D8%A8%D8%A7" title="ئەندازیاریی کارەبا – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ئەندازیاریی کارەبا" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%85%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Електротехника – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Електротехника" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrotehnika" title="Elektrotehnika – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Elektrotehnika" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%A4hk%C3%B6tekniikka" title="Sähkötekniikka – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Sähkötekniikka" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektroteknik" title="Elektroteknik – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Elektroteknik" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inhenyeriyang_elektrikal" title="Inhenyeriyang elektrikal – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Inhenyeriyang elektrikal" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%B1%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="மின்பொறியியல் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="மின்பொறியியல்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%8E%E0%B0%B2%E0%B0%95%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%9F%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%95%E0%B0%B2%E0%B1%8D_%E0%B0%87%E0%B0%82%E0%B0%9C%E0%B0%A8%E0%B1%80%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%82%E0%B0%97%E0%B1%8D" title="ఎలక్ట్రికల్ ఇంజనీరింగ్ – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="ఎలక్ట్రికల్ ఇంజనీరింగ్" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A1%E0%B9%84%E0%B8%9F%E0%B8%9F%E0%B9%89%E0%B8%B2" title="วิศวกรรมไฟฟ้า – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="วิศวกรรมไฟฟ้า" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%85%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Электротехника – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Электротехника" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrik_m%C3%BChendisli%C4%9Fi" title="Elektrik mühendisliği – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Elektrik mühendisliği" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tk mw-list-item"><a href="https://tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrik_in%C5%BEenerligi" title="Elektrik inženerligi – Turkmen" lang="tk" hreflang="tk" data-title="Elektrik inženerligi" data-language-autonym="Türkmençe" data-language-local-name="Turkmen" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkmençe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%85%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Електротехніка – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Електротехніка" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%82%DB%8C_%DB%81%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="برقی ہندسیات – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="برقی ہندسیات" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%E1%BB%B9_thu%E1%BA%ADt_%C4%91i%E1%BB%87n" title="Kỹ thuật điện – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Kỹ thuật điện" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inhenyeriya_elektrika" title="Inhenyeriya elektrika – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Inhenyeriya elektrika" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wo mw-list-item"><a href="https://wo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xaralaymb%C3%ABj" title="Xaralaymbëj – Wolof" lang="wo" hreflang="wo" data-title="Xaralaymbëj" data-language-autonym="Wolof" data-language-local-name="Wolof" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Wolof</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%94%B5%E6%B0%94%E5%B7%A5%E7%A8%8B%E5%AD%A6" title="电气工程学 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="电气工程学" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo mw-list-item"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/I%E1%B9%A3%E1%BA%B9%CC%81%E1%BA%B9%CC%80r%E1%BB%8D_on%C3%ADtann%C3%A1" title="Iṣẹ́ẹ̀rọ onítanná – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" data-title="Iṣẹ́ẹ̀rọ onítanná" data-language-autonym="Yorùbá" data-language-local-name="Yoruba" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Yorùbá</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%9B%BB%E6%A9%9F%E5%B7%A5%E7%A8%8B" title="電機工程 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="電機工程" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li 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.hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Electronic_engineering" title="Electronic engineering">Electronic engineering</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><caption class="infobox-title">Electrical engineering</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Umspannwerk-Pulverdingen_380kV-Trennschalter.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Umspannwerk-Pulverdingen_380kV-Trennschalter.jpg/220px-Umspannwerk-Pulverdingen_380kV-Trennschalter.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Umspannwerk-Pulverdingen_380kV-Trennschalter.jpg/330px-Umspannwerk-Pulverdingen_380kV-Trennschalter.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Umspannwerk-Pulverdingen_380kV-Trennschalter.jpg/440px-Umspannwerk-Pulverdingen_380kV-Trennschalter.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2400" data-file-height="1488" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">A long row of <a href="/wiki/Disconnector" title="Disconnector">disconnectors</a></div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Occupation</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Names</th><td class="infobox-data">Electrical engineer</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Activity sectors</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Electronics" title="Electronics">Electronics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electrical_circuit" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical circuit">electrical circuits</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetics" class="mw-redirect" title="Electromagnetics">electromagnetics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Power_engineering" title="Power engineering">power engineering</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electrical_machine" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical machine">electrical machines</a>, <a href="/wiki/Telecommunications" title="Telecommunications">telecommunications</a>, <a href="/wiki/Control_system" title="Control system">control systems</a>, <a href="/wiki/Signal_processing" title="Signal processing">signal processing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Optics" title="Optics">optics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Photonics" title="Photonics">photonics</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Electrical_substation" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical substation">electrical substations</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Description</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Competencies</th><td class="infobox-data">Technical knowledge, management skills, advanced mathematics, systems design, physics, abstract thinking, analytical thinking, philosophy of logic (see also <a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering" title="Glossary of electrical and electronics engineering">Glossary of electrical and electronics engineering</a>)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Fields of<br />employment</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Technology" title="Technology">Technology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">science</a>, <a href="/wiki/Space_exploration" title="Space exploration">exploration</a>, <a href="/wiki/Military" title="Military">military</a>, <a href="/wiki/Industry_(manufacturing)" class="mw-redirect" title="Industry (manufacturing)">industry</a> and <a href="/wiki/Society" title="Society">society</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Electrical engineering</b> is an <a href="/wiki/Engineering" title="Engineering">engineering</a> discipline concerned with the study, design, and application of equipment, devices, and systems that use <a href="/wiki/Electricity" title="Electricity">electricity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electronics" title="Electronics">electronics</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetism" title="Electromagnetism">electromagnetism</a>. It emerged as an identifiable occupation in the latter half of the 19th century after the <a href="/wiki/Commercialization" title="Commercialization">commercialization</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Electric_telegraph" class="mw-redirect" title="Electric telegraph">electric telegraph</a>, the telephone, and <a href="/wiki/Electrical_power" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical power">electrical power</a> generation, distribution, and use. </p><p>Electrical engineering is divided into a wide range of different fields, including <a href="/wiki/Computer_engineering" title="Computer engineering">computer engineering</a>, <a href="/wiki/Systems_engineering" title="Systems engineering">systems engineering</a>, <a href="/wiki/Power_engineering" title="Power engineering">power engineering</a>, <a href="/wiki/Telecommunications" title="Telecommunications">telecommunications</a>, <a href="/wiki/Radio-frequency_engineering" title="Radio-frequency engineering">radio-frequency engineering</a>, <a href="/wiki/Signal_processing" title="Signal processing">signal processing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Instrumentation" title="Instrumentation">instrumentation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic_cell" class="mw-redirect" title="Photovoltaic cell">photovoltaic cells</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electronics" title="Electronics">electronics</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Optics" title="Optics">optics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Photonics" title="Photonics">photonics</a>. Many of these disciplines overlap with other engineering branches, spanning a huge number of specializations including hardware engineering, <a href="/wiki/Power_electronics" title="Power electronics">power electronics</a>, electromagnetics and waves, <a href="/wiki/Microwave_engineering" title="Microwave engineering">microwave engineering</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nanotechnology" title="Nanotechnology">nanotechnology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electrochemistry" title="Electrochemistry">electrochemistry</a>, renewable energies, mechatronics/control, and electrical materials science.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Electrical engineers typically hold a <a href="/wiki/Academic_degree" title="Academic degree">degree</a> in electrical engineering, electronic or electrical and electronic engineering. Practicing engineers may have <a href="/wiki/Professional_certification" title="Professional certification">professional certification</a> and be members of a <a href="/wiki/Professional_body" class="mw-redirect" title="Professional body">professional body</a> or an international standards organization. These include the <a href="/wiki/International_Electrotechnical_Commission" title="International Electrotechnical Commission">International Electrotechnical Commission</a> (IEC), the <a href="/wiki/National_Society_of_Professional_Engineers" title="National Society of Professional Engineers">National Society of Professional Engineers</a> (NSPE), the <a href="/wiki/Institute_of_Electrical_and_Electronics_Engineers" title="Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers">Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers</a> (IEEE) and the <a href="/wiki/Institution_of_Engineering_and_Technology" title="Institution of Engineering and Technology">Institution of Engineering and Technology</a> (IET, formerly the IEE). </p><p>Electrical engineers work in a very wide range of industries and the skills required are likewise variable. These range from <a href="/wiki/Circuit_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Circuit theory">circuit theory</a> to the management skills of a <a href="/wiki/Project_manager" title="Project manager">project manager</a>. The tools and equipment that an individual engineer may need are similarly variable, ranging from a simple <a href="/wiki/Voltmeter" title="Voltmeter">voltmeter</a> to sophisticated design and manufacturing software. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrical_engineering&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_electrical_engineering" title="History of electrical engineering">History of electrical engineering</a></div> <p>Electricity has been a subject of scientific interest since at least the early 17th century. <a href="/wiki/William_Gilbert_(astronomer)" class="mw-redirect" title="William Gilbert (astronomer)">William Gilbert</a> was a prominent early electrical scientist, and was the first to draw a clear distinction between <a href="/wiki/Magnetism" title="Magnetism">magnetism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Static_electricity" title="Static electricity">static electricity</a>. He is credited with establishing the term "electricity".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMartinsenGrimnes2011411_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMartinsenGrimnes2011411-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He also designed the <a href="/wiki/Versorium" title="Versorium">versorium</a>: a device that detects the presence of statically charged objects. In 1762 Swedish professor <a href="/wiki/Johan_Wilcke" title="Johan Wilcke">Johan Wilcke</a> invented a device later named <a href="/wiki/Electrophorus" title="Electrophorus">electrophorus</a> that produced a static electric charge.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 1800 <a href="/wiki/Alessandro_Volta" title="Alessandro Volta">Alessandro Volta</a> had developed the <a href="/wiki/Voltaic_pile" title="Voltaic pile">voltaic pile</a>, a forerunner of the electric battery. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="19th_century">19th century</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrical_engineering&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: 19th century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Faraday_Cochran_Pickersgill.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Faraday_Cochran_Pickersgill.jpg/170px-Faraday_Cochran_Pickersgill.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="212" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Faraday_Cochran_Pickersgill.jpg/255px-Faraday_Cochran_Pickersgill.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Faraday_Cochran_Pickersgill.jpg/340px-Faraday_Cochran_Pickersgill.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1155" data-file-height="1443" /></a><figcaption>The discoveries of <a href="/wiki/Michael_Faraday" title="Michael Faraday">Michael Faraday</a> formed the foundation of electric motor technology.</figcaption></figure> <p>In the 19th century, research into the subject started to intensify. Notable developments in this century include the work of <a href="/wiki/Hans_Christian_%C3%98rsted" title="Hans Christian Ørsted">Hans Christian Ørsted</a>, who discovered in 1820 that an electric current produces a magnetic field that will deflect a compass needle; of <a href="/wiki/William_Sturgeon" title="William Sturgeon">William Sturgeon</a>, who in 1825 invented the <a href="/wiki/Electromagnet" title="Electromagnet">electromagnet</a>; of <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Henry" title="Joseph Henry">Joseph Henry</a> and <a href="/wiki/Edward_Davy" title="Edward Davy">Edward Davy</a>, who invented the <a href="/wiki/Electrical_relay" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical relay">electrical relay</a> in 1835; of <a href="/wiki/Georg_Ohm" title="Georg Ohm">Georg Ohm</a>, who in 1827 quantified the relationship between the <a href="/wiki/Electric_current" title="Electric current">electric current</a> and <a href="/wiki/Potential_difference" class="mw-redirect" title="Potential difference">potential difference</a> in a <a href="/wiki/Electrical_conductor" title="Electrical conductor">conductor</a>; of <a href="/wiki/Michael_Faraday" title="Michael Faraday">Michael Faraday</a>, the discoverer of <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_induction" title="Electromagnetic induction">electromagnetic induction</a> in 1831; and of <a href="/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell" title="James Clerk Maxwell">James Clerk Maxwell</a>, who in 1873 published a unified <a href="/wiki/Maxwell%27s_equations" title="Maxwell's equations">theory</a> of electricity and <a href="/wiki/Magnetism" title="Magnetism">magnetism</a> in his treatise <i>Electricity and Magnetism</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELambourne201011_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELambourne201011-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1782, <a href="/wiki/Georges-Louis_Le_Sage" title="Georges-Louis Le Sage">Georges-Louis Le Sage</a> developed and presented in <a href="/wiki/Berlin" title="Berlin">Berlin</a> probably the world's first form of <a href="/wiki/Electrical_telegraph" title="Electrical telegraph">electric telegraphy</a>, using 24 different wires, one for each letter of the alphabet. This telegraph connected two rooms. It was an electrostatic telegraph that moved gold leaf through electrical conduction. </p><p>In 1795, <a href="/wiki/Francisco_Salva_Campillo" title="Francisco Salva Campillo">Francisco Salva Campillo</a> proposed an electrostatic telegraph system. Between 1803 and 1804, he worked on electrical telegraphy, and in 1804, he presented his report at the Royal Academy of Natural Sciences and Arts of Barcelona. Salva's electrolyte telegraph system was very innovative though it was greatly influenced by and based upon two discoveries made in Europe in 1800—Alessandro Volta's electric battery for generating an electric current and William Nicholson and Anthony Carlyle's electrolysis of water.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Electrical_telegraph" title="Electrical telegraph">Electrical telegraphy</a> may be considered the first example of electrical engineering.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Electrical engineering became a profession in the later 19th century. Practitioners had created a global <a href="/wiki/Electric_telegraph" class="mw-redirect" title="Electric telegraph">electric telegraph</a> network, and the first professional electrical engineering institutions were founded in the UK and the US to support the new discipline. <a href="/wiki/Francis_Ronalds" title="Francis Ronalds">Francis Ronalds</a> created an electric telegraph system in 1816 and documented his vision of how the world could be transformed by electricity.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Over 50 years later, he joined the new Society of Telegraph Engineers (soon to be renamed the <a href="/wiki/Institution_of_Electrical_Engineers" title="Institution of Electrical Engineers">Institution of Electrical Engineers</a>) where he was regarded by other members as the first of their cohort.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the end of the 19th century, the world had been forever changed by the rapid communication made possible by the engineering development of land-lines, <a href="/wiki/Submarine_communications_cable" title="Submarine communications cable">submarine cables</a>, and, from about 1890, <a href="/wiki/Wireless_telegraphy" title="Wireless telegraphy">wireless telegraphy</a>. </p><p>Practical applications and advances in such fields created an increasing need for standardized <a href="/wiki/Units_of_measure" class="mw-redirect" title="Units of measure">units of measure</a>. They led to the international standardization of the units <a href="/wiki/Volt" title="Volt">volt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ampere" title="Ampere">ampere</a>, <a href="/wiki/Coulomb" title="Coulomb">coulomb</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ohm" title="Ohm">ohm</a>, <a href="/wiki/Farad" title="Farad">farad</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Henry_(unit)" title="Henry (unit)">henry</a>. This was achieved at an international conference in <a href="/wiki/Chicago" title="Chicago">Chicago</a> in 1893.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERosenberg20089_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERosenberg20089-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The publication of these standards formed the basis of future advances in standardization in various industries, and in many countries, the definitions were immediately recognized in relevant legislation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETunbridge1992_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETunbridge1992-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During these years, the study of electricity was largely considered to be a subfield of <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a> since early electrical technology was considered <a href="/wiki/Electromechanical" class="mw-redirect" title="Electromechanical">electromechanical</a> in nature. The <a href="/wiki/Technische_Universit%C3%A4t_Darmstadt" title="Technische Universität Darmstadt">Technische Universität Darmstadt</a> founded the world's first department of electrical engineering in 1882 and introduced the first-degree course in electrical engineering in 1883.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first electrical engineering degree program in the United States was started at <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology" title="Massachusetts Institute of Technology">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a> (MIT) in the physics department under Professor Charles Cross, <sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWildesLindgren198519_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWildesLindgren198519-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> though it was <a href="/wiki/Cornell_University" title="Cornell University">Cornell University</a> to produce the world's first electrical engineering graduates in 1885.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first course in electrical engineering was taught in 1883 in Cornell's <a href="/wiki/Sibley_College_of_Mechanical_Engineering_and_Mechanic_Arts" class="mw-redirect" title="Sibley College of Mechanical Engineering and Mechanic Arts">Sibley College of Mechanical Engineering and Mechanic Arts</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In about 1885, Cornell President <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Dickson_White" title="Andrew Dickson White">Andrew Dickson White</a> established the first Department of Electrical Engineering in the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the same year, <a href="/wiki/University_College_London" title="University College London">University College London</a> founded the first chair of electrical engineering in Great Britain.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Professor Mendell P. Weinbach at <a href="/wiki/University_of_Missouri" title="University of Missouri">University of Missouri</a> established the electrical engineering department in 1886.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Afterwards, universities and <a href="/wiki/Institutes_of_technology" class="mw-redirect" title="Institutes of technology">institutes of technology</a> gradually started to offer electrical engineering programs to their students all over the world. </p><p>During these decades the use of electrical engineering increased dramatically. In 1882, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Edison" title="Thomas Edison">Thomas Edison</a> switched on the world's first large-scale electric power network that provided 110 volts—<a href="/wiki/Direct_current" title="Direct current">direct current</a> (DC)—to 59 customers on <a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="Manhattan Island">Manhattan Island</a> in New York City. In 1884, <a href="/wiki/Sir_Charles_Parsons" class="mw-redirect" title="Sir Charles Parsons">Sir Charles Parsons</a> invented the <a href="/wiki/Steam_turbine" title="Steam turbine">steam turbine</a> allowing for more efficient electric power generation. <a href="/wiki/Alternating_current" title="Alternating current">Alternating current</a>, with its ability to transmit power more efficiently over long distances via the use of <a href="/wiki/Transformer" title="Transformer">transformers</a>, developed rapidly in the 1880s and 1890s with transformer designs by <a href="/wiki/K%C3%A1roly_Zipernowsky" title="Károly Zipernowsky">Károly Zipernowsky</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ott%C3%B3_Bl%C3%A1thy" title="Ottó Bláthy">Ottó Bláthy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Miksa_D%C3%A9ri" title="Miksa Déri">Miksa Déri</a> (later called ZBD transformers), <a href="/wiki/Lucien_Gaulard" title="Lucien Gaulard">Lucien Gaulard</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Dixon_Gibbs" title="John Dixon Gibbs">John Dixon Gibbs</a> and <a href="/wiki/William_Stanley_Jr." title="William Stanley Jr.">William Stanley Jr.</a> Practical <a href="/wiki/AC_motor" title="AC motor">AC motor</a> designs including <a href="/wiki/Induction_motor" title="Induction motor">induction motors</a> were independently invented by <a href="/wiki/Galileo_Ferraris" title="Galileo Ferraris">Galileo Ferraris</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nikola_Tesla" title="Nikola Tesla">Nikola Tesla</a> and further developed into a practical <a href="/wiki/Three-phase" class="mw-redirect" title="Three-phase">three-phase</a> form by <a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Dolivo-Dobrovolsky" title="Mikhail Dolivo-Dobrovolsky">Mikhail Dolivo-Dobrovolsky</a> and <a href="/wiki/Charles_Eugene_Lancelot_Brown" title="Charles Eugene Lancelot Brown">Charles Eugene Lancelot Brown</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeertjePerlman1990138_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeertjePerlman1990138-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Charles_Steinmetz" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles Steinmetz">Charles Steinmetz</a> and <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Heaviside" title="Oliver Heaviside">Oliver Heaviside</a> contributed to the theoretical basis of alternating current engineering.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The spread in the use of AC set off in the United States what has been called the <i><a href="/wiki/War_of_the_currents" title="War of the currents">war of the currents</a></i> between a <a href="/wiki/George_Westinghouse" title="George Westinghouse">George Westinghouse</a> backed AC system and a Thomas Edison backed DC power system, with AC being adopted as the overall standard.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeversLeise2011145_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESeversLeise2011145-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_20th_century">Early 20th century</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrical_engineering&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Early 20th century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Guglielmo_Marconi.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Guglielmo_Marconi.jpg/170px-Guglielmo_Marconi.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="226" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Guglielmo_Marconi.jpg/255px-Guglielmo_Marconi.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Guglielmo_Marconi.jpg/340px-Guglielmo_Marconi.jpg 2x" data-file-width="987" data-file-height="1314" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Guglielmo_Marconi" title="Guglielmo Marconi">Guglielmo Marconi</a>, known for his pioneering work on long-distance <a href="/wiki/Radio_transmission" class="mw-redirect" title="Radio transmission">radio transmission</a></figcaption></figure> <p>During the <a href="/wiki/Invention_of_radio" title="Invention of radio">development of radio</a>, many scientists and inventors contributed to <a href="/wiki/Radio_communications" class="mw-redirect" title="Radio communications">radio technology</a> and electronics. The mathematical work of <a href="/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell" title="James Clerk Maxwell">James Clerk Maxwell</a> during the 1850s had shown the relationship of different forms of <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiation" title="Electromagnetic radiation">electromagnetic radiation</a> including the possibility of invisible airborne waves (later called "radio waves"). In his classic physics experiments of 1888, <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Hertz" title="Heinrich Hertz">Heinrich Hertz</a> proved Maxwell's theory by transmitting <a href="/wiki/Radio_wave" title="Radio wave">radio waves</a> with a <a href="/wiki/Spark-gap_transmitter" title="Spark-gap transmitter">spark-gap transmitter</a>, and detected them by using simple electrical devices. Other physicists experimented with these new waves and in the process developed devices for transmitting and detecting them. In 1895, <a href="/wiki/Guglielmo_Marconi" title="Guglielmo Marconi">Guglielmo Marconi</a> began work on a way to adapt the known methods of transmitting and detecting these "Hertzian waves" into a purpose-built commercial <a href="/wiki/Wireless_telegraphy" title="Wireless telegraphy">wireless telegraphic</a> system. Early on, he sent wireless signals over a distance of one and a half miles. In December 1901, he sent wireless waves that were not affected by the curvature of the Earth. Marconi later transmitted the wireless signals across the Atlantic between Poldhu, <a href="/wiki/Cornwall" title="Cornwall">Cornwall</a>, and St. John's, <a href="/wiki/Newfoundland" class="mw-redirect" title="Newfoundland">Newfoundland</a>, a distance of 2,100 miles (3,400 km).<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Millimetre_wave" class="mw-redirect" title="Millimetre wave">Millimetre wave</a> communication was first investigated by <a href="/wiki/Jagadish_Chandra_Bose" title="Jagadish Chandra Bose">Jagadish Chandra Bose</a> during 1894–1896, when he reached an <a href="/wiki/Extremely_high_frequency" title="Extremely high frequency">extremely high frequency</a> of up to 60<span class="nowrap"> </span><a href="/wiki/GHz" class="mw-redirect" title="GHz">GHz</a> in his experiments.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He also introduced the use of <a href="/wiki/Semiconductor" title="Semiconductor">semiconductor</a> junctions to detect radio waves,<sup id="cite_ref-emerson_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-emerson-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> when he patented the radio <a href="/wiki/Crystal_detector" title="Crystal detector">crystal detector</a> in 1901.<sup id="cite_ref-computerhistory-timeline_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-computerhistory-timeline-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-computerhistory-1901_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-computerhistory-1901-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1897, <a href="/wiki/Karl_Ferdinand_Braun" title="Karl Ferdinand Braun">Karl Ferdinand Braun</a> introduced the <a href="/wiki/Cathode-ray_tube" title="Cathode-ray tube">cathode-ray tube</a> as part of an <a href="/wiki/Oscilloscope" title="Oscilloscope">oscilloscope</a>, a crucial enabling technology for <a href="/wiki/Television" title="Television">electronic television</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbramson195522_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbramson195522-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/John_Ambrose_Fleming" title="John Ambrose Fleming">John Fleming</a> invented the first radio tube, the <a href="/wiki/Diode" title="Diode">diode</a>, in 1904. Two years later, <a href="/wiki/Robert_von_Lieben" title="Robert von Lieben">Robert von Lieben</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lee_De_Forest" class="mw-redirect" title="Lee De Forest">Lee De Forest</a> independently developed the amplifier tube, called the <a href="/wiki/Triode" title="Triode">triode</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHuurdeman2003226_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuurdeman2003226-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1920, <a href="/wiki/Albert_Hull" class="mw-redirect" title="Albert Hull">Albert Hull</a> developed the <a href="/wiki/Magnetron" class="mw-redirect" title="Magnetron">magnetron</a> which would eventually lead to the development of the <a href="/wiki/Microwave_oven" title="Microwave oven">microwave oven</a> in 1946 by <a href="/wiki/Percy_Spencer" title="Percy Spencer">Percy Spencer</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1934, the <a href="/wiki/British_military" class="mw-redirect" title="British military">British military</a> began to make strides toward <a href="/wiki/Radar" title="Radar">radar</a> (which also uses the magnetron) under the direction of Dr Wimperis, culminating in the operation of the first radar station at <a href="/wiki/Bawdsey" title="Bawdsey">Bawdsey</a> in August 1936.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1941, <a href="/wiki/Konrad_Zuse" title="Konrad Zuse">Konrad Zuse</a> presented the <a href="/wiki/Z3_(computer)" title="Z3 (computer)">Z3</a>, the world's first fully functional and programmable computer using electromechanical parts. In 1943, <a href="/wiki/Tommy_Flowers" title="Tommy Flowers">Tommy Flowers</a> designed and built the <a href="/wiki/Colossus_(computer)" class="mw-redirect" title="Colossus (computer)">Colossus</a>, the world's first fully functional, electronic, digital and programmable computer.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1946, the <a href="/wiki/ENIAC" title="ENIAC">ENIAC</a> (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer) of <a href="/wiki/John_Presper_Eckert" class="mw-redirect" title="John Presper Eckert">John Presper Eckert</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_Mauchly" title="John Mauchly">John Mauchly</a> followed, beginning the computing era. The arithmetic performance of these machines allowed engineers to develop completely new technologies and achieve new objectives.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1948, <a href="/wiki/Claude_Shannon" title="Claude Shannon">Claude Shannon</a> published "A Mathematical Theory of Communication" which mathematically describes the passage of information with uncertainty (<a href="/wiki/Electrical_noise" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical noise">electrical noise</a>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Solid-state_electronics">Solid-state electronics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrical_engineering&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Solid-state electronics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_electronic_engineering" title="History of electronic engineering">History of electronic engineering</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_transistor" title="History of the transistor">History of the transistor</a>, <a href="/wiki/Invention_of_the_integrated_circuit" title="Invention of the integrated circuit">Invention of the integrated circuit</a>, <a href="/wiki/MOSFET" title="MOSFET">MOSFET</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Solid-state_electronics" title="Solid-state electronics">Solid-state electronics</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Replica-of-first-transistor.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Replica-of-first-transistor.jpg/220px-Replica-of-first-transistor.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="197" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Replica-of-first-transistor.jpg/330px-Replica-of-first-transistor.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Replica-of-first-transistor.jpg/440px-Replica-of-first-transistor.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="448" /></a><figcaption>A replica of the first working <a href="/wiki/Transistor" title="Transistor">transistor</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Point-contact_transistor" title="Point-contact transistor">point-contact transistor</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MOSFET_Structure.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/MOSFET_Structure.png/220px-MOSFET_Structure.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/MOSFET_Structure.png/330px-MOSFET_Structure.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/MOSFET_Structure.png/440px-MOSFET_Structure.png 2x" data-file-width="613" data-file-height="408" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Metal%E2%80%93oxide%E2%80%93semiconductor_field-effect_transistor" class="mw-redirect" title="Metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor">Metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor</a> (MOSFET), the basic building block of modern <a href="/wiki/Electronics" title="Electronics">electronics</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The first working <a href="/wiki/Transistor" title="Transistor">transistor</a> was a <a href="/wiki/Point-contact_transistor" title="Point-contact transistor">point-contact transistor</a> invented by <a href="/wiki/John_Bardeen" title="John Bardeen">John Bardeen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Walter_Houser_Brattain" title="Walter Houser Brattain">Walter Houser Brattain</a> while working under <a href="/wiki/William_Shockley" title="William Shockley">William Shockley</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Bell_Telephone_Laboratories" class="mw-redirect" title="Bell Telephone Laboratories">Bell Telephone Laboratories</a> (BTL) in 1947.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They then invented the <a href="/wiki/Bipolar_junction_transistor" title="Bipolar junction transistor">bipolar junction transistor</a> in 1948.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While early <a href="/wiki/Junction_transistor" class="mw-redirect" title="Junction transistor">junction transistors</a> were relatively bulky devices that were difficult to manufacture on a <a href="/wiki/Mass-production" class="mw-redirect" title="Mass-production">mass-production</a> basis,<sup id="cite_ref-Moskowitz_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moskowitz-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> they opened the door for more compact devices.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The first <a href="/wiki/Integrated_circuit" title="Integrated circuit">integrated circuits</a> were the <a href="/wiki/Hybrid_integrated_circuit" title="Hybrid integrated circuit">hybrid integrated circuit</a> invented by <a href="/wiki/Jack_Kilby" title="Jack Kilby">Jack Kilby</a> at <a href="/wiki/Texas_Instruments" title="Texas Instruments">Texas Instruments</a> in 1958 and the monolithic integrated circuit chip invented by <a href="/wiki/Robert_Noyce" title="Robert Noyce">Robert Noyce</a> at <a href="/wiki/Fairchild_Semiconductor" title="Fairchild Semiconductor">Fairchild Semiconductor</a> in 1959.<sup id="cite_ref-Saxena140_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Saxena140-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/MOSFET" title="MOSFET">MOSFET</a> (metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor, or MOS transistor) was invented by <a href="/wiki/Mohamed_Atalla" class="mw-redirect" title="Mohamed Atalla">Mohamed Atalla</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dawon_Kahng" title="Dawon Kahng">Dawon Kahng</a> at BTL in 1959.<sup id="cite_ref-computerhistory_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-computerhistory-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-computerhistory-transistor_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-computerhistory-transistor-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-triumph_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-triumph-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was the first truly compact transistor that could be miniaturised and mass-produced for a wide range of uses.<sup id="cite_ref-Moskowitz_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moskowitz-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It revolutionized the <a href="/wiki/Electronics_industry" title="Electronics industry">electronics industry</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Chan_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chan-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Grant_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grant-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> becoming the most widely used electronic device in the world.<sup id="cite_ref-computerhistory-transistor_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-computerhistory-transistor-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Golio_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Golio-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-computerhistory2018_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-computerhistory2018-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The MOSFET made it possible to build <a href="/wiki/Very_large-scale_integration" class="mw-redirect" title="Very large-scale integration">high-density integrated circuit</a> chips.<sup id="cite_ref-computerhistory-transistor_42-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-computerhistory-transistor-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The earliest experimental MOS IC chip to be fabricated was built by Fred Heiman and Steven Hofstein at <a href="/wiki/RCA_Laboratories" class="mw-redirect" title="RCA Laboratories">RCA Laboratories</a> in 1962.<sup id="cite_ref-computerhistory-digital_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-computerhistory-digital-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> MOS technology enabled <a href="/wiki/Moore%27s_law" title="Moore's law">Moore's law</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Transistor_count" title="Transistor count">doubling of transistors</a> on an IC chip every two years, predicted by <a href="/wiki/Gordon_Moore" title="Gordon Moore">Gordon Moore</a> in 1965.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Silicon-gate" class="mw-redirect" title="Silicon-gate">Silicon-gate</a> MOS technology was developed by <a href="/wiki/Federico_Faggin" title="Federico Faggin">Federico Faggin</a> at Fairchild in 1968.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since then, the MOSFET has been the basic building block of modern electronics.<sup id="cite_ref-triumph_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-triumph-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-nytimes.com_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nytimes.com-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The mass-production of silicon MOSFETs and MOS integrated circuit chips, along with continuous <a href="/wiki/MOSFET_scaling" class="mw-redirect" title="MOSFET scaling">MOSFET scaling</a> miniaturization at an exponential pace (as predicted by <a href="/wiki/Moore%27s_law" title="Moore's law">Moore's law</a>), has since led to revolutionary changes in technology, economy, culture and thinking.<sup id="cite_ref-Feldman_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Feldman-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Apollo_program" title="Apollo program">Apollo program</a> which culminated in <a href="/wiki/Moon_landing" title="Moon landing">landing astronauts on the Moon</a> with <a href="/wiki/Apollo_11" title="Apollo 11">Apollo 11</a> in 1969 was enabled by <a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a>'s adoption of advances in <a href="/wiki/Semiconductor" title="Semiconductor">semiconductor</a> <a href="/wiki/Electronic_technology" class="mw-redirect" title="Electronic technology">electronic technology</a>, including MOSFETs in the <a href="/wiki/Interplanetary_Monitoring_Platform" title="Interplanetary Monitoring Platform">Interplanetary Monitoring Platform</a> (IMP)<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and silicon integrated circuit chips in the <a href="/wiki/Apollo_Guidance_Computer" title="Apollo Guidance Computer">Apollo Guidance Computer</a> (AGC).<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The development of MOS integrated circuit technology in the 1960s led to the invention of the <a href="/wiki/Microprocessor" title="Microprocessor">microprocessor</a> in the early 1970s.<sup id="cite_ref-computerhistory1971_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-computerhistory1971-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Colinge2016_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Colinge2016-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first single-chip microprocessor was the <a href="/wiki/Intel_4004" title="Intel 4004">Intel 4004</a>, released in 1971.<sup id="cite_ref-computerhistory1971_57-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-computerhistory1971-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Intel 4004 was designed and realized by Federico Faggin at Intel with his silicon-gate MOS technology,<sup id="cite_ref-computerhistory1971_57-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-computerhistory1971-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> along with Intel's <a href="/wiki/Marcian_Hoff" title="Marcian Hoff">Marcian Hoff</a> and <a href="/wiki/Stanley_Mazor" title="Stanley Mazor">Stanley Mazor</a> and Busicom's Masatoshi Shima.<sup id="cite_ref-ieee_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ieee-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The microprocessor led to the development of <a href="/wiki/Microcomputer" title="Microcomputer">microcomputers</a> and personal computers, and the <a href="/wiki/Microcomputer_revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Microcomputer revolution">microcomputer revolution</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Subfields">Subfields</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrical_engineering&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Subfields"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>One of the properties of electricity is that it is very useful for energy transmission as well as for information transmission. These were also the first areas in which electrical engineering was developed. Today, electrical engineering has many subdisciplines, the most common of which are listed below. Although there are electrical engineers who focus exclusively on one of these subdisciplines, many deal with a combination of them. Sometimes, certain fields, such as <a href="/wiki/Electronic_engineering" title="Electronic engineering">electronic engineering</a> and <a href="/wiki/Computer_engineering" title="Computer engineering">computer engineering</a>, are considered disciplines in their own right. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Power_and_energy">Power and energy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrical_engineering&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Power and energy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Power_engineering" title="Power engineering">Power engineering</a> and <a href="/wiki/Energy_engineering" title="Energy engineering">Energy engineering</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Power_pole.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Power_pole.jpg/220px-Power_pole.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Power_pole.jpg/330px-Power_pole.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Power_pole.jpg/440px-Power_pole.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1067" /></a><figcaption>The top of a <a href="/wiki/Utility_pole" title="Utility pole">power pole</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Power & Energy engineering deals with the <a href="/wiki/Electricity_generation" title="Electricity generation">generation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electric_power_transmission" title="Electric power transmission">transmission</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Electric_power_distribution" title="Electric power distribution">distribution</a> of electricity as well as the design of a range of related devices.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrigsby2012_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrigsby2012-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These include <a href="/wiki/Transformer" title="Transformer">transformers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electric_generator" title="Electric generator">electric generators</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electric_motor" title="Electric motor">electric motors</a>, high voltage engineering, and <a href="/wiki/Power_electronics" title="Power electronics">power electronics</a>. In many regions of the world, governments maintain an electrical network called a <a href="/wiki/Power_grid" class="mw-redirect" title="Power grid">power grid</a> that connects a variety of generators together with users of their energy. Users purchase electrical energy from the grid, avoiding the costly exercise of having to generate their own. Power engineers may work on the design and maintenance of the power grid as well as the power systems that connect to it.<sup id="cite_ref-UNESCO_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UNESCO-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such systems are called <i>on-grid</i> power systems and may supply the grid with additional power, draw power from the grid, or do both. Power engineers may also work on systems that do not connect to the grid, called <i>off-grid</i> power systems, which in some cases are preferable to on-grid systems. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Telecommunications">Telecommunications</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrical_engineering&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Telecommunications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_engineering" title="Telecommunications engineering">Telecommunications engineering</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Erdfunkstelle_Raisting_2a.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Erdfunkstelle_Raisting_2a.jpg/220px-Erdfunkstelle_Raisting_2a.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="198" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Erdfunkstelle_Raisting_2a.jpg/330px-Erdfunkstelle_Raisting_2a.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Erdfunkstelle_Raisting_2a.jpg/440px-Erdfunkstelle_Raisting_2a.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2219" data-file-height="2000" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Satellite_dish" title="Satellite dish">Satellite dishes</a> are a crucial component in the analysis of satellite information.</figcaption></figure> <p>Telecommunications engineering focuses on the <a href="/wiki/Transmission_(telecommunications)" class="mw-redirect" title="Transmission (telecommunications)">transmission</a> of information across a <a href="/wiki/Communication_channel" title="Communication channel">communication channel</a> such as a <a href="/wiki/Coax_cable" class="mw-redirect" title="Coax cable">coax cable</a>, <a href="/wiki/Optical_fiber" title="Optical fiber">optical fiber</a> or <a href="/wiki/Free_space_optical_communications" class="mw-redirect" title="Free space optical communications">free space</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETobin200715_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETobin200715-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Transmissions across free space require information to be encoded in a <a href="/wiki/Carrier_signal" class="mw-redirect" title="Carrier signal">carrier signal</a> to shift the information to a carrier frequency suitable for transmission; this is known as <a href="/wiki/Modulation" title="Modulation">modulation</a>. Popular analog modulation techniques include <a href="/wiki/Amplitude_modulation" title="Amplitude modulation">amplitude modulation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Frequency_modulation" title="Frequency modulation">frequency modulation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChandrasekhar200621_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChandrasekhar200621-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The choice of modulation affects the cost and performance of a system and these two factors must be balanced carefully by the engineer. </p><p>Once the transmission characteristics of a system are determined, telecommunication engineers design the <a href="/wiki/Transmitter" title="Transmitter">transmitters</a> and <a href="/wiki/Receiver_(radio)" class="mw-redirect" title="Receiver (radio)">receivers</a> needed for such systems. These two are sometimes combined to form a two-way communication device known as a <a href="/wiki/Transceiver" title="Transceiver">transceiver</a>. A key consideration in the design of transmitters is their <a href="/wiki/Power_consumption" class="mw-redirect" title="Power consumption">power consumption</a> as this is closely related to their <a href="/wiki/Signal_strength" class="mw-redirect" title="Signal strength">signal strength</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith200719_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith200719-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZhangHuLuo2007448_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZhangHuLuo2007448-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Typically, if the power of the transmitted signal is insufficient once the signal arrives at the receiver's antenna(s), the information contained in the signal will be corrupted by <a href="/wiki/Signal_noise" class="mw-redirect" title="Signal noise">noise</a>, specifically static. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Control_engineering">Control engineering</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrical_engineering&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Control engineering"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Control_engineering" title="Control engineering">Control engineering</a> and <a href="/wiki/Control_theory" title="Control theory">Control theory</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Space_Shuttle_Columbia_launching.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Space_Shuttle_Columbia_launching.jpg/220px-Space_Shuttle_Columbia_launching.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Space_Shuttle_Columbia_launching.jpg/330px-Space_Shuttle_Columbia_launching.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Space_Shuttle_Columbia_launching.jpg/440px-Space_Shuttle_Columbia_launching.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6084" data-file-height="6084" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Control_system" title="Control system">Control systems</a> play a critical role in <a href="/wiki/Spaceflight" title="Spaceflight">spaceflight</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Control_engineering" title="Control engineering">Control engineering</a> focuses on the <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_model" title="Mathematical model">modeling</a> of a diverse range of <a href="/wiki/Dynamic_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Dynamic system">dynamic systems</a> and the design of <a href="/wiki/Controller_(control_theory)" class="mw-redirect" title="Controller (control theory)">controllers</a> that will cause these systems to behave in the desired manner.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBissell199617_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBissell199617-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To implement such controllers, electronics control engineers may use <a href="/wiki/Electronic_circuit" title="Electronic circuit">electronic circuits</a>, <a href="/wiki/Digital_signal_processor" title="Digital signal processor">digital signal processors</a>, <a href="/wiki/Microcontroller" title="Microcontroller">microcontrollers</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Programmable_logic_controller" title="Programmable logic controller">programmable logic controllers</a> (PLCs). <a href="/wiki/Control_engineering" title="Control engineering">Control engineering</a> has a wide range of applications from the flight and propulsion systems of <a href="/wiki/Commercial_airliner" class="mw-redirect" title="Commercial airliner">commercial airliners</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Cruise_control" title="Cruise control">cruise control</a> present in many modern <a href="/wiki/Automobile" class="mw-redirect" title="Automobile">automobiles</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcDavidEchaore-McDavid200995_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcDavidEchaore-McDavid200995-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It also plays an important role in <a href="/wiki/Industrial_automation" class="mw-redirect" title="Industrial automation">industrial automation</a>. </p><p>Control engineers often use <a href="/wiki/Feedback" title="Feedback">feedback</a> when designing <a href="/wiki/Control_system" title="Control system">control systems</a>. For example, in an <a href="/wiki/Automobile" class="mw-redirect" title="Automobile">automobile</a> with <a href="/wiki/Cruise_control" title="Cruise control">cruise control</a> the vehicle's <a href="/wiki/Speed" title="Speed">speed</a> is continuously monitored and fed back to the system which adjusts the <a href="/wiki/Internal_combustion_engine" title="Internal combustion engine">motor's</a> <a href="/wiki/Power_(physics)" title="Power (physics)">power</a> output accordingly.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEÅströmMurray2021108_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEÅströmMurray2021108-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Where there is regular feedback, <a href="/wiki/Control_theory" title="Control theory">control theory</a> can be used to determine how the system responds to such feedback. </p><p>Control engineers also work in <a href="/wiki/Robotics" title="Robotics">robotics</a> to design autonomous systems using control algorithms which interpret sensory feedback to control actuators that move robots such as <a href="/wiki/Autonomous_vehicle" class="mw-redirect" title="Autonomous vehicle">autonomous vehicles</a>, autonomous drones and others used in a variety of industries.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFairman1998119_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFairman1998119-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Electronics">Electronics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrical_engineering&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Electronics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Electronic_engineering" title="Electronic engineering">Electronic engineering</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Componentes.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Componentes.JPG/220px-Componentes.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Componentes.JPG/330px-Componentes.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Componentes.JPG/440px-Componentes.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4314" data-file-height="2967" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Electronic_component" title="Electronic component">Electronic components</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Electronic engineering involves the design and testing of <a href="/wiki/Electronic_circuit" title="Electronic circuit">electronic circuits</a> that use the properties of <a href="/wiki/Electrical_element" title="Electrical element">components</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Resistor" title="Resistor">resistors</a>, <a href="/wiki/Capacitor" title="Capacitor">capacitors</a>, <a href="/wiki/Inductor" title="Inductor">inductors</a>, <a href="/wiki/Diode" title="Diode">diodes</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Transistor" title="Transistor">transistors</a> to achieve a particular functionality.<sup id="cite_ref-UNESCO_61-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UNESCO-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Tuned_circuit" class="mw-redirect" title="Tuned circuit">tuned circuit</a>, which allows the user of a radio to <a href="/wiki/Electronic_filter" title="Electronic filter">filter</a> out all but a single station, is just one example of such a circuit. Another example to research is a pneumatic signal conditioner. </p><p>Prior to the Second World War, the subject was commonly known as <i>radio engineering</i> and basically was restricted to aspects of communications and <a href="/wiki/Radar" title="Radar">radar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Radio" title="Radio">commercial radio</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Television" title="Television">early television</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-UNESCO_61-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UNESCO-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Later, in post-war years, as consumer devices began to be developed, the field grew to include modern television, audio systems, computers, and <a href="/wiki/Microprocessor" title="Microprocessor">microprocessors</a>. In the mid-to-late 1950s, the term <i>radio engineering</i> gradually gave way to the name <i>electronic engineering</i>. </p><p>Before the invention of the <a href="/wiki/Integrated_circuit" title="Integrated circuit">integrated circuit</a> in 1959,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThompson20064_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThompson20064-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> electronic circuits were constructed from discrete components that could be manipulated by humans. These discrete circuits consumed much space and <a href="/wiki/Electric_power" title="Electric power">power</a> and were limited in speed, although they are still common in some applications. By contrast, <a href="/wiki/Integrated_circuit" title="Integrated circuit">integrated circuits</a> packed a large number—often millions—of tiny electrical components, mainly <a href="/wiki/Transistor" title="Transistor">transistors</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMerhari2009233_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMerhari2009233-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> into a small chip around the size of a <a href="/wiki/Coin" title="Coin">coin</a>. This allowed for the powerful computers and other electronic devices we see today. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Microelectronics_and_nanoelectronics">Microelectronics and nanoelectronics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrical_engineering&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Microelectronics and nanoelectronics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Microelectronics" title="Microelectronics">Microelectronics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nanoelectronics" title="Nanoelectronics">Nanoelectronics</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Chip_design" class="mw-redirect" title="Chip design">Chip design</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:80486dx2-large.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/80486dx2-large.jpg/220px-80486dx2-large.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/80486dx2-large.jpg/330px-80486dx2-large.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/80486dx2-large.jpg/440px-80486dx2-large.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1341" data-file-height="1002" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Microprocessor" title="Microprocessor">Microprocessor</a></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Microelectronics" title="Microelectronics">Microelectronics</a> engineering deals with the design and <a href="/wiki/Microfabrication" title="Microfabrication">microfabrication</a> of very small electronic circuit components for use in an <a href="/wiki/Integrated_circuit" title="Integrated circuit">integrated circuit</a> or sometimes for use on their own as a general electronic component.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBhushan1997581_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBhushan1997581-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The most common microelectronic components are <a href="/wiki/Semiconductor" title="Semiconductor">semiconductor</a> <a href="/wiki/Transistor" title="Transistor">transistors</a>, although all main electronic components (<a href="/wiki/Resistor" title="Resistor">resistors</a>, <a href="/wiki/Capacitor" title="Capacitor">capacitors</a> etc.) can be created at a microscopic level. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Nanoelectronics" title="Nanoelectronics">Nanoelectronics</a> is the further scaling of devices down to <a href="/wiki/Nanometer" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanometer">nanometer</a> levels. Modern devices are already in the nanometer regime, with below 100 nm processing having been standard since around 2002.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMook2008149_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMook2008149-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Microelectronic components are created by chemically fabricating wafers of semiconductors such as silicon (at higher frequencies, <a href="/wiki/Compound_semiconductor" class="mw-redirect" title="Compound semiconductor">compound semiconductors</a> like gallium arsenide and indium phosphide) to obtain the desired transport of electronic charge and control of current. The field of microelectronics involves a significant amount of chemistry and material science and requires the electronic engineer working in the field to have a very good working knowledge of the effects of <a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">quantum mechanics</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESullivan2012_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESullivan2012-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Signal_processing">Signal processing</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrical_engineering&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Signal processing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Signal_processing" title="Signal processing">Signal processing</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bayer_pattern_on_sensor.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Bayer_pattern_on_sensor.svg/220px-Bayer_pattern_on_sensor.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Bayer_pattern_on_sensor.svg/330px-Bayer_pattern_on_sensor.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Bayer_pattern_on_sensor.svg/440px-Bayer_pattern_on_sensor.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="455" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Bayer_filter" title="Bayer filter">Bayer filter</a> on a <a href="/wiki/Charge-coupled_device" title="Charge-coupled device">CCD</a> requires signal processing to get a red, green, and blue value at each pixel.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Signal_processing" title="Signal processing">Signal processing</a> deals with the analysis and manipulation of <a href="/wiki/Signal" title="Signal">signals</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETuzlukov201020_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETuzlukov201020-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Signals can be either <a href="/wiki/Analog_signal" title="Analog signal">analog</a>, in which case the signal varies continuously according to the information, or <a href="/wiki/Digital_signal_(signal_processing)" title="Digital signal (signal processing)">digital</a>, in which case the signal varies according to a series of discrete values representing the information. For analog signals, signal processing may involve the <a href="/wiki/Amplifier" title="Amplifier">amplification</a> and <a href="/wiki/Filter_(signal_processing)" title="Filter (signal processing)">filtering</a> of audio signals for audio equipment or the <a href="/wiki/Modulation" title="Modulation">modulation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Demodulation" title="Demodulation">demodulation</a> of signals for telecommunications. For digital signals, signal processing may involve the <a href="/wiki/Data_compression" title="Data compression">compression</a>, <a href="/wiki/Error_detection" class="mw-redirect" title="Error detection">error detection</a> and <a href="/wiki/Error_correction" class="mw-redirect" title="Error correction">error correction</a> of digitally sampled signals.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEManolakisIngle201117_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEManolakisIngle201117-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Signal processing is a very mathematically oriented and intensive area forming the core of <a href="/wiki/Digital_signal_processing" title="Digital signal processing">digital signal processing</a> and it is rapidly expanding with new applications in every field of electrical engineering such as communications, control, radar, <a href="/wiki/Audio_engineer" title="Audio engineer">audio engineering</a>, <a href="/wiki/Broadcast_engineering" title="Broadcast engineering">broadcast engineering</a>, power electronics, and <a href="/wiki/Biomedical_engineering" title="Biomedical engineering">biomedical engineering</a> as many already existing analog systems are replaced with their digital counterparts. <a href="/wiki/Analog_signal_processing" title="Analog signal processing">Analog signal processing</a> is still important in the design of many <a href="/wiki/Control_system" title="Control system">control systems</a>. </p><p>DSP processor ICs are found in many types of modern electronic devices, such as digital <a href="/wiki/Television_set" title="Television set">television sets</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBayoumiSwartzlander199425_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBayoumiSwartzlander199425-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> radios, <a href="/wiki/Hi-fi" class="mw-redirect" title="Hi-fi">hi-fi</a> audio equipment, mobile phones, <a href="/wiki/Portable_Media_Player" class="mw-redirect" title="Portable Media Player">multimedia players</a>, camcorders and digital cameras, automobile control systems, <a href="/wiki/Noise_cancelling" class="mw-redirect" title="Noise cancelling">noise cancelling</a> headphones, digital <a href="/wiki/Spectrum_analyzer" title="Spectrum analyzer">spectrum analyzers</a>, missile guidance systems, <a href="/wiki/Radar" title="Radar">radar</a> systems, and <a href="/wiki/Telematics" title="Telematics">telematics</a> systems. In such products, DSP may be responsible for <a href="/wiki/Noise_reduction" title="Noise reduction">noise reduction</a>, <a href="/wiki/Speech_recognition" title="Speech recognition">speech recognition</a> or <a href="/wiki/Speech_synthesis" title="Speech synthesis">synthesis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Codec" title="Codec">encoding or decoding</a> digital media, wirelessly <a href="/wiki/Transceiver" title="Transceiver">transmitting or receiving</a> data, triangulating positions using <a href="/wiki/GPS" class="mw-redirect" title="GPS">GPS</a>, and other kinds of <a href="/wiki/Image_processing" class="mw-redirect" title="Image processing">image processing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Video_processing" title="Video processing">video processing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Audio_signal_processing" title="Audio signal processing">audio processing</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Speech_processing" title="Speech processing">speech processing</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKhanna2009297_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKhanna2009297-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Instrumentation">Instrumentation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrical_engineering&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Instrumentation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Instrumentation_engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Instrumentation engineering">Instrumentation engineering</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:F-18E_cockpit_m02006112600499.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/F-18E_cockpit_m02006112600499.jpg/220px-F-18E_cockpit_m02006112600499.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="192" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/F-18E_cockpit_m02006112600499.jpg/330px-F-18E_cockpit_m02006112600499.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/F-18E_cockpit_m02006112600499.jpg/440px-F-18E_cockpit_m02006112600499.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="559" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Flight_instrument" class="mw-redirect" title="Flight instrument">Flight instruments</a> provide pilots with the tools to control aircraft analytically.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Instrumentation_engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Instrumentation engineering">Instrumentation engineering</a> deals with the design of devices to measure physical quantities such as <a href="/wiki/Pressure" title="Pressure">pressure</a>, <a href="/wiki/Volumetric_flow_rate" title="Volumetric flow rate">flow</a>, and temperature.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrantBixley2011159_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrantBixley2011159-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The design of such instruments requires a good understanding of <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a> that often extends beyond <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Electromagnetic theory">electromagnetic theory</a>. For example, <a href="/wiki/Flight_instrument" class="mw-redirect" title="Flight instrument">flight instruments</a> measure variables such as <a href="/wiki/Wind_speed" title="Wind speed">wind speed</a> and altitude to enable pilots the control of aircraft analytically. Similarly, <a href="/wiki/Thermocouple" title="Thermocouple">thermocouples</a> use the <a href="/wiki/Peltier-Seebeck_effect" class="mw-redirect" title="Peltier-Seebeck effect">Peltier-Seebeck effect</a> to measure the temperature difference between two points.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFredlundRahardjoFredlund2012346_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFredlundRahardjoFredlund2012346-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Often instrumentation is not used by itself, but instead as the <a href="/wiki/Sensor" title="Sensor">sensors</a> of larger electrical systems. For example, a thermocouple might be used to help ensure a furnace's temperature remains constant.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For this reason, instrumentation engineering is often viewed as the counterpart of control. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Computers">Computers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrical_engineering&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Computers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Computer_engineering" title="Computer engineering">Computer engineering</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MEGWARE.CLIC.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/MEGWARE.CLIC.jpg/220px-MEGWARE.CLIC.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/MEGWARE.CLIC.jpg/330px-MEGWARE.CLIC.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/MEGWARE.CLIC.jpg/440px-MEGWARE.CLIC.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="543" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Supercomputer" title="Supercomputer">Supercomputers</a> are used in fields as diverse as <a href="/wiki/Computational_biology" title="Computational biology">computational biology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Geographic_information_system" title="Geographic information system">geographic information systems</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Computer engineering deals with the design of computers and <a href="/wiki/Computer_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Computer system">computer systems</a>. This may involve the design of new <a href="/wiki/Computer_hardware" title="Computer hardware">hardware</a>. Computer engineers may also work on a system's software. However, the design of complex software systems is often the domain of software engineering, which is usually considered a separate discipline.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJalote200622_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJalote200622-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Desktop_computer" title="Desktop computer">Desktop computers</a> represent a tiny fraction of the devices a computer engineer might work on, as computer-like architectures are now found in a range of <a href="/wiki/Embedded_device" class="mw-redirect" title="Embedded device">embedded devices</a> including <a href="/wiki/Video_game_console" title="Video game console">video game consoles</a> and <a href="/wiki/DVD_player" title="DVD player">DVD players</a>. Computer engineers are involved in many hardware and software aspects of computing.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Robot" title="Robot">Robots</a> are one of the applications of computer engineering. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Photonics_and_optics">Photonics and optics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrical_engineering&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Photonics and optics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Photonics" title="Photonics">Photonics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Optics" title="Optics">Optics</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Fiber-optic_communication" title="Fiber-optic communication">Fiber-optic communication</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Spectre.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Spectre.svg/280px-Spectre.svg.png" decoding="async" width="280" height="139" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Spectre.svg/420px-Spectre.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Spectre.svg/560px-Spectre.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="744" data-file-height="370" /></a><figcaption>Electromagnetic spectrum showing wavelengths from radio waves (1 km) to gamma rays (0.01 nm). Visible light Information transmission in electrical engineering applications most frequently uses <a href="/wiki/Infrared_light" class="mw-redirect" title="Infrared light">infrared light</a> in the <a href="/wiki/C_band_(infrared)" title="C band (infrared)">C band</a> (1530–1565 nm).</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Photonics" title="Photonics">Photonics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Optics" title="Optics">optics</a> deals with the generation, transmission, amplification, modulation, detection, and analysis of <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiation" title="Electromagnetic radiation">electromagnetic radiation</a>. The application of optics deals with design of optical instruments such as <a href="/wiki/Lens" title="Lens">lenses</a>, <a href="/wiki/Microscope" title="Microscope">microscopes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Telescope" title="Telescope">telescopes</a>, and other equipment that uses the properties of electromagnetic radiation. Other prominent applications of optics include <a href="/wiki/Electro-optical_sensor" title="Electro-optical sensor">electro-optical sensors</a> and measurement systems, <a href="/wiki/Laser" title="Laser">lasers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fiber-optic_communication" title="Fiber-optic communication">fiber-optic communication</a> systems, and optical disc systems (e.g. CD and DVD). Photonics builds heavily on optical technology, supplemented with modern developments such as <a href="/wiki/Optoelectronics" title="Optoelectronics">optoelectronics</a> (mostly involving <a href="/wiki/Semiconductor" title="Semiconductor">semiconductors</a>), laser systems, <a href="/wiki/Optical_amplifier" title="Optical amplifier">optical amplifiers</a> and novel materials (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Metamaterial" title="Metamaterial">metamaterials</a>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Related_disciplines">Related disciplines</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrical_engineering&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Related disciplines"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:VIP_Bird2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/VIP_Bird2.jpg/220px-VIP_Bird2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="237" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/VIP_Bird2.jpg/330px-VIP_Bird2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/VIP_Bird2.jpg/440px-VIP_Bird2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="664" data-file-height="714" /></a><figcaption>The Bird VIP Infant ventilator</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Mechatronics" title="Mechatronics">Mechatronics</a> is an engineering discipline that deals with the convergence of electrical and <a href="/wiki/Machine" title="Machine">mechanical</a> systems. Such combined systems are known as <a href="/wiki/Electromechanical" class="mw-redirect" title="Electromechanical">electromechanical</a> systems and have widespread adoption. Examples include <a href="/wiki/Automation" title="Automation">automated manufacturing systems</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMahalik2003569_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMahalik2003569-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/HVAC" class="mw-redirect" title="HVAC">heating, ventilation and air-conditioning systems</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeondes2000199_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeondes2000199-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and various subsystems of aircraft and <a href="/wiki/Automobile" class="mw-redirect" title="Automobile">automobiles</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShettyKolk201036_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShettyKolk201036-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Electronic systems design</i> is the subject within electrical engineering that deals with the multi-disciplinary design issues of complex electrical and mechanical systems.<sup id="cite_ref-lienig_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lienig-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The term <i>mechatronics</i> is typically used to refer to <a href="/wiki/Macroscopic" class="mw-redirect" title="Macroscopic">macroscopic</a> systems but <a href="/wiki/Futures_studies" title="Futures studies">futurists</a> have predicted the emergence of very small electromechanical devices. Already, such small devices, known as <a href="/wiki/Microelectromechanical_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Microelectromechanical system">microelectromechanical systems</a> (MEMS), are used in automobiles to tell <a href="/wiki/Airbag" title="Airbag">airbags</a> when to deploy,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalufWilliams20043_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalufWilliams20043-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in <a href="/wiki/Digital_projector" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital projector">digital projectors</a> to create sharper images, and in <a href="/wiki/Inkjet_printer" class="mw-redirect" title="Inkjet printer">inkjet printers</a> to create nozzles for high definition printing. In the future it is hoped the devices will help build tiny implantable medical devices and improve <a href="/wiki/Optical_communication" title="Optical communication">optical communication</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIgaKokubun2010137_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIgaKokubun2010137-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Aerospace_engineering" title="Aerospace engineering">aerospace engineering</a> and <a href="/wiki/Robotics" title="Robotics">robotics</a>, an example is the most recent <a href="/wiki/Electric_propulsion" class="mw-redirect" title="Electric propulsion">electric propulsion</a> and ion propulsion. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Education">Education</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrical_engineering&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Education"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Education_and_training_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineers" title="Education and training of electrical and electronics engineers">Education and training of electrical and electronics engineers</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Osciloscopio_locomotora.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Osciloscopio_locomotora.jpg/250px-Osciloscopio_locomotora.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Osciloscopio_locomotora.jpg/375px-Osciloscopio_locomotora.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a6/Osciloscopio_locomotora.jpg 2x" data-file-width="412" data-file-height="271" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Oscilloscope" title="Oscilloscope">Oscilloscope</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Electrical engineers typically possess an <a href="/wiki/Academic_degree" title="Academic degree">academic degree</a> with a major in electrical engineering, <a href="/wiki/Electronics_engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Electronics engineering">electronics engineering</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electrical_engineering_technology" title="Electrical engineering technology">electrical engineering technology</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-BLS3_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BLS3-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or electrical and electronic engineering.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChaturvedi1997253_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChaturvedi1997253-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The same fundamental principles are taught in all programs, though emphasis may vary according to title. The length of study for such a degree is usually four or five years and the completed degree may be designated as a Bachelor of Science in Electrical/Electronics Engineering Technology, <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Engineering" title="Bachelor of Engineering">Bachelor of Engineering</a>, Bachelor of Science, <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Technology" title="Bachelor of Technology">Bachelor of Technology</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Applied_Science" title="Bachelor of Applied Science">Bachelor of Applied Science</a>, depending on the university. The <a href="/wiki/Bachelor%27s_degree" title="Bachelor's degree">bachelor's degree</a> generally includes units covering <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a>, mathematics, <a href="/wiki/Computer_science" title="Computer science">computer science</a>, <a href="/wiki/Project_management" title="Project management">project management</a>, and a <a href="/wiki/List_of_electrical_engineering_topics" class="mw-redirect" title="List of electrical engineering topics">variety of topics in electrical engineering</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Enterprise1986_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Enterprise1986-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Initially such topics cover most, if not all, of the subdisciplines of electrical engineering. At some schools, the students can then choose to emphasize one or more subdisciplines towards the end of their courses of study. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:LM317_typical_schematic.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/LM317_typical_schematic.svg/220px-LM317_typical_schematic.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="93" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/LM317_typical_schematic.svg/330px-LM317_typical_schematic.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/LM317_typical_schematic.svg/440px-LM317_typical_schematic.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="577" data-file-height="245" /></a><figcaption>An example <a href="/wiki/Circuit_diagram" title="Circuit diagram">circuit diagram</a>, which is useful in <a href="/wiki/Circuit_design" title="Circuit design">circuit design</a> and <a href="/wiki/Troubleshooting" title="Troubleshooting">troubleshooting</a> </figcaption></figure> <p>At many schools, electronic engineering is included as part of an electrical award, sometimes explicitly, such as a Bachelor of Engineering (Electrical and Electronic), but in others, electrical and electronic engineering are both considered to be sufficiently broad and complex that separate degrees are offered.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some electrical engineers choose to study for a postgraduate degree such as a <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Engineering" title="Master of Engineering">Master of Engineering</a>/Master of Science (MEng/MSc), a Master of <a href="/wiki/Engineering_Management" class="mw-redirect" title="Engineering Management">Engineering Management</a>, a Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) in Engineering, an <a href="/wiki/Engineering_Doctorate" class="mw-redirect" title="Engineering Doctorate">Engineering Doctorate</a> (Eng.D.), or an <a href="/wiki/Engineer%27s_degree" title="Engineer's degree">Engineer's degree</a>. The master's and engineer's degrees may consist of either research, <a href="/wiki/Coursework" title="Coursework">coursework</a> or a mixture of the two. The Doctor of Philosophy and Engineering Doctorate degrees consist of a significant research component and are often viewed as the entry point to <a href="/wiki/Academia" class="mw-redirect" title="Academia">academia</a>. In the United Kingdom and some other European countries, Master of Engineering is often considered to be an undergraduate degree of slightly longer duration than the Bachelor of Engineering rather than a standalone postgraduate degree.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Professional_practice">Professional practice</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrical_engineering&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Professional practice"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Belgium._Belgian_electrical_engineers_Georges_Jean_L._Van_Antro,_left,_Georges_H._Marchal,_center,_and_Jacques_de..._-_NARA_-_541661.tif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Belgium._Belgian_electrical_engineers_Georges_Jean_L._Van_Antro%2C_left%2C_Georges_H._Marchal%2C_center%2C_and_Jacques_de..._-_NARA_-_541661.tif/lossy-page1-220px-Belgium._Belgian_electrical_engineers_Georges_Jean_L._Van_Antro%2C_left%2C_Georges_H._Marchal%2C_center%2C_and_Jacques_de..._-_NARA_-_541661.tif.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="184" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Belgium._Belgian_electrical_engineers_Georges_Jean_L._Van_Antro%2C_left%2C_Georges_H._Marchal%2C_center%2C_and_Jacques_de..._-_NARA_-_541661.tif/lossy-page1-330px-Belgium._Belgian_electrical_engineers_Georges_Jean_L._Van_Antro%2C_left%2C_Georges_H._Marchal%2C_center%2C_and_Jacques_de..._-_NARA_-_541661.tif.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Belgium._Belgian_electrical_engineers_Georges_Jean_L._Van_Antro%2C_left%2C_Georges_H._Marchal%2C_center%2C_and_Jacques_de..._-_NARA_-_541661.tif/lossy-page1-440px-Belgium._Belgian_electrical_engineers_Georges_Jean_L._Van_Antro%2C_left%2C_Georges_H._Marchal%2C_center%2C_and_Jacques_de..._-_NARA_-_541661.tif.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1675" /></a><figcaption>Belgian electrical engineers inspecting the rotor of a 40,000 kilowatt <a href="/wiki/Turbine" title="Turbine">turbine</a> of the <a href="/wiki/General_Electric_Company" title="General Electric Company">General Electric Company</a> in New York City</figcaption></figure> <p>In most countries, a bachelor's degree in engineering represents the first step towards <a href="/wiki/Professional_certification" title="Professional certification">professional certification</a> and the degree program itself is certified by a <a href="/wiki/Professional_body" class="mw-redirect" title="Professional body">professional body</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Labor2008_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Labor2008-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After completing a certified degree program the engineer must satisfy a range of requirements (including work experience requirements) before being certified. Once certified the engineer is designated the title of <a href="/wiki/Professional_Engineer" class="mw-redirect" title="Professional Engineer">Professional Engineer</a> (in the United States, Canada and South Africa), <a href="/wiki/Chartered_engineer" class="mw-redirect" title="Chartered engineer">Chartered engineer</a> or <a href="/wiki/Incorporated_Engineer" class="mw-redirect" title="Incorporated Engineer">Incorporated Engineer</a> (in India, Pakistan, the United Kingdom, Ireland and <a href="/wiki/Zimbabwe" title="Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a>), Chartered Professional Engineer (in Australia and New Zealand) or <a href="/wiki/European_Engineer" title="European Engineer">European Engineer</a> (in much of the <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a>). </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:3_Park_Avenue.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/3_Park_Avenue.JPG/220px-3_Park_Avenue.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="298" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/3_Park_Avenue.JPG/330px-3_Park_Avenue.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/3_Park_Avenue.JPG/440px-3_Park_Avenue.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1799" data-file-height="2435" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/IEEE" class="mw-redirect" title="IEEE">IEEE</a> corporate office is on the 17th floor of <a href="/wiki/3_Park_Avenue" title="3 Park Avenue">3 Park Avenue</a> in New York City.</figcaption></figure> <p>The advantages of licensure vary depending upon location. For example, in the United States and Canada "only a licensed engineer may seal engineering work for public and private clients".<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This requirement is enforced by state and provincial legislation such as <a href="/wiki/Quebec" title="Quebec">Quebec</a>'s Engineers Act.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In other countries, no such legislation exists. Practically all certifying bodies maintain a <a href="/wiki/Ethical_code" title="Ethical code">code of ethics</a> that they expect all members to abide by or risk expulsion.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this way these organizations play an important role in maintaining ethical standards for the profession. Even in jurisdictions where certification has little or no legal bearing on work, engineers are subject to <a href="/wiki/Contract_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Contract law">contract law</a>. In cases where an engineer's work fails he or she may be subject to the <a href="/wiki/Tort_of_negligence" class="mw-redirect" title="Tort of negligence">tort of negligence</a> and, in extreme cases, the charge of <a href="/wiki/Criminal_negligence" title="Criminal negligence">criminal negligence</a>. An engineer's work must also comply with numerous other rules and regulations, such as <a href="/wiki/Building_code" title="Building code">building codes</a> and legislation pertaining to <a href="/wiki/Environmental_law" title="Environmental law">environmental law</a>. </p><p>Professional bodies of note for electrical engineers include the <a href="/wiki/Institute_of_Electrical_and_Electronics_Engineers" title="Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers">Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers</a> (IEEE) and the <a href="/wiki/Institution_of_Engineering_and_Technology" title="Institution of Engineering and Technology">Institution of Engineering and Technology</a> (IET). The IEEE claims to produce 30% of the world's literature in electrical engineering, has over 360,000 members worldwide and holds over 3,000 conferences annually.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The IET publishes 21 journals, has a worldwide membership of over 150,000, and claims to be the largest professional engineering society in Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Obsolescence of technical skills is a serious concern for electrical engineers. Membership and participation in technical societies, regular reviews of periodicals in the field and a habit of continued learning are therefore essential to maintaining proficiency. An MIET(Member of the Institution of Engineering and Technology) is recognised in Europe as an Electrical and computer (technology) engineer.<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In Australia, Canada, and the United States, electrical engineers make up around 0.25% of the labor force.<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Tools_and_work">Tools and work</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrical_engineering&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Tools and work"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>From the <a href="/wiki/Global_Positioning_System" title="Global Positioning System">Global Positioning System</a> to <a href="/wiki/Electric_power_generation" class="mw-redirect" title="Electric power generation">electric power generation</a>, electrical engineers have contributed to the development of a wide range of technologies. They design, develop, test, and supervise the deployment of electrical systems and electronic devices. For example, they may work on the design of telecommunications systems, the operation of <a href="/wiki/Electric_power_station" class="mw-redirect" title="Electric power station">electric power stations</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Lighting" title="Lighting">lighting</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wiring" class="mw-redirect" title="Wiring">wiring</a> of buildings, the design of <a href="/wiki/Household_appliance" class="mw-redirect" title="Household appliance">household appliances</a>, or the electrical <a href="/wiki/Control_theory" title="Control theory">control</a> of industrial machinery.<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Molnya-1_Musee_du_Bourget_P1010442.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Molnya-1_Musee_du_Bourget_P1010442.jpg/220px-Molnya-1_Musee_du_Bourget_P1010442.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Molnya-1_Musee_du_Bourget_P1010442.jpg/330px-Molnya-1_Musee_du_Bourget_P1010442.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Molnya-1_Musee_du_Bourget_P1010442.jpg/440px-Molnya-1_Musee_du_Bourget_P1010442.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Communications_satellite" title="Communications satellite">Satellite communications</a> is typical of what electrical engineers work on.</figcaption></figure> <p>Fundamental to the discipline are the sciences of <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a> and mathematics as these help to obtain both a <a href="/wiki/Qualitative_data" class="mw-redirect" title="Qualitative data">qualitative</a> and <a href="/wiki/Quantity" title="Quantity">quantitative</a> description of how such systems will work. Today most engineering work involves the use of <a href="/wiki/Computer" title="Computer">computers</a> and it is commonplace to use <a href="/wiki/Computer-aided_design" title="Computer-aided design">computer-aided design</a> programs when designing electrical systems. Nevertheless, the ability to sketch ideas is still invaluable for quickly communicating with others. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Shadow_Hand_Bulb_large.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Shadow_Hand_Bulb_large.jpg/220px-Shadow_Hand_Bulb_large.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Shadow_Hand_Bulb_large.jpg/330px-Shadow_Hand_Bulb_large.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Shadow_Hand_Bulb_large.jpg/440px-Shadow_Hand_Bulb_large.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2560" data-file-height="3840" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Shadow_Hand" title="Shadow Hand">Shadow robot hand</a> system</figcaption></figure> <p>Although most electrical engineers will understand basic <a href="/wiki/Circuit_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Circuit theory">circuit theory</a> (that is, the interactions of elements such as <a href="/wiki/Resistor" title="Resistor">resistors</a>, <a href="/wiki/Capacitor" title="Capacitor">capacitors</a>, <a href="/wiki/Diode" title="Diode">diodes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Transistor" title="Transistor">transistors</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Inductor" title="Inductor">inductors</a> in a circuit), the theories employed by engineers generally depend upon the work they do. For example, <a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">quantum mechanics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Solid_state_physics" class="mw-redirect" title="Solid state physics">solid state physics</a> might be relevant to an engineer working on <a href="/wiki/VLSI" class="mw-redirect" title="VLSI">VLSI</a> (the design of integrated circuits), but are largely irrelevant to engineers working with macroscopic electrical systems. Even <a href="/wiki/Circuit_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Circuit theory">circuit theory</a> may not be relevant to a person designing telecommunications systems that use <a href="/wiki/Commercial_off-the-shelf" title="Commercial off-the-shelf">off-the-shelf</a> components. Perhaps the most important technical skills for electrical engineers are reflected in university programs, which emphasize <a href="/wiki/Numeracy" title="Numeracy">strong numerical skills</a>, <a href="/wiki/Computer_literacy" title="Computer literacy">computer literacy</a>, and the ability to understand the <a href="/wiki/Technical_terminology" class="mw-redirect" title="Technical terminology">technical language and concepts</a> that relate to electrical engineering.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylor2008241_109-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor2008241-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Laser_in_fibre.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Laser_in_fibre.jpg/220px-Laser_in_fibre.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Laser_in_fibre.jpg/330px-Laser_in_fibre.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Laser_in_fibre.jpg/440px-Laser_in_fibre.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2560" data-file-height="1920" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Laser" title="Laser">laser</a> bouncing down an <a href="/wiki/Poly(methyl_methacrylate)" title="Poly(methyl methacrylate)">acrylic</a> rod, illustrating the total internal reflection of light in a <a href="/wiki/Multi-mode_optical_fiber" title="Multi-mode optical fiber">multi-mode optical fiber</a></figcaption></figure> <p>A wide range of instrumentation is used by electrical engineers. For simple control circuits and alarms, a basic <a href="/wiki/Multimeter" title="Multimeter">multimeter</a> measuring <a href="/wiki/Voltage" title="Voltage">voltage</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electric_current" title="Electric current">current</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Electrical_resistance" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical resistance">resistance</a> may suffice. Where time-varying signals need to be studied, the <a href="/wiki/Oscilloscope" title="Oscilloscope">oscilloscope</a> is also an ubiquitous instrument. In <a href="/wiki/RF_engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="RF engineering">RF engineering</a> and high-frequency telecommunications, <a href="/wiki/Spectrum_analyzer" title="Spectrum analyzer">spectrum analyzers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Network_analyzer_(electrical)" title="Network analyzer (electrical)">network analyzers</a> are used. In some disciplines, safety can be a particular concern with instrumentation. For instance, medical electronics designers must take into account that much lower voltages than normal can be dangerous when electrodes are directly in contact with internal body fluids.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeitgeb2010122_110-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeitgeb2010122-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Power transmission engineering also has great safety concerns due to the high voltages used; although <a href="/wiki/Voltmeter" title="Voltmeter">voltmeters</a> may in principle be similar to their low voltage equivalents, safety and calibration issues make them very different.<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many disciplines of electrical engineering use tests specific to their discipline. Audio electronics engineers use <a href="/wiki/Audio_system_measurements" title="Audio system measurements">audio test sets</a> consisting of a signal generator and a meter, principally to measure level but also other parameters such as <a href="/wiki/Harmonic_distortion" class="mw-redirect" title="Harmonic distortion">harmonic distortion</a> and <a href="/wiki/Noise_(electronics)" title="Noise (electronics)">noise</a>. Likewise, information technology have their own test sets, often specific to a particular data format, and the same is true of television broadcasting. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Navy-Radome.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Navy-Radome.jpg/260px-Navy-Radome.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="168" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Navy-Radome.jpg/390px-Navy-Radome.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Navy-Radome.jpg/520px-Navy-Radome.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2500" data-file-height="1618" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Radome" title="Radome">Radome</a> at the Misawa Air Base Misawa Security Operations Center, Misawa, Japan</figcaption></figure> <p>For many engineers, technical work accounts for only a fraction of the work they do. A lot of time may also be spent on tasks such as discussing proposals with clients, preparing <a href="/wiki/Budget" title="Budget">budgets</a> and determining <a href="/wiki/Schedule_(project_management)" title="Schedule (project management)">project schedules</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many senior engineers manage a team of <a href="/wiki/Technician" title="Technician">technicians</a> or other engineers and for this reason <a href="/wiki/Project_management" title="Project management">project management</a> skills are important. Most engineering projects involve some form of documentation and <a href="/wiki/Technical_writing" title="Technical writing">strong written communication</a> skills are therefore very important. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Office" title="Office">workplaces</a> of engineers are just as varied as the types of work they do. Electrical engineers may be found in the pristine lab environment of a <a href="/wiki/Fabrication_plant" class="mw-redirect" title="Fabrication plant">fabrication plant</a>, on board a <a href="/wiki/Naval_ship" title="Naval ship">Naval ship</a>, the offices of a <a href="/wiki/Consulting_firm" title="Consulting firm">consulting firm</a> or on site at a mine. During their working life, electrical engineers may find themselves supervising a wide range of individuals including scientists, <a href="/wiki/Electrician" title="Electrician">electricians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Computer_programmer" class="mw-redirect" title="Computer programmer">computer programmers</a>, and other engineers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcDavidEchaore-McDavid200987_113-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcDavidEchaore-McDavid200987-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Electrical engineering has an intimate relationship with the physical sciences. For instance, the physicist <a href="/wiki/Lord_Kelvin" title="Lord Kelvin">Lord Kelvin</a> played a major role in the engineering of the first <a href="/wiki/Transatlantic_telegraph_cable" title="Transatlantic telegraph cable">transatlantic telegraph cable</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Conversely, the engineer <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Heaviside" title="Oliver Heaviside">Oliver Heaviside</a> produced major work on the mathematics of transmission on telegraph cables.<sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Electrical engineers are often required on major science projects. For instance, large <a href="/wiki/Particle_accelerator" title="Particle accelerator">particle accelerators</a> such as <a href="/wiki/CERN" title="CERN">CERN</a> need electrical engineers to deal with many aspects of the project including the power distribution, the instrumentation, and the manufacture and installation of the <a href="/wiki/Superconducting_electromagnet" class="mw-redirect" title="Superconducting electromagnet">superconducting electromagnets</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrical_engineering&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Nuvola_apps_ksim.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Nuvola_apps_ksim.png/28px-Nuvola_apps_ksim.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Nuvola_apps_ksim.png/42px-Nuvola_apps_ksim.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Nuvola_apps_ksim.png/56px-Nuvola_apps_ksim.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Electronics" title="Portal:Electronics">Electronics portal</a></span></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Nuvola_apps_kcmsystem.svg" 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ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 25em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barnacle_(slang)" title="Barnacle (slang)">Barnacle (slang)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_EDA_software" title="Comparison of EDA software">Comparison of EDA software</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_Technologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical Technologist">Electrical Technologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_design_automation" title="Electronic design automation">Electronic design automation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering" title="Glossary of electrical and electronics engineering">Glossary of electrical and electronics engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_electrical_engineering_articles" title="Index of electrical engineering articles">Index of electrical engineering articles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_engineering" title="Information engineering">Information engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Electrotechnical_Commission" title="International Electrotechnical Commission">International Electrotechnical Commission</a> (IEC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_electrical_engineers" title="List of electrical engineers">List of electrical engineers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_engineering_branches" title="List of engineering branches">List of engineering branches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mechanical,_electrical_and_electronic_equipment_manufacturing_companies_by_revenue" class="mw-redirect" title="List of mechanical, electrical and electronic equipment manufacturing companies by revenue">List of mechanical, electrical and electronic equipment manufacturing companies by revenue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Russian_electrical_engineers" title="List of Russian electrical engineers">List of Russian electrical engineers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupations_in_electrical/electronics_engineering" title="Occupations in electrical/electronics engineering">Occupations in electrical/electronics engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_electrical_engineering" title="Outline of electrical engineering">Outline of electrical engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronic_engineering" title="Timeline of electrical and electronic engineering">Timeline of electrical and electronic engineering</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrical_engineering&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For more see <a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering" title="Glossary of electrical and electronics engineering">glossary of electrical and electronics engineering</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">In May 2014 there were around 175,000 people working as electrical engineers in the US.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2012, Australia had around 19,000<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while in Canada, there were around 37,000 (as of 2007<sup class="plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update" style="display:none;"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Electrical_engineering&action=edit">[update]</a></sup>), constituting about 0.2% of the labour force in each of the three countries. Australia and Canada reported that 96% and 88% of their electrical engineers respectively are male.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrical_engineering&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMartinsenGrimnes2011411-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMartinsenGrimnes2011411_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMartinsenGrimnes2011">Martinsen & Grimnes 2011</a>, p. 411.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://libraries.mit.edu/collections/vail-collection/topics/electricity/the-voltaic-pile/">"The Voltaic Pile | Distinctive Collections Spotlights"</a>. <i>libraries.mit.edu</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 December</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=libraries.mit.edu&rft.atitle=The+Voltaic+Pile+%7C+Distinctive+Collections+Spotlights&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flibraries.mit.edu%2Fcollections%2Fvail-collection%2Ftopics%2Felectricity%2Fthe-voltaic-pile%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectrical+engineering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELambourne201011-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELambourne201011_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLambourne2010">Lambourne 2010</a>, p. 11.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ethw.org/Francesc_Salv%C3%A0_i_Campillo">"Francesc Salvà i Campillo : Biography"</a>. <i>ethw.org</i>. 25 January 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Introduction"</a>. <q>Using these discoveries a number of inventors or rather 'adapters' appeared, taking this new knowledge, transforming it into useful ideas with commercial utility; the first of these 'products' was the use of electricity to transmit information between distant points, the electric telegraph.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Distant+Writing%3A+A+History+of+the+Telegraph+Companies+in+Britain+between+1838+and+1868%3A+2.+Introduction&rft.aulast=Roberts&rft.aufirst=Steven&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdistantwriting.co.uk%2Fintroduction.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectrical+engineering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRonalds2016" class="citation book cs1">Ronalds, B.F. 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MAA. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780883855706" title="Special:BookSources/9780883855706"><bdi>9780883855706</bdi></a> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mathematics+in+Historical+Context&rft.pub=MAA&rft.date=2009-08-27&rft.isbn=9780883855706&rft.aulast=Suzuki&rft.aufirst=Jeff&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dlew5IC5piCwC%26q%3Dtheoretical%2520%2520alternating%2520current%2520%2520Charles%2520Steinmetz%26pg%3DPA329&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectrical+engineering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESeversLeise2011145-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeversLeise2011145_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSeversLeise2011">Severs & Leise 2011</a>, p. 145.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1909/marconi-bio.html">Marconi's biography at Nobelprize.org</a> retrieved 21 June 2008.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ethw.org/Milestones:First_Millimeter-wave_Communication_Experiments_by_J.C._Bose,_1894-96">"Milestones: First Millimeter-wave Communication Experiments by J.C. Bose, 1894–96"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/List_of_IEEE_milestones" class="mw-redirect" title="List of IEEE milestones">List of IEEE milestones</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/Institute_of_Electrical_and_Electronics_Engineers" title="Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers">Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 October</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=List+of+IEEE+milestones&rft.atitle=Milestones%3A+First+Millimeter-wave+Communication+Experiments+by+J.C.+Bose%2C+1894%E2%80%9396&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fethw.org%2FMilestones%3AFirst_Millimeter-wave_Communication_Experiments_by_J.C._Bose%2C_1894-96&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectrical+engineering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-emerson-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-emerson_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEmerson1997" class="citation book cs1">Emerson, D. T. (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=09Zsv97IH1MC&pg=PA88">"The work of Jagadis Chandra Bose: 100 years of mm-wave research"</a>. <i>1997 IEEE MTT-S International Microwave Symposium Digest</i>. Vol. 45. IEEE Transactions on Microwave Theory and Research. pp. 2267–2273. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1997imsd.conf..553E">1997imsd.conf..553E</a>. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.39.8748">10.1.1.39.8748</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1109%2FMWSYM.1997.602853">10.1109/MWSYM.1997.602853</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780986488511" title="Special:BookSources/9780986488511"><bdi>9780986488511</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:9039614">9039614</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+work+of+Jagadis+Chandra+Bose%3A+100+years+of+mm-wave+research&rft.btitle=1997+IEEE+MTT-S+International+Microwave+Symposium+Digest&rft.pages=2267-2273&rft.pub=IEEE+Transactions+on+Microwave+Theory+and+Research&rft.date=1997&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A9039614%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1997imsd.conf..553E&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.39.8748%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2FMWSYM.1997.602853&rft.isbn=9780986488511&rft.aulast=Emerson&rft.aufirst=D.+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D09Zsv97IH1MC%26pg%3DPA88&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectrical+engineering" class="Z3988"></span> reprinted in Igor Grigorov, Ed., <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=09Zsv97IH1MC">Antentop</a></i>, Vol. 2, No.3, pp. 87–96.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-computerhistory-timeline-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-computerhistory-timeline_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.computerhistory.org/siliconengine/timeline/">"Timeline"</a>. <i>The Silicon Engine</i>. <a href="/wiki/Computer_History_Museum" title="Computer History Museum">Computer History Museum</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 August</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Silicon+Engine&rft.atitle=Timeline&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.computerhistory.org%2Fsiliconengine%2Ftimeline%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectrical+engineering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-computerhistory-1901-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-computerhistory-1901_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.computerhistory.org/siliconengine/semiconductor-rectifiers-patented-as-cats-whisker-detectors/">"1901: Semiconductor Rectifiers Patented as "Cat's Whisker" Detectors"</a>. <i>The Silicon Engine</i>. <a href="/wiki/Computer_History_Museum" title="Computer History Museum">Computer History Museum</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 August</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Silicon+Engine&rft.atitle=1901%3A+Semiconductor+Rectifiers+Patented+as+%22Cat%27s+Whisker%22+Detectors&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.computerhistory.org%2Fsiliconengine%2Fsemiconductor-rectifiers-patented-as-cats-whisker-detectors%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectrical+engineering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbramson195522-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbramson195522_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAbramson1955">Abramson 1955</a>, p. 22.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuurdeman2003226-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHuurdeman2003226_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHuurdeman2003">Huurdeman 2003</a>, p. 226.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20020602014513/http://www.ieee.org/organizations/history_center/legacies/hull.html">"Albert W. Hull (1880–1966)"</a>. <i>IEEE History Center</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ieee.org/organizations/history_center/legacies/hull.html">the original</a> on 2 June 2002<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 January</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=IEEE+History+Center&rft.atitle=Albert+W.+Hull+%281880%E2%80%931966%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ieee.org%2Forganizations%2Fhistory_center%2Flegacies%2Fhull.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectrical+engineering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gallawa.com/microtech/history.html">"Who Invented Microwaves?"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 January</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Who+Invented+Microwaves%3F&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gallawa.com%2Fmicrotech%2Fhistory.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectrical+engineering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.penleyradararchives.org.uk/history/introduction.htm">"Early Radar History"</a>. <i>Peneley Radar Archives</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 January</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Peneley+Radar+Archives&rft.atitle=Early+Radar+History&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.penleyradararchives.org.uk%2Fhistory%2Fintroduction.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectrical+engineering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRojas2002" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Rojas, Raúl (2002). "The history of Konrad Zuse's early computing machines". In Rojas, Raúl; Hashagen, Ulf (eds.). <i>The First Computers—History and Architectures History of Computing</i>. MIT Press. p. 237. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-68137-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-262-68137-7"><bdi>978-0-262-68137-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+history+of+Konrad+Zuse%27s+early+computing+machines&rft.btitle=The+First+Computers%E2%80%94History+and+Architectures+History+of+Computing&rft.pages=237&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-262-68137-7&rft.aulast=Rojas&rft.aufirst=Ra%C3%BAl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectrical+engineering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSale2002" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Sale, Anthony E. 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During the 1970s these components revolutionized electronic signal processing, control systems and computers.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Power+MOSFETS%3A+theory+and+applications&rft.pages=1&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=9780471828679&rft.aulast=Grant&rft.aufirst=Duncan+Andrew&rft.au=Gowar%2C+John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZiZTAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectrical+engineering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Golio-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Golio_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGolioGolio2018" class="citation book cs1">Golio, Mike; Golio, Janet (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MCj9jxSVQKIC&pg=SA18-PA2"><i>RF and Microwave Passive and Active Technologies</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/CRC_Press" title="CRC Press">CRC Press</a>. pp. 18–2. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781420006728" title="Special:BookSources/9781420006728"><bdi>9781420006728</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=RF+and+Microwave+Passive+and+Active+Technologies&rft.pages=18-2&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=9781420006728&rft.aulast=Golio&rft.aufirst=Mike&rft.au=Golio%2C+Janet&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DMCj9jxSVQKIC%26pg%3DSA18-PA2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectrical+engineering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-computerhistory2018-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-computerhistory2018_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.computerhistory.org/atchm/13-sextillion-counting-the-long-winding-road-to-the-most-frequently-manufactured-human-artifact-in-history/">"13 Sextillion & Counting: The Long & Winding Road to the Most Frequently Manufactured Human Artifact in History"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Computer_History_Museum" title="Computer History Museum">Computer History Museum</a></i>. 2 April 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 March</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=FAQs+%E2%80%93+Studying+Electrical+Engineering&rft.atitle=What+is+the+difference+between+electrical+and+electronic+engineering%3F&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ieee.org%2Fportal%2Fsite%2Fmainsite%2Fmenuitem.818c0c39e85ef176fb2275875bac26c8%2Findex.jsp%3F%26pName%3Dcorp_level1%26path%3Deducation%2Ffaqs%26file%3Dfaqs1.xml%26xsl%3Dgeneric.xsl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectrical+engineering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Enterprise1986-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Enterprise1986_93-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uVHbRM6mU9gC&pg=PA97"><i>Computerworld</i></a>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 December</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Electrical+and+Electronic+Engineering&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.flinders.edu.au%2Fscience_engineering%2Fcsem%2Fdisciplines%2Feee%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectrical+engineering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Various including graduate degree requirements <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.eecs.mit.edu/grad/degrees.html">at MIT</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060116055044/http://www.eecs.mit.edu/grad/degrees.html">Archived</a> 16 January 2006 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, study guide <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ecm.uwa.edu.au/students/study-guides-2012/be-elec-mech">at UWA</a>, the curriculum <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.queensu.ca/calendars/appsci/pg219.html">at Queen's</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120804025330/http://www.queensu.ca/calendars/appsci/pg219.html">Archived</a> 4 August 2012 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> and unit tables <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.abdn.ac.uk/registry/calendar/requirements/07H50116.doc">at Aberdeen</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060822115131/http://www.abdn.ac.uk/registry/calendar/requirements/07H50116.doc">Archived</a> 22 August 2006 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Labor2008-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Labor2008_96-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/occupationaloutl00usde_2"><i>Occupational Outlook Handbook, 2008–2009</i></a></span>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 July</span> 2005</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Occupational+Outlook+Handbook&rft.atitle=Electrical+and+Electronics+Engineers%2C+except+Computer&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bls.gov%2Foco%2Focos031.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectrical+engineering" class="Z3988"></span> (see <a href="/wiki/Work_of_the_United_States_Government" class="mw-redirect" title="Work of the United States Government">here</a> regarding copyright)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bls.gov/oes/current/oes172071.htm">"Electrical Engineers"</a>. <i>www.bls.gov</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 November</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.liveinvictoria.vic.gov.au&rft.atitle=Electrical+Engineer+Career+Information+for+Migrants+%7C+Victoria%2C+Australia&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.liveinvictoria.vic.gov.au%2Fworking-and-employment%2Foccupations%2Felectrical-engineer&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectrical+engineering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060219092732/http://www.bls.gov/oco/ocos027.htm">"Electrical Engineers"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Labor_Statistics" title="Bureau of Labor Statistics">Bureau of Labor Statistics</a>. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://joboutlook.gov.au/Pages/occupation.aspx?search=alpha&tab=prospects&cluster=&code=2333">the original</a> on 23 October 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 March</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Australian+Careers&rft.atitle=Electrical+and+Electronics+Engineers&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjoboutlook.gov.au%2FPages%2Foccupation.aspx%3Fsearch%3Dalpha%26tab%3Dprospects%26cluster%3D%26code%3D2333&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectrical+engineering" class="Z3988"></span> and <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090306165318/http://www.jobfutures.ca/noc/2133p1.shtml">"Electrical and Electronics Engineers"</a>. Canadian jobs service. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jobfutures.ca/noc/2133p1.shtml">the original</a> on 6 March 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 March</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Electrical+and+Electronics+Engineers&rft.pub=Canadian+jobs+service&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jobfutures.ca%2Fnoc%2F2133p1.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectrical+engineering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050713014728/http://www.bls.gov/oco/ocos031.htm">"Electrical and Electronics Engineers, except Computer"</a>. <i>Occupational Outlook Handbook</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bls.gov/oco/ocos031.htm">the original</a> on 13 July 2005<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 July</span> 2005</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Occupational+Outlook+Handbook&rft.atitle=Electrical+and+Electronics+Engineers%2C+except+Computer&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bls.gov%2Foco%2Focos031.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectrical+engineering" class="Z3988"></span> (see )</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor2008241-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylor2008241_109-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTaylor2008">Taylor 2008</a>, p. 241.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELeitgeb2010122-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeitgeb2010122_110-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLeitgeb2010">Leitgeb 2010</a>, p. 122.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNaiduKamaraju2009">Naidu & Kamaraju 2009</a>, p. 210</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTrevelyan2005" class="citation web cs1">Trevelyan, James (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mech.uwa.edu.au/jpt/Engineering%20Roles%20050503.pdf">"What Do Engineers Really Do?"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. University of Western Australia.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=What+Do+Engineers+Really+Do%3F&rft.pub=University+of+Western+Australia&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Trevelyan&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mech.uwa.edu.au%2Fjpt%2FEngineering%2520Roles%2520050503.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectrical+engineering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcDavidEchaore-McDavid200987-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcDavidEchaore-McDavid200987_113-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMcDavidEchaore-McDavid2009">McDavid & Echaore-McDavid 2009</a>, p. 87.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Huurdeman, pp. 95–96</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Huurdeman, p. 90</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Schmidt, p. 218</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Martini, p. 179</span> </li> </ol></div> <dl><dt>Bibliography</dt></dl> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbramson1955" class="citation book cs1">Abramson, Albert (1955). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gu88XUOqyK8C&pg=PA22"><i>Electronic Motion Pictures: A History of the Television Camera</i></a>. 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Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7923-4386-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7923-4386-8"><bdi>978-0-7923-4386-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Micro%2FNanotribology+and+Its+Applications&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-7923-4386-8&rft.aulast=Bhushan&rft.aufirst=Bharat&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAxxMzLZlu-kC%26pg%3DPA581&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectrical+engineering" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBissell1996" class="citation book cs1">Bissell, Chris (25 July 1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xc0fU7fh0wkC&pg=PA17"><i>Control Engineering, 2nd Edition</i></a>. CRC Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-412-57710-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-412-57710-9"><bdi>978-0-412-57710-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Control+Engineering%2C+2nd+Edition&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=1996-07-25&rft.isbn=978-0-412-57710-9&rft.aulast=Bissell&rft.aufirst=Chris&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dxc0fU7fh0wkC%26pg%3DPA17&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectrical+engineering" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChandrasekhar2006" class="citation book cs1">Chandrasekhar, Thomas (1 December 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=UbZgOTSnkg4C&pg=PR21"><i>Analog Communication (Jntu)</i></a>. Tata McGraw-Hill Education. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-07-064770-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-07-064770-1"><bdi>978-0-07-064770-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Analog+Communication+%28Jntu%29&rft.pub=Tata+McGraw-Hill+Education&rft.date=2006-12-01&rft.isbn=978-0-07-064770-1&rft.aulast=Chandrasekhar&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUbZgOTSnkg4C%26pg%3DPR21&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectrical+engineering" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChaturvedi1997" class="citation book cs1">Chaturvedi, Pradeep (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YEQBQ4CS31sC&pg=PA253"><i>Sustainable Energy Supply in Asia: Proceedings of the International Conference, Asia Energy Vision 2020, Organised by the Indian Member Committee, World Energy Council Under the Institution of Engineers (India), During November 15–17, 1996 at New Delhi</i></a>. Concept Publishing Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-7022-631-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-7022-631-4"><bdi>978-81-7022-631-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sustainable+Energy+Supply+in+Asia%3A+Proceedings+of+the+International+Conference%2C+Asia+Energy+Vision+2020%2C+Organised+by+the+Indian+Member+Committee%2C+World+Energy+Council+Under+the+Institution+of+Engineers+%28India%29%2C+During+November+15%E2%80%9317%2C+1996+at+New+Delhi&rft.pub=Concept+Publishing+Company&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-81-7022-631-4&rft.aulast=Chaturvedi&rft.aufirst=Pradeep&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYEQBQ4CS31sC%26pg%3DPA253&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectrical+engineering" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDoddsKumarVeering2014" class="citation book cs1">Dodds, Christopher; Kumar, Chandra; Veering, Bernadette (March 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7pByAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA275"><i>Oxford Textbook of Anaesthesia for the Elderly Patient</i></a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-960499-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-960499-9"><bdi>978-0-19-960499-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Oxford+Textbook+of+Anaesthesia+for+the+Elderly+Patient&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2014-03&rft.isbn=978-0-19-960499-9&rft.aulast=Dodds&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rft.au=Kumar%2C+Chandra&rft.au=Veering%2C+Bernadette&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7pByAgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA275&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectrical+engineering" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFairman1998" class="citation book cs1">Fairman, Frederick Walker (11 June 1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kZQ9x0WQa_IC&pg=PA119"><i>Linear Control Theory: The State Space Approach</i></a>. John Wiley & Sons. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471-97489-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-471-97489-5"><bdi>978-0-471-97489-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Linear+Control+Theory%3A+The+State+Space+Approach&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=1998-06-11&rft.isbn=978-0-471-97489-5&rft.aulast=Fairman&rft.aufirst=Frederick+Walker&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkZQ9x0WQa_IC%26pg%3DPA119&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectrical+engineering" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFredlundRahardjoFredlund2012" class="citation book cs1">Fredlund, D. G.; Rahardjo, H.; Fredlund, M. D. 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Wiley. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-118-28050-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-118-28050-8"><bdi>978-1-118-28050-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Unsaturated+Soil+Mechanics+in+Engineering+Practice&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=2012-07-30&rft.isbn=978-1-118-28050-8&rft.aulast=Fredlund&rft.aufirst=D.+G.&rft.au=Rahardjo%2C+H.&rft.au=Fredlund%2C+M.+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DzShHAAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT346&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectrical+engineering" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrantBixley2011" class="citation book cs1">Grant, Malcolm Alister; Bixley, Paul F (1 April 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wjEjrFnAofUC&pg=PA159"><i>Geothermal Reservoir Engineering</i></a>. 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CRC Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4398-5628-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4398-5628-4"><bdi>978-1-4398-5628-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Electric+Power+Generation%2C+Transmission%2C+and+Distribution%2C+Third+Edition&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2012-05-16&rft.isbn=978-1-4398-5628-4&rft.aulast=Grigsby&rft.aufirst=Leonard+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLHnwSThYS-YC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectrical+engineering" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeertjePerlman1990" class="citation book cs1">Heertje, Arnold; Perlman, Mark (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=eNy6AAAAIAAJ"><i>Evolving technology and market structure: studies in Schumpeterian economics</i></a>. University of Michigan Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-472-10192-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-472-10192-4"><bdi>978-0-472-10192-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Evolving+technology+and+market+structure%3A+studies+in+Schumpeterian+economics&rft.pub=University+of+Michigan+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-472-10192-4&rft.aulast=Heertje&rft.aufirst=Arnold&rft.au=Perlman%2C+Mark&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DeNy6AAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectrical+engineering" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHuurdeman2003" class="citation book cs1">Huurdeman, Anton A. 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John Wiley & Sons. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471-20505-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-471-20505-0"><bdi>978-0-471-20505-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Worldwide+History+of+Telecommunications&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2003-07-31&rft.isbn=978-0-471-20505-0&rft.aulast=Huurdeman&rft.aufirst=Anton+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSnjGRDVIUL4C%26pg%3DPA226&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectrical+engineering" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIgaKokubun2010" class="citation book cs1">Iga, Kenichi; Kokubun, Yasuo (12 December 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Rd_uSB7GfhEC&pg=PA137"><i>Encyclopedic Handbook of Integrated Optics</i></a>. CRC Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4200-2781-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4200-2781-5"><bdi>978-1-4200-2781-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedic+Handbook+of+Integrated+Optics&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2010-12-12&rft.isbn=978-1-4200-2781-5&rft.aulast=Iga&rft.aufirst=Kenichi&rft.au=Kokubun%2C+Yasuo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRd_uSB7GfhEC%26pg%3DPA137&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectrical+engineering" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJalote2006" class="citation book cs1">Jalote, Pankaj (31 January 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=M-mhFtxaaskC&pg=PA22"><i>An Integrated Approach to Software Engineering</i></a>. Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-387-28132-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-387-28132-2"><bdi>978-0-387-28132-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Integrated+Approach+to+Software+Engineering&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2006-01-31&rft.isbn=978-0-387-28132-2&rft.aulast=Jalote&rft.aufirst=Pankaj&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DM-mhFtxaaskC%26pg%3DPA22&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectrical+engineering" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKhanna2009" class="citation book cs1">Khanna, Vinod Kumar (1 January 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Vf2qXAbn58oC&pg=PA297"><i>Digital Signal Processing</i></a>. S. Chand. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-219-3095-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-219-3095-6"><bdi>978-81-219-3095-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Digital+Signal+Processing&rft.pub=S.+Chand&rft.date=2009-01-01&rft.isbn=978-81-219-3095-6&rft.aulast=Khanna&rft.aufirst=Vinod+Kumar&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DVf2qXAbn58oC%26pg%3DPA297&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectrical+engineering" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLambourne2010" class="citation book cs1">Lambourne, Robert J. A. (1 June 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GUySYQaDM1cC&pg=PA11"><i>Relativity, Gravitation and Cosmology</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-13138-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-13138-4"><bdi>978-0-521-13138-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Relativity%2C+Gravitation+and+Cosmology&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2010-06-01&rft.isbn=978-0-521-13138-4&rft.aulast=Lambourne&rft.aufirst=Robert+J.+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGUySYQaDM1cC%26pg%3DPA11&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectrical+engineering" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeitgeb2010" class="citation book cs1">Leitgeb, Norbert (6 May 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FpSH-VM5TYkC"><i>Safety of Electromedical Devices: Law – Risks – Opportunities</i></a>. Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-211-99683-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-211-99683-6"><bdi>978-3-211-99683-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Safety+of+Electromedical+Devices%3A+Law+%E2%80%93+Risks+%E2%80%93+Opportunities&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2010-05-06&rft.isbn=978-3-211-99683-6&rft.aulast=Leitgeb&rft.aufirst=Norbert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DFpSH-VM5TYkC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectrical+engineering" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeondes2000" class="citation book cs1">Leondes, Cornelius T. 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CRC Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-5699-677-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-5699-677-2"><bdi>978-90-5699-677-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Energy+and+Power+Systems&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2000-08-08&rft.isbn=978-90-5699-677-2&rft.aulast=Leondes&rft.aufirst=Cornelius+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3rpu3nBramoC%26pg%3DPA199&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectrical+engineering" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMahalik2003" class="citation book cs1">Mahalik, Nitaigour Premchand (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7J_lqRoMrNwC&pg=PA569"><i>Mechatronics: Principles, Concepts and Applications</i></a>. Tata McGraw-Hill Education. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-07-048374-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-07-048374-3"><bdi>978-0-07-048374-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mechatronics%3A+Principles%2C+Concepts+and+Applications&rft.pub=Tata+McGraw-Hill+Education&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-07-048374-3&rft.aulast=Mahalik&rft.aufirst=Nitaigour+Premchand&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7J_lqRoMrNwC%26pg%3DPA569&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectrical+engineering" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMalufWilliams2004" class="citation book cs1">Maluf, Nadim; Williams, Kirt (1 January 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=20j7IaDKlOUC&pg=PA3"><i>Introduction to Microelectromechanical Systems Engineering</i></a>. Artech House. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58053-591-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-58053-591-5"><bdi>978-1-58053-591-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Microelectromechanical+Systems+Engineering&rft.pub=Artech+House&rft.date=2004-01-01&rft.isbn=978-1-58053-591-5&rft.aulast=Maluf&rft.aufirst=Nadim&rft.au=Williams%2C+Kirt&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D20j7IaDKlOUC%26pg%3DPA3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectrical+engineering" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFManolakisIngle2011" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Dimitris_Manolakis" title="Dimitris Manolakis">Manolakis, Dimitris G.</a>; Ingle, Vinay K. 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Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-139-49573-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-139-49573-8"><bdi>978-1-139-49573-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Applied+Digital+Signal+Processing%3A+Theory+and+Practice&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2011-11-21&rft.isbn=978-1-139-49573-8&rft.aulast=Manolakis&rft.aufirst=Dimitris+G.&rft.au=Ingle%2C+Vinay+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxLaST05CKlkC%26pg%3DPA17&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectrical+engineering" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Martini, L., "BSCCO-2233 multilayered conductors", in <i>Superconducting Materials for High Energy Colliders</i>, pp. 173–181, World Scientific, 2001 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/981-02-4319-7" title="Special:BookSources/981-02-4319-7">981-02-4319-7</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMartinsenGrimnes2011" class="citation book cs1">Martinsen, Orjan G.; Grimnes, Sverre (29 August 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=v3EuUjoqwkkC&pg=PA411"><i>Bioimpedance and Bioelectricity Basics</i></a>. Academic Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-08-056880-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-08-056880-5"><bdi>978-0-08-056880-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bioimpedance+and+Bioelectricity+Basics&rft.pub=Academic+Press&rft.date=2011-08-29&rft.isbn=978-0-08-056880-5&rft.aulast=Martinsen&rft.aufirst=Orjan+G.&rft.au=Grimnes%2C+Sverre&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dv3EuUjoqwkkC%26pg%3DPA411&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectrical+engineering" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcDavidEchaore-McDavid2009" class="citation book cs1">McDavid, Richard A.; Echaore-McDavid, Susan (1 January 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Hx0g1_hs4N8C&pg=PA95"><i>Career Opportunities in Engineering</i></a>. Infobase Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4381-1070-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4381-1070-7"><bdi>978-1-4381-1070-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Career+Opportunities+in+Engineering&rft.pub=Infobase+Publishing&rft.date=2009-01-01&rft.isbn=978-1-4381-1070-7&rft.aulast=McDavid&rft.aufirst=Richard+A.&rft.au=Echaore-McDavid%2C+Susan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHx0g1_hs4N8C%26pg%3DPA95&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectrical+engineering" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMerhari2009" class="citation book cs1">Merhari, Lhadi (3 March 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LNtRvFBAabYC&pg=PA233"><i>Hybrid Nanocomposites for Nanotechnology: Electronic, Optical, Magnetic and Biomedical Applications</i></a>. Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-387-30428-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-387-30428-1"><bdi>978-0-387-30428-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hybrid+Nanocomposites+for+Nanotechnology%3A+Electronic%2C+Optical%2C+Magnetic+and+Biomedical+Applications&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2009-03-03&rft.isbn=978-0-387-30428-1&rft.aulast=Merhari&rft.aufirst=Lhadi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLNtRvFBAabYC%26pg%3DPA233&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectrical+engineering" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMook2008" class="citation book cs1">Mook, William Moyer (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Wq1J5RXSNkoC&pg=PA149"><i>The Mechanical Response of Common Nanoscale Contact Geometries</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-549-46812-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-549-46812-7"><bdi>978-0-549-46812-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Mechanical+Response+of+Common+Nanoscale+Contact+Geometries&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-549-46812-7&rft.aulast=Mook&rft.aufirst=William+Moyer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWq1J5RXSNkoC%26pg%3DPA149&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectrical+engineering" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNaiduKamaraju2009" class="citation book cs1">Naidu, S. M.; Kamaraju, V. (2009). <i>High Voltage Engineering</i>. Tata McGraw-Hill Education. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-07-066928-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-07-066928-4"><bdi>978-0-07-066928-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=High+Voltage+Engineering&rft.pub=Tata+McGraw-Hill+Education&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-07-066928-4&rft.aulast=Naidu&rft.aufirst=S.+M.&rft.au=Kamaraju%2C+V.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectrical+engineering" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFObaidatDenkoWoungang2011" class="citation book cs1">Obaidat, Mohammad S.; Denko, Mieso; Woungang, Isaac (9 June 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mLS6fAH8Sz8C&pg=PA9"><i>Pervasive Computing and Networking</i></a>. John Wiley & Sons. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-119-97043-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-119-97043-9"><bdi>978-1-119-97043-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pervasive+Computing+and+Networking&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2011-06-09&rft.isbn=978-1-119-97043-9&rft.aulast=Obaidat&rft.aufirst=Mohammad+S.&rft.au=Denko%2C+Mieso&rft.au=Woungang%2C+Isaac&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DmLS6fAH8Sz8C%26pg%3DPA9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectrical+engineering" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRosenberg2008" class="citation book cs1">Rosenberg, Chaim M. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-ErxIGp3QN0C&pg=PR9"><i>America at the Fair: Chicago's 1893 World's Columbian Exposition</i></a>. Arcadia Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7385-2521-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7385-2521-1"><bdi>978-0-7385-2521-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=America+at+the+Fair%3A+Chicago%27s+1893+World%27s+Columbian+Exposition&rft.pub=Arcadia+Publishing&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-7385-2521-1&rft.aulast=Rosenberg&rft.aufirst=Chaim+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-ErxIGp3QN0C%26pg%3DPR9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectrical+engineering" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Schmidt, Rüdiger, "The LHC accelerator and its challenges", in Kramer M.; Soler, F.J.P. (eds), <i>Large Hadron Collider Phenomenology</i>, pp. 217–250, CRC Press, 2004 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7503-0986-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-7503-0986-5">0-7503-0986-5</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSeversLeise2011" class="citation book cs1">Severs, Jeffrey; Leise, Christopher (24 February 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=U3sVink6zisC&pg=PA145"><i>Pynchon's Against the Day: A Corrupted Pilgrim's Guide</i></a>. Lexington Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-61149-065-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-61149-065-7"><bdi>978-1-61149-065-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pynchon%27s+Against+the+Day%3A+A+Corrupted+Pilgrim%27s+Guide&rft.pub=Lexington+Books&rft.date=2011-02-24&rft.isbn=978-1-61149-065-7&rft.aulast=Severs&rft.aufirst=Jeffrey&rft.au=Leise%2C+Christopher&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DU3sVink6zisC%26pg%3DPA145&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectrical+engineering" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShettyKolk2010" class="citation book cs1">Shetty, Devdas; Kolk, Richard (14 September 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1UsIAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA36"><i>Mechatronics System Design, SI Version</i></a>. Cengage Learning. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-133-16949-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-133-16949-9"><bdi>978-1-133-16949-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mechatronics+System+Design%2C+SI+Version&rft.pub=Cengage+Learning&rft.date=2010-09-14&rft.isbn=978-1-133-16949-9&rft.aulast=Shetty&rft.aufirst=Devdas&rft.au=Kolk%2C+Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1UsIAAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA36&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectrical+engineering" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith2007" class="citation book cs1">Smith, Brian W. (January 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=m-Uhn_O7O08C&pg=PA19"><i>Communication Structures</i></a>. Thomas Telford. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7277-3400-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7277-3400-6"><bdi>978-0-7277-3400-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Communication+Structures&rft.pub=Thomas+Telford&rft.date=2007-01&rft.isbn=978-0-7277-3400-6&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Brian+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dm-Uhn_O7O08C%26pg%3DPA19&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectrical+engineering" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSullivan2012" class="citation book cs1">Sullivan, Dennis M. (24 January 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cUcGtUE85GYC"><i>Quantum Mechanics for Electrical Engineers</i></a>. John Wiley & Sons. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-470-87409-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-470-87409-7"><bdi>978-0-470-87409-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Quantum+Mechanics+for+Electrical+Engineers&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2012-01-24&rft.isbn=978-0-470-87409-7&rft.aulast=Sullivan&rft.aufirst=Dennis+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcUcGtUE85GYC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectrical+engineering" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaylor2008" class="citation book cs1">Taylor, Allan (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9kOgsNM8OpMC&pg=PA241"><i>Energy Industry</i></a>. Infobase Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4381-1069-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4381-1069-1"><bdi>978-1-4381-1069-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Energy+Industry&rft.pub=Infobase+Publishing&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-4381-1069-1&rft.aulast=Taylor&rft.aufirst=Allan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9kOgsNM8OpMC%26pg%3DPA241&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectrical+engineering" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThompson2006" class="citation book cs1">Thompson, Marc (12 June 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=d8EJP8qQQcwC&pg=PA4"><i>Intuitive Analog Circuit Design</i></a>. Newnes. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-08-047875-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-08-047875-3"><bdi>978-0-08-047875-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Intuitive+Analog+Circuit+Design&rft.pub=Newnes&rft.date=2006-06-12&rft.isbn=978-0-08-047875-3&rft.aulast=Thompson&rft.aufirst=Marc&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dd8EJP8qQQcwC%26pg%3DPA4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectrical+engineering" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTobin2007" class="citation book cs1">Tobin, Paul (1 January 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QV_l-oMHXDMC&pg=PA15"><i>PSpice for Digital Communications Engineering</i></a>. Morgan & Claypool Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59829-162-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59829-162-9"><bdi>978-1-59829-162-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=PSpice+for+Digital+Communications+Engineering&rft.pub=Morgan+%26+Claypool+Publishers&rft.date=2007-01-01&rft.isbn=978-1-59829-162-9&rft.aulast=Tobin&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQV_l-oMHXDMC%26pg%3DPA15&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectrical+engineering" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTunbridge1992" class="citation book cs1">Tunbridge, Paul (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bZUK624LZBMC"><i>Lord Kelvin, His Influence on Electrical Measurements and Units</i></a>. IET. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-86341-237-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-86341-237-0"><bdi>978-0-86341-237-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lord+Kelvin%2C+His+Influence+on+Electrical+Measurements+and+Units&rft.pub=IET&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-86341-237-0&rft.aulast=Tunbridge&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DbZUK624LZBMC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectrical+engineering" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTuzlukov2010" class="citation book cs1">Tuzlukov, Vyacheslav (12 December 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=x6hoBG_MAYIC&pg=PP20"><i>Signal Processing Noise</i></a>. CRC Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4200-4111-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4200-4111-8"><bdi>978-1-4200-4111-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Signal+Processing+Noise&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2010-12-12&rft.isbn=978-1-4200-4111-8&rft.aulast=Tuzlukov&rft.aufirst=Vyacheslav&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dx6hoBG_MAYIC%26pg%3DPP20&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectrical+engineering" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWalker2007" class="citation book cs1">Walker, Denise (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kW2GWDDoif8C&pg=PA23"><i>Metals and Non-metals</i></a>. Evans Brothers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-237-53003-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-237-53003-7"><bdi>978-0-237-53003-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Metals+and+Non-metals&rft.pub=Evans+Brothers&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-237-53003-7&rft.aulast=Walker&rft.aufirst=Denise&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkW2GWDDoif8C%26pg%3DPA23&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectrical+engineering" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWildesLindgren1985" class="citation book cs1">Wildes, Karl L.; Lindgren, Nilo A. (1 January 1985). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/centuryofelectri0000wild"><i>A Century of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science at MIT, 1882–1982</i></a></span>. MIT Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/centuryofelectri0000wild/page/19">19</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-23119-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-262-23119-0"><bdi>978-0-262-23119-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Century+of+Electrical+Engineering+and+Computer+Science+at+MIT%2C+1882%E2%80%931982&rft.pages=19&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=1985-01-01&rft.isbn=978-0-262-23119-0&rft.aulast=Wildes&rft.aufirst=Karl+L.&rft.au=Lindgren%2C+Nilo+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcenturyofelectri0000wild&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectrical+engineering" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZhangHuLuo2007" class="citation book cs1">Zhang, Yan; Hu, Honglin; Luo, Jijun (27 June 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2RrbB17RYxoC&pg=PA448"><i>Distributed Antenna Systems: Open Architecture for Future Wireless Communications</i></a>. CRC Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4200-4289-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4200-4289-4"><bdi>978-1-4200-4289-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Distributed+Antenna+Systems%3A+Open+Architecture+for+Future+Wireless+Communications&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2007-06-27&rft.isbn=978-1-4200-4289-4&rft.aulast=Zhang&rft.aufirst=Yan&rft.au=Hu%2C+Honglin&rft.au=Luo%2C+Jijun&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2RrbB17RYxoC%26pg%3DPA448&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectrical+engineering" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrical_engineering&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about <br /> <b>Electrical engineering</b> <hr /></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Electrical+engineering">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Electrical+engineering&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li> </ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdhamiMeenenHite2007" class="citation book cs1">Adhami, Reza; Meenen, Peter M.; Hite, Denis (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9nqkVbFPutYC"><i>Fundamental Concepts in Electrical and Computer Engineering with Practical Design Problems</i></a>. Universal-Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58112-971-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-58112-971-7"><bdi>978-1-58112-971-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fundamental+Concepts+in+Electrical+and+Computer+Engineering+with+Practical+Design+Problems&rft.pub=Universal-Publishers&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-58112-971-7&rft.aulast=Adhami&rft.aufirst=Reza&rft.au=Meenen%2C+Peter+M.&rft.au=Hite%2C+Denis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9nqkVbFPutYC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectrical+engineering" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoberStevens2012" class="citation book cs1">Bober, William; Stevens, Andrew (27 August 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yiL6EWiWaUYC"><i>Numerical and Analytical Methods with MATLAB for Electrical Engineers</i></a>. CRC Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4398-5429-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4398-5429-7"><bdi>978-1-4398-5429-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Numerical+and+Analytical+Methods+with+MATLAB+for+Electrical+Engineers&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2012-08-27&rft.isbn=978-1-4398-5429-7&rft.aulast=Bober&rft.aufirst=William&rft.au=Stevens%2C+Andrew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DyiL6EWiWaUYC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectrical+engineering" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBobrow1996" class="citation book cs1">Bobrow, Leonard S. (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BEr779Z80LgC"><i>Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering</i></a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-510509-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-510509-4"><bdi>978-0-19-510509-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fundamentals+of+Electrical+Engineering&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-19-510509-4&rft.aulast=Bobrow&rft.aufirst=Leonard+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DBEr779Z80LgC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectrical+engineering" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChen2004" class="citation book cs1">Chen, Wai Kai (16 November 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qhHsSlazGrQC"><i>The Electrical Engineering Handbook</i></a>. Academic Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-08-047748-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-08-047748-0"><bdi>978-0-08-047748-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Electrical+Engineering+Handbook&rft.pub=Academic+Press&rft.date=2004-11-16&rft.isbn=978-0-08-047748-0&rft.aulast=Chen&rft.aufirst=Wai+Kai&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DqhHsSlazGrQC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectrical+engineering" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCiuprinaIoan2007" class="citation book cs1">Ciuprina, G.; Ioan, D. (30 May 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sFVbC-e5_DkC"><i>Scientific Computing in Electrical Engineering</i></a>. Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-71980-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-540-71980-9"><bdi>978-3-540-71980-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Scientific+Computing+in+Electrical+Engineering&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2007-05-30&rft.isbn=978-3-540-71980-9&rft.aulast=Ciuprina&rft.aufirst=G.&rft.au=Ioan%2C+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DsFVbC-e5_DkC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectrical+engineering" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFaria2008" class="citation book cs1">Faria, J. A. Brandao (15 September 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2Xk4NO1b8CUC"><i>Electromagnetic Foundations of Electrical Engineering</i></a>. John Wiley & Sons. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-470-69748-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-470-69748-1"><bdi>978-0-470-69748-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Electromagnetic+Foundations+of+Electrical+Engineering&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2008-09-15&rft.isbn=978-0-470-69748-1&rft.aulast=Faria&rft.aufirst=J.+A.+Brandao&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2Xk4NO1b8CUC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectrical+engineering" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJones2004" class="citation book cs1">Jones, Lincoln D. (July 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jLIxyZSCfosC"><i>Electrical Engineering: Problems and Solutions</i></a>. Dearborn Trade Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4195-2131-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4195-2131-7"><bdi>978-1-4195-2131-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Electrical+Engineering%3A+Problems+and+Solutions&rft.pub=Dearborn+Trade+Publishing&rft.date=2004-07&rft.isbn=978-1-4195-2131-7&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=Lincoln+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjLIxyZSCfosC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectrical+engineering" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKaralis2003" class="citation book cs1">Karalis, Edward (18 September 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CP73jv-GBMkC"><i>350 Solved Electrical Engineering Problems</i></a>. Dearborn Trade Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7931-8511-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7931-8511-5"><bdi>978-0-7931-8511-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=350+Solved+Electrical+Engineering+Problems&rft.pub=Dearborn+Trade+Publishing&rft.date=2003-09-18&rft.isbn=978-0-7931-8511-5&rft.aulast=Karalis&rft.aufirst=Edward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DCP73jv-GBMkC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectrical+engineering" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKrawczykWiak2002" class="citation book cs1">Krawczyk, Andrzej; Wiak, S. (1 January 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EwN2--zVLZsC"><i>Electromagnetic Fields in Electrical Engineering</i></a>. IOS Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58603-232-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-58603-232-6"><bdi>978-1-58603-232-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Electromagnetic+Fields+in+Electrical+Engineering&rft.pub=IOS+Press&rft.date=2002-01-01&rft.isbn=978-1-58603-232-6&rft.aulast=Krawczyk&rft.aufirst=Andrzej&rft.au=Wiak%2C+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEwN2--zVLZsC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectrical+engineering" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLaplante1999" class="citation book cs1">Laplante, Phillip A. (31 December 1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=soSsLATmZnkC"><i>Comprehensive Dictionary of Electrical Engineering</i></a>. Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-64835-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-540-64835-2"><bdi>978-3-540-64835-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Comprehensive+Dictionary+of+Electrical+Engineering&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=1999-12-31&rft.isbn=978-3-540-64835-2&rft.aulast=Laplante&rft.aufirst=Phillip+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DsoSsLATmZnkC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectrical+engineering" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeon-Garcia2008" class="citation book cs1">Leon-Garcia, Alberto (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GUJosCkbBywC"><i>Probability, Statistics, and Random Processes for Electrical Engineering</i></a>. Prentice Hall. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-13-147122-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-13-147122-1"><bdi>978-0-13-147122-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Probability%2C+Statistics%2C+and+Random+Processes+for+Electrical+Engineering&rft.pub=Prentice+Hall&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-13-147122-1&rft.aulast=Leon-Garcia&rft.aufirst=Alberto&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGUJosCkbBywC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectrical+engineering" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMalaric2011" class="citation book cs1">Malaric, Roman (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9np_Rr-ahI8C"><i>Instrumentation and Measurement in Electrical Engineering</i></a>. Universal-Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-61233-500-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-61233-500-1"><bdi>978-1-61233-500-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Instrumentation+and+Measurement+in+Electrical+Engineering&rft.pub=Universal-Publishers&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-61233-500-1&rft.aulast=Malaric&rft.aufirst=Roman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9np_Rr-ahI8C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectrical+engineering" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSahayPathak2006" class="citation book cs1">Sahay, Kuldeep; Pathak, Shivendra (1 January 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=r3c27IaomA0C"><i>Basic Concepts of Electrical Engineering</i></a>. New Age International. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-224-1836-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-224-1836-1"><bdi>978-81-224-1836-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Basic+Concepts+of+Electrical+Engineering&rft.pub=New+Age+International&rft.date=2006-01-01&rft.isbn=978-81-224-1836-1&rft.aulast=Sahay&rft.aufirst=Kuldeep&rft.au=Pathak%2C+Shivendra&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dr3c27IaomA0C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectrical+engineering" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSrinivas2007" class="citation book cs1">Srinivas, Kn (1 January 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Sb6a_isNGl8C"><i>Basic Electrical Engineering</i></a>. I. K. International Pvt Ltd. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-89866-34-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-89866-34-1"><bdi>978-81-89866-34-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Basic+Electrical+Engineering&rft.pub=I.+K.+International+Pvt+Ltd&rft.date=2007-01-01&rft.isbn=978-81-89866-34-1&rft.aulast=Srinivas&rft.aufirst=Kn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSb6a_isNGl8C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectrical+engineering" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrical_engineering&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span 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Wikiversity</span></li></ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iec.ch/">International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ocw.mit.edu/OcwWeb/Electrical-Engineering-and-Computer-Science/index.htm">MIT OpenCourseWare</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080126142615/http://ocw.mit.edu/OcwWeb/Electrical-Engineering-and-Computer-Science/index.htm">Archived</a> 26 January 2008 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> in-depth look at Electrical Engineering – online courses with video lectures.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ieeeghn.org/">IEEE Global History Network</a> A wiki-based site with many resources about the history of IEEE, its members, their professions and electrical and informational technologies and sciences.</li></ul> <div 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<ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_engineering" title="History of engineering">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_engineering" title="Outline of engineering">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_engineering_branches" title="List of engineering branches">List of engineering branches</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Specialties<br />and<br /><a href="/wiki/Interdisciplinarity" title="Interdisciplinarity">Interdisciplinarity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Civil_engineering" title="Civil engineering">Civil</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Architectural_engineering" title="Architectural engineering">Architectural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_engineering" title="Coastal engineering">Coastal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construction_engineering" title="Construction engineering">Construction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earthquake_engineering" title="Earthquake engineering">Earthquake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_engineering" title="Ecological engineering">Ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_engineering" title="Environmental engineering">Environmental</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sanitary_engineering" title="Sanitary engineering">Sanitary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geological_engineering" title="Geological engineering">Geological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geotechnical_engineering" title="Geotechnical engineering">Geotechnical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_engineering" title="Hydraulic engineering">Hydraulic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mining_engineering" title="Mining engineering">Mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Municipal_or_urban_engineering" title="Municipal or urban engineering">Municipal/Urban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Offshore_engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Offshore engineering">Offshore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/River_engineering" title="River engineering">River</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_engineering" title="Structural engineering">Structural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transportation_engineering" title="Transportation engineering">Transportation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Traffic_engineering_(transportation)" title="Traffic engineering (transportation)">Traffic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Railway_engineering" title="Railway engineering">Railway</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mechanical_engineering" title="Mechanical engineering">Mechanical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acoustical_engineering" title="Acoustical engineering">Acoustic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aerospace_engineering" title="Aerospace engineering">Aerospace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automotive_engineering" title="Automotive engineering">Automotive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomechanical_engineering" title="Biomechanical engineering">Biomechanical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_engineering" title="Energy engineering">Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manufacturing_engineering" title="Manufacturing engineering">Manufacturing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_engineering" title="Marine engineering">Marine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_architecture" title="Naval architecture">Naval architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Railway_engineering" title="Railway engineering">Railway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sports_engineering" title="Sports engineering">Sports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_engineering" title="Thermal engineering">Thermal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribology" title="Tribology">Tribology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Electrical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Broadcast_engineering" title="Broadcast engineering">Broadcast</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_computer_engineering" title="Outline of computer engineering">outline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Control_engineering" title="Control engineering">Control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electromechanics" title="Electromechanics">Electromechanics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_engineering" title="Electronic engineering">Electronics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microwave_engineering" title="Microwave engineering">Microwaves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optical_engineering" title="Optical engineering">Optical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_engineering" title="Power engineering">Power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio-frequency_engineering" title="Radio-frequency engineering">Radio frequency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Signal_processing" title="Signal processing">Signal processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_engineering" title="Telecommunications engineering">Telecommunications</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Chemical_engineering" title="Chemical engineering">Chemical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biochemical_engineering" title="Biochemical engineering">Biochemical/Bioprocess</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_engineering" title="Biological engineering">Biological</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bioresource_engineering" title="Bioresource engineering">Bioresource</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_engineering" title="Genetic engineering">Genetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tissue_engineering" title="Tissue engineering">Tissue</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_reaction_engineering" title="Chemical reaction engineering">Chemical reaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrochemical_engineering" title="Electrochemical engineering">Electrochemical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_engineering" title="Food engineering">Food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_engineering" title="Molecular engineering">Molecular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paper_engineering" title="Paper engineering">Paper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petroleum_engineering" title="Petroleum engineering">Petroleum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_engineering" title="Process engineering">Process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_reaction_engineering" title="Chemical reaction engineering">Reaction</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Materials_science" title="Materials science">Materials</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biomaterial" title="Biomaterial">Biomaterial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceramic_engineering" title="Ceramic engineering">Ceramics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corrosion_engineering" title="Corrosion engineering">Corrosion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metallurgy" title="Metallurgy">Metallurgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_engineering" title="Molecular engineering">Molecular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanotechnology" title="Nanotechnology">Nanotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polymer_engineering" title="Polymer engineering">Polymers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiconductor_device" title="Semiconductor device">Semiconductors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_engineering" title="Surface engineering">Surfaces</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Computer_engineering" title="Computer engineering">Computer</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence_engineering" title="Artificial intelligence engineering">AI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_engineering" title="Computer engineering">Computer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cybersecurity_engineering" title="Cybersecurity engineering">Cybersecurity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_engineering" title="Data engineering">Data</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_network_engineering" title="Computer network engineering">Networks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robotics_engineering" title="Robotics engineering">Robotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_engineering" title="Software engineering">Software</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Nuvola_apps_kcmsystem.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Nuvola_apps_kcmsystem.png/50px-Nuvola_apps_kcmsystem.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Nuvola_apps_kcmsystem.png/75px-Nuvola_apps_kcmsystem.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Nuvola_apps_kcmsystem.png/100px-Nuvola_apps_kcmsystem.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Engineering_education" title="Engineering education">Engineering education</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Engineering" title="Bachelor of Engineering">Bachelor of Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Science" title="Bachelor of Science">Bachelor of Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Master%27s_degree" title="Master's degree">Master's degree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doctorate" title="Doctorate">Doctorate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graduate_certificate" title="Graduate certificate">Graduate certificate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineer%27s_degree" title="Engineer's degree">Engineer's degree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulation_and_licensure_in_engineering" title="Regulation and licensure in engineering">Licensed engineer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Engineer" title="Engineer">Engineer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Glossary" title="Glossary">Glossaries</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Engineering <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_engineering:_A%E2%80%93L" title="Glossary of engineering: A–L">A–L</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_engineering:_M%E2%80%93Z" title="Glossary of engineering: M–Z">M–Z</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering" title="Glossary of aerospace engineering">Aerospace engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_civil_engineering" title="Glossary of civil engineering">Civil engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering" title="Glossary of electrical and electronics engineering">Electrical and electronics engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_mechanical_engineering" title="Glossary of mechanical engineering">Mechanical engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_structural_engineering" title="Glossary of structural engineering">Structural engineering</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_engineering" title="Agricultural engineering">Agricultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Audio_engineer" title="Audio engineer">Audio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automation_engineering" title="Automation engineering">Automation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomedical_engineering" title="Biomedical engineering">Biomedical</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bioinformatics" title="Bioinformatics">Bioinformatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_engineering" title="Clinical engineering">Clinical</a></li> 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