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class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Malawian Christian prophet</div> <p><b>Elliot Kenan Kamwana Achirwa</b>, also known as Masokwa Elliot Kenan Kamwana Chirwa or Elliot Kenan Kamwana Msokwa Chirwa, generally known as Elliot Kenan Kamwana (c. 1872–1956), was an African Prophet in <a href="/wiki/Nyasaland" title="Nyasaland">Nyasaland</a> (now Malawi) who sought rapid social change and who introduced the <a href="/wiki/Watch_Tower_Bible_and_Tract_Society_of_Pennsylvania" title="Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania">Watch Tower</a> movement (later known as the Jehovah's Witnesses) into Central Africa and popularized it there. He was one of three Africans sponsored by <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Booth_(missionary)" title="Joseph Booth (missionary)">Joseph Booth</a>, an English missionary who created independent churches in Nyasaland in the early 20th century, the other two being <a href="/wiki/John_Chilembwe" title="John Chilembwe">John Chilembwe</a> and <a href="/wiki/Charles_Domingo" title="Charles Domingo">Charles Domingo</a>. Unlike Chilembwe, Kamwana did not favour armed revolt as he was a pacifist, but he was more radical in his quest for rapid African advancement than the more moderate Domingo. The independent church he created, the "Mlonda", or Watchman Healing Mission, ended all links with the Watch Tower movement in the United States in 1937. Some daughter churches split from Mlonda after Kamwana's death in 1956, but it still exists in several Central African countries.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_life_and_education">Early life and education</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Elliot_Kenan_Kamwana&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Early life and education"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Elliot Kenan Kamwana was a <a href="/wiki/Tonga_people_of_Malawi" class="mw-redirect" title="Tonga people of Malawi">Tonga</a> born in Mpopomeni village, <a href="/wiki/Mzimba_District" title="Mzimba District">Mzimba District</a> in 1872. His father had been a tribal chief who was murdered, and Kamwana suffered a dislocated childhood as he continually fled with his mother from <a href="/wiki/Ngoni_people" title="Ngoni people">Ngoni</a> raids. The forename "Masokwa" is not given in many sources, but may have been added in childhood following the death of a prominent relative, and this and the additional surname "Achirwa" otherwise "Chirwa" are frequently omitted, so he is generally known as Elliot Kenan Kamwana.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>He was educated at the <a href="/wiki/Free_Church_of_Scotland_(1843%E2%80%931900)" title="Free Church of Scotland (1843–1900)">Free Church of Scotland (1843–1900)</a> mission and school at <a href="/wiki/Bandawe" title="Bandawe">Bandawe</a> and the <a href="/wiki/United_Free_Church_of_Scotland" title="United Free Church of Scotland">United Free Church of Scotland</a> <a href="/wiki/Livingstonia,_Malawi" title="Livingstonia, Malawi">Livingstonia</a> mission between 1898 and 1901, distinguishing himself as a scholar. He later stated he left the church in 1901 because he was frustrated by the church’s restrictions on would-be African members, including long delays in baptising them and in protest against the introduction of school fees in 1901<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He had also failed in his repeated attempts to attain baptism, and a Scottish minister later claimed, after Kamwana had returned to Nyasaland as an independent preacher, that he had been refused baptism and later excommunicated for immorality.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Immediately after leaving Livingstonia, Kamwana intended to travel to <a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South Africa</a> for work, but an outbreak of smallpox in Southern Rhodesia forced him to delay his journey until 1902. Kamwana may have been baptised as a <a href="/wiki/Seventh_Day_Baptists" title="Seventh Day Baptists">Seventh Day Baptist</a> in 1902 before leaving Nyasaland and may also have met <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Booth_(missionary)" title="Joseph Booth (missionary)">Joseph Booth</a> at the time, or both may have happened later in South Africa, where he experiencing the harsh conditions experienced by migrant labour when he worked as a hospital attendant and also preached.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Relationship_with_Watch_Tower">Relationship with Watch Tower</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Elliot_Kenan_Kamwana&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Relationship with Watch Tower"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>He met an itinerant preacher, <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Booth_(missionary)" title="Joseph Booth (missionary)">Joseph Booth</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Cape_Town" title="Cape Town">Cape Town</a> in 1907, who introduced him to <a href="/wiki/Charles_Taze_Russell" title="Charles Taze Russell">Charles Russell</a>’s Watch Tower teachings and instructed Kamwana in a mixture of his own <a href="/wiki/Sabbatarian" class="mw-redirect" title="Sabbatarian">sabbatarian</a> beliefs and Watch Tower doctrines for eight months. Kamwana was not ordained, as the Watch Tower movement does not have a distinct clergy.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>He subsequently returned to the <a href="/wiki/Nkhata_Bay" title="Nkhata Bay">Nkhata Bay</a> area of northern Nyasaland in late 1908, where the appearance in August 1907 of a comet, minor earthquakes and, just before his arrival, an outbreak of smallpox were apocalyptic signs that set the stage for Kamwana's ministry.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He preached the Watch Tower millennial message, attracting huge crowds, mainly of his own Tonga people, and offered baptism and entrance to the church, bypassing the restricted entry procedures imposed by European missionaries that required basic literacy and a two-year preparation before baptism and involved threats of exclusion for disciplinary breaches, as judged by the missionaries.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Approximately 10,000 people were baptised under his direction: he may have succeeded because his teaching addressed his audiences' concerns about <a href="/wiki/Witchcraft" title="Witchcraft">witchcraft</a>, concerns that European missionaries did not recognise.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At first, the colonial authorities considered this as a purely church issue, until the missionaries represented to the governor that Kamwana’s millennial doctrine that all government but Christ’s would cease was seditious, and he was arrested after six months of preaching in April 1909.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Deportation_and_return">Deportation and return</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Elliot_Kenan_Kamwana&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Deportation and return"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Fearful of Kawmana's actions, the British colonial authorities arrested him and first imprisoned him in <a href="/wiki/Zomba,_Malawi" title="Zomba, Malawi">Zomba</a> then in 1910 deported him to South Africa,<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but in October 1910 he made a brief and illegal return by from his deportation to prevent the congregations he had founded by Kamwana supported from rejecting Watch Tower control and joining the <a href="/wiki/Seventh_Day_Baptists" title="Seventh Day Baptists">Seventh Day Baptist</a> community.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The governor therefore decided to detain him in the <a href="/wiki/Mulanje" title="Mulanje">Mulanje</a> district of southern Nyasaland where he could be kept under observation and where the local people spoke a language dissimilar to his Tonga mother tongue.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In order to keep in touch with the Watch Tower congregations free of police scrutiny, he later he moved to <a href="/wiki/Chinde" title="Chinde">Chinde</a> in <a href="/wiki/Mozambique" title="Mozambique">Portuguese East Africa</a> in 1911, remaining there and preaching until arrested and briefly imprisoned by the Portuguese authorities in 1914, after which he returned to detention in Mulanje.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>With meteor showers and the outbreak of the War in 1914, Kamwana's predictions of the dawning of the millennium in October 1914 seemed about to be realised. However, when Kamwana’s prediction of the date of the millennium proved incorrect, many of his supporters rejected his leadership and turned to <a href="/wiki/John_Chilembwe" title="John Chilembwe">John Chilembwe</a> and armed revolt. Kamwana was a pacifist and condemned the <a href="/wiki/Chilembwe_uprising" title="Chilembwe uprising">Chilembwe uprising</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After he had returned to Nyasaland and was imprisoned there, his brother was caught attempting to smuggle 'subversive' letters and Watch Tower pamphlets to Kamwana.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was exiled without trial to <a href="/wiki/Mauritius" title="Mauritius">Mauritius</a> in 1916 and then the <a href="/wiki/Seychelles" title="Seychelles">Seychelles</a> where he remained until he was finally allowed to return in 1937.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In exile he continued to disseminate <a href="/wiki/Millenarian" class="mw-redirect" title="Millenarian">millenarian</a> teachings, writing apocalyptic letters to his followers<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in Central South East Africa in the style of <a href="/wiki/John_of_Patmos" title="John of Patmos">John of Patmos</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Break_with_Watch_Tower_and_later_life">Break with Watch Tower and later life</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Elliot_Kenan_Kamwana&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Break with Watch Tower and later life"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Although the Watch Tower churches initiated by Kamwana in northern Nyasaland and spread by his followers to other parts of the protectorate and to <a href="/wiki/Northern_Rhodesia" title="Northern Rhodesia">Northern Rhodesia</a> received some funding and publications from the American <a href="/wiki/Watch_Tower_Bible_and_Tract_Society" class="mw-redirect" title="Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society">Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society</a> until 1925, after that date the American organisation disavowed these and tried to forbid them from using the Watch Tower name. When Kamwana was eventually allowed to return to Nyasaland in 1937, he initiated the Mlondo or Watchman Healing Mission, an <a href="/wiki/African_initiated_church" class="mw-redirect" title="African initiated church">African initiated church</a> entirely independent of the <a href="/wiki/Watch_Tower_Bible_and_Tract_Society_of_Pennsylvania" title="Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania">Watch Tower Society</a>, with its own rituals and scriptural interpretations, although many of its members still read the Watch Tower Society's magazines.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Kamwana remained its leader and promoted daughter churches in <a href="/wiki/Tanganyika_(territory)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tanganyika (territory)">Tanganyika</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Belgian_Congo" title="Belgian Congo">Belgian Congo</a> in addition to those in <a href="/wiki/Nyasaland" title="Nyasaland">Nyasaland</a> and <a href="/wiki/Northern_Rhodesia" title="Northern Rhodesia">Northern Rhodesia</a> before his death in 1956. At the time of his death, his church had about 4,000 members, about half in Nyasaland or migrants from there, but it split after his death on regional lines.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Elliot_Kenan_Kamwana&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Adiele Eberechukwu Afigbo (1986) in Robin H. Palmer, <i>The Making of Modern Africa: The Twentieth Century</i>, 1986</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Robert_A._Hill_(Jamaican_historian)" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert A. Hill (Jamaican historian)">Robert A. Hill</a> (1986)<i>The Marcus Garvey and Universal Negro Improvement Association ...</i> - p. 35,</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">J. C. Chakanza (1998) <i>Voices of preachers in protest: the ministry of two Malawian Prophets: Elliot Kamwana and Wilfred Gudu</i> p.14</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">K. E. Fields (1985). Revival and Rebellion in Colonial Central Africa, Princeton University Press pp. 105-6, 110</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">J. C. Chakanza (1998) <i>Voices of preachers in protest: the ministry of two Malawian Prophets: Elliot Kamwana and Wilfred Gudu</i> p.15</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">J. C. Chakanza (1998) <i>Voices of preachers in protest: the ministry of two Malawian Prophets: Elliot Kamwana and Wilfred Gudu</i> pp.15-16</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">D. K. Mphande (2014). Oral Literature and Moral Education among the Lakeside Tonga of Northern Malawi, Oxford, African Books Collective, p. 116</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">K. E. Fields (1985). Revival and Rebellion in Colonial Central Africa, Princeton University Press pp. 105, 111</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">H. Donati (2011). 'A Very Antagonistic Spirit': Elliot Kamwana: Christianity and the World in Nyasaland, the Society of Malawi Journal, Vol. 64, No. 1, p. 16</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">H. Donati (2011). 'A Very Antagonistic Spirit': Elliot Kamwana: Christianity and the World in Nyasaland, the Society of Malawi Journal, Vol. 64, No. 1, p. 16</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">K. E. Fields (1985). Revival and Rebellion in Colonial Central Africa, Princeton University Press pp 99, 115-16</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">K. E. Fields (1985). Revival and Rebellion in Colonial Central Africa, Princeton University Press pp 120-1</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">H. Donati (2011). 'A Very Antagonistic Spirit': Elliot Kamwana: Christianity and the World in Nyasaland, the Society of Malawi Journal, Vol. 64, No. 1, pp. 16-17, 20</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rotberg, R I (1965). The Rise of Nationalism in Central Africa: The Making of Malawi and Zambia, 1873-1944. Cambridge (Mass.) Harvard University Press p. 68</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">H. W. Langworthy (1985). Charles Domingo Seventh Day Baptists and Independency, Journal of Religion in Africa, Vol. 15, No. 2, p. 102</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rotberg, R I (1965). The Rise of Nationalism in Central Africa: The Making of Malawi and Zambia, 1873-1944. Cambridge (Mass.) Harvard University Press p. 68</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">H. Donati (2011). 'A Very Antagonistic Spirit': Elliot Kamwana: Christianity and the World in Nyasaland, the Society of Malawi Journal, Vol. 64, No. 1, p. 20</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">H. W. Langworthy (1985). Charles Domingo Seventh Day Baptists and Independency, Journal of Religion in Africa, Vol. 15, No. 2, p. 103</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rotberg, R I Rotberg(1965). The Rise of Nationalism in Central Africa: The Making of Malawi and Zambia, 1873-1944. Cambridge (Mass.) Harvard University Press pp. 68-9</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">K. E. Fields (1985). Revival and Rebellion in Colonial Central Africa, Princeton University Press p.125–6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">J Linden and I Linden (1971). John Chilembwe and the New Jerusalem. The Journal of African History. Vol. 12, pp. 646, 648</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">H. Donati (2011). 'A Very Antagonistic Spirit': Elliot Kamwana: Christianity and the World in Nyasaland, the Society of Malawi Journal, Vol. 64, No. 1, p. 21</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rotberg, R I Rotberg(1965). The Rise of Nationalism in Central Africa: The Making of Malawi and Zambia, 1873-1944. Cambridge (Mass.) Harvard University Press p. 69</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">R I Rotberg(1965). The Rise of Nationalism in Central Africa: The Making of Malawi and Zambia, 1873-1944. Cambridge (Mass.) Harvard University Press p. 139</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">R I Rotberg(1965). The Rise of Nationalism in Central Africa: The Making of Malawi and Zambia, 1873-1944. Cambridge (Mass.) Harvard University Press pp. 139-40, 150-1</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">H. Donati (2011). 'A Very Antagonistic Spirit': Elliot Kamwana: Christianity and the World in Nyasaland, the Society of Malawi Journal, Vol. 64, No. 1, p. 27</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">D. K. Mphande (2014). Oral Literature and Moral Education among the Lakeside Tonga of Northern Malawi, Oxford, African Books Collective, pp. 119-20</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120505060239/http://dacb.org/stories/malawi/kamwana3_elliot.html">Andrew C. Ross</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QYoPkk04Yp4C&dq=Bukar+Garbai&pg=PA100"><i>Dictionary of African Historical Biography</i></a>, p. 100</li> <li><i>1976 Yearbook of Jehovah's Witnesses</i>, "Part 1—South Africa and Neighboring Territories", pp. 73–74</li> <li>Henry Donati, "‘A very antagonistic spirit’: Elliot Kamwana, Christianity and the end of the world in Nyasaland". Dissertation, University of Oxford</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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href="http://data.bibliotheken.nl/id/thes/p343032899">Netherlands</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Elliot_Kenan_Kamwana&oldid=1145167971">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Elliot_Kenan_Kamwana&oldid=1145167971</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1870s_births" title="Category:1870s births">1870s births</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Bible_Student_movement" title="Category:Bible Student movement">Bible Student movement</a></li><li><a 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