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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Neutrality Act of 1935</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Neutrality_Act_of_1935-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Neutrality_Act_of_1936" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Neutrality_Act_of_1936"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Neutrality Act of 1936</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Neutrality_Act_of_1936-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Neutrality_Act_of_1937" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Neutrality_Act_of_1937"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Neutrality Act of 1937</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Neutrality_Act_of_1937-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Neutrality_Act_of_1939" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Neutrality_Act_of_1939"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Neutrality Act of 1939</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Neutrality_Act_of_1939-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-End_of_neutrality_policy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#End_of_neutrality_policy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>End of neutrality policy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-End_of_neutrality_policy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Subsequent_application" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Subsequent_application"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Subsequent application</span> </div> </a> <ul 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Available in 16 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-16" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">16 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A%D9%86_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%AF_%D9%81%D9%8A_%D8%AB%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AB%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%82%D8%B1%D9%86_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B4%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%86" title="قوانين الحياد في ثلاثينيات القرن العشرين – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="قوانين الحياد في ثلاثينيات القرن العشرين" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D0%B7%D0%B0_%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%83%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B0" title="Закони за неутралитета – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Закони за неутралитета" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lezenno%C3%B9_neptuegezh_1930" title="Lezennoù neptuegezh 1930 – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Lezennoù neptuegezh 1930" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutralit%C3%A4tsgesetze" title="Neutralitätsgesetze – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Neutralitätsgesetze" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leyes_de_Neutralidad" title="Leyes de Neutralidad – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Leyes de Neutralidad" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/1930eko_hamarkadako_Neutraltasun_Legeak" title="1930eko hamarkadako Neutraltasun Legeak – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="1930eko hamarkadako Neutraltasun Legeak" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D9%88%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%AD_%D8%A8%DB%8C%E2%80%8C%D8%B7%D8%B1%D9%81%DB%8C_%D8%AF%D9%87%D9%87_%DB%B1%DB%B9%DB%B3%DB%B0" title="لوایح بی‌طرفی دهه ۱۹۳۰ – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="لوایح بی‌طرفی دهه ۱۹۳۰" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lois_des_ann%C3%A9es_1930_sur_la_neutralit%C3%A9" title="Lois des années 1930 sur la neutralité – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Lois des années 1930 sur la neutralité" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/1930%EB%85%84%EB%8C%80_%EC%A4%91%EB%A6%BD%EB%B2%95" title="1930년대 중립법 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="1930년대 중립법" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Undang-Undang_Netralitas_1930-an" title="Undang-Undang Netralitas 1930-an – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Undang-Undang Netralitas 1930-an" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atti_di_neutralit%C3%A0_degli_anni_Trenta" title="Atti di neutralità degli anni Trenta – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Atti di neutralità degli anni Trenta" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E7%AB%8B%E6%B3%95" title="中立法 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="中立法" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutrality_Acts_of_the_1930s" title="Neutrality Acts of the 1930s – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Neutrality Acts of the 1930s" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%90%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%8D%E0%B8%8D%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A7%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%94%E0%B9%89%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A1%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%9B%E0%B9%87%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%87" title="รัฐบัญญัติว่าด้วยความเป็นกลาง – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="รัฐบัญญัติว่าด้วยความเป็นกลาง" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yans%C4%B1zl%C4%B1k_Yasalar%C4%B1" title="Yansızlık Yasaları – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Yansızlık Yasaları" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a 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i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other Neutrality Acts, see <a href="/wiki/Neutrality_Act_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Neutrality Act (disambiguation)">Neutrality Act</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol 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.sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="border-spacing:0.2em 0;"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title" style="font-size:115%; line-height:1.4em;"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">U.S. congressional</a> opposition<br /> to American involvement in <div style="line-height:1.3em;">wars and interventions</div></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States"><img alt="United States" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/60px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="32" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/90px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/120px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></a></span></span></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> 1812 <a href="/wiki/War_of_1812" title="War of 1812">North America</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <a href="/wiki/Opposition_to_the_War_of_1812_in_the_United_States" title="Opposition to the War of 1812 in the United States">House Federalists’ Address</a></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> 1847 <a href="/wiki/Mexican%E2%80%93American_War" title="Mexican–American War">Mexican–American War</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <a href="/wiki/Spot_Resolutions" title="Spot Resolutions">Spot Resolutions</a></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> 1917 <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <a href="/wiki/Robert_M._La_Follette#Opposition_to_American_involvement_in_World_War_I" title="Robert M. La Follette">Filibuster of the Armed Ship Bill</a></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> 1935–1939</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Neutrality Acts</a></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> 1935–1940</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <a href="/wiki/Ludlow_Amendment" title="Ludlow Amendment">Ludlow Amendment</a></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> 1970 <a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <a href="/wiki/McGovern%E2%80%93Hatfield_Amendment" title="McGovern–Hatfield Amendment">McGovern–Hatfield Amendment</a></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> 1970 <a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Southeast Asia</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <a href="/wiki/Cooper%E2%80%93Church_Amendment" title="Cooper–Church Amendment">Cooper–Church Amendment</a></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> 1971 Vietnam</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Tonkin_Resolution#Repeal" title="Gulf of Tonkin Resolution">Repeal of Tonkin Gulf Resolution</a></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> 1973 Southeast Asia</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <a href="/wiki/Case%E2%80%93Church_Amendment" title="Case–Church Amendment">Case–Church Amendment</a></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> 1973</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <a href="/wiki/War_Powers_Resolution" title="War Powers Resolution">War Powers Resolution</a></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> 1974</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <a href="/wiki/Hughes%E2%80%93Ryan_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Hughes–Ryan Act">Hughes–Ryan Amendment</a></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> 1976 <a href="/wiki/Angolan_Civil_War" title="Angolan Civil War">Angola</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <a href="/wiki/Clark_Amendment" title="Clark Amendment">Clark Amendment</a></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> 1982 <a href="/wiki/Nicaragua_v._United_States" title="Nicaragua v. United States">Nicaragua</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <a href="/wiki/Boland_Amendment" title="Boland Amendment">Boland Amendment</a></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> 2007 <a href="/wiki/Iraq_War" title="Iraq War">Iraq</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <a href="/wiki/Iraq_War_troop_surge_of_2007#Congress" title="Iraq War troop surge of 2007">House Concurrent Resolution 63</a></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> 2011 Libyan War</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <a href="/wiki/US_domestic_reactions_to_the_2011_military_intervention_in_Libya" title="US domestic reactions to the 2011 military intervention in Libya"> House Joint Resolution 68</a></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> 2013 Syrian Civil War</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <a href="/wiki/Authorization_for_the_Use_of_Military_Force_Against_the_Government_of_Syria_to_Respond_to_Use_of_Chemical_Weapons" title="Authorization for the Use of Military Force Against the Government of Syria to Respond to Use of Chemical Weapons"> Syria Resolution</a></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> 2018–2019 <a href="/wiki/Saudi_Arabian%E2%80%93led_intervention_in_Yemen" class="mw-redirect" title="Saudi Arabian–led intervention in Yemen">Yemen</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-bottom:1.4em;"> <a href="/wiki/War_Powers_Resolution#Yemen,_2018–2019" title="War Powers Resolution">Yemen War Powers Resolution</a></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar" style="padding-top:0.2em; border-top:1px solid #aaa;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:U.S._congressional_opposition_to_war" title="Template:U.S. congressional opposition to war"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:U.S._congressional_opposition_to_war" title="Template talk:U.S. congressional opposition to war"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:U.S._congressional_opposition_to_war" title="Special:EditPage/Template:U.S. congressional opposition to war"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>Neutrality Acts</b> were a series of acts passed by the <a href="/wiki/US_Congress" class="mw-redirect" title="US Congress">US Congress</a> in 1935, 1936, 1937, and 1939 in response to the growing threats and wars that led to <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>. They were spurred by the growth in <a href="/wiki/Isolationism" title="Isolationism">isolationism</a> and <a href="/wiki/United_States_non-interventionism" title="United States non-interventionism">non-interventionism</a> in the US following the <a href="/wiki/United_States_in_World_War_I" title="United States in World War I">US joining World War I</a>, and they sought to ensure that the US would not become entangled again in foreign conflicts. </p><p>The legacy of the Neutrality Acts is widely regarded as having been generally negative since they made no distinction between aggressor and victim, treating both equally as <a href="/wiki/Belligerents" class="mw-redirect" title="Belligerents">belligerents</a>, and limited the US government's ability to aid Britain and France against <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a>. The Acts were largely repealed in 1941, in the face of the <a href="/wiki/Lend-Lease_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Lend-Lease Act">Lend-Lease Act</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neutrality_Acts_of_the_1930s&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Nye_Committee" title="Nye Committee">Nye Committee</a> hearings between 1934 and 1936 and several best-selling books of the time, like <a href="/wiki/H._C._Engelbrecht" title="H. C. Engelbrecht">H. C. Engelbrecht</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Merchants_of_death" title="Merchants of death">The Merchants of Death</a></i> (1934), supported the conviction of many Americans that the <a href="/wiki/American_entry_into_World_War_I" title="American entry into World War I">US entry into World War I</a> had been orchestrated by bankers and the <a href="/wiki/Arms_industry" title="Arms industry">arms industry</a> for profit reasons. That strengthened the position of isolationists and non-interventionists in the country.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Powerful forces in the <a href="/wiki/US_Congress" class="mw-redirect" title="US Congress">US Congress</a> pushing for <a href="/wiki/Non-interventionism" title="Non-interventionism">non-interventionism</a> and strong Neutrality Acts were <a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="Republican Party (United States)">Republican</a> Senators <a href="/wiki/William_Edgar_Borah" class="mw-redirect" title="William Edgar Borah">William Edgar Borah</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arthur_H._Vandenberg" class="mw-redirect" title="Arthur H. Vandenberg">Arthur H. Vandenberg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gerald_P._Nye" class="mw-redirect" title="Gerald P. Nye">Gerald P. Nye</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Robert_M._La_Follette,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Robert M. La Follette, Jr.">Robert M. La Follette, Jr.</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-dd_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dd-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but Congressional support for non-interventionism was not limited to the Republican Party. The <a href="/wiki/Ludlow_Amendment" title="Ludlow Amendment">Ludlow Amendment</a>, requiring a public referendum before any declaration of war except in cases of defense against direct attack, was introduced several times without success between 1935 and 1940 by <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_(United_States)" title="Democratic Party (United States)">Democratic</a> Representative <a href="/wiki/Louis_Ludlow" title="Louis Ludlow">Louis Ludlow</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Democratic President <a href="/wiki/Franklin_Roosevelt" class="mw-redirect" title="Franklin Roosevelt">Franklin Roosevelt</a> and especially <a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_State" title="United States Secretary of State">Secretary of State</a> <a href="/wiki/Cordell_Hull" title="Cordell Hull">Cordell Hull</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> were critical of the Neutrality Acts for fear that they would restrict the administration's options to support friendly nations. Even though both the <a href="/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="United States House of Representatives">House</a> and <a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate" title="United States Senate">Senate</a> had large Democratic majorities throughout these years,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> there was enough support for the Neutrality Acts among Democrats (especially Southerners) to ensure their passage. Although congressional support was insufficient to override a presidential veto, Roosevelt felt he could not afford to snub the South and anger public opinion, especially while he was <a href="/wiki/1936_United_States_presidential_election" title="1936 United States presidential election">facing re-election in 1936</a> and needed congressional co-operation on domestic issues. With considerable reluctance, Roosevelt signed the Neutrality Acts into law.<sup id="cite_ref-sd_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sd-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Neutrality_Act_of_1935">Neutrality Act of 1935</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neutrality_Acts_of_the_1930s&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Neutrality Act of 1935"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Roosevelt's State Department had lobbied for embargo provisions that would allow the president to impose sanctions selectively.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> This was rejected by Congress.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The 1935 act, passed by Congress on August 31, 1935,<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> imposed a general embargo on trading in arms and war materials with all parties in a war.<sup id="cite_ref-isbn=9780198784623_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-isbn=9780198784623-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It also declared that American citizens traveling on warring ships traveled at their own risk. The act was set to expire after six months. When Congress passed the Neutrality Act of 1935, the State Department established an office to enforce the provisions of the Act. The Office of Arms and Munitions Control, renamed the Division of Controls in 1939 when the office was expanded, initially consisted of <a href="/wiki/Joseph_C._Green" title="Joseph C. Green">Joseph C. Green</a> and <a href="/wiki/Charles_W._Yost" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles W. Yost">Charles W. Yost</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Roosevelt invoked the act after <a href="/wiki/Second_Italo-Abyssinian_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Italo-Abyssinian War">Italy's invasion of Ethiopia</a> in October 1935, preventing all arms and ammunition shipments to Italy and Ethiopia. He also declared a "moral embargo" against the belligerents, covering trade not falling under the Neutrality Act.<sup id="cite_ref-en_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-en-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Neutrality_Act_of_1936">Neutrality Act of 1936</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neutrality_Acts_of_the_1930s&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Neutrality Act of 1936"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Neutrality Act of 1936,<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> passed in February of that year, renewed the provisions of the 1935 act for another 14 months. It also forbade all loans or credits to belligerents. </p><p>However, this act did not cover "civil wars", such as <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Civil_War" title="Spanish Civil War">that in Spain (1936–1939)</a>, nor did it cover materials used in civilian life such as trucks and oil. U.S. companies such as <a href="/wiki/Texaco" title="Texaco">Texaco</a>, <a href="/wiki/Standard_Oil" title="Standard Oil">Standard Oil</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ford_Motor_Company" title="Ford Motor Company">Ford</a>, <a href="/wiki/General_Motors" title="General Motors">General Motors</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Studebaker" title="Studebaker">Studebaker</a> sold such items to the Nationalists under <a href="/wiki/Francisco_Franco" title="Francisco Franco">General Franco</a> on credit. By 1939, Spain owed these and other companies more than $100,000,000.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (August 2020)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Neutrality_Act_of_1937">Neutrality Act of 1937</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neutrality_Acts_of_the_1930s&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Neutrality Act of 1937"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In January 1937, Congress passed a <a href="/wiki/Joint_resolution" title="Joint resolution">joint resolution</a> outlawing the arms trade with Spain. The Neutrality Act of 1937<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was passed in May and included the provisions of the earlier acts, this time without expiration date, and extended them to cover civil wars as well.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, U.S. ships were prohibited from transporting any passengers or articles to belligerents, and U.S. citizens were forbidden from traveling on ships of belligerent nations.<sup id="cite_ref-isbn=9780198784623_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-isbn=9780198784623-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a concession to Roosevelt, a "<a href="/wiki/Cash_and_carry_(World_War_II)" title="Cash and carry (World War II)">cash-and-carry</a>" provision that had been devised by his advisor <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Baruch" title="Bernard Baruch">Bernard Baruch</a> was added:<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> the president could permit the sale of materials and supplies to belligerents in Europe as long as the recipients arranged for the transport and paid immediately with cash, with the argument that this would not draw the U.S. into the conflict. Roosevelt believed that cash-and-carry would aid France and Great Britain in the event of a war with Germany, since they were the only countries that controlled the seas and were able to take advantage of the provision.<sup id="cite_ref-sd_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sd-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The cash-and-carry clause was set to expire after two years.<sup id="cite_ref-isbn=9780198784623_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-isbn=9780198784623-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Japan</a> invaded <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%9349)" class="mw-redirect" title="Republic of China (1912–49)">China</a> in July 1937, starting the <a href="/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Second Sino-Japanese War">Second Sino-Japanese War</a>. President Roosevelt, who supported the Chinese side, chose not to invoke the Neutrality Acts since the parties had not formally declared war. In so doing, he ensured that China's efforts to defend itself would not be hindered by the legislation: China was dependent on arms imports and only Japan would have been able to take advantage of cash-and-carry. This outraged the isolationists in Congress who claimed that the spirit of the law was being undermined. Roosevelt stated that he would prohibit American ships from transporting arms to the belligerents, but he allowed British ships to transport American arms to China.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Roosevelt gave his <a href="/wiki/Quarantine_Speech" title="Quarantine Speech">Quarantine Speech</a> in October 1937, outlining a move away from neutrality and toward "quarantining" all aggressors. He then imposed a "moral embargo" on exports of aircraft to Japan.<sup id="cite_ref-en_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-en-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Neutrality_Act_of_1939">Neutrality Act of 1939</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neutrality_Acts_of_the_1930s&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Neutrality Act of 1939"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Early in 1939, after <a href="/wiki/German_occupation_of_Czechoslovakia" class="mw-redirect" title="German occupation of Czechoslovakia">Nazi Germany had invaded Czechoslovakia</a>, Roosevelt lobbied Congress to have the cash-and-carry provision renewed. He was rebuffed, the provision lapsed, and the mandatory arms embargo remained in place.<sup id="cite_ref-isbn=9780198784623_7-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-isbn=9780198784623-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Treasures_of_Congress_-_Postcard_against_amending_the_Neutrality_Act_I.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Treasures_of_Congress_-_Postcard_against_amending_the_Neutrality_Act_I.jpg/200px-Treasures_of_Congress_-_Postcard_against_amending_the_Neutrality_Act_I.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Treasures_of_Congress_-_Postcard_against_amending_the_Neutrality_Act_I.jpg/300px-Treasures_of_Congress_-_Postcard_against_amending_the_Neutrality_Act_I.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Treasures_of_Congress_-_Postcard_against_amending_the_Neutrality_Act_I.jpg/400px-Treasures_of_Congress_-_Postcard_against_amending_the_Neutrality_Act_I.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="301" /></a><figcaption>Postcard sent to a Congressman opposing the Neutrality Act of 1939</figcaption></figure> <p>In September 1939, after <a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Poland" title="Invasion of Poland">Germany had invaded Poland</a>, the United Kingdom and France declared war on Germany. Roosevelt invoked the provisions of the Neutrality Act but came before Congress and lamented that the Neutrality Acts may give passive aid to an aggressor country.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Congress was divided. Republican Senator <a href="/wiki/Gerald_Nye" title="Gerald Nye">Gerald Nye</a> wanted to broaden the embargo, and other isolationists like Vandenberg and <a href="/wiki/Hiram_Johnson" title="Hiram Johnson">Hiram Johnson</a> vowed to fight "from hell to breakfast" Roosevelt's desire to loosen the embargo. An "outstanding Republican leader" who supported helping nations under attack, however, told <a href="/wiki/H._V._Kaltenborn" title="H. V. Kaltenborn">H. V. Kaltenborn</a> that the embargo was futile because a neutral country like Italy could buy from the US and sell its own weapons to Germany, while US companies would relocate factories to Canada.<sup id="cite_ref-kaltenborn19390922_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kaltenborn19390922-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Roosevelt prevailed over the isolationists, and on November 4, he signed the Neutrality Act of 1939 into law,<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> allowing for arms trade with belligerent nations (Great Britain and France) on a <a href="/wiki/Cash_and_carry_(World_War_II)" title="Cash and carry (World War II)">cash-and-carry</a> basis, thus in effect ending the arms embargo. Furthermore, the Neutrality Acts of 1935 and 1937 were repealed, American citizens and ships were barred from entering war zones designated by the president, and the National Munitions Control Board (which had been created by the 1935 Neutrality Act) was charged with issuing licenses for all arms imports and exports. Arms trade without a license became a federal crime.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="End_of_neutrality_policy">End of neutrality policy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neutrality_Acts_of_the_1930s&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: End of neutrality policy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The end of neutrality policy came in September 1940 with the <a href="/wiki/Destroyers-for-bases_deal" title="Destroyers-for-bases deal">Destroyers-for-bases deal</a>, an agreement to transfer 50 <a href="/wiki/United_States_Navy" title="United States Navy">US Navy</a> destroyers to the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Navy" title="Royal Navy">Royal Navy</a> in exchange for land rights on <a href="/wiki/British_possessions" class="mw-redirect" title="British possessions">British possessions</a>. This was followed by the <a href="/wiki/Lend-Lease_program" class="mw-redirect" title="Lend-Lease program">Lend-Lease Act</a> of March 1941, which allowed the U.S. to sell, lend or give war materials to nations Roosevelt wanted to support: Britain, France, and China.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After repeated incidents in the Atlantic between <a href="/wiki/U-boat" title="U-boat">German submarines</a> and U.S. ships, Roosevelt announced on September 11, 1941, that he had ordered the U.S. Navy to attack German and Italian war vessels in the "waters which we deem necessary for our defense". This order effectively declared naval war on Germany and Italy.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following the sinking of the U.S. destroyer <a href="/wiki/USS_Reuben_James_(DD-245)" title="USS Reuben James (DD-245)"><i>Reuben James</i></a> while she dropped depth charges on German U-boats on October 31, many of the provisions of the Neutrality Acts were repealed on November 17, 1941.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a result, merchant vessels were allowed to be armed and to carry any cargoes to belligerent nations. </p><p>On December 4, 1941, the US press published <a href="/wiki/Rainbow_Five" class="mw-redirect" title="Rainbow Five">Rainbow Five</a>, a leaked plan outlining US war strategy.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The U.S. formally declared war on Japan on December 8, 1941, following the <a href="/wiki/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor" title="Attack on Pearl Harbor">attack on Pearl Harbor</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Japanese_declaration_of_war_on_the_United_States_and_the_British_Empire" title="Japanese declaration of war on the United States and the British Empire">Japanese declaration of war</a> of the previous day; <a href="/wiki/German_declaration_of_war_against_the_United_States" title="German declaration of war against the United States">Germany and Italy declared war on the U.S.</a> on December 11, 1941, and the <a href="/wiki/United_States_declaration_of_war_on_Germany_(1941)" title="United States declaration of war on Germany (1941)">U.S. responded with a declaration of war</a> on the same day.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Subsequent_application">Subsequent application</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neutrality_Acts_of_the_1930s&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Subsequent application"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The provision against unlicensed arms trades of the 1939 act remains in force.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1948, <a href="/wiki/Charles_Winters" title="Charles Winters">Charles Winters</a>, <a href="/wiki/Al_Schwimmer" title="Al Schwimmer">Al Schwimmer</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Hank_Greenspun" title="Hank Greenspun">Herman Greenspun</a> were convicted under the 1939 Act after smuggling <a href="/wiki/B-17_Flying_Fortress" class="mw-redirect" title="B-17 Flying Fortress">B-17 Flying Fortress</a> bombers from Florida to the nascent state of <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a> during the <a href="/wiki/1948_Arab%E2%80%93Israeli_War" title="1948 Arab–Israeli War">1948 Arab–Israeli War</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Winters was sentenced to 18 months in prison and fined $5,000, while Schwimmer and Greenspun were each fined $10,000. Schwimmer was also stripped of his voting rights and veteran benefits.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>All three received <a href="/wiki/Presidential_pardon" class="mw-redirect" title="Presidential pardon">presidential pardons</a> in subsequent decades. Greenspun was pardoned by <a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy" title="John F. Kennedy">John F. Kennedy</a> in 1961, Schwimmer was pardoned by <a href="/wiki/Bill_Clinton" title="Bill Clinton">Bill Clinton</a> in 2001, and Winters was pardoned by <a href="/wiki/George_W._Bush" title="George W. Bush">George W. Bush</a> in 2008.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neutrality_Acts_of_the_1930s&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFHerman2012" class="citation book cs1">Herman, Arthur (2012). <i>Freedom's Forge: How American Business Produced Victory in World War II</i>. New York: Random House. pp. 6, 12, 79. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4000-6964-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4000-6964-4"><bdi>978-1-4000-6964-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Freedom%27s+Forge%3A+How+American+Business+Produced+Victory+in+World+War+II&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=6%2C+12%2C+79&rft.pub=Random+House&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-4000-6964-4&rft.aulast=Herman&rft.aufirst=Arthur&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeutrality+Acts+of+the+1930s" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-dd-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-dd_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDelaney" class="citation cs2">Delaney, David G, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090211234409/http://www.novelguide.com/a/discover/mac_03/mac_03_00231.html"><i>Neutrality Acts</i></a>, Novel guide, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.novelguide.com/a/discover/mac_03/mac_03_00231.html">the original</a> on February 11, 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 5,</span> 2008</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Neutrality+Acts&rft.pub=Novel+guide&rft.aulast=Delaney&rft.aufirst=David+G&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.novelguide.com%2Fa%2Fdiscover%2Fmac_03%2Fmac_03_00231.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeutrality+Acts+of+the+1930s" class="Z3988"></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBolt1977" class="citation book cs1">Bolt, Ernest C. Jr. (1977). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ballotsbeforebul0000bolt/page/152">"The Ludlow Amendment and Fortress Defense"</a>. <i>Ballots before Bullets: The War Referendum Approach to Peace in America, 1914–1941</i>. University Press of Virginia. pp. <span class="nowrap">152–</span>185. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780813906621" title="Special:BookSources/9780813906621"><bdi>9780813906621</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Ludlow+Amendment+and+Fortress+Defense&rft.btitle=Ballots+before+Bullets%3A+The+War+Referendum+Approach+to+Peace+in+America%2C+1914%E2%80%931941&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E152-%3C%2Fspan%3E185&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Virginia&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=9780813906621&rft.aulast=Bolt&rft.aufirst=Ernest+C.+Jr.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fballotsbeforebul0000bolt%2Fpage%2F152&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeutrality+Acts+of+the+1930s" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-sd-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-sd_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-sd_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://2001-2009.state.gov/r/pa/ho/time/id/99849.htm">"The Neutrality Acts, 1930s"</a>. US: State Department. January 30, 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 5,</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Neutrality+Acts%2C+1930s&rft.place=US&rft.pub=State+Department&rft.date=2008-01-30&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2F2001-2009.state.gov%2Fr%2Fpa%2Fho%2Ftime%2Fid%2F99849.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeutrality+Acts+of+the+1930s" class="Z3988"></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://history.state.gov/milestones/1921-1936/neutrality-acts#:~:text=On%20August%2031%2C%201935%2C%20Congress,apply%20for%20an%20export%20license.">"Milestones: 1921–1936 – Office of the Historian"</a>. <i>history.state.gov</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 29,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=history.state.gov&rft.atitle=Milestones%3A+1921%E2%80%931936+%26ndash%3B%26%2332%3BOffice+of+the+Historian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhistory.state.gov%2Fmilestones%2F1921-1936%2Fneutrality-acts%23%3A~%3Atext%3DOn%2520August%252031%252C%25201935%252C%2520Congress%2Capply%2520for%2520an%2520export%2520license.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeutrality+Acts+of+the+1930s" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Public Resolution 67, 74th Congress, 49 <a href="/wiki/United_States_Statutes_at_Large" title="United States Statutes at Large">Stat.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://legislink.org/us/stat-49-1081">1081</a> of August 31, 1935</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-isbn=9780198784623-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-isbn=9780198784623_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-isbn=9780198784623_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-isbn=9780198784623_7-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-isbn=9780198784623_7-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrauke_LachenmannRüdiger_Wolfrum2017" class="citation book cs1">Frauke Lachenmann; Rüdiger Wolfrum (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=boWuDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA176"><i>The Law of Armed Conflict and the Use of Force: The Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law</i></a>. Oxford UP. p. 176. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780198784623" title="Special:BookSources/9780198784623"><bdi>9780198784623</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Law+of+Armed+Conflict+and+the+Use+of+Force%3A+The+Max+Planck+Encyclopedia+of+Public+International+Law&rft.pages=176&rft.pub=Oxford+UP&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=9780198784623&rft.au=Frauke+Lachenmann&rft.au=R%C3%BCdiger+Wolfrum&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DboWuDQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA176&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeutrality+Acts+of+the+1930s" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-en-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-en_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-en_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCombs2002" class="citation web cs1">Combs, Jerald A. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.americanforeignrelations.com/E-N/Embargoes-and-Sanctions.html">"Embargoes and Sanctions"</a>. <i>Encyclopedia of American Foreign Policy</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclopedia+of+American+Foreign+Policy&rft.atitle=Embargoes+and+Sanctions&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Combs&rft.aufirst=Jerald+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.americanforeignrelations.com%2FE-N%2FEmbargoes-and-Sanctions.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeutrality+Acts+of+the+1930s" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Public Resolution 74, 74th Congress, 49 <a href="/wiki/United_States_Statutes_at_Large" title="United States Statutes at Large">Stat.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://legislink.org/us/stat-49-1152">1152</a> of February 29, 1936</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnderson2003" class="citation book cs1">Anderson, James M. (2003). <i>The Spanish Civil War: A History and Reference Guide</i>. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-32274-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-32274-7"><bdi>978-0-313-32274-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Spanish+Civil+War%3A+A+History+and+Reference+Guide&rft.place=Westport%2C+Connecticut&rft.pub=Greenwood+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-313-32274-7&rft.aulast=Anderson&rft.aufirst=James+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeutrality+Acts+of+the+1930s" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Public Resolution 27, 75th Congress, 50 <a href="/wiki/United_States_Statutes_at_Large" title="United States Statutes at Large">Stat.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://legislink.org/us/stat-50-121">121</a> of May 1, 1937</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKennedy1999" class="citation book cs1">Kennedy, David M. (1999). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/freedomfromfeara00kenn"><i>Freedom From Fear: The American People in Depression and War, 1929–1945</i></a></span>. New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-503834-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-503834-7"><bdi>978-0-19-503834-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Freedom+From+Fear%3A+The+American+People+in+Depression+and+War%2C+1929%E2%80%931945&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-19-503834-7&rft.aulast=Kennedy&rft.aufirst=David+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffreedomfromfeara00kenn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeutrality+Acts+of+the+1930s" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPowaski1991" class="citation cs2">Powaski, Ronald E (1991), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZDAoVZqHwocC&pg=PA72"><i>Toward an Entangling Alliance: American Isolationism, Internationalism, and Europe, 1901–1950</i></a>, Westport: Greenwood, p. 72, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780313272745" title="Special:BookSources/9780313272745"><bdi>9780313272745</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Toward+an+Entangling+Alliance%3A+American+Isolationism%2C+Internationalism%2C+and+Europe%2C+1901%E2%80%931950&rft.place=Westport&rft.pages=72&rft.pub=Greenwood&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=9780313272745&rft.aulast=Powaski&rft.aufirst=Ronald+E&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZDAoVZqHwocC%26pg%3DPA72&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeutrality+Acts+of+the+1930s" class="Z3988"></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/fdr-urges-repeal-of-neutrality-act-embargo-provisions">"September 21, 1939: FDR urges repeal of Neutrality Act embargo provisions"</a>. History.com<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 4,</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=September+21%2C+1939%3A+FDR+urges+repeal+of+Neutrality+Act+embargo+provisions&rft.pub=History.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.history.com%2Fthis-day-in-history%2Ffdr-urges-repeal-of-neutrality-act-embargo-provisions&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeutrality+Acts+of+the+1930s" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-kaltenborn19390922-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-kaltenborn19390922_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKaltenborn1939" class="citation audio-visual cs1">Kaltenborn, H. V. (September 22, 1939). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/1939RadioNews/1939-09-22-CBS-H-V-Kaltenborn-Commentary.mp3"><i>CBS H. V. Kaltenborn Commentary</i></a> (Radio).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=CBS+H.+V.+Kaltenborn+Commentary&rft.date=1939-09-22&rft.aulast=Kaltenborn&rft.aufirst=H.+V.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2F1939RadioNews%2F1939-09-22-CBS-H-V-Kaltenborn-Commentary.mp3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeutrality+Acts+of+the+1930s" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKennedy2001" class="citation book cs1">Kennedy, David M. (2001). <i>Freedom from Fear: The American People in Depression and War, 1929–1945</i>. Oxford University Press. p. 433. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0195144031" title="Special:BookSources/978-0195144031"><bdi>978-0195144031</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Freedom+from+Fear%3A+The+American+People+in+Depression+and+War%2C+1929%E2%80%931945&rft.pages=433&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0195144031&rft.aulast=Kennedy&rft.aufirst=David+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeutrality+Acts+of+the+1930s" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Public Resolution 54, 76th Congress, 54 <a href="/wiki/United_States_Statutes_at_Large" title="United States Statutes at Large">Stat.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://legislink.org/us/stat-54-4">4</a> of November 4, 1939</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/law/help/statutes-at-large/77th-congress/session-1/c77s1ch473.pdf">Joint Resolution To Repeal Sections 2, 3, and 6 of the Neutrality Act of 1939, and for Other Purposes, 17 November 1941</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrinkleyRubel2003" class="citation book cs1">Brinkley, Douglas; Rubel, David (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4LnoQgC4GKQC&pg=PA99"><i>World War II: The Axis Assault, 1939–1942</i></a>. Macmillan. pp. <span class="nowrap">99–</span>106. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780805072464" title="Special:BookSources/9780805072464"><bdi>9780805072464</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=World+War+II%3A+The+Axis+Assault%2C+1939%E2%80%931942&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E99-%3C%2Fspan%3E106&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=9780805072464&rft.aulast=Brinkley&rft.aufirst=Douglas&rft.au=Rubel%2C+David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4LnoQgC4GKQC%26pg%3DPA99&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeutrality+Acts+of+the+1930s" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Warren_F._Kimball" class="mw-redirect" title="Warren F. Kimball">Warren F. Kimball</a>, <i>The Most Unsordid Act: Lend-Lease, 1939–1941</i> (Johns Hopkins Univ Pr, 1969) ch 1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Burns, James MacGregor (1970). <i>Roosevelt: The Soldier of Freedom</i>. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. hdl:2027/heb.00626. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-15-678870-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-15-678870-0">978-0-15-678870-0</a>. pp. 141–142</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fdrlibrary.marist.edu/daybyday/event/november-1941-4/">"November, 1941 – FDR: Day by Day"</a>. <i>FDR: Day by Day</i>. <a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt_Presidential_Library_and_Museum" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library and Museum">Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library and Museum</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 29,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=FDR%3A+Day+by+Day&rft.atitle=November%2C+1941+%E2%80%93+FDR%3A+Day+by+Day&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fdrlibrary.marist.edu%2Fdaybyday%2Fevent%2Fnovember-1941-4%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeutrality+Acts+of+the+1930s" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.upi.com/Archives/1987/12/02/Historian-FDR-probably-engineered-famous-WWII-plans-leak/4189565419600/">"Historian: FDR probably engineered famous WWII plans leak"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Historian%3A+FDR+probably+engineered+famous+WWII+plans+leak&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.upi.com%2FArchives%2F1987%2F12%2F02%2FHistorian-FDR-probably-engineered-famous-WWII-plans-leak%2F4189565419600%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeutrality+Acts+of+the+1930s" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKluckhorn1941" class="citation news cs1">Kluckhorn, Frank (December 12, 1941). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1941/12/12/issue.html">"War Opened on US"</a>. <i>New York Times</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 12,</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+York+Times&rft.atitle=War+Opened+on+US&rft.date=1941-12-12&rft.aulast=Kluckhorn&rft.aufirst=Frank&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftimesmachine.nytimes.com%2Ftimesmachine%2F1941%2F12%2F12%2Fissue.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeutrality+Acts+of+the+1930s" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Title_22_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 22 of the United States Code">22 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/22/441">§ 441</a> (notes)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLichtblau2008" class="citation news cs1">Lichtblau, Eric (December 24, 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2008/12/24/washington/24pardons.html">"Jailed for Aiding Israel, but Pardoned by Bush"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. p. A1<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 28,</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Jailed+for+Aiding+Israel%2C+but+Pardoned+by+Bush&rft.pages=A1&rft.date=2008-12-24&rft.aulast=Lichtblau&rft.aufirst=Eric&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2008%2F12%2F24%2Fwashington%2F24pardons.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeutrality+Acts+of+the+1930s" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_27-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_27-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jta.org/news/article/2008/12/23/1001785/pardon-granted-to-man-who-flew-planes-to-israel">"Pardon granted to man who flew planes to Israel"</a>. Jewish Telegraphic Agency. December 23, 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 23,</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Pardon+granted+to+man+who+flew+planes+to+Israel&rft.date=2008-12-23&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jta.org%2Fnews%2Farticle%2F2008%2F12%2F23%2F1001785%2Fpardon-granted-to-man-who-flew-planes-to-israel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeutrality+Acts+of+the+1930s" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neutrality_Acts_of_the_1930s&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Chambers, John Whiteclay. "The Movies and the Antiwar Debate in America, 1930–1941." <i>Film & History: An Interdisciplinary Journal of Film and Television Studies</i> 36.1 (2006): 44–57.</li> <li>Cortright, David. <i>Peace: A history of movements and ideas</i> (Cambridge UP, 2008), global coverage.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDivine1962" class="citation cs2">Divine, Robert A. (1962), <i>The Illusion of Neutrality</i>, University of Chicago Press, <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/186301491">186301491</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Illusion+of+Neutrality&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1962&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F186301491&rft.aulast=Divine&rft.aufirst=Robert+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeutrality+Acts+of+the+1930s" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Fischer, Klaus P. <i>Hitler and America</i> (U of Pennsylvania Press, 2011).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGarner1937" class="citation cs2">Garner, James W. (1937), "Recent American Neutrality Legislation", <i>International Affairs</i>, <b>16</b> (6): <span class="nowrap">853–</span>869, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2602764">10.2307/2602764</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2602764">2602764</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Affairs&rft.atitle=Recent+American+Neutrality+Legislation&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E853-%3C%2Fspan%3E869&rft.date=1937&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2602764&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2602764%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Garner&rft.aufirst=James+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeutrality+Acts+of+the+1930s" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Jonas, Manfred. <i>Isolationism in America, 1935–1941</i> (Cornell UP, 1966).</li> <li>Reynolds, David. "The United States and European security from Wilson to Kennedy, 1913–1963: A reappraisal of the 'Isolationist' tradition." <i>RUSI Journal</i> 128.2 (1983): 16–24.</li> <li>Rofe, J. Simon, and John M. Thompson. "‘Internationalists in Isolationist times’–Theodore and Franklin Roosevelt and a Rooseveltian Maxim." <i>Journal of Transatlantic Studies</i> 9.1 (2011): 46–62.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neutrality_Acts_of_the_1930s&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; 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