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Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Human+radiation+experiments%22">"Human radiation experiments"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Human+radiation+experiments%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Human+radiation+experiments%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Human+radiation+experiments%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Human+radiation+experiments%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Human+radiation+experiments%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">May 2010</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Globalize plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-globalize" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="Globe icon." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_globe_content.svg/48px-Ambox_globe_content.svg.png" decoding="async" width="48" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_globe_content.svg/73px-Ambox_globe_content.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_globe_content.svg/97px-Ambox_globe_content.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="350" data-file-height="290" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">The examples and perspective in this article <b>deal primarily with the United States and do not represent a <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Countering_systemic_bias" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Countering systemic bias">worldwide view</a> of the subject</b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> You may <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Human_radiation_experiments&action=edit">improve this article</a>, discuss the issue on the <a href="/wiki/Talk:Human_radiation_experiments" title="Talk:Human radiation experiments">talk page</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Article_wizard" title="Wikipedia:Article wizard">create a new article</a>, as appropriate.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">February 2010</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> </div> </div><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Joseph_Hamilton_with_radio_sodium_experiment_97401413.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Joseph_Hamilton_with_radio_sodium_experiment_97401413.jpeg/250px-Joseph_Hamilton_with_radio_sodium_experiment_97401413.jpeg" decoding="async" width="250" height="333" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Joseph_Hamilton_with_radio_sodium_experiment_97401413.jpeg/375px-Joseph_Hamilton_with_radio_sodium_experiment_97401413.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Joseph_Hamilton_with_radio_sodium_experiment_97401413.jpeg/500px-Joseph_Hamilton_with_radio_sodium_experiment_97401413.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="2998" data-file-height="3999" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Joseph_G._Hamilton" class="mw-redirect" title="Joseph G. Hamilton">Joseph G. Hamilton</a> was the primary researcher for the human plutonium experiments done at U.C. San Francisco from 1944 to 1947.<sup id="cite_ref-HPE_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HPE-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hamilton wrote a memo in 1950 discouraging further human experiments because the AEC would be left open "to considerable criticism," since the experiments as proposed had "a little of the <a href="/wiki/Buchenwald" class="mw-redirect" title="Buchenwald">Buchenwald</a> touch."<sup id="cite_ref-Sea_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sea-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Since the discovery of <a href="/wiki/Ionizing_radiation" title="Ionizing radiation">ionizing radiation</a>, a number of <b>human radiation experiments</b> have been performed to understand the effects of ionizing radiation and <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_contamination" title="Radioactive contamination">radioactive contamination</a> on the human body, specifically with the element <a href="/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium">plutonium</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Experiments_performed_in_the_United_States">Experiments performed in the United States</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_radiation_experiments&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Experiments performed in the United States"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Numerous human radiation experiments have been performed in the United States, many of which were funded by various U.S. government agencies<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> such as the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Defense" title="United States Department of Defense">United States Department of Defense</a>, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Atomic_Energy_Commission" title="United States Atomic Energy Commission">United States Atomic Energy Commission</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Public_Health_Service" title="United States Public Health Service">United States Public Health Service</a>. Also involved were several universities, most notably <a href="/wiki/Vanderbilt_University" title="Vanderbilt University">Vanderbilt University</a> involved in several of them. The experiments included: </p> <ul><li>directly <a href="/wiki/The_Plutonium_Files" title="The Plutonium Files">injecting plutonium</a> and other radioactive elements to mostly terminal patients without their consent</li> <li>feeding radioactive traces to children<sup id="cite_ref-pluto_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pluto-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>enlisting doctors to administer radioactive iron to impoverished pregnant women<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>exposing U.S. soldiers and prisoners to high levels of radiation<sup id="cite_ref-pluto_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pluto-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>irradiating the <a href="/wiki/Testicles" class="mw-redirect" title="Testicles">testicles</a> of prisoners, which caused severe <a href="/wiki/Birth_defects" class="mw-redirect" title="Birth defects">birth defects</a><sup id="cite_ref-pluto_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pluto-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>exhuming bodies from graveyards to test them for radiation (without the consent of the families of the deceased)<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>On January 15, 1994, President <a href="/wiki/Bill_Clinton" title="Bill Clinton">Bill Clinton</a> formed the <a href="/wiki/Advisory_Committee_on_Human_Radiation_Experiments" title="Advisory Committee on Human Radiation Experiments">Advisory Committee on Human Radiation Experiments</a> (ACHRE), chaired by Ruth Faden<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> of the Johns Hopkins Berman Institute of Bioethics. One of the primary motivating factors behind his decision to create ACHRE was a step taken by his newly appointed Secretary of Energy, <a href="/wiki/Hazel_O%27Leary" class="mw-redirect" title="Hazel O'Leary">Hazel O'Leary</a>, one of whose first actions on taking the helm of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Energy" title="United States Department of Energy">United States Department of Energy</a> was to announce a new openness policy for the department. The new policy led almost immediately to the release of over 1.6 million pages of classified records. </p><p>These records made clear that since the 1940s, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Atomic_Energy_Commission" title="United States Atomic Energy Commission">Atomic Energy Commission</a> had been sponsoring tests on the effects of radiation on the human body. American citizens who had checked into hospitals for a variety of ailments were secretly injected, without their knowledge, with varying amounts of <a href="/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium">plutonium</a> and other radioactive materials. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Ebb_Cade" title="Ebb Cade">Ebb Cade</a> was an unwilling participant in medical experiments that involved injection of 4.7 micrograms of plutonium on 10 April 1945 at <a href="/wiki/Oak_Ridge,_Tennessee" title="Oak Ridge, Tennessee">Oak Ridge, Tennessee</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This experiment was under the supervision of <a href="/wiki/Harold_Hodge" title="Harold Hodge">Harold Hodge</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most patients thought it was "just another injection," but the secret studies left enough radioactive material in many of the patients' bodies to induce life-threatening conditions. </p><p>Such experiments were not limited to hospital patients, but included other populations such as those set out above, e.g., orphans fed irradiated milk, children injected with radioactive materials, and prisoners in Washington and Oregon state prisons. Much of the experimentation was carried out in order to assess how the human body metabolizes radioactive materials, information that could be used by the Departments of Energy and Defense in <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a> defense and attack planning. </p><p>ACHRE's final report was also a factor in the Department of Energy establishing an Office of Human Radiation Experiments (OHRE) that assured publication of DOE's involvement, by way of its predecessor, the AEC, in Cold War radiation research and experimentation on human subjects. The final report issued by the ACHRE can be found at the Department of Energy's website. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Unethical_human_experimentation_in_the_United_States#Human_radiation_experiments" title="Unethical human experimentation in the United States">Unethical human experimentation in the United States § Human radiation experiments</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Soviet_Union">Soviet Union</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_radiation_experiments&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Soviet Union"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Soviet_nuclear_program" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet nuclear program">Soviet nuclear program</a> involved human experiments on a large scale, including most notably the <a href="/wiki/Totskoye_nuclear_exercise" title="Totskoye nuclear exercise">Totskoye nuclear exercise</a> of 1954 and the experiments conducted at the <a href="/wiki/Semipalatinsk_Test_Site" title="Semipalatinsk Test Site">Semipalatinsk Test Site</a> (1949-1989). As of 1950, there were around 700,000 participants at different levels of the program, half of whom were <a href="/wiki/Gulag" title="Gulag">Gulag</a> prisoners used for radioactivity experiments, as well as the excavation of radioactive ores. Information about the scale, conditions and lethality of those involved in the program is still kept classified by the Russian government and the <a href="/wiki/Rosatom_(Federal_Agency)" class="mw-redirect" title="Rosatom (Federal Agency)">Rosatom</a> agency.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Other_countries">Other countries</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_radiation_experiments&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Other countries"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the <a href="/wiki/Marshall_Islands" title="Marshall Islands">Marshall Islands</a>, indigenous residents and crewmembers of the fishing boat <i><a href="/wiki/Lucky_Dragon_No._5" class="mw-redirect" title="Lucky Dragon No. 5">Lucky Dragon No. 5</a></i> were exposed to the high yields of radioactive testing during the <a href="/wiki/Castle_Bravo" title="Castle Bravo">Castle Bravo explosions</a> conducted at <a href="/wiki/Bikini_Atoll" title="Bikini Atoll">Bikini Atoll</a>. Researchers subsequently exploited this ostensibly "unexpected" turn of events by conducting research on the onset of effects from <a href="/wiki/Radiation_poisoning" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiation poisoning">radiation poisoning</a> as part of <a href="/wiki/Project_4.1" title="Project 4.1">Project 4.1</a>, raising ethical questions as to both the specific incident and the broader phenomenon of testing in populated areas.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Likewise, the Venezuelan geneticist <a href="/wiki/Marcel_Roche" title="Marcel Roche">Marcel Roche</a> was implicated in Patrick Tierney's 2000 publication, <i><a href="/wiki/Darkness_in_El_Dorado" title="Darkness in El Dorado">Darkness in El Dorado</a></i>, for allegedly administering <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_iodine" class="mw-redirect" title="Radioactive iodine">radioactive iodine</a> to indigenous peoples in the <a href="/wiki/Orinoco" title="Orinoco">Orinoco basin</a> of <a href="/wiki/Venezuela" title="Venezuela">Venezuela</a>, such as the <a href="/wiki/Yanomami" title="Yanomami">Yanomami</a> and <a href="/wiki/Makiritare" class="mw-redirect" title="Makiritare">Ye'Kwana</a> peoples, in cooperation with the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Atomic_Energy_Commission" title="United States Atomic Energy Commission">US Atomic Energy Commission (AEC)</a>, possibly with no apparent benefit for the test group and without obtaining proper informed consent. This corresponded to similar administrations of <a href="/wiki/Iodine-124" class="mw-redirect" title="Iodine-124">iodine-124</a> by the French anthropologist <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Lizot" title="Jacques Lizot">Jacques Lizot</a> in cooperation with the <a href="/wiki/Commissariat_%C3%A0_l%27%C3%A9nergie_atomique_et_aux_%C3%A9nergies_alternatives" class="mw-redirect" title="Commissariat à l'énergie atomique et aux énergies alternatives">French Atomic Energy Commission (CEA)</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_radiation_experiments&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Unethical_human_experimentation_in_the_United_States" title="Unethical human experimentation in the United States">Unethical human experimentation in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_SUNSHINE" title="Project SUNSHINE">Project SUNSHINE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_and_radiation_accidents" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear and radiation accidents">Nuclear and radiation accidents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_poisoning" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiation poisoning">Radiation poisoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radioactive_contamination" title="Radioactive contamination">Radioactive contamination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_experimentation" class="mw-redirect" title="Human experimentation">Human experimentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Totskoye_range_nuclear_tests" class="mw-redirect" title="Totskoye range nuclear tests">Totskoye range nuclear tests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_E._Fernald_State_School" class="mw-redirect" title="Walter E. Fernald State School">Walter E. Fernald State School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_M._Gates_Jr." title="James M. Gates Jr.">James M. Gates Jr.</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes_and_references">Notes and references</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_radiation_experiments&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Notes and references"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-HPE-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-HPE_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFMossEckhardt1995" class="citation journal cs1">Moss, William; Eckhardt, Roger (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fas.org/sgp/othergov/doe/lanl/pubs/00326640.pdf">"The Human Plutonium Injection Experiments"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Los Alamos Science</i>. Radiation Protection and the Human Radiation Experiments (23): 177–223<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 November</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Los+Alamos+Science&rft.atitle=The+Human+Plutonium+Injection+Experiments&rft.issue=23&rft.pages=177-223&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Moss&rft.aufirst=William&rft.au=Eckhardt%2C+Roger&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fas.org%2Fsgp%2Fothergov%2Fdoe%2Flanl%2Fpubs%2F00326640.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+radiation+experiments" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sea-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Sea_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"The Media & Me: <i>[The Radiation Story No One Would Touch]", Geoffrey Sea, </i><a href="/wiki/Columbia_Journalism_Review" title="Columbia Journalism Review">Columbia Journalism Review</a><i>, March/April 1994.</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">U.S. House of Representatives, Committee on Energy and Commerce, Subcommittee on Energy Conservation and Power. American Nuclear Guinea Pigs: Three Decades of Radiation Experiments on US. Citizens. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 June</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=U.S.+NUCLEAR+TESTING+ON+THE+MARSHALL+ISLANDS%3A+1946+TO+1958&rft.pub=University+of+Guam&rft.aulast=Skoog&rft.aufirst=Kim&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.uvu.edu%2Fethics%2Fseac%2FUS%2520Nuclear%2520Testing%2520on%2520the%2520Marshal%2520Islands.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+radiation+experiments" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160303222154/http://anthroniche.com/darkness_documents/0352.htm">"Research in the rainforest"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://anthroniche.com/darkness_documents/0352.htm">the original</a> on 2016-03-03<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-06-26</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Research+in+the+rainforest&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fanthroniche.com%2Fdarkness_documents%2F0352.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+radiation+experiments" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160303221345/http://anthroniche.com/darkness_documents/0470.htm">"Ethical Issues Raised by Patrick Tierney's Darkness in El Dorado"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://anthroniche.com/darkness_documents/0470.htm">the original</a> on 2016-03-03<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-06-26</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Ethical+Issues+Raised+by+Patrick+Tierney%27s+Darkness+in+El+Dorado&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fanthroniche.com%2Fdarkness_documents%2F0470.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+radiation+experiments" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_radiation_experiments&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><i>Killing Our Own: The disaster of America's experience with atomic radiation</i>, by Harvey Wasserman, Delacorte Press, c1992, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-440-04567-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-440-04567-0">978-0-440-04567-0</a></li> <li><i>The Treatment: The Story of Those Who Died in the Cincinnati Radiation Tests</i>, by Martha Stephens, <a href="/wiki/Duke_University" title="Duke University">Duke University</a> Press, c2002, Durham, N.C., <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8223-2811-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-8223-2811-9">0-8223-2811-9</a></li> <li><i>Bravo for the Marshallese: Regaining Control in a Post-Nuclear, Post-Colonial World</i>, by Holly M. Barker, Wadsworth, 2004. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-534-61326-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-534-61326-8">0-534-61326-8</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/kennedy_institute_of_ethics_journal/v006/6.3faden.html,">Chair's Perspective on the Work of the Advisory Committee on Human Radiation Experiments</a> by <a href="/wiki/Ruth_Faden" title="Ruth Faden">Ruth Faden</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_radiation_experiments&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sehd.scot.nhs.uk/scotorgrev/Documents/Project%20Sunshine%20%20slippery%20slope.pdf">PROJECT SUNSHINE AND THE SLIPPERY SLOPE</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171215161304/http://www.sehd.scot.nhs.uk/scotorgrev/Documents/Project">Archived</a> 2017-12-15 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20130222164701/http://www.antenna.nl/wise/index.html?http://www.antenna.nl/wise/548/5272.html">The nuclear bodysnatchers</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050115182146/http://www.theecologist.org/archive_article.html?article=125&category=79">Grave injustices</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/reviews_in_american_history/v028/28.4markowitz.html">"A Little of the Buchenwald Touch": America's Secret Radiation Experiments</a></li> <li>Cheryl Welsh, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thebulletin.org/web-edition/op-eds/outlaw-nonconsensual-human-experiments-now"><i>Outlaw nonconsensual human experiments now</i></a> The Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, June 16, 2009.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160424042410/http://www.rmiembassyus.org/Nuclear%20Issues.htm">Embassy of the Republic of the Marshall Islands</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl 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