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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ancient_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Ancient history </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Ancient_history-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Ancient history subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Ancient_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Punic_Republic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Punic_Republic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Punic Republic </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Punic_Republic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Salting_legend" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Salting_legend"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.1 Salting legend </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Salting_legend-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Roman_Carthage" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Roman_Carthage"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Roman Carthage </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Roman_Carthage-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Islamic_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Islamic_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Islamic period </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Islamic_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Modern history </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Modern_history-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Modern history subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Modern_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Archaeological_sites" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Archaeological_sites"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Archaeological sites </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Archaeological_sites-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Climate_change" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Climate_change"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1.1 Climate change </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Climate_change-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Commune" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Commune"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Commune </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Commune-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Trade_and_business" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Trade_and_business"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Trade and business </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Trade_and_business-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Constitution_of_state" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Constitution_of_state"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Constitution of state </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Constitution_of_state-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Contemporary_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Contemporary_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Contemporary sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Contemporary_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_art_and_literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_art_and_literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 In art and literature </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_art_and_literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.1 Sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Carthage</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 103 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-103" aria-hidden="true" > 103 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kartago" title="Kartago – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Kartago" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karthago" title="Karthago – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Karthago" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ang mw-list-item"><a href="https://ang.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartaina" title="Cartaina – Old English" lang="ang" hreflang="ang" data-title="Cartaina" data-language-autonym="Ænglisc" data-language-local-name="Old English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ænglisc</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%B1%D8%B7%D8%A7%D8%AC" title="قرطاج – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="قرطاج" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arc mw-list-item"><a href="https://arc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DC%A9%DC%AA%DC%AC%DC%90%DC%93%DC%98" title="ܩܪܬܐܓܘ – Aramaic" lang="arc" hreflang="arc" data-title="ܩܪܬܐܓܘ" data-language-autonym="ܐܪܡܝܐ" data-language-local-name="Aramaic" class="interlanguage-link-target">ܐܪܡܝܐ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hyw mw-list-item"><a href="https://hyw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BF%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%A9%D5%A1%D5%A3%D5%A7%D5%B6" title="Կարթագէն – Western Armenian" lang="hyw" hreflang="hyw" data-title="Կարթագէն" data-language-autonym="Արեւմտահայերէն" data-language-local-name="Western Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Արեւմտահայերէն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartago" title="Cartago – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Cartago" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karfagen" title="Karfagen – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Karfagen" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AA%D8%A7%DA%98" title="کارتاژ – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="کارتاژ" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bm mw-list-item"><a href="https://bm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kartaje" title="Kartaje – Bambara" lang="bm" hreflang="bm" data-title="Kartaje" data-language-autonym="Bamanankan" data-language-local-name="Bambara" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bamanankan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A5%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%9C" title="কার্থেজ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="কার্থেজ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carthago" title="Carthago – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Carthago" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%84%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BD_(%D0%B3%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B4)" title="Карфаген (горад) – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Карфаген (горад)" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BD" title="Картаген – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Картаген" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bo mw-list-item"><a href="https://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%85%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%90%E0%BD%A0%E0%BD%BA%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%85%E0%BD%B2%E0%BC%8D" title="ཅ་ཐའེ་ཅི། – Tibetan" lang="bo" hreflang="bo" data-title="ཅ་ཐའེ་ཅི།" data-language-autonym="བོད་ཡིག" data-language-local-name="Tibetan" class="interlanguage-link-target">བོད་ཡིག</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kartaga" title="Kartaga – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Kartaga" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kartada" title="Kartada – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Kartada" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartago" title="Cartago – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Cartago" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kartago" title="Kartago – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Kartago" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cebuano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kart%C3%A1go" title="Kartágo – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Kartágo" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carthago" title="Carthago – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Carthago" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karthago" title="Karthago – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Karthago" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%B1%D8%B7%D8%A7%D8%AC" title="قرطاج – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="قرطاج" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">الدارجة</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karthago" title="Karthago – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Karthago" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kartaago" title="Kartaago – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Kartaago" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9A%CE%B1%CF%81%CF%87%CE%B7%CE%B4%CF%8C%CE%BD%CE%B1" title="Καρχηδόνα – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Καρχηδόνα" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartago" title="Cartago – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Cartago" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kartago" title="Kartago – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Kartago" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kartago" title="Kartago – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Kartago" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AA%D8%A7%DA%98" title="کارتاژ – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="کارتاژ" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karthago" title="Karthago – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Karthago" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Føroyskt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carthage" title="Carthage – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Carthage" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kartago" title="Kartago – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Kartago" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Chartaig" title="An Chartaig – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="An Chartaig" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartago" title="Cartago – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Cartago" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%B9%B4%EB%A5%B4%ED%83%80%EA%B3%A0" title="카르타고 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="카르타고" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BF%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%A9%D5%A1%D5%A3%D5%A5%D5%B6_(%D6%84%D5%A1%D5%B2%D5%A1%D6%84)" title="Կարթագեն (քաղաք) – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Կարթագեն (քաղաք)" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%9C" title="कार्थेज – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="कार्थेज" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kartaga" title="Kartaga – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Kartaga" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kartago" title="Kartago – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Kartago" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kartago" title="Kartago – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Kartago" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kar%C3%BEag%C3%B3" title="Karþagó – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Karþagó" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartagine" title="Cartagine – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Cartagine" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A7%D7%A8%D7%AA%D7%92%D7%95" title="קרתגו – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="קרתגו" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kartago" title="Kartago – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Kartago" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%99%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%97%E1%83%90%E1%83%92%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98" title="კართაგენი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="კართაგენი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%84%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BD" title="Карфаген – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Карфаген" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karthago" title="Karthago – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Karthago" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kartaca" title="Kartaca – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Kartaca" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%84%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BD" title="Карфаген – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Карфаген" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lad mw-list-item"><a href="https://lad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kartago" title="Kartago – Ladino" lang="lad" hreflang="lad" data-title="Kartago" data-language-autonym="Ladino" data-language-local-name="Ladino" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ladino</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carthago_(urbs)" title="Carthago (urbs) – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Carthago (urbs)" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kart%C4%81ga" title="Kartāga – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Kartāga" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karthago" title="Karthago – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Karthago" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kartagina" title="Kartagina – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Kartagina" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartago" title="Cartago – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Cartago" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karth%C3%A1g%C3%B3" title="Karthágó – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Karthágó" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Картагина – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Картагина" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carthage" title="Carthage – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Carthage" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt mw-list-item"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karta%C4%A1ni" title="Kartaġni – Maltese" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" data-title="Kartaġni" data-language-autonym="Malti" data-language-local-name="Maltese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%99%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%97%E1%83%90%E1%83%92%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98" title="კართაგენი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="კართაგენი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%B1%D8%B7%D8%A7%D8%AC%D9%87" title="قرطاجه – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="قرطاجه" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carthage" title="Carthage – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Carthage" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carthago" title="Carthago – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Carthago" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%84%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BD" title="Карфаген – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Карфаген" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%80%E1%80%AC%E1%80%B8%E1%80%9E%E1%80%B1%E1%80%B7%E1%80%99%E1%80%BC%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%B7" title="ကားသေ့မြို့ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ကားသေ့မြို့" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carthago" title="Carthago – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Carthago" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nap mw-list-item"><a href="https://nap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartagene" title="Cartagene – Neapolitan" lang="nap" hreflang="nap" data-title="Cartagene" data-language-autonym="Napulitano" data-language-local-name="Neapolitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Napulitano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kartago" title="Kartago – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Kartago" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kartago" title="Kartago – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Kartago" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karfagen" title="Karfagen – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Karfagen" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AA%D8%A7%DA%98" title="کارتاژ – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="کارتاژ" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karthago" title="Karthago – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Karthago" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kartagina" title="Kartagina – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Kartagina" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartago" title="Cartago – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Cartago" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa mw-list-item"><a href="https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karfagen" title="Karfagen – Kara-Kalpak" lang="kaa" hreflang="kaa" data-title="Karfagen" data-language-autonym="Qaraqalpaqsha" data-language-local-name="Kara-Kalpak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Qaraqalpaqsha</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%84%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BD_(%D0%B3%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4)" title="Карфаген (город) – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Карфаген (город)" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-skr mw-list-item"><a href="https://skr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%B1%D8%B7%D8%A7%D8%AC%D9%86%DB%81" title="قرطاجنہ – Saraiki" lang="skr" hreflang="skr" data-title="قرطاجنہ" data-language-autonym="سرائیکی" data-language-local-name="Saraiki" class="interlanguage-link-target">سرائیکی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cart%C3%A0gine" title="Cartàgine – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Cartàgine" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sardu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carthage" title="Carthage – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Carthage" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cart%C3%A0ggini" title="Cartàggini – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Cartàggini" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carthage" title="Carthage – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Carthage" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kart%C3%A1go" title="Kartágo – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Kartágo" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kartagina_(mesto)" title="Kartagina (mesto) – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Kartagina (mesto)" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Картагина – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Картагина" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kartaga" title="Kartaga – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Kartaga" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi badge-Q17559452 badge-recommendedarticle mw-list-item" title="recommended article"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karthago" title="Karthago – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Karthago" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karthago" title="Karthago – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Karthago" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kartago" title="Kartago – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Kartago" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%9C%E0%AF%8D" title="கார்த்திஜ் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="கார்த்திஜ்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-shi mw-list-item"><a href="https://shi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taqr%E1%B9%ADajt" title="Taqrṭajt – Tachelhit" lang="shi" hreflang="shi" data-title="Taqrṭajt" data-language-autonym="Taclḥit" data-language-local-name="Tachelhit" class="interlanguage-link-target">Taclḥit</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%98%E0%B8%88" title="คาร์เธจ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="คาร์เธจ" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kartaca" title="Kartaca – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Kartaca" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kcg mw-list-item"><a href="https://kcg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ka%CC%B1ri%CC%B1tago" title="Ka̱ri̱tago – Tyap" lang="kcg" hreflang="kcg" data-title="Ka̱ri̱tago" data-language-autonym="Tyap" data-language-local-name="Tyap" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tyap</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%84%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BD" title="Карфаген – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Карфаген" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%B1%D8%B7%D8%A7%D8%AC%D9%86%DB%81" title="قرطاجنہ – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="قرطاجنہ" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cart%C3%A0zene" title="Cartàzene – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Cartàzene" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" 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</div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" 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div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the historical city. For the Phoenician republic, see <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Carthage" title="Ancient Carthage">Ancient Carthage</a>. For the modern municipality, see <a href="/wiki/Carthage_(municipality)" title="Carthage (municipality)">Carthage (municipality)</a>. For the airport, see <a href="/wiki/Tunis%E2%80%93Carthage_International_Airport" title="Tunis–Carthage International Airport">Tunis–Carthage International Airport</a>. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Carthage_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Carthage (disambiguation)">Carthage (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vcard"><caption class="infobox-title fn org">Carthage</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader"><div class="nickname">𐤒𐤓𐤕𐤟𐤇𐤃𐤔𐤕</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Montage_ville_de_Carthage.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Montage_ville_de_Carthage.png/220px-Montage_ville_de_Carthage.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="257" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Montage_ville_de_Carthage.png/330px-Montage_ville_de_Carthage.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Montage_ville_de_Carthage.png/440px-Montage_ville_de_Carthage.png 2x" data-file-width="1612" data-file-height="1884" /></a><div class="infobox-caption">Top: <a href="/wiki/Acropolium_of_Carthage" title="Acropolium of Carthage">Carthage Saint-Louis Cathedral</a>, Malik-ibn Anas Mosque. Middle: <a href="/wiki/Carthage_Palace" title="Carthage Palace">Carthage Palace</a>. Bottom: <a href="/wiki/Baths_of_Antoninus" title="Baths of Antoninus">Baths of Antoninus</a>, Amphitheatre of Carthage (all items from left to right).</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238443738">.mw-parser-output .locmap .od{position:absolute}.mw-parser-output .locmap .id{position:absolute;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .locmap .l0{font-size:0;position:absolute}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pv{line-height:110%;position:absolute;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pl{line-height:110%;position:absolute;top:-0.75em;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pr{line-height:110%;position:absolute;top:-0.75em;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pv>div{display:inline;padding:1px}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pl>div{display:inline;padding:1px;float:right}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pr>div{display:inline;padding:1px;float:left}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od .pv>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od .pl>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od .pr>div{background:#fff!important;color:#000!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .locmap{filter:grayscale(0.6)}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data .locmap div{background:transparent!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .locmap{filter:grayscale(0.6)}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od .pv>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od .pl>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od .pr>div{background:white!important;color:#000!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data .locmap div{background:transparent!important}}</style><div class="center"><div class="locmap" style="width:250px;float:none;clear:both;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto"><div style="width:250px;padding:0"><div style="position:relative;width:250px"><a href="/wiki/File:Tunisia_adm_location_map.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Carthage is located in Tunisia"><img alt="Carthage is located in Tunisia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Tunisia_adm_location_map.svg/250px-Tunisia_adm_location_map.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="491" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Tunisia_adm_location_map.svg/375px-Tunisia_adm_location_map.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Tunisia_adm_location_map.svg/500px-Tunisia_adm_location_map.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="378" data-file-height="743" /></a><div class="od notheme" style="top:11.003%;left:66.453%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><img alt="Carthage" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Archaeological_site_icon_%28red%29.svg/8px-Archaeological_site_icon_%28red%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Archaeological_site_icon_%28red%29.svg/12px-Archaeological_site_icon_%28red%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Archaeological_site_icon_%28red%29.svg/16px-Archaeological_site_icon_%28red%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="16" data-file-height="16" /></div></div></div><div style="padding-top:0.2em">Shown within Tunisia</div></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Location</th><td class="infobox-data label"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Flag_of_Tunisia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Tunisia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Flag_of_Tunisia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Tunisia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Flag_of_Tunisia.svg/45px-Flag_of_Tunisia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /> <a href="/wiki/Tunisia" title="Tunisia">Tunisia</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Region</th><td class="infobox-data label"><a href="/wiki/Tunis_Governorate" title="Tunis Governorate">Tunis Governorate</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Coordinates</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1156832818">.mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap}</style><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Carthage&params=36.8528_N_10.3233_E_type:landmark">36°51′10″N 10°19′24″E / 36.8528°N 10.3233°E / 36.8528; 10.3233</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #eee;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></th></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><div style="border:4px solid #0177D3; line-height: 1.5; text-align: center;"> <a href="/wiki/World_Heritage_Site" title="World Heritage Site">UNESCO World Heritage Site</a></div></th></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Type</th><td class="infobox-data">Cultural</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Criteria</th><td class="infobox-data">ii, iii, vi</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Designated</th><td class="infobox-data">1979 (3rd <a href="/wiki/World_Heritage_Committee" title="World Heritage Committee">session</a>)</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Reference no.</th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/37">37</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Region</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_Heritage_Sites_in_the_Arab_states" title="List of World Heritage Sites in the Arab states">North Africa</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><th colspan="2"> </th></tr><tr style="display:none"><th colspan="2"> </th></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Carthage.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0d/Carthage.png" decoding="async" width="355" height="410" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="355" data-file-height="410" /></a><figcaption>The layout of the Punic city-state Carthage, before its fall in 146 BC</figcaption></figure> Carthage<a href="#cite_note-1">[a]</a> was an ancient city in Northern Africa, on the eastern side of the <a href="/wiki/Lake_of_Tunis" title="Lake of Tunis">Lake of Tunis</a> in what is now <a href="/wiki/Tunisia" title="Tunisia">Tunisia</a>. Carthage was one of the most important trading hubs of the Ancient Mediterranean and one of the most affluent cities of the <a href="/wiki/Classical_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical world">classical world</a>. It became the capital city of the civilization of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Carthage" title="Ancient Carthage">Ancient Carthage</a> and later <a href="/wiki/Roman_Carthage" title="Roman Carthage">Roman Carthage</a>. The city developed from a <a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenician</a> colony into the capital of a <a href="/wiki/Punic_people" title="Punic people">Punic</a> empire which dominated large parts of the Southwest Mediterranean during the first millennium BC.<a href="#cite_note-2">[1]</a> The legendary Queen Elissa, Alyssa or <a href="/wiki/Dido" title="Dido">Dido</a>, originally from <a href="/wiki/Tyre,_Lebanon" title="Tyre, Lebanon">Tyre</a>, is regarded as the founder of the city,<a href="#cite_note-3">[2]</a> though her historicity has been questioned. In the myth, Dido asked for land from a local tribe, which told her that she could get as much land as an oxhide could cover. She cut the oxhide into strips and laid out the perimeter of the new city.<a href="#cite_note-4">[3]</a> As Carthage prospered at home, the polity sent colonists abroad as well as magistrates to rule the colonies.<a href="#cite_note-ingentaconnect.com-5">[4]</a> The ancient city was destroyed in the nearly three year <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Carthage_(Third_Punic_War)" title="Siege of Carthage (Third Punic War)">siege of Carthage</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Third_Punic_War" title="Third Punic War">Third Punic War</a> in 146 BC. It was re-developed a century later as <a href="/wiki/Roman_Carthage" title="Roman Carthage">Roman Carthage</a>, which became the major city of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> in the province of <a href="/wiki/Africa_(Roman_province)" title="Africa (Roman province)">Africa</a>. The question of Carthaginian decline and demise has remained a subject of literary, political, artistic, and philosophical debates in both ancient and modern histories.<a href="#cite_note-ingentaconnect.com-5">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-jstor.org-6">[5]</a> <a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">Late antique</a> and <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">medieval</a> Carthage continued to play an important cultural and economic role in the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine period">Byzantine period</a>. The city was sacked and destroyed by <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad</a> forces after the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Carthage_(698)" title="Battle of Carthage (698)">Battle of Carthage</a> in 698 to prevent it from being reconquered by the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Edmund-7">[6]</a> It remained occupied during the Muslim period<a href="#cite_note-Ediguplia-8">[7]</a> and was used as a fort by the Muslims until the <a href="/wiki/Hafsid" class="mw-redirect" title="Hafsid">Hafsid</a> period when it was taken by the <a href="/wiki/Crusaders" class="mw-redirect" title="Crusaders">Crusaders</a> with its inhabitants massacred during the <a href="/wiki/Eighth_Crusade" title="Eighth Crusade">Eighth Crusade</a>. The Hafsids decided to destroy its defenses so it could not be used as a base by a hostile power again.<a href="#cite_note-Mustansir-9">[8]</a> It also continued to function as <a href="/wiki/Episcopal_see_of_Carthage" class="mw-redirect" title="Episcopal see of Carthage">an episcopal see</a>. The regional power shifted to <a href="/wiki/Kairouan" title="Kairouan">Kairouan</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Medina_of_Tunis" title="Medina of Tunis">Medina of Tunis</a> in the <a href="/wiki/History_of_medieval_Tunisia" title="History of medieval Tunisia">medieval period</a>, until the early 20th century, when it began to develop into a coastal suburb of <a href="/wiki/Tunis" title="Tunis">Tunis</a>, incorporated as <a href="/wiki/Carthage_(municipality)" title="Carthage (municipality)">Carthage municipality</a> in 1919. The archaeological site was first surveyed in 1830, by Danish consul <a href="/wiki/Christian_Tuxen_Falbe" title="Christian Tuxen Falbe">Christian Tuxen Falbe</a>. Excavations were performed in the second half of the 19th century by <a href="/wiki/Charles_Ernest_Beul%C3%A9" title="Charles Ernest Beulé">Charles Ernest Beulé</a> and by <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Louis_Delattre" title="Alfred Louis Delattre">Alfred Louis Delattre</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Carthage_National_Museum" title="Carthage National Museum">Carthage National Museum</a> was founded in 1875 by <a href="/wiki/Cardinal_(Catholicism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cardinal (Catholicism)">Cardinal</a> <a href="/wiki/Charles_Lavigerie" title="Charles Lavigerie">Charles Lavigerie</a>. Excavations performed by French archaeologists in the 1920s first attracted attention because of the evidence they produced for <a href="/wiki/Tophet#Carthage_and_the_western_Mediterranean" title="Tophet">child sacrifice</a>. There has been considerable disagreement among scholars concerning whether child sacrifice was practiced by ancient Carthage.<a href="#cite_note-10">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-11">[10]</a> The open-air <a href="/wiki/Carthage_Paleo-Christian_Museum" title="Carthage Paleo-Christian Museum">Carthage Paleo-Christian Museum</a> has exhibits excavated under the auspices of <a href="/wiki/UNESCO" title="UNESCO">UNESCO</a> from 1975 to 1984. The site of the ruins is a <a href="/wiki/UNESCO_World_Heritage_Site" class="mw-redirect" title="UNESCO World Heritage Site">UNESCO World Heritage Site</a>.<a href="#cite_note-12">[11]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Carthage%2C_Phoenician_metropolis%2C_TerraX_%28English_redub%29.webm/220px--Carthage%2C_Phoenician_metropolis%2C_TerraX_%28English_redub%29.webm.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="124" data-durationhint="57" data-mwtitle="Carthage,_Phoenician_metropolis,_TerraX_(English_redub).webm" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Carthage,_Phoenician_metropolis,_TerraX_(English_redub).webm"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/a/ae/Carthage%2C_Phoenician_metropolis%2C_TerraX_%28English_redub%29.webm/Carthage%2C_Phoenician_metropolis%2C_TerraX_%28English_redub%29.webm.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="854" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/a/ae/Carthage%2C_Phoenician_metropolis%2C_TerraX_%28English_redub%29.webm/Carthage%2C_Phoenician_metropolis%2C_TerraX_%28English_redub%29.webm.720p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="720p.vp9.webm" data-width="1280" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/a/ae/Carthage%2C_Phoenician_metropolis%2C_TerraX_%28English_redub%29.webm/Carthage%2C_Phoenician_metropolis%2C_TerraX_%28English_redub%29.webm.1080p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="1080p.vp9.webm" data-width="1920" data-height="1080" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ae/Carthage%2C_Phoenician_metropolis%2C_TerraX_%28English_redub%29.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-width="1920" data-height="1080" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/a/ae/Carthage%2C_Phoenician_metropolis%2C_TerraX_%28English_redub%29.webm/Carthage%2C_Phoenician_metropolis%2C_TerraX_%28English_redub%29.webm.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="256" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/a/ae/Carthage%2C_Phoenician_metropolis%2C_TerraX_%28English_redub%29.webm/Carthage%2C_Phoenician_metropolis%2C_TerraX_%28English_redub%29.webm.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="426" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/a/ae/Carthage%2C_Phoenician_metropolis%2C_TerraX_%28English_redub%29.webm/Carthage%2C_Phoenician_metropolis%2C_TerraX_%28English_redub%29.webm.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/a/ae/Carthage%2C_Phoenician_metropolis%2C_TerraX_%28English_redub%29.webm/Carthage%2C_Phoenician_metropolis%2C_TerraX_%28English_redub%29.webm.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ACarthage%2C_Phoenician_metropolis%2C_TerraX_%28English_redub%29.webm&lang=de&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="de" label="Deutsch ‪(de)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ACarthage%2C_Phoenician_metropolis%2C_TerraX_%28English_redub%29.webm&lang=nl&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="nl" label="Nederlands ‪(nl)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ACarthage%2C_Phoenician_metropolis%2C_TerraX_%28English_redub%29.webm&lang=pt&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="pt" label="português ‪(pt)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ACarthage%2C_Phoenician_metropolis%2C_TerraX_%28English_redub%29.webm&lang=ru&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="ru" label="русский ‪(ru)‬" data-dir="ltr" /></video><figcaption>Reconstruction of Carthage, capital of the Carthaginians</figcaption></figure> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carthage&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Etymology">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Phoenicia#Etymology" title="Phoenicia">Phoenicia § Etymology</a></div> The name <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Carthage" class="extiw" title="wikt:Carthage">Carthage</a> (<a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/ˈkɑːrθɪdʒ/</a> <a href="/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key" title="Help:Pronunciation respelling key">KAR-thij</a>) is the <a href="/wiki/Early_Modern_English" title="Early Modern English">Early Modern</a> <a href="/wiki/Anglicisation#Anglicisation_of_non-English_place_names" title="Anglicisation">anglicisation</a> of <a href="/wiki/Middle_French" title="Middle French">Middle French</a> Carthage /kartaʒə/,<a href="#cite_note-13">[12]</a> from <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> Carthāgō and Karthāgō (cf. <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Greek</a> Karkhēdōn (Καρχηδών) and <a href="/wiki/Etruscan_language" title="Etruscan language">Etruscan</a> *Carθaza) from the <a href="/wiki/Punic_language" title="Punic language">Punic</a> qrt-ḥdšt (<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1226385857">.mw-parser-output .script-phoenician{font-family:"Noto Sans Phoenician",sans-serif}</style>𐤒𐤓𐤕 𐤇𐤃𐤔𐤕‎) "new city",<a href="#cite_note-15">[b]</a> implying it was a "new <a href="/wiki/Tyre,_Lebanon" title="Tyre, Lebanon">Tyre</a>".<a href="#cite_note-16">[14]</a> The Latin adjective <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/punicus#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:punicus">pūnicus</a>, meaning "Phoenician", is reflected in English in some borrowings from Latin – notably the <a href="/wiki/Punic_Wars" title="Punic Wars">Punic Wars</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Punic_language" title="Punic language">Punic language</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Modern_Standard_Arabic" title="Modern Standard Arabic">Modern Standard Arabic</a> form <span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-1" class="noexcerpt ext-phonos-PhonosButton oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-labelElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/b\/b9\/9artaj.wav\/9artaj.wav.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","label":{"html":"Qar\u1e6d\u0101j"},"data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"9artaj.wav"},"classes":["noexcerpt","ext-phonos-PhonosButton"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/b/b9/9artaj.wav/9artaj.wav.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button">Qarṭāj</a><a href="/wiki/File:9artaj.wav" title="File:9artaj.wav">ⓘ</a> (قرطاج) is an adoption of French Carthage, replacing an older local toponym reported as Cartagenna that directly continued the Latin name.<a href="#cite_note-Audetym-17">[15]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Topography,_layout,_and_society">Topography, layout, and society</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carthage&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Topography, layout, and society">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Carthage_National_Museum_representation_of_city.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Carthage_National_Museum_representation_of_city.jpg/220px-Carthage_National_Museum_representation_of_city.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Carthage_National_Museum_representation_of_city.jpg/330px-Carthage_National_Museum_representation_of_city.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Carthage_National_Museum_representation_of_city.jpg/440px-Carthage_National_Museum_representation_of_city.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2814" data-file-height="1697" /></a><figcaption>Modern reconstruction of Punic Carthage. The circular harbor at the front is the <a href="/wiki/Cothon" title="Cothon">Cothon</a>, the military port of Carthage, where all of Carthage's warships (<a href="/wiki/Bireme" title="Bireme">Biremes</a>) were anchored.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Overview">Overview</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carthage&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Overview">edit</a>]</div> Carthage was built on a <a href="/wiki/Promontory" title="Promontory">promontory</a> with sea inlets to the north and the south. The city's location made it master of the Mediterranean's maritime trade. All ships crossing the sea had to pass between <a href="/wiki/Sicily" title="Sicily">Sicily</a> and the coast of Tunisia, where Carthage was built, affording it great power and influence. Two large, artificial harbors were built within the city, one for harboring the city's prodigious navy of 220 warships and the other for mercantile trade. A walled tower overlooked both harbors. The city had massive walls, 37 km (23 mi) long, which was longer than the walls of comparable cities. Most of the walls were on the shore and so could be less impressive, as Carthaginian control of the sea made attack from that direction difficult. The 4.0 to 4.8 km (2.5 to 3 mi) of wall on the <a href="/wiki/Isthmus" title="Isthmus">isthmus</a> to the west were truly massive and were never penetrated. Carthage was one of the largest cities of the <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic period</a> and was among the largest cities in preindustrial history. Whereas by AD 14, <a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Rome</a> had at least 750,000 inhabitants and in the following century may have reached 1 million, the cities of <a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Antioch" title="Antioch">Antioch</a> numbered only a few hundred thousand or less.<a href="#cite_note-CharlesworthEdwards2000-18">[16]</a> According to the history of <a href="/wiki/Herodian" title="Herodian">Herodian</a>, Carthage rivaled Alexandria for second place in the Roman empire.<a href="#cite_note-Grant2004-19">[17]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Layout">Layout</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carthage&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Layout">edit</a>]</div> The Punic Carthage was divided into four equally sized residential areas with the same layout. It had religious areas, market places, a council house, towers, a theatre, and a huge <a href="/wiki/Necropolis" title="Necropolis">necropolis</a>; roughly in the middle of the city stood a high citadel called the <a href="/wiki/Byrsa" title="Byrsa">Byrsa</a>. Surrounding Carthage were <a href="/wiki/City_walls" class="mw-redirect" title="City walls">walls</a> "of great strength" said in places to rise above 13 m, being nearly 10 m thick, according to ancient authors. To the west, three parallel walls were built. The walls altogether ran for about 33 kilometres (21 miles) to encircle the city.<a href="#cite_note-20">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-21">[19]</a> The heights of the Byrsa were additionally <a href="/wiki/Fortified" class="mw-redirect" title="Fortified">fortified</a>; this area being the last to succumb to the <a href="/wiki/Third_Punic_War" title="Third Punic War">Romans in 146 BC</a>. Originally the Romans had landed their army on the strip of land extending southward from the city.<a href="#cite_note-22">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-23">[21]</a> Outside the city walls of Carthage is the Chora or farm lands of Carthage. Chora encompassed a limited area: the north coastal tell, the lower <a href="/wiki/Medjerda_River" title="Medjerda River">Bagradas river valley</a> (inland from Utica), <a href="/wiki/Cape_Bon" title="Cape Bon">Cape Bon</a>, and the adjacent sahel on the east coast. Punic culture here achieved the introduction of agricultural sciences first developed for lands of the eastern Mediterranean, and their adaptation to local African conditions.<a href="#cite_note-24">[22]</a> The urban landscape of Carthage is known in part from ancient authors,<a href="#cite_note-25">[23]</a> augmented by modern digs and surveys conducted by archeologists. The "first urban nucleus" dating to the seventh century, in area about 10 hectares (25 acres), was apparently located on low-lying lands along the coast (north of the later harbours). As confirmed by archaeological excavations, Carthage was a "creation ex nihilo", built on 'virgin' land, and situated at what was then the end of a peninsula. Here among "mud brick walls and beaten clay floors" (recently uncovered) were also found extensive cemeteries, which yielded evocative grave goods like clay masks. "Thanks to this <a href="/wiki/Burial_archaeology" class="mw-redirect" title="Burial archaeology">burial archaeology</a> we know more about archaic Carthage than about any other contemporary city in the western Mediterranean." Already in the eighth century, fabric <a href="/wiki/Dyeing" title="Dyeing">dyeing</a> operations had been established, evident from crushed shells of <a href="/wiki/Murex" title="Murex">murex</a> (from which the 'Phoenician purple' was derived). Nonetheless, only a "meager picture" of the cultural life of the earliest pioneers in the city can be conjectured, and not much about housing, monuments or defenses.<a href="#cite_note-26">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-27">[25]</a> The Roman poet <a href="/wiki/Virgil" title="Virgil">Virgil</a> (70–19 BC) imagined early Carthage, when his legendary character <a href="/wiki/The_Aeneid" class="mw-redirect" title="The Aeneid">Aeneas</a> had arrived there: <blockquote> "Aeneas found, where lately huts had been, marvelous buildings, gateways, cobbled ways, and din of wagons. There the <a href="/wiki/Tyre,_Lebanon" title="Tyre, Lebanon">Tyrians</a> were hard at work: laying courses for walls, rolling up stones to build the citadel, while others picked out building sites and plowed a boundary furrow. Laws were being enacted, magistrates and a sacred senate chosen. Here men were dredging harbors, there they laid the deep foundations of a theatre, and quarried massive pillars... ."<a href="#cite_note-28">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-29">[27]</a> </blockquote> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Carthage_archaeological_sites_map-fr.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Carthage_archaeological_sites_map-fr.svg/220px-Carthage_archaeological_sites_map-fr.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Carthage_archaeological_sites_map-fr.svg/330px-Carthage_archaeological_sites_map-fr.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Carthage_archaeological_sites_map-fr.svg/440px-Carthage_archaeological_sites_map-fr.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1030" data-file-height="880" /></a><figcaption>Archaeological sites of modern Carthage</figcaption></figure> The two inner harbors, named <a href="/wiki/Cothon" title="Cothon">cothon</a> in Punic, were located in the southeast; one being commercial, and the other for war. Their definite functions are not entirely known, probably for the construction, outfitting, or repair of ships, perhaps also loading and unloading cargo.<a href="#cite_note-30">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-31">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-32">[30]</a> Larger <a href="/wiki/Anchorage_(maritime)" title="Anchorage (maritime)">anchorages</a> existed to the north and south of the city.<a href="#cite_note-33">[31]</a> North and west of the cothon were located several industrial areas, e.g., metalworking and pottery (e.g., for <a href="/wiki/Amphora" title="Amphora">amphora</a>), which could serve both inner harbors, and ships anchored to the south of the city.<a href="#cite_note-34">[32]</a> Considering the importance of the <a href="/wiki/Byrsa" title="Byrsa">Byrsa</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Citadel" title="Citadel">citadel</a> area to the north,<a href="#cite_note-35">[33]</a> our knowledge of it is patchy. Its prominent heights were the scene of fierce combat during the fiery destruction of the city in 146 BC. The Byrsa was the reported site of the Temple of <a href="/wiki/Eshmun" title="Eshmun">Eshmun</a> (the healing god), at the top of a stairway of sixty steps.<a href="#cite_note-36">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-37">[35]</a> A temple of <a href="/wiki/Tanit" title="Tanit">Tanit</a> (the city's queen goddess) was likely situated on the slope of the 'lesser Byrsa' immediately to the east, which runs down toward the sea.<a href="#cite_note-38">[36]</a> Also situated on the Byrsa were luxury homes.<a href="#cite_note-39">[37]</a> South of the citadel, near the cothon was the <a href="/wiki/Tophet" title="Tophet">tophet</a>, a special and very old <a href="/wiki/Cemetery" title="Cemetery">cemetery</a>, which when begun lay outside the city's boundaries. Here the <a href="/wiki/Carthage_tophet" title="Carthage tophet">Salammbô</a> was located, the Sanctuary of Tanit, not a temple but an enclosure for placing stone <a href="/wiki/Stelae" class="mw-redirect" title="Stelae">stelae</a>. These were mostly short and upright, carved for funeral purposes. The presence of infant skeletons from here may indicate the occurrence of child sacrifice, as claimed in the Bible and Greco-Roman sources, although there has been considerable doubt among archeologists as to this interpretation and many consider it simply a cemetery devoted to infants.<a href="#cite_note-40">[38]</a> Probably the tophet burial fields were "dedicated at an early date, perhaps by the first settlers."<a href="#cite_note-41">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-42">[40]</a> Recent studies, on the other hand, indicate that child sacrifice was practiced by the Carthaginians.<a href="#cite_note-sacrifice1-43">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-sacrifice2-44">[42]</a> According to K.L. Noll, many scholars believe that child sacrifice took place in Carthage.<a href="#cite_note-45">[43]</a> Between the sea-filled cothon for shipping and the Byrsa heights lay the <a href="/wiki/Agora" title="Agora">agora</a> [Greek: "market"], the city-state's central marketplace for business and commerce. The agora was also an area of public squares and plazas, where the people might formally assemble, or gather for festivals. It was the site of religious shrines, and the location of whatever were the major municipal buildings of Carthage. Here beat the heart of civic life. In this district of Carthage, more probably, the ruling <a href="/wiki/Suffet" class="mw-redirect" title="Suffet">suffets</a> presided, the council of elders convened, the tribunal of the 104 met, and justice was dispensed at trials in the open air.<a href="#cite_note-46">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-47">[45]</a> Early residential districts wrapped around the Byrsa from the south to the north east. Houses usually were <a href="/wiki/Whitewash" title="Whitewash">whitewashed</a> and blank to the street, but within were <a href="/wiki/Courtyard" title="Courtyard">courtyards</a> open to the sky.<a href="#cite_note-48">[46]</a> In these neighborhoods multistory construction later became common, some up to six stories tall according to an ancient Greek author.<a href="#cite_note-49">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-50">[48]</a> Several <a href="/wiki/History_of_architecture" title="History of architecture">architectural</a> <a href="/wiki/Floorplan" class="mw-redirect" title="Floorplan">floorplans</a> of homes have been revealed by recent <a href="/wiki/Excavation_(archaeology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Excavation (archaeology)">excavations</a>, as well as the general layout of several <a href="/wiki/Urban_planning" title="Urban planning">city blocks</a>. Stone stairs were set in the streets, and <a href="/wiki/Drainage" title="Drainage">drainage</a> was planned, e.g., in the form of soakaways leaching into the sandy soil.<a href="#cite_note-51">[49]</a> Along the Byrsa's southern slope were located not only fine old homes, but also many of the earliest grave-sites, juxtaposed in small areas, interspersed with daily life.<a href="#cite_note-52">[50]</a> <a href="/wiki/Artisan" title="Artisan">Artisan</a> workshops were located in the city at sites north and west of the harbours. The location of three <a href="/wiki/Metal_working" class="mw-redirect" title="Metal working">metal workshops</a> (implied from iron slag and other vestiges of such activity) were found adjacent to the naval and commercial harbours, and another two were further up the hill toward the Byrsa citadel. Sites of <a href="/wiki/Pottery" title="Pottery">pottery</a> <a href="/wiki/Kiln" title="Kiln">kilns</a> have been identified, between the agora and the harbours, and further north. Earthenware often used Greek models. A <a href="/wiki/Fulling" title="Fulling">fuller</a>'s shop for preparing woolen cloth (shrink and thicken) was evidently situated further to the west and south, then by the edge of the city.<a href="#cite_note-53">[51]</a> Carthage also produced objects of rare refinement. During the 4th and 3rd centuries, the <a href="/wiki/Sculptures" class="mw-redirect" title="Sculptures">sculptures</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Sarcophagus" title="Sarcophagus">sarcophagi</a> became works of art. "Bronze <a href="/wiki/Engraving" title="Engraving">engraving</a> and stone-carving reached their zenith."<a href="#cite_note-54">[52]</a> The elevation of the land at the promontory on the seashore to the north-east (now called <a href="/wiki/Sidi_Bou_Sa%C3%AFd" class="mw-redirect" title="Sidi Bou Saïd">Sidi Bou Saïd</a>), was twice as high above sea level as that at the Byrsa (100 m and 50 m). In between runs a ridge, several times reaching 50 m; it continues northwestward along the seashore, and forms the edge of a plateau-like area between the Byrsa and the sea.<a href="#cite_note-55">[53]</a> Newer urban developments lay here in these northern districts.<a href="#cite_note-56">[54]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Maison_punique_byrsa.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Maison_punique_byrsa.jpg/220px-Maison_punique_byrsa.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Maison_punique_byrsa.jpg/330px-Maison_punique_byrsa.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Maison_punique_byrsa.jpg/440px-Maison_punique_byrsa.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="960" /></a><figcaption>Punic ruins in Byrsa</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Archaeological_Site_of_Carthage-130237.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Archaeological_Site_of_Carthage-130237.jpg/220px-Archaeological_Site_of_Carthage-130237.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Archaeological_Site_of_Carthage-130237.jpg/330px-Archaeological_Site_of_Carthage-130237.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Archaeological_Site_of_Carthage-130237.jpg/440px-Archaeological_Site_of_Carthage-130237.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4320" data-file-height="3240" /></a><figcaption>Archaeological Site of Carthage</figcaption></figure> Due to the Roman's leveling of the city, the original Punic urban landscape of Carthage was largely lost. Since 1982, French archaeologist <a href="/wiki/Serge_Lancel" title="Serge Lancel">Serge Lancel</a> excavated a residential area of the Punic Carthage on top of <a href="/wiki/Byrsa" title="Byrsa">Byrsa</a> hill near the Forum of the Roman Carthage. The neighborhood can be dated back to early second century BC, and with its houses, shops, and private spaces, is significant for what it reveals about daily life of the Punic Carthage.<a href="#cite_note-57">[55]</a> The remains have been preserved under embankments, the substructures of the later Roman forum, whose foundation piles dot the district. The housing blocks are separated by a grid of straight streets about 6 m (20 ft) wide, with a roadway consisting of clay; <a href="/wiki/In_situ" title="In situ">in situ</a> stairs compensate for the slope of the hill. Construction of this type presupposes organization and political will, and has inspired the name of the neighborhood, "<a href="/wiki/Hannibal" title="Hannibal">Hannibal</a> district", referring to the legendary Punic general or <a href="/wiki/Shophet" title="Shophet">sufet</a> (consul) at the beginning of the second century BC. The habitat is typical, even stereotypical. The street was often used as a storefront/shopfront; cisterns were installed in basements to collect water for domestic use, and a long corridor on the right side of each residence led to a courtyard containing a <a href="/wiki/Sump" title="Sump">sump</a>, around which various other elements may be found. In some places, the ground is covered with <a href="/wiki/Mosaic" title="Mosaic">mosaics</a> called punica pavement, sometimes using a characteristic red mortar. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Society_and_local_economy">Society and local economy</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carthage&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Society and local economy">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Archaeological_Site_of_Carthage-130238.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Archaeological_Site_of_Carthage-130238.jpg/220px-Archaeological_Site_of_Carthage-130238.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Archaeological_Site_of_Carthage-130238.jpg/330px-Archaeological_Site_of_Carthage-130238.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Archaeological_Site_of_Carthage-130238.jpg/440px-Archaeological_Site_of_Carthage-130238.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4320" data-file-height="3240" /></a><figcaption>Archaeological Site of Carthage</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Archaeological_Site_of_Carthage-130239.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Archaeological_Site_of_Carthage-130239.jpg/220px-Archaeological_Site_of_Carthage-130239.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Archaeological_Site_of_Carthage-130239.jpg/330px-Archaeological_Site_of_Carthage-130239.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Archaeological_Site_of_Carthage-130239.jpg/440px-Archaeological_Site_of_Carthage-130239.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3240" data-file-height="4320" /></a><figcaption>View of two columns at Carthage</figcaption></figure> Punic culture and agricultural sciences, after arriving at Carthage from the eastern Mediterranean, gradually adapted to the local conditions. The merchant harbor at Carthage was developed after settlement of the nearby Punic town of <a href="/wiki/Utica,_Tunisia" title="Utica, Tunisia">Utica</a>, and eventually the surrounding African countryside was brought into the orbit of the Punic urban centers, first commercially, then politically. Direct management over cultivation of neighbouring lands by Punic owners followed.<a href="#cite_note-58">[56]</a> A 28-volume work on agriculture written in Punic by <a href="/wiki/Mago_(agricultural_writer)" title="Mago (agricultural writer)">Mago</a>, a retired army general (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 300), was translated into Latin and later into Greek. The original and both translations have been lost; however, some of Mago's text has survived in other Latin works.<a href="#cite_note-59">[57]</a> Olive trees (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Grafting" title="Grafting">grafting</a>), fruit trees (pomegranate, almond, fig, date palm), <a href="/wiki/Viniculture" class="mw-redirect" title="Viniculture">viniculture</a>, bees, cattle, sheep, poultry, implements, and <a href="/wiki/Farm_management" class="mw-redirect" title="Farm management">farm management</a> were among the ancient topics which Mago discussed. As well, Mago addresses the wine-maker's art (here a type of <a href="/wiki/Sherry" title="Sherry">sherry</a>).<a href="#cite_note-60">[58]</a><a href="#cite_note-61">[59]</a><a href="#cite_note-62">[60]</a> In Punic farming society, according to Mago, the small estate owners were the chief producers. They were, two modern historians write, not absent landlords. Rather, the likely reader of Mago was "the master of a relatively modest estate, from which, by great personal exertion, he extracted the maximum yield." Mago counselled the rural landowner, for the sake of their own 'utilitarian' interests, to treat carefully and well their managers and farm workers, or their overseers and slaves.<a href="#cite_note-63">[61]</a> Yet elsewhere these writers suggest that rural land ownership provided also a new power base among the city's nobility, for those resident in their country villas.<a href="#cite_note-64">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-65">[63]</a> By many, farming was viewed as an alternative endeavour to an urban business. Another modern historian opines that more often it was the urban merchant of Carthage who owned rural farming land to some profit, and also to retire there during the heat of summer.<a href="#cite_note-66">[64]</a> It may seem that Mago anticipated such an opinion, and instead issued this contrary advice (as quoted by the Roman writer Columella): <blockquote>The man who acquires an estate must sell his house, lest he prefer to live in the town rather than in the country. Anyone who prefers to live in a town has no need of an estate in the country."<a href="#cite_note-67">[65]</a> "One who has bought land should sell his town house, so that he will have no desire to worship the household gods of the city rather than those of the country; the man who takes greater delight in his city residence will have no need of a country estate.<a href="#cite_note-68">[66]</a></blockquote> The issues involved in rural land management also reveal underlying features of Punic society, its structure and <a href="/wiki/Social_stratification" title="Social stratification">stratification</a>. The hired workers might be considered 'rural proletariat', drawn from the local Berbers. Whether there remained Berber landowners next to Punic-run farms is unclear. Some Berbers became sharecroppers. Slaves acquired for farm work were often prisoners of war. In lands outside Punic political control, independent Berbers cultivated grain and raised horses on their lands. Yet within the Punic domain that surrounded the city-state of Carthage, there were ethnic divisions in addition to the usual quasi <a href="/wiki/Feudal" class="mw-redirect" title="Feudal">feudal</a> distinctions between lord and peasant, or master and serf. This inherent instability in the countryside drew the unwanted attention of potential invaders.<a href="#cite_note-69">[67]</a> Yet for long periods Carthage was able to manage these social difficulties.<a href="#cite_note-70">[68]</a> The many <a href="/wiki/Amphora" title="Amphora">amphorae</a> with Punic markings subsequently found about ancient Mediterranean coastal settlements testify to Carthaginian trade in locally made olive oil and wine.<a href="#cite_note-71">[69]</a> Carthage's agricultural production was held in high regard by the ancients, and rivaled that of Rome – they were once competitors, e.g., over their olive harvests. Under Roman rule, however, grain production (wheat and barley) for export increased dramatically in 'Africa'; yet these later fell with the rise in <a href="/wiki/History_of_Roman_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Roman Egypt">Roman Egypt</a>'s grain exports. Thereafter olive groves and vineyards were re-established around Carthage. Visitors to the several growing regions that surrounded the city wrote admiringly of the lush green gardens, orchards, fields, <a href="/wiki/Irrigation" title="Irrigation">irrigation</a> channels, hedgerows (as boundaries), as well as the many prosperous farming towns located across the rural landscape.<a href="#cite_note-72">[70]</a><a href="#cite_note-73">[71]</a> Accordingly, the Greek author and compiler <a href="/wiki/Diodorus_Siculus" title="Diodorus Siculus">Diodorus Siculus</a> (fl. 1st century BC), who enjoyed access to ancient writings later lost, and on which he based most of his writings, described agricultural land near the city of Carthage c. 310 BC: <blockquote>It was divided into market gardens and orchards of all sorts of fruit trees, with many streams of water flowing in channels irrigating every part. There were country homes everywhere, lavishly built and covered with stucco. ... Part of the land was planted with vines, part with olives and other productive trees. Beyond these, cattle and sheep were pastured on the plains, and there were meadows with grazing horses.<a href="#cite_note-74">[72]</a><a href="#cite_note-75">[73]</a></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ancient_history">Ancient history</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carthage&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Ancient history">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Carthage" title="History of Carthage">History of Carthage</a></div> Greek cities contested with Carthage for the Western Mediterranean culminating in the <a href="/wiki/Sicilian_Wars" title="Sicilian Wars">Sicilian Wars</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Pyrrhic_War" title="Pyrrhic War">Pyrrhic War</a> over <a href="/wiki/Sicily" title="Sicily">Sicily</a>, while the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Romans</a> fought three wars against Carthage, known as the <a href="/wiki/Punic_Wars" title="Punic Wars">Punic Wars</a>,<a href="#cite_note-76">[74]</a><a href="#cite_note-77">[75]</a> from the Latin "Punicus" meaning "Phoenician", as Carthage was a Phoenician colony grown into an empire. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Punic_Republic">Punic Republic</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carthage&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Punic Republic">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Carthage" title="Ancient Carthage">Ancient Carthage</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Carthaginianempire.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Carthaginianempire.PNG/250px-Carthaginianempire.PNG" decoding="async" width="250" height="235" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Carthaginianempire.PNG/375px-Carthaginianempire.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Carthaginianempire.PNG/500px-Carthaginianempire.PNG 2x" data-file-width="2424" data-file-height="2276" /></a><figcaption>Downfall of the Carthaginian Empire <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend">  Lost to Rome in the <a href="/wiki/First_Punic_War" title="First Punic War">First Punic War</a> (264–241 BC)</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  Won after the First Punic War, lost in the <a href="/wiki/Second_Punic_War" title="Second Punic War">Second Punic War</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  Lost in the Second Punic War (218–201 BC)</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  Conquered by Rome in the <a href="/wiki/Third_Punic_War" title="Third Punic War">Third Punic War</a> (149–146 BC)</div> </figcaption></figure> The Carthaginian republic was one of the longest-lived and largest states in the ancient Mediterranean. Reports relay several wars with Syracuse and finally, Rome, which eventually resulted in the defeat and destruction of Carthage in the Third Punic War. The <a href="/wiki/Punic_people" title="Punic people">Carthaginians</a> were <a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenician</a> settlers of primarily <a href="/wiki/Southern_Mediterranean" class="mw-redirect" title="Southern Mediterranean">Southern Mediterranean</a> and <a href="/wiki/Southern_Europe" title="Southern Europe">Southern European</a> ancestry.<a href="#cite_note-78">[76]</a> <a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenicians</a> had originated in the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean</a> coast of the <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a>. They spoke <a href="/wiki/Canaanite_languages" title="Canaanite languages">Canaanite</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Semitic_languages" title="Semitic languages">Semitic language</a>, and followed a local variety of the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Canaanite_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Canaanite religion">ancient Canaanite religion</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Punic_religion" title="Punic religion">Punic religion</a>. The Carthaginians travelled widely across the seas and set up numerous colonies. Unlike Greek, Phoenician, and Tyrian colonizers who "only required colonies to pay due respect for their home-cities", Carthage is said to have "sent its own magistrates to govern overseas settlements".<a href="#cite_note-ingentaconnect.com-5">[4]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tunisie_Carthage_Ruines_08.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Tunisie_Carthage_Ruines_08.JPG/220px-Tunisie_Carthage_Ruines_08.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Tunisie_Carthage_Ruines_08.JPG/330px-Tunisie_Carthage_Ruines_08.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Tunisie_Carthage_Ruines_08.JPG/440px-Tunisie_Carthage_Ruines_08.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3008" data-file-height="2000" /></a><figcaption>Ruins of Carthage</figcaption></figure> The fall of Carthage came at the end of the Third Punic War in 146 BC at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Carthage_(c._149_BCE)" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Carthage (c. 149 BCE)">Battle of Carthage</a>.<a href="#cite_note-79">[77]</a> Despite initial devastating Roman naval losses and <a href="/wiki/Hannibal" title="Hannibal">Hannibal</a>'s 15-year occupation of much of Roman Italy, who was on the brink of defeat but managed to recover, the end of the series of wars resulted in the end of Carthaginian power and the complete destruction of the city by <a href="/wiki/Scipio_Aemilianus" title="Scipio Aemilianus">Scipio Aemilianus</a>. The Romans pulled the Phoenician warships out into the harbor and burned them before the city, and went from house to house, capturing and enslaving the people. About 50,000 Carthaginians were sold into <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Rome" title="Slavery in ancient Rome">slavery</a>.<a href="#cite_note-80">[78]</a> The city was set ablaze and razed to the ground, leaving only ruins and rubble. After the fall of Carthage, Rome annexed the majority of the Carthaginian colonies, including other North African locations such as <a href="/wiki/Volubilis" title="Volubilis">Volubilis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lixus_(ancient_city)" title="Lixus (ancient city)">Lixus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chellah" title="Chellah">Chellah</a>.<a href="#cite_note-81">[79]</a> Today a "Carthaginian peace" can refer to any brutal peace treaty demanding total subjugation of the defeated side. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Salting_legend">Salting legend</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carthage&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Salting legend">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Salting_the_earth#Carthage" title="Salting the earth">Salting the earth § Carthage</a></div> Since at least 1863,<a href="#cite_note-82">[80]</a> it has been claimed that Carthage was <a href="/wiki/Salting_the_earth" title="Salting the earth">sown with salt</a> after being razed, but there is no evidence for this.<a href="#cite_note-Carthage_1988_pp._308-83">[81]</a><a href="#cite_note-84">[82]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Roman_Carthage">Roman Carthage</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carthage&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Roman Carthage">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Karta_Karthago.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Karta_Karthago.PNG/220px-Karta_Karthago.PNG" decoding="async" width="220" height="206" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Karta_Karthago.PNG/330px-Karta_Karthago.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Karta_Karthago.PNG/440px-Karta_Karthago.PNG 2x" data-file-width="555" data-file-height="520" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Roman_Carthage" title="Roman Carthage">Roman Carthage</a> City Center</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Carthage_romaine.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Carthage_romaine.jpg/220px-Carthage_romaine.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="257" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Carthage_romaine.jpg/330px-Carthage_romaine.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Carthage_romaine.jpg/440px-Carthage_romaine.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1379" data-file-height="1612" /></a><figcaption>Layout of <a href="/wiki/Roman_Carthage" title="Roman Carthage">Roman Carthage</a></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Roman_Carthage" title="Roman Carthage">Roman Carthage</a></div> When Carthage fell, its nearby rival <a href="/wiki/Utica,_Tunisia" title="Utica, Tunisia">Utica</a>, a Roman ally, was made capital of the region and replaced Carthage as the leading center of Punic trade and leadership. It had the advantageous position of being situated on the outlet of the <a href="/wiki/Medjerda_River" title="Medjerda River">Medjerda River</a>, Tunisia's only river that flowed all year long. However, grain cultivation in the Tunisian mountains caused large amounts of <a href="/wiki/Silt" title="Silt">silt</a> to erode into the river. This silt accumulated in the harbor until it became useless, and Rome was forced to rebuild Carthage. By 122 BC, <a href="/wiki/Gaius_Gracchus" title="Gaius Gracchus">Gaius Gracchus</a> founded a short-lived <a href="/wiki/Colonia_(Roman)" title="Colonia (Roman)">colony</a>, called <a href="/wiki/Colonia_Junonia" title="Colonia Junonia">Colonia Iunonia</a>, after the Latin name for the Punic goddess <a href="/wiki/Tanit" title="Tanit">Tanit</a>, Iuno Caelestis. The purpose was to obtain arable lands for impoverished farmers. The <a href="/wiki/Roman_Senate" title="Roman Senate">Senate</a> abolished the colony some time later, to undermine Gracchus' power. After this ill-fated effort, a new city of Carthage was built on the same land by <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a> in the period from 49 to 44 BC, and by the first century, it had grown to be the second-largest city in the western half of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>, with a peak population of 500,000.<a href="#cite_note-85">[83]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Reliable_sources" title="Wikipedia:Reliable sources">unreliable source?</a>] It was the center of the <a href="/wiki/Africa_(Roman_province)" title="Africa (Roman province)">province of Africa</a>, which was a major breadbasket of the Empire. Among its major monuments was an <a href="/wiki/Carthage_amphitheatre" title="Carthage amphitheatre">amphitheater</a>. Carthage also became a <a href="/wiki/Early_centers_of_Christianity#Carthage" class="mw-redirect" title="Early centers of Christianity">center of early Christianity</a> (see <a href="/wiki/Carthage_(episcopal_see)" class="mw-redirect" title="Carthage (episcopal see)">Carthage (episcopal see)</a>). In the first of a string of rather poorly reported councils at Carthage a few years later, no fewer than 70 bishops attended. <a href="/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a> later broke with the mainstream that was increasingly represented in the West by the <a href="/wiki/Primacy_of_the_Bishop_of_Rome" class="mw-redirect" title="Primacy of the Bishop of Rome">primacy of the Bishop of Rome</a>, but a more serious rift among Christians was the <a href="/wiki/Donatism" title="Donatism">Donatist controversy</a>, against which <a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine of Hippo</a> spent much time and parchment arguing. At the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Carthage_(397)" class="mw-redirect" title="Council of Carthage (397)">Council of Carthage (397)</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Development_of_the_Christian_biblical_canon" class="mw-redirect" title="Development of the Christian biblical canon">biblical canon for the western Church was confirmed</a>. The Christians at Carthage conducted <a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_pagans_in_the_late_Roman_Empire" title="Persecution of pagans in the late Roman Empire">persecutions against the pagans</a>, during which the pagan temples, notably the famous <a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Juno_Caelestis,_Carthage" title="Temple of Juno Caelestis, Carthage">Temple of Juno Caelesti</a>, were destroyed.<a href="#cite_note-86">[84]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:NE_500ad.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/NE_500ad.jpg/220px-NE_500ad.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/NE_500ad.jpg/330px-NE_500ad.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/NE_500ad.jpg/440px-NE_500ad.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1424" data-file-height="1049" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Vandal_Kingdom" title="Vandal Kingdom">Vandal Kingdom</a> in 500, centered on Carthage</figcaption></figure> The Vandals under <a href="/wiki/Gaiseric" title="Gaiseric">Gaiseric</a> invaded <a href="/wiki/Africa_(Roman_province)" title="Africa (Roman province)">Africa</a> in 429. They relinquished the facade of their allied status to Rome and defeated the Roman general <a href="/wiki/Bonifacius" class="mw-redirect" title="Bonifacius">Bonifacius</a> to seize Carthage, the once most treasured province of Rome.<a href="#cite_note-:0-87">[85]</a> The 5th-century Roman bishop <a href="/wiki/Victor_Vitensis" title="Victor Vitensis">Victor Vitensis</a> mentions in his Historia Persecutionis Africanae Provincia that the Vandals destroyed parts of Carthage, including various buildings and churches.<a href="#cite_note-88">[86]</a> Once in power, the ecclesiastical authorities were persecuted, the locals were aggressively taxed, and naval raids were routinely launched on Romans in the Mediterranean.<a href="#cite_note-:0-87">[85]</a> After a failed attempt to recapture the city in the fifth century, the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Eastern Roman Empire</a> finally subdued the Vandals in the <a href="/wiki/Vandalic_War" title="Vandalic War">Vandalic War</a> in 533–534 and made Carthage capital of <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_North_Africa" title="Byzantine North Africa">Byzantine North Africa</a>. Thereafter, the city became the seat of the <a href="/wiki/Praetorian_prefecture_of_Africa" title="Praetorian prefecture of Africa">praetorian prefecture of Africa</a>, which was made into an <a href="/wiki/Exarchate" title="Exarchate">exarchate</a> during the emperor <a href="/wiki/Maurice_(emperor)" title="Maurice (emperor)">Maurice's</a> reign, as was <a href="/wiki/Ravenna" title="Ravenna">Ravenna</a> on the Italian Peninsula. These two exarchates were the western bulwarks of the Byzantine Empire, all that remained of its power in the West. In the early seventh century <a href="/wiki/Heraclius_the_Elder" title="Heraclius the Elder">Heraclius the Elder</a>, the exarch of Carthage, overthrew the Byzantine emperor <a href="/wiki/Phocas" title="Phocas">Phocas</a>, whereupon his son <a href="/wiki/Heraclius" title="Heraclius">Heraclius</a> succeeded to the imperial throne. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Islamic_period">Islamic period</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carthage&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Islamic period">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_the_Maghreb" title="Muslim conquest of the Maghreb">Muslim conquest of the Maghreb</a> and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Carthage_(698)" title="Battle of Carthage (698)">Battle of Carthage (698)</a></div> The Roman <a href="/wiki/Exarchate_of_Africa" title="Exarchate of Africa">Exarchate of Africa</a> was not able to withstand the seventh-century <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_the_Maghreb" title="Muslim conquest of the Maghreb">Muslim conquest of the Maghreb</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad Caliphate</a> under <a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Malik_ibn_Marwan" title="Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan">Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan</a> in 686 sent a force led by <a href="/wiki/Zuhayr_ibn_Qays" title="Zuhayr ibn Qays">Zuhayr ibn Qays</a>, who won a battle over the Romans and <a href="/wiki/Berbers" title="Berbers">Berbers</a> led by King <a href="/wiki/Kusaila" title="Kusaila">Kusaila</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Altava" title="Kingdom of Altava">Kingdom of Altava</a> on the plain of <a href="/wiki/Kairouan" title="Kairouan">Kairouan</a>, but he could not follow that up. In 695, <a href="/wiki/Hassan_ibn_al-Nu%27man" title="Hassan ibn al-Nu'man">Hassan ibn al-Nu'man</a> captured Carthage and advanced into the <a href="/wiki/Atlas_Mountains" title="Atlas Mountains">Atlas Mountains</a>. An imperial fleet arrived and retook Carthage, but in 698, <a href="/wiki/Hasan_ibn_al-Nu%27man" class="mw-redirect" title="Hasan ibn al-Nu'man">Hasan ibn al-Nu'man</a> returned and defeated Emperor <a href="/wiki/Tiberios_III" class="mw-redirect" title="Tiberios III">Tiberios III</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Carthage_(698)" title="Battle of Carthage (698)">698 Battle of Carthage</a>. Roman imperial forces withdrew from all of Africa except <a href="/wiki/Ceuta" title="Ceuta">Ceuta</a>. Fearing that the Byzantine Empire might reconquer it, they decided to destroy Roman Carthage in a <a href="/wiki/Scorched_earth_policy" class="mw-redirect" title="Scorched earth policy">scorched earth policy</a> and establish their headquarters somewhere else. Its walls were torn down, the water supply from its aqueducts cut off, the agricultural land was ravaged and its harbors made unusable.<a href="#cite_note-Edmund-7">[6]</a> The destruction of the Exarchate of Africa marked a permanent end to the Byzantine Empire's influence in the region. It is clear from archaeological evidence that the town of Carthage continued to be occupied, as did the neighborhood of Bjordi Djedid. The <a href="/wiki/Baths_of_Antoninus" title="Baths of Antoninus">Baths of Antoninus</a> continued to function in the Arab period and the eleventh-century historian <a href="/wiki/Al-Bakri" title="Al-Bakri">Al-Bakri</a> stated that they were still in good condition at that time. They also had production centers nearby. It is difficult to determine whether the continued habitation of some other buildings belonged to Late Byzantine or Early Arab period. The Bir Ftouha church may have continued to remain in use although it is not clear when it became uninhabited.<a href="#cite_note-Ediguplia-8">[7]</a> <a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_African" title="Constantine the African">Constantine the African</a> was born in Carthage.<a href="#cite_note-89">[87]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Medina_of_Tunis" title="Medina of Tunis">Medina of Tunis</a>, originally a Berber settlement, was established as the new regional center under the <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad Caliphate</a> in the early 8th century. Under the <a href="/wiki/Aghlabid" class="mw-redirect" title="Aghlabid">Aghlabids</a>, the people of Tunis revolted numerous times, but the city profited from economic improvements and quickly became the second most important in the kingdom. It was briefly the national capital, from the end of the reign of <a href="/wiki/Ibrahim_II_of_Ifriqiya" title="Ibrahim II of Ifriqiya">Ibrahim II</a> in 902, until 909, when the <a href="/wiki/Shi%27ite" class="mw-redirect" title="Shi'ite">Shi'ite</a> <a href="/wiki/Berber_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Berber people">Berbers</a> took over <a href="/wiki/Ifriqiya" title="Ifriqiya">Ifriqiya</a> and founded the <a href="/wiki/Fatimid_Caliphate" title="Fatimid Caliphate">Fatimid Caliphate</a>. <a href="/wiki/Carthage_(episcopal_see)" class="mw-redirect" title="Carthage (episcopal see)">Carthage</a> remained a residential see until the <a href="/wiki/High_medieval_period" class="mw-redirect" title="High medieval period">high medieval period</a>, and is mentioned in two letters of <a href="/wiki/Pope_Leo_IX" title="Pope Leo IX">Pope Leo IX</a> dated 1053,<a href="#cite_note-90">[88]</a> written in reply to consultations regarding a conflict between the bishops of Carthage and <a href="/wiki/Africa_(Roman_province)#Episcopal_sees" title="Africa (Roman province)">Gummi</a>. In each of the two letters, Pope Leo declares that, after the Bishop of Rome, the first archbishop and chief metropolitan of the whole of <a href="/wiki/Africa_(Roman_province)" title="Africa (Roman province)">Africa</a> is the bishop of Carthage. Later, an archbishop of Carthage named Cyriacus was imprisoned by the Arab rulers because of an accusation by some Christians. <a href="/wiki/Pope_Gregory_VII" title="Pope Gregory VII">Pope Gregory VII</a> wrote Cyriacus a letter of consolation, repeating the hopeful assurances of the primacy of the Church of Carthage, "whether the Church of Carthage should still lie desolate or rise again in glory". By 1076, Cyriacus was set free, but there was only one other bishop in the province. These are the last of whom there is mention in that period of the history of the see.<a href="#cite_note-91">[89]</a><a href="#cite_note-92">[90]</a> The fortress of Carthage was used by the Muslims until <a href="/wiki/Hafsid" class="mw-redirect" title="Hafsid">Hafsid</a> era and was captured by the Crusaders during the <a href="/wiki/Eighth_Crusade" title="Eighth Crusade">Eighth Crusade</a>. The inhabitants of Carthage were slaughtered by the Crusaders after they took it, and it was used as a base of operations against the Hafsids. After repelling them, <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_I_al-Mustansir" title="Muhammad I al-Mustansir">Muhammad I al-Mustansir</a> decided to raze Cathage's defenses in order to prevent a repeat.<a href="#cite_note-Mustansir-9">[8]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modern_history">Modern history</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carthage&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Modern history">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Plan_Tunis_et_ses_environs_-_1903.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Plan_Tunis_et_ses_environs_-_1903.jpg/220px-Plan_Tunis_et_ses_environs_-_1903.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="288" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Plan_Tunis_et_ses_environs_-_1903.jpg/330px-Plan_Tunis_et_ses_environs_-_1903.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Plan_Tunis_et_ses_environs_-_1903.jpg/440px-Plan_Tunis_et_ses_environs_-_1903.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1308" /></a><figcaption>Historical map of the Tunis area (1903), showing <a href="/wiki/Acropolium_of_Carthage" title="Acropolium of Carthage">St. Louis of Carthage</a> between <a href="/wiki/Sidi_Bou_Said" title="Sidi Bou Said">Sidi Bou Said</a> and <a href="/wiki/Le_Kram" title="Le Kram">Le Kram</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_first_published_sketch_of_tombstones_from_Carthage_(Jean_Emile_Humbert).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/The_first_published_sketch_of_tombstones_from_Carthage_%28Jean_Emile_Humbert%29.jpg/220px-The_first_published_sketch_of_tombstones_from_Carthage_%28Jean_Emile_Humbert%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/The_first_published_sketch_of_tombstones_from_Carthage_%28Jean_Emile_Humbert%29.jpg/330px-The_first_published_sketch_of_tombstones_from_Carthage_%28Jean_Emile_Humbert%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/The_first_published_sketch_of_tombstones_from_Carthage_%28Jean_Emile_Humbert%29.jpg/440px-The_first_published_sketch_of_tombstones_from_Carthage_%28Jean_Emile_Humbert%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="8386" data-file-height="6040" /></a><figcaption>The first published sketch of artefacts from Carthage – mostly <a href="/wiki/Carthaginian_tombstones" title="Carthaginian tombstones">Carthaginian tombstones</a>. This was published in <a href="/wiki/Jean_Emile_Humbert" title="Jean Emile Humbert">Jean Emile Humbert</a>'s Notice sur quatre cippes sépulcraux et deux fragments, découverts en 1817, sur le sol de l'ancienne Carthage.</figcaption></figure> Carthage is some 15 kilometres (9.3 miles) east-northeast of Tunis; the settlements nearest to Carthage were the town of <a href="/wiki/Sidi_Bou_Said" title="Sidi Bou Said">Sidi Bou Said</a> to the north and the village of <a href="/wiki/Le_Kram" title="Le Kram">Le Kram</a> to the south. Sidi Bou Said was a village which had grown around the tomb of the eponymous <a href="/wiki/Sufi" class="mw-redirect" title="Sufi">sufi</a> saint (d. 1231), which had been developed into a town under <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Tunisia" title="Ottoman Tunisia">Ottoman rule</a> in the 18th century. Le Kram was developed in the late 19th century under <a href="/wiki/French_Tunisia" class="mw-redirect" title="French Tunisia">French administration</a> as a settlement close to the port of <a href="/wiki/La_Goulette" title="La Goulette">La Goulette</a>. In 1881, Tunisia became a <a href="/wiki/French_protectorate_of_Tunisia" title="French protectorate of Tunisia">French protectorate</a>, and in the same year <a href="/wiki/Charles_Lavigerie" title="Charles Lavigerie">Charles Lavigerie</a>, who was archbishop of Algiers, became <a href="/wiki/Apostolic_administrator" class="mw-redirect" title="Apostolic administrator">apostolic administrator</a> of the vicariate of Tunis. In the following year, Lavigerie became a <a href="/wiki/Cardinalate" class="mw-redirect" title="Cardinalate">cardinal</a>. He "saw himself as the reviver of the ancient Christian Church of Africa, the Church of <a href="/wiki/Cyprian" title="Cyprian">Cyprian</a> of Carthage",<a href="#cite_note-93">[91]</a> and, on 10 November 1884, was successful in his great ambition of having the <a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_see" class="mw-redirect" title="Metropolitan see">metropolitan see</a> of Carthage restored, with himself as its first archbishop.<a href="#cite_note-94">[92]</a> In line with the declaration of <a href="/wiki/Pope_Leo_IX" title="Pope Leo IX">Pope Leo IX</a> in 1053, <a href="/wiki/Pope_Leo_XIII" title="Pope Leo XIII">Pope Leo XIII</a> acknowledged the revived Archdiocese of Carthage as the <a href="/wiki/Primate_(bishop)" title="Primate (bishop)">primatial</a> see of <a href="/wiki/Africa_(Roman_province)" title="Africa (Roman province)">Africa</a> and Lavigerie as primate.<a href="#cite_note-95">[93]</a><a href="#cite_note-96">[94]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Acropolium_of_Carthage" title="Acropolium of Carthage">Acropolium of Carthage</a> (Saint Louis Cathedral of Carthage) was erected on <a href="/wiki/Byrsa" title="Byrsa">Byrsa</a> hill in 1884. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Archaeological_sites">Archaeological sites</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carthage&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Archaeological sites">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Punic_people#Genetics" title="Punic people">Punic people § Genetics</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Plan_du_terrain_et_des_ruines_de_Carthage_-_lev%C3%A9_et_dessin%C3%A9_en_1831_par_Falbe..._-_btv1b530984294.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Plan_du_terrain_et_des_ruines_de_Carthage_-_lev%C3%A9_et_dessin%C3%A9_en_1831_par_Falbe..._-_btv1b530984294.jpg/220px-Plan_du_terrain_et_des_ruines_de_Carthage_-_lev%C3%A9_et_dessin%C3%A9_en_1831_par_Falbe..._-_btv1b530984294.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="274" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Plan_du_terrain_et_des_ruines_de_Carthage_-_lev%C3%A9_et_dessin%C3%A9_en_1831_par_Falbe..._-_btv1b530984294.jpg/330px-Plan_du_terrain_et_des_ruines_de_Carthage_-_lev%C3%A9_et_dessin%C3%A9_en_1831_par_Falbe..._-_btv1b530984294.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Plan_du_terrain_et_des_ruines_de_Carthage_-_lev%C3%A9_et_dessin%C3%A9_en_1831_par_Falbe..._-_btv1b530984294.jpg/440px-Plan_du_terrain_et_des_ruines_de_Carthage_-_lev%C3%A9_et_dessin%C3%A9_en_1831_par_Falbe..._-_btv1b530984294.jpg 2x" data-file-width="7129" data-file-height="8870" /></a><figcaption>1833 map from the first modern archeological publication on Carthage, by <a href="/wiki/Christian_Tuxen_Falbe" title="Christian Tuxen Falbe">Christian Tuxen Falbe</a></figcaption></figure> The Danish consul <a href="/wiki/Christian_Tuxen_Falbe" title="Christian Tuxen Falbe">Christian Tuxen Falbe</a> conducted a first survey of the topography of the archaeological site (published in 1833). Antiquarian interest was intensified following the publication of Flaubert's <a href="/wiki/Salammb%C3%B4" title="Salammbô">Salammbô</a> in 1858. <a href="/wiki/Charles_Ernest_Beul%C3%A9" title="Charles Ernest Beulé">Charles Ernest Beulé</a> performed some preliminary excavations of Roman remains on Byrsa hill in 1860.<a href="#cite_note-97">[95]</a> In 1866, <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Khaznadar" title="Muhammad Khaznadar">Muhammad Khaznadar</a>, the son of the <a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Tunisia" title="Prime Minister of Tunisia">Prime Minister of Tunisia</a>, carried out the first locally led excavations. A more systematic survey of both Punic and Roman-era remains is due to <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Louis_Delattre" title="Alfred Louis Delattre">Alfred Louis Delattre</a>, who was sent to Tunis by cardinal <a href="/wiki/Charles_Lavigerie" title="Charles Lavigerie">Charles Lavigerie</a> in 1875 on both an apostolic and an archaeological mission.<a href="#cite_note-98">[96]</a> Audollent cites Delattre and Lavigerie to the effect that in the 1880s, locals still knew the area of the ancient city under the name of Cartagenna (i.e. reflecting the Latin n-stem Carthāgine).<a href="#cite_note-Audetym-17">[15]</a> <a href="/wiki/Auguste_Audollent" title="Auguste Audollent">Auguste Audollent</a> divided the area of Roman Carthage into four quarters, Cartagenna, Dermèche, Byrsa and <a href="/wiki/Cisterns_of_La_Malga" title="Cisterns of La Malga">La Malga</a>. Cartagenna and Dermèche correspond with the lower city, including the site of Punic Carthage; Byrsa is associated with the upper city, which in Punic times was a walled citadel above the harbour; and La Malga is linked with the more remote parts of the upper city in Roman times. French-led excavations at Carthage began in 1921, and from 1923 reported finds of a large quantity of urns containing a mixture of animal and children's bones. <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Dussaud" title="René Dussaud">René Dussaud</a> identified a 4th-century BC stela found in Carthage as depicting a child sacrifice.<a href="#cite_note-99">[97]</a> A temple at <a href="/wiki/Amman" title="Amman">Amman</a> (1400–1250 BC) excavated and reported upon by <a href="/wiki/Basil_Hennessy" title="Basil Hennessy">J.B. Hennessy</a> in 1966, shows the possibility of bestial and human sacrifice by fire. While evidence of child sacrifice in Canaan was the object of academic disagreement, with some scholars arguing that merely children's cemeteries had been unearthed in Carthage, the mixture of children's with animal bones as well as associated epigraphic evidence involving mention of mlk led some to believe that, at least in Carthage, <a href="/wiki/Tophet#Carthage_and_the_western_Mediterranean" title="Tophet">child sacrifice</a> was indeed common practice.<a href="#cite_note-100">[98]</a> However, though the animals were surely sacrificed, this does not entirely indicate that the infants were, and in fact the bones indicate the opposite. Rather, the animal sacrifice was likely done to, in some way, honour the deceased.<a href="#cite_note-101">[99]</a> A study conducted in 1970 by M. Chabeuf, the then Doctor of Science from the University of Paris, showed little difference between 17 modern Tunisians, and 68 Punic remains.<a href="#cite_note-102">[100]</a> An analysis the following year on 42 North-West African skulls dating back to Roman times concluded that they were overall similar to modern Berbers and other Mediterranean populations, especially eastern Iberians. They also noted the presence of one outlier in Tunisia who appears to have inherited mechtoid traits, which led them to hypothesize the persistence of such affinities well into the Punic and Roman era.<a href="#cite_note-103">[101]</a> M. C. Chamla and D Ferembach (1988) in their entry dealing with the craniometric conclusions of Protohistorical Algerians and Punics in the region of Tunisia, found strong sexual dimorphism with male skulls being robust. Mediterranean elements were dominant, but Mechtoid features, as well as 'Negroid' traits were present in some of the samples. Overall, Punic burials showed affinities with Algerians, Roman Era skulls from Tarragona (Spain), Guanches, and to a lesser extent Abydos (XVIIIth dynasty), Etruscans, Bronze Age Syrians (Euphrates) and skulls from Lozere (France). The anthropological position of the Algerian and <a href="/wiki/Punic_people" title="Punic people">Punic people</a> when it comes to populations of the Mediterranean Basin agreed quite well with the geographical situation.<a href="#cite_note-104">[102]</a> Jehan Desanges stated that "In the Punic burial grounds, negroid remains were not rare and there were black auxiliaries in the Carthaginian army who were certainly not Nilotics".<a href="#cite_note-105">[103]</a> In 1990, Shomarka Keita, a biological anthropologist, had conducted a craniometric study which featured a set of remains from Northern Africa. He examined a sample of 49 Maghreban crania which included skulls from pre-Roman Carthage and concluded that, although they were heterogeneous, many of them showed physical similarities to crania from equatorial Africa, ancient Egypt, and Kush; with most having traits conforming to the northern (Lower) Egyptian pattern.<a href="#cite_note-106">[104]</a> S.O.Y. Keita's later report in 2018, found the pre-Roman Carthaginian series to be intermediate between the Phoenician and Maghreban. He noted the findings are consistent with an interpretation that it reflects both local and Levantine ancestry due to specific interactions in the ancient period.<a href="#cite_note-107">[105]</a> Joel. D. Irish, when measuring for dental affinities in 2001, found strong similarities and very small distances between the Canary Islanders and Punic Carthaginians (who originated in West Asia), suggesting a particularly close affinity, despite the geographic distance between these two populations. This result according to Irish, may reflect Berber/Carthaginian admixture. Overall, the findings discovered that "the Canary Island sample is most similar to the four samples from Northwest Africa: the Shawia Berbers, Kabyle Berbers, Bedouin Arabs and Carthaginians, less similar to the three Egyptian samples and least like the three Nubian samples."<a href="#cite_note-108">[106]</a> In 2016, an ancient Carthaginian individual, who was excavated from a Punic tomb in Byrsa Hill, was found to belong to the rare <a href="/wiki/Haplogroup_U_(mtDNA)" class="mw-redirect" title="Haplogroup U (mtDNA)">U5b2c1</a> maternal haplogroup. The Young Man of Byrsa specimen dates from the late 6th century BC, and his lineage is believed to represent early gene flow from <a href="/wiki/Iberia" class="mw-redirect" title="Iberia">Iberia</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Maghreb" title="Maghreb">Maghreb</a>. Craniometric analysis of the young man indicated likely Mediterranean/European ancestry as opposed to African or Asian.<a href="#cite_note-109">[107]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Climate_change">Climate change</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carthage&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Climate change">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sea_level_rise" title="Sea level rise">Sea level rise</a></div> Due to its coastal location, Carthage Archeological Site is vulnerable to <a href="/wiki/Sea_level_rise" title="Sea level rise">sea level rise</a>. In 2022, the <a href="/wiki/IPCC_Sixth_Assessment_Report" title="IPCC Sixth Assessment Report">IPCC Sixth Assessment Report</a> included it in the list of African cultural sites which would be threatened by <a href="/wiki/Flooding" class="mw-redirect" title="Flooding">flooding</a> and <a href="/wiki/Coastal_erosion" title="Coastal erosion">coastal erosion</a> by the end of the century, but only if <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a> followed <a href="/wiki/Representative_Concentration_Pathway#RCP_8.5" title="Representative Concentration Pathway">RCP 8.5</a>, which is the scenario of high and continually increasing <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas" title="Greenhouse gas">greenhouse gas</a> emissions associated with the warming of over 4 °C (7.2 °F),<a href="#cite_note-110">[108]</a> and is no longer considered very likely.<a href="#cite_note-111">[109]</a><a href="#cite_note-112">[110]</a> The other, more plausible scenarios result in lower warming levels and consequently lower sea level rise: yet, sea levels would continue to increase for about 10,000 years under all of them.<a href="#cite_note-113">[111]</a> Even if the warming is limited to 1.5 °C (2.7 °F), global sea level rise is still expected to exceed 2–3 m (7–10 ft) after 2,000 years (and higher warming levels will see larger increases by then), consequently exceeding 2,100 levels of sea level rise under RCP 8.5 (~0.75 m (2 ft) with a range of 0.5–1 m (2–3 ft)) well before the year 4000. Thus, it is a matter of time before the Carthage Archeological Site is threatened by rising water levels, unless it can be protected by adaptation efforts such as <a href="/wiki/Sea_wall" class="mw-redirect" title="Sea wall">sea walls</a>.<a href="#cite_note-114">[112]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Commune">Commune</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carthage&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Commune">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Carthage_(municipality)" title="Carthage (municipality)">Carthage (municipality)</a></div> The commune of Carthage was created by a decree of the <a href="/wiki/Bey_of_Tunis" class="mw-redirect" title="Bey of Tunis">Bey of Tunis</a> on 15 June 1919,<a href="#cite_note-115">[113]</a> during the rule of <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_V_an-Nasir" title="Muhammad V an-Nasir">Naceur Bey</a>. In 1920, the first <a href="/wiki/Seaplane" title="Seaplane">seaplane</a> base was built on the <a href="/wiki/Lake_of_Tunis" title="Lake of Tunis">Lake of Tunis</a> for the seaplanes of Compagnie Aéronavale.<a href="#cite_note-BonnichonGény2012-116">[114]</a> The Tunis Airfield opened in 1938, serving around 5,800 passengers annually on the Paris-<a href="/wiki/Tunis" title="Tunis">Tunis</a> route.<a href="#cite_note-Staff1954-117">[115]</a> During World War II, the airport was used by the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Army_Air_Forces" title="United States Army Air Forces">United States Army Air Force</a> <a href="/wiki/Twelfth_Air_Force" title="Twelfth Air Force">Twelfth Air Force</a> as a headquarters and command control base for the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Campaign_(World_War_II)" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian Campaign (World War II)">Italian Campaign</a> of 1943. Construction on the <a href="/wiki/Tunis-Carthage_Airport" class="mw-redirect" title="Tunis-Carthage Airport">Tunis-Carthage Airport</a>, which was fully funded by France, began in 1944, and in 1948 the airport become the main hub for <a href="/wiki/Tunisair" title="Tunisair">Tunisair</a>. In the 1950s the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Lyc%C3%A9e_Fran%C3%A7ais_de_Carthage&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lycée Français de Carthage (page does not exist)">Lycée Français de Carthage</a> was established to serve French families in Carthage. In 1961 it was given to the Tunisian government as part of the <a href="/wiki/Independence_of_Tunisia" class="mw-redirect" title="Independence of Tunisia">Independence of Tunisia</a>, so the nearby Collège Maurice Cailloux in <a href="/wiki/La_Marsa" title="La Marsa">La Marsa</a>, previously an annex of the Lycée Français de Carthage, was renamed to the Lycée Français de La Marsa and began serving the lycée level. It is currently the <a href="/wiki/Lyc%C3%A9e_Gustave_Flaubert_(La_Marsa)" title="Lycée Gustave Flaubert (La Marsa)">Lycée Gustave Flaubert</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Quisommenous-118">[116]</a> After Tunisian independence in 1956, the Tunis conurbation gradually extended around the airport, and Carthage (قرطاج Qarṭāj) is now a suburb of Tunis, covering the area between Sidi Bou Said and Le Kram.<a href="#cite_note-RingSalkin1996-119">[117]</a><a href="#cite_note-120">[118]</a> Its population as of January 2013 was estimated at 21,276,<a href="#cite_note-121">[119]</a> mostly attracting the more wealthy residents.<a href="#cite_note-122">[120]</a> If Carthage is not the capital, it tends to be the political pole, a "place of emblematic power" according to <a href="/wiki/Sophie_Bessis" title="Sophie Bessis">Sophie Bessis</a>,<a href="#cite_note-bessis-123">[121]</a> leaving to Tunis the economic and administrative roles. The <a href="/wiki/Carthage_Palace" title="Carthage Palace">Carthage Palace</a> (the Tunisian presidential palace) is located in the coast.<a href="#cite_note-124">[122]</a> The suburb has six train stations of the <a href="/wiki/Tunis-Goulette-Marsa" title="Tunis-Goulette-Marsa">TGM</a> line between Le Kram and Sidi Bou Said: Carthage Salammbo (named for the ancient children's cemetery where it stands), Carthage Byrsa (named for <a href="/wiki/Byrsa" title="Byrsa">Byrsa</a> hill), Carthage Dermech (Dermèche), Carthage Hannibal (named for <a href="/wiki/Hannibal" title="Hannibal">Hannibal</a>), Carthage Présidence (named for the <a href="/wiki/Carthage_Palace" title="Carthage Palace">Presidential Palace</a>) and Carthage Amilcar (named for <a href="/wiki/Hamilcar_Barca" title="Hamilcar Barca">Hamilcar</a>). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Trade_and_business">Trade and business</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carthage&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Trade and business">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:218BCMAPMEDITERRANEAN.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/218BCMAPMEDITERRANEAN.jpg/220px-218BCMAPMEDITERRANEAN.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/218BCMAPMEDITERRANEAN.jpg/330px-218BCMAPMEDITERRANEAN.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/218BCMAPMEDITERRANEAN.jpg/440px-218BCMAPMEDITERRANEAN.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1216" data-file-height="720" /></a><figcaption>Map of the Mediterranean in 218 BC</figcaption></figure> The merchants of Carthage were in part heirs of the Mediterranean trade developed by Phoenicia, and so also heirs of the rivalry with Greek merchants. Business activity was accordingly both stimulated and challenged. <a href="/wiki/Cyprus" title="Cyprus">Cyprus</a> had been an early site of such commercial contests. The Phoenicians then had ventured into the western Mediterranean, founding trading posts, including Utica and Carthage. The <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Greeks</a> followed, entering the western seas where the commercial rivalry continued. Eventually it would lead, especially in <a href="/wiki/Sicily" title="Sicily">Sicily</a>, to several centuries of intermittent war.<a href="#cite_note-125">[123]</a><a href="#cite_note-126">[124]</a> Although Greek-made merchandise was generally considered superior in design, Carthage also produced trade goods in abundance. That Carthage came to function as a manufacturing colossus was shown during the <a href="/wiki/Third_Punic_War" title="Third Punic War">Third Punic War</a> with Rome. Carthage, which had previously disarmed, then was made to face the fatal Roman siege. The city "suddenly organised the manufacture of arms" with great skill and effectiveness. According to <a href="/wiki/Strabo" title="Strabo">Strabo</a> (63 BC – AD 21) in his <a href="/wiki/Geographica" title="Geographica">Geographica</a>: <blockquote>[Carthage] each day produced one hundred and forty finished shields, three hundred swords, five hundred spears, and one thousand missiles for the catapults... . Furthermore, [Carthage although surrounded by the Romans] built one hundred and twenty decked ships in two months... for old timber had been stored away in readiness, and a large number of skilled workmen, maintained at public expense.<a href="#cite_note-127">[125]</a></blockquote> The textile industry in Carthage probably started in private homes, but the existence of professional weavers indicates that a sort of factory system later developed. Products included embroidery, carpets, and use of the purple murex dye (for which the Carthaginian isle of <a href="/wiki/Djerba" title="Djerba">Djerba</a> was famous). <a href="/wiki/Metalwork" class="mw-redirect" title="Metalwork">Metalworkers</a> developed specialized skills, i.e., making various weapons for the armed forces, as well as domestic articles, such as knives, forks, scissors, mirrors, and razors (all articles found in tombs). Artwork in metals included vases and lamps in bronze, also bowls, and plates. Other products came from such crafts as the <a href="/wiki/Pottery" title="Pottery">potters</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Glassmaking" class="mw-redirect" title="Glassmaking">glassmakers</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Goldsmith" title="Goldsmith">goldsmiths</a>. Inscriptions on votive stele indicate that many were not slaves but 'free citizens'.<a href="#cite_note-128">[126]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:PhoenicianTrade.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/PhoenicianTrade.png/220px-PhoenicianTrade.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/PhoenicianTrade.png/330px-PhoenicianTrade.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/PhoenicianTrade.png/440px-PhoenicianTrade.png 2x" data-file-width="558" data-file-height="418" /></a><figcaption>Trade routes of Phoenicia (Byblos, Sidon, Tyre) & Carthage</figcaption></figure> Phoenician and Punic merchant ventures were often run as a family enterprise, putting to work its members and its subordinate clients. Such family-run businesses might perform a variety of tasks: own and maintain the <a href="/wiki/Trireme" title="Trireme">ships</a>, providing the captain and crew; do the negotiations overseas, either by <a href="/wiki/Barter" title="Barter">barter</a> or buying and selling, of their own manufactured commodities and trade goods, and native products (metals, foodstuffs, etc.) to carry and trade elsewhere; and send their <a href="/wiki/Agent_(law)" class="mw-redirect" title="Agent (law)">agents</a> to stay at distant outposts in order to make lasting local contacts, and later to establish a warehouse of shipped goods for exchange, and eventually perhaps a settlement. Over generations, such activity might result in the creation of a wide-ranging network of trading operations. Ancillary would be the growth of <a href="/wiki/Reciprocity_(cultural_anthropology)" title="Reciprocity (cultural anthropology)">reciprocity</a> between different family firms, foreign and domestic.<a href="#cite_note-129">[127]</a><a href="#cite_note-130">[128]</a> State protection was extended to its sea traders by the Phoenician city of <a href="/wiki/Tyre,_Lebanon" title="Tyre, Lebanon">Tyre</a> and later likewise by the daughter city-state of Carthage.<a href="#cite_note-131">[129]</a> <a href="/wiki/St%C3%A9phane_Gsell" title="Stéphane Gsell">Stéphane Gsell</a>, the well-regarded French historian of ancient North Africa, summarized the major principles guiding the civic rulers of Carthage with regard to its policies for trade and commerce: <ul><li>to open and maintain markets for its merchants, whether by entering into direct contact with foreign peoples using either treaty negotiations or naval power, or by providing security for isolated trading stations</li> <li>the <a href="/wiki/Monopoly" title="Monopoly">reservation of markets</a> exclusively for the merchants of Carthage, or where competition could not be eliminated, to regulate trade by state-sponsored agreements with its commercial rivals</li> <li>suppression of <a href="/wiki/Piracy" title="Piracy">piracy</a>, and promotion of Carthage's ability to freely navigate the seas<a href="#cite_note-132">[130]</a></li></ul> Both the Phoenicians and the Carthaginians were well known in antiquity for their <a href="/wiki/Secrecy" title="Secrecy">secrecy</a> in general, and especially pertaining to commercial contacts and <a href="/wiki/Trade_routes" class="mw-redirect" title="Trade routes">trade routes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-133">[131]</a><a href="#cite_note-134">[132]</a><a href="#cite_note-135">[133]</a> Both cultures excelled in commercial dealings. <a href="/wiki/Strabo" title="Strabo">Strabo</a> (63 BC–AD 21), the Greek <a href="/wiki/Geographer" title="Geographer">geographer</a>, wrote that before its fall (in 146 BC) Carthage enjoyed a population of 700,000 and directed an alliance of 300 cities.<a href="#cite_note-136">[134]</a> The Greek historian <a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 203–120) referred to Carthage as "the wealthiest city in the world".<a href="#cite_note-137">[135]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Constitution_of_state">Constitution of state</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carthage&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Constitution of state">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Carthage" title="Constitution of Carthage">Constitution of Carthage</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nuremberg_chronicles_f_40v_2.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Nuremberg_chronicles_f_40v_2.png/220px-Nuremberg_chronicles_f_40v_2.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Nuremberg_chronicles_f_40v_2.png/330px-Nuremberg_chronicles_f_40v_2.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Nuremberg_chronicles_f_40v_2.png/440px-Nuremberg_chronicles_f_40v_2.png 2x" data-file-width="649" data-file-height="489" /></a><figcaption>Idealized depiction of Carthage from the 1493 <a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_Chronicle" title="Nuremberg Chronicle">Nuremberg Chronicle</a></figcaption></figure> A "suffet" (possibly two) was elected by the citizens, and held office with no military power for a one-year term. Carthaginian generals marshalled mercenary armies and were separately elected. From about 550 to 450 the Magonid family monopolized the top military position; later the Barcid family acted similarly. Eventually it came to be that, after a war, the commanding general had to testify justifying his actions before a court of 104 judges.<a href="#cite_note-138">[136]</a> <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> (384–322) discusses Carthage in his work, <a href="/wiki/Politics_(Aristotle)" title="Politics (Aristotle)">Politica</a>; he begins: "The Carthaginians are also considered to have an excellent form of government." He briefly describes the city as a "mixed constitution", a political arrangement with cohabiting elements of <a href="/wiki/Monarchy" title="Monarchy">monarchy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aristocracy" title="Aristocracy">aristocracy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">democracy</a>, i.e., a king (<a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Gk</a>: basileus), a council of elders (Gk: gerusia), and the people (Gk: demos).<a href="#cite_note-139">[137]</a> Later <a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius of Megalopolis</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 204–122, Greek) in his <a href="/wiki/The_Histories_(Polybius)" class="mw-redirect" title="The Histories (Polybius)">Histories</a> would describe the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a> in more detail as a mixed constitution in which the <a href="/wiki/Roman_consul" title="Roman consul">Consuls</a> were the monarchy, the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Senate" title="Roman Senate">Senate</a> the aristocracy, and the <a href="/wiki/Roman_assemblies" title="Roman assemblies">Assemblies</a> the democracy.<a href="#cite_note-140">[138]</a> Evidently Carthage also had an institution of <a href="/wiki/Elder_(administrative_title)" title="Elder (administrative title)">elders</a> who advised the Suffets, similar to a Greek gerusia or the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Senate" title="Roman Senate">Roman Senate</a>. We do not have a Punic name for this body. At times its members would travel with an army general on campaign. Members also formed permanent <a href="/wiki/Committees" class="mw-redirect" title="Committees">committees</a>. The institution had several hundred members drawn from the wealthiest class who held office for life. Vacancies were probably filled by recruitment from among the elite, i.e., by <a href="/wiki/Co-option" title="Co-option">co-option</a>. From among its members were selected the <a href="/wiki/Hundred_and_Four" title="Hundred and Four">104 Judges</a> mentioned above. Later the 104 would come to evaluate not only army generals but other office holders as well. Aristotle regarded the 104 as most important; he compared it to the <a href="/wiki/Ephor" title="Ephor">ephorate</a> of <a href="/wiki/Sparta" title="Sparta">Sparta</a> with regard to control over security. In Hannibal's time, such a Judge held office for life. At some stage there also came to be independent self-perpetuating boards of five who filled vacancies and supervised (non-military) government administration.<a href="#cite_note-141">[139]</a> Popular <a href="/wiki/Deliberative_assembly" title="Deliberative assembly">assemblies</a> also existed at Carthage. When deadlocked the Suffets and the quasi-senatorial institution of elders might request the assembly to vote; also, assembly votes were requested in very crucial matters in order to achieve political consensus and popular coherence. The assembly members had no legal wealth or birth qualification. How its members were selected is unknown, e.g., whether by festival group or urban ward or another method.<a href="#cite_note-142">[140]</a><a href="#cite_note-143">[141]</a><a href="#cite_note-144">[142]</a> The Greeks were favourably impressed by the constitution of Carthage; <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> had a separate study of it made which unfortunately is lost. In his Politica he states: "The government of Carthage is oligarchical, but they successfully escape the evils of oligarchy by enriching one portion of the people after another by sending them to their colonies." "[T]heir policy is to send some [poorer citizens] to their dependent towns, where they grow rich."<a href="#cite_note-145">[143]</a><a href="#cite_note-146">[144]</a> Yet Aristotle continues, "[I]f any misfortune occurred, and the bulk of the subjects revolted, there would be no way of restoring peace by legal means." Aristotle remarked also: <blockquote>Many of the Carthaginian institutions are excellent. The superiority of their constitution is proved by the fact that the common people remain loyal to the constitution; the Carthaginians have never had any rebellion worth speaking of, and have never been under the rule of a <a href="/wiki/Tyrant" title="Tyrant">tyrant</a>.<a href="#cite_note-147">[145]</a></blockquote> The city-state of Carthage, whose citizens were mainly Libyphoenicians (of Phoenician ancestry born in Africa), dominated and exploited an agricultural countryside composed mainly of native Berber sharecroppers and farmworkers, whose affiliations to Carthage were open to divergent possibilities. Beyond these more settled Berbers and the Punic farming towns and rural manors, lived the independent Berber tribes, who were mostly pastoralists. In the brief, uneven review of government at Carthage found in his Politica Aristotle mentions several faults. Thus, "that the same person should hold many <a href="/wiki/Office" title="Office">offices</a>, which is a favorite practice among the Carthaginians." Aristotle disapproves, mentioning the flute-player and the shoemaker. Also, that "magistrates should be chosen not only for their merit but for their wealth." Aristotle's opinion is that focus on pursuit of wealth will lead to <a href="/wiki/Oligarchy" title="Oligarchy">oligarchy</a> and its evils. <blockquote>[S]urely it is a bad thing that the greatest offices... should be bought. The law which allows this abuse makes wealth of more account than virtue, and the whole state becomes avaricious. For, whenever the chiefs of the state deem anything honorable, the other citizens are sure to follow their example; and, where virtue has not the first place, their aristocracy cannot be firmly established.<a href="#cite_note-148">[146]</a></blockquote> In Carthage the people seemed politically satisfied and submissive, according to the historian Warmington. They in their assemblies only rarely exercised the few opportunities given them to assent to state decisions. Popular influence over government appears not to have been an issue at Carthage. Being a commercial republic fielding a <a href="/wiki/Mercenary" title="Mercenary">mercenary</a> army, the people were not conscripted for military service, an experience which can foster the feel for popular political action. But perhaps this misunderstands the society; perhaps the people, whose values were based on small-group loyalty, felt themselves sufficiently connected to their city's leadership by the very integrity of the person-to-person linkage within their social fabric. Carthage was very stable; there were few openings for <a href="/wiki/Tyrants" class="mw-redirect" title="Tyrants">tyrants</a>. Only after defeat by Rome devastated Punic imperial ambitions did the people of Carthage seem to question their governance and to show interest in political reform.<a href="#cite_note-149">[147]</a> In 196, following the <a href="/wiki/Second_Punic_War" title="Second Punic War">Second Punic War</a> (218–201), <a href="/wiki/Hannibal" title="Hannibal">Hannibal</a>, still greatly admired as a Barcid military leader, was elected <a href="/wiki/Suffet" class="mw-redirect" title="Suffet">suffet</a>. When his reforms were blocked by a financial official about to become a judge for life, Hannibal rallied the populace against the 104 judges. He proposed a one-year term for the 104, as part of a major civic overhaul. Additionally, the reform included a restructuring of the city's revenues, and the fostering of trade and agriculture. The changes rather quickly resulted in a noticeable increase in prosperity. Yet his incorrigible political opponents cravenly went to Rome, to charge Hannibal with conspiracy, namely, plotting war against Rome in league with <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_III_the_Great" title="Antiochus III the Great">Antiochus</a> the Hellenic ruler of <a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Syria</a>. Although the Roman <a href="/wiki/Scipio_Africanus" title="Scipio Africanus">Scipio Africanus</a> resisted such manoeuvre, eventually intervention by Rome forced Hannibal to leave Carthage. Thus, corrupt city officials efficiently blocked Hannibal in his efforts to reform the government of Carthage.<a href="#cite_note-150">[148]</a><a href="#cite_note-151">[149]</a> Mago (6th century) was King of Carthage; the <a href="/wiki/Head_of_state" title="Head of state">head of state</a>, war leader, and religious figurehead. His family was considered to possess a sacred quality. Mago's office was somewhat similar to that of a <a href="/wiki/Pharaoh" title="Pharaoh">pharaoh</a>, but although kept in a family it was not hereditary, it was limited by legal consent. Picard, accordingly, believes that the council of elders and the popular assembly are late institutions. Carthage was founded by the king of Tyre who had a royal monopoly on this trading venture. Thus it was the royal authority stemming from this traditional source of power that the King of Carthage possessed. Later, as other Phoenician ship companies entered the trading region, and so associated with the city-state, the King of Carthage had to keep order among a rich variety of powerful merchants in their negotiations among themselves and over risky commerce across the Mediterranean. Under these circumstance, the office of king began to be transformed. Yet it was not until the aristocrats of Carthage became wealthy owners of agricultural lands in Africa that a council of elders was institutionalized at Carthage.<a href="#cite_note-152">[150]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Contemporary_sources">Contemporary sources</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carthage&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Contemporary sources">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Stele_with_palm_and_Tanit_sign-MBA_Lyon_1969-86-IMG_0548.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Stele with plame decoration and Tanit sign from the Lyon Museum of Fine Arts" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Stele_with_palm_and_Tanit_sign-MBA_Lyon_1969-86-IMG_0548.jpg/100px-Stele_with_palm_and_Tanit_sign-MBA_Lyon_1969-86-IMG_0548.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Stele_with_palm_and_Tanit_sign-MBA_Lyon_1969-86-IMG_0548.jpg/150px-Stele_with_palm_and_Tanit_sign-MBA_Lyon_1969-86-IMG_0548.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Stele_with_palm_and_Tanit_sign-MBA_Lyon_1969-86-IMG_0548.jpg/200px-Stele_with_palm_and_Tanit_sign-MBA_Lyon_1969-86-IMG_0548.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3744" data-file-height="5616" /></a><figcaption>Stele with a <a href="/wiki/Phoenician_votive_inscriptions" title="Phoenician votive inscriptions">Phoenician</a> <a href="/wiki/Votive_offering" title="Votive offering">votive inscription</a>, palm motif, and <a href="/wiki/Sign_of_Tanit" title="Sign of Tanit">sign of Tanit</a>, from the <a href="/wiki/Carthage_tophet" title="Carthage tophet">Carthage tophet</a>, now in the <a href="/wiki/Museum_of_Fine_Arts_of_Lyon" title="Museum of Fine Arts of Lyon">Museum of Fine Arts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lyon" title="Lyon">Lyon</a></figcaption></figure> Most ancient literature concerning Carthage comes from Greek and Roman sources as Carthage's own documents were destroyed by the Romans.<a href="#cite_note-153">[151]</a><a href="#cite_note-154">[152]</a> Apart from <a href="/wiki/Inscriptions" class="mw-redirect" title="Inscriptions">inscriptions</a>, hardly any <a href="/wiki/Phoenician-Punic_literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Phoenician-Punic literature">Punic literature</a> has survived, and none in its own language and script.<a href="#cite_note-155">[153]</a> A brief catalogue would include:<a href="#cite_note-156">[154]</a> <ul><li>three short <a href="/wiki/Treaty" title="Treaty">treaties</a> with Rome (Latin translations);<a href="#cite_note-157">[155]</a><a href="#cite_note-158">[156]</a><a href="#cite_note-159">[157]</a></li> <li>several pages of <a href="/wiki/Hanno_the_Navigator" title="Hanno the Navigator">Hanno the Navigator</a>'s log-book concerning his fifth century maritime exploration of the Atlantic coast of west Africa (Greek translation);<a href="#cite_note-160">[158]</a></li> <li>fragments quoted from <a href="/wiki/Mago_(agricultural_writer)" title="Mago (agricultural writer)">Mago</a>'s fourth/third century 28-volume treatise on agriculture (Latin translations);<a href="#cite_note-161">[159]</a><a href="#cite_note-162">[160]</a></li> <li>the Roman playwright <a href="/wiki/Plautus" title="Plautus">Plautus</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 250 – 184) in his <a href="/wiki/Poenulus" title="Poenulus">Poenulus</a> incorporates a few fictional speeches delivered in <a href="/wiki/Punic_language" title="Punic language">Punic</a>, whose written lines are <a href="/wiki/Transcription_(linguistics)" title="Transcription (linguistics)">transcribed</a> into Latin letters phonetically;<a href="#cite_note-163">[161]</a><a href="#cite_note-164">[162]</a></li> <li>the thousands of inscriptions made in Punic script, thousands, but many extremely short, e.g., a dedication to a deity with the personal name(s) of the devotee(s).<a href="#cite_note-165">[163]</a><a href="#cite_note-166">[164]</a></li></ul> "[F]rom the Greek author <a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a> [(c. 46 – c. 120)] we learn of the 'sacred books' in Punic safeguarded by the city's temples. Few Punic texts survive, however."<a href="#cite_note-167">[165]</a> Once "the City Archives, the Annals, and the scribal lists of Suffets" existed, but evidently these were destroyed in the horrific fires during the Roman capture of the city in 146 BC.<a href="#cite_note-168">[166]</a> Yet some Punic books (Latin: libri punici) from the libraries of Carthage reportedly did survive the fires.<a href="#cite_note-169">[167]</a> These works were apparently given by Roman authorities to the newly augmented Berber rulers.<a href="#cite_note-170">[168]</a><a href="#cite_note-171">[169]</a> Over a century after the fall of Carthage, the Roman politician-turned-author Gaius Sallustius Crispus or <a href="/wiki/Sallust" title="Sallust">Sallust</a> (86–34) reported his having seen volumes written in Punic, which books were said to be once possessed by the Berber king, <a href="/wiki/Hiempsal_II" title="Hiempsal II">Hiempsal II</a> (r. 88–81).<a href="#cite_note-172">[170]</a><a href="#cite_note-173">[171]</a><a href="#cite_note-174">[172]</a> By way of Berber informants and Punic translators, Sallust had used these surviving books to write his brief sketch of Berber affairs.<a href="#cite_note-175">[173]</a><a href="#cite_note-176">[174]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Portrait_Juba_II_Louvre_Ma1886.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Portrait_Juba_II_Louvre_Ma1886.jpg/100px-Portrait_Juba_II_Louvre_Ma1886.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Portrait_Juba_II_Louvre_Ma1886.jpg/150px-Portrait_Juba_II_Louvre_Ma1886.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Portrait_Juba_II_Louvre_Ma1886.jpg/200px-Portrait_Juba_II_Louvre_Ma1886.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2250" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Berber_kings_of_Roman-era_Tunisia" title="Berber kings of Roman-era Tunisia">Juba II</a>, reigned 25 BC – AD 23</figcaption></figure> Probably some of Hiempsal II's libri punici, that had escaped the fires that consumed Carthage in 146 BC, wound up later in the large royal library of his grandson <a href="/wiki/Juba_II" title="Juba II">Juba II</a> (r. 25 BC–AD 24).<a href="#cite_note-177">[175]</a> Juba II not only was a <a href="/wiki/Berber_kings_of_Roman-era_Tunisia" title="Berber kings of Roman-era Tunisia">Berber king</a>, and husband of <a href="/wiki/Cleopatra" title="Cleopatra">Cleopatra</a>'s daughter, but also a scholar and author in <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a> of no less than nine works.<a href="#cite_note-178">[176]</a> He wrote for the Mediterranean-wide audience then enjoying <a href="/wiki/Classical_literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical literature">classical literature</a>. The libri punici inherited from his grandfather surely became useful to him when composing his Libyka, a work on North Africa written in Greek. Unfortunately, only fragments of Libyka survive, mostly from quotations made by other ancient authors.<a href="#cite_note-179">[177]</a> It may have been Juba II who 'discovered' the five-centuries-old 'log book' of <a href="/wiki/Hanno_the_Navigator" title="Hanno the Navigator">Hanno the Navigator</a>, called the Periplus, among library documents saved from fallen Carthage.<a href="#cite_note-180">[178]</a><a href="#cite_note-181">[179]</a><a href="#cite_note-182">[180]</a> In the end, however, most Punic writings that survived the destruction of Carthage "did not escape the immense wreckage in which so many of Antiquity's literary works perished."<a href="#cite_note-183">[181]</a> Accordingly, the long and continuous interactions between Punic citizens of Carthage and the Berber communities that surrounded the city have no local historian. Their political arrangements and periodic crises, their economic and work life, the cultural ties and social relations established and nourished (infrequently as kin), are not known to us directly from ancient Punic authors in written accounts. Neither side has left us their stories about life in Punic-era Carthage.<a href="#cite_note-184">[182]</a> Regarding Phoenician writings, few remain and these seldom refer to Carthage. The more ancient and most informative are cuneiform tablets, c. 1600–1185, from ancient <a href="/wiki/Ugarit" title="Ugarit">Ugarit</a>, located to the north of <a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenicia</a> on the Syrian coast; it was a Canaanite city politically affiliated with the Hittites. The clay tablets tell of myths, epics, rituals, medical and administrative matters, and also correspondence.<a href="#cite_note-185">[183]</a><a href="#cite_note-186">[184]</a><a href="#cite_note-187">[185]</a> The highly valued works of <a href="/wiki/Sanchuniathon" title="Sanchuniathon">Sanchuniathon</a>, an ancient priest of Beirut, who reportedly wrote on Phoenician religion and the origins of civilization, are themselves completely lost, but some little content endures twice removed.<a href="#cite_note-188">[186]</a><a href="#cite_note-189">[187]</a> Sanchuniathon was said to have lived in the 11th century, which is considered doubtful.<a href="#cite_note-190">[188]</a><a href="#cite_note-191">[189]</a> Much later a Phoenician History by <a href="/wiki/Philo_of_Byblos" title="Philo of Byblos">Philo of Byblos</a> (64–141) reportedly existed, written in Greek, but only fragments of this work survive.<a href="#cite_note-192">[190]</a><a href="#cite_note-193">[191]</a> An explanation proffered for why so few Phoenician works endured: early on (11th century) archives and records began to be kept on <a href="/wiki/Papyrus" title="Papyrus">papyrus</a>, which does not long survive in a moist coastal climate.<a href="#cite_note-194">[192]</a> Also, both Phoenicians and Carthaginians were well known for their <a href="/wiki/Secrecy" title="Secrecy">secrecy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-195">[193]</a><a href="#cite_note-196">[194]</a> Thus, of their ancient writings we have little of major interest left to us by Carthage, or by <a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenicia</a> the country of origin of the city founders. "Of the various Phoenician and Punic compositions alluded to by the ancient classical authors, not a single work or even fragment has survived in its original idiom." "Indeed, not a single Phoenician <a href="/wiki/Manuscript" title="Manuscript">manuscript</a> has survived in the original [language] or in translation."<a href="#cite_note-197">[195]</a> We cannot therefore access directly the line of thought or the contour of their worldview as expressed in their own words, in their own voice.<a href="#cite_note-198">[196]</a> Ironically, it was the Phoenicians who "invented or at least perfected and transmitted a form of writing [the <a href="/wiki/Alphabet" title="Alphabet">alphabet</a>] that has influenced dozens of cultures including our own."<a href="#cite_note-199">[197]</a><a href="#cite_note-200">[198]</a><a href="#cite_note-201">[199]</a> As noted, the celebrated ancient books on agriculture written by <a href="/wiki/Mago_(agricultural_writer)" title="Mago (agricultural writer)">Mago of Carthage</a> survives only via quotations in Latin from several later Roman works. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_art_and_literature">In art and literature</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carthage&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: In art and literature">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikisource-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/76px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></a></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has original text related to this article: <div style="margin-left: 10px;"><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Letitia_Elizabeth_Landon_(L._E._L.)_in_Fisher%27s_Drawing_Room_Scrap_Book,_1837/Carthage" class="extiw" title="wikisource:Letitia Elizabeth Landon (L. E. L.) in Fisher's Drawing Room Scrap Book, 1837/Carthage">Carthage, a poetical illustration by L. E. L.</a></div></div></div> </div> The scant remains of what was once a great city are reflected upon in <a href="/wiki/Letitia_Elizabeth_Landon" title="Letitia Elizabeth Landon">Letitia Elizabeth Landon</a>'s poetical illustration, Carthage, to an engraving of a painting by J. Salmon, published in Fisher's Drawing Room Scrap Book, 1837 with quotes from Sir Grenville Temple's Journal.<a href="#cite_note-202">[200]</a> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> The protagonist in <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Asimov" title="Isaac Asimov">Isaac Asimov</a>'s 1956 science-fiction short story "<a href="/wiki/The_Dead_Past" title="The Dead Past">The Dead Past</a>" is an academic professor obsessed with debunking historical perceptions of Carthage.<a href="#cite_note-203">[201]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carthage&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Carthage" title="History of Carthage">History of Carthage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carthage_tophet" title="Carthage tophet">Carthage tophet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asterius_Chapel" title="Asterius Chapel">Asterius Chapel</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carthage&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> English pronunciation: <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/ˈkɑːrθɪdʒ/</a> <a href="/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key" title="Help:Pronunciation respelling key">KAR-thij</a>; <a href="/wiki/Punic_language" title="Punic language">Punic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Phoenician_language" title="Phoenician language">Phoenician</a>: 𐤒𐤓𐤕𐤇𐤃𐤔𐤕, romanized: Qārtḥadāšt, <a href="/wiki/Literal_translation" title="Literal translation">lit.</a> 'new city'; <a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>: Carthāgō, <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1177148991">.mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%}</style>pronounced <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Latin" title="Help:IPA/Latin">[karˈtʰaːɡoː]</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> compare <a href="/wiki/Aramaic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Aramaic language">Aramaic</a> קרתא חדתא Qarta Ḥadtaʾ, <a href="/wiki/Biblical_Hebrew" title="Biblical Hebrew">Hebrew</a> קרת חדשה Qeret Ḥadašah and <a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a> قرية حديثة Qarya Ḥadīṯa;<a href="#cite_note-14">[13]</a> adjective qrt-ḥdty "Carthaginian" </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carthage&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFHitchner,_R.R._TalbertS._GilliesJ._Åhlfeldt" class="citation web cs1">Hitchner, R.; 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Talbert; S. Gillies; J. Åhlfeldt; R. Warner; J. Becker; T. Elliott. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://pleiades.stoa.org/places/314921">"Places: 314921 (Carthago)"</a>. Pleiades. Retrieved 7 April 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Places%3A+314921+%28Carthago%29&rft.pub=Pleiades&rft.au=Hitchner%2C+R.&rft.au=R.+Talbert&rft.au=S.+Gillies&rft.au=J.+%C3%85hlfeldt&rft.au=R.+Warner&rft.au=J.+Becker&rft.au=T.+Elliott&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpleiades.stoa.org%2Fplaces%2F314921&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarthage" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Josephus" title="Josephus">Josephus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Against_Apion" title="Against Apion">Against Apion</a> (Book I, §18) </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHAEGEMANS2000" class="citation journal cs1">HAEGEMANS, Karen (2000-01-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.2143/as.30.0.565564">"Elissa, the First Queen of Carthage"</a>. Ancient Society. 30: 277–291. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2143%2Fas.30.0.565564">10.2143/as.30.0.565564</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0066-1619">0066-1619</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ancient+Society&rft.atitle=Elissa%2C+the+First+Queen+of+Carthage&rft.volume=30&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E277-%3C%2Fspan%3E291&rft.date=2000-01-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2143%2Fas.30.0.565564&rft.issn=0066-1619&rft.aulast=HAEGEMANS&rft.aufirst=Karen&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.2143%2Fas.30.0.565564&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarthage" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ingentaconnect.com-5">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ingentaconnect.com_5-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ingentaconnect.com_5-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ingentaconnect.com_5-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLi2022" class="citation journal cs1">Li, Hansong (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ingentaconnect.com/contentone/imp/hpt/2022/00000043/00000002/art00003">"Locating Mobile Sovereignty: Carthage in Natural Jurisprudence"</a>. History of Political Thought. 43 (2): 246–272. Retrieved 13 August 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=History+of+Political+Thought&rft.atitle=Locating+Mobile+Sovereignty%3A+Carthage+in+Natural+Jurisprudence&rft.volume=43&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E246-%3C%2Fspan%3E272&rft.date=2022&rft.aulast=Li&rft.aufirst=Hansong&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ingentaconnect.com%2Fcontentone%2Fimp%2Fhpt%2F2022%2F00000043%2F00000002%2Fart00003&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarthage" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-jstor.org-6"><a href="#cite_ref-jstor.org_6-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWinterer2010" class="citation journal cs1">Winterer, Caroline (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5309/willmaryquar.67.1.3">"Model Empire, Lost City: Ancient Carthage and the Science of Politics in Revolutionary America"</a>. The William and Mary Quarterly. 67 (1): 3–30. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5309%2Fwillmaryquar.67.1.3">10.5309/willmaryquar.67.1.3</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5309/willmaryquar.67.1.3">10.5309/willmaryquar.67.1.3</a>. Retrieved 13 August 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+William+and+Mary+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Model+Empire%2C+Lost+City%3A+Ancient+Carthage+and+the+Science+of+Politics+in+Revolutionary+America&rft.volume=67&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E3-%3C%2Fspan%3E30&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5309%2Fwillmaryquar.67.1.3&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F10.5309%2Fwillmaryquar.67.1.3%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Winterer&rft.aufirst=Caroline&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F10.5309%2Fwillmaryquar.67.1.3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarthage" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Edmund-7">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Edmund_7-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Edmund_7-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBosworth2008" class="citation book cs1">Bosworth, C. Edmund (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=UB4uSVt3ulUC&q=carthage+walls+aqueducts+698&pg=PA536">Historic Cities of the Islamic World</a>. Brill Academic Press. p. 536. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9004153882" title="Special:BookSources/978-9004153882"><bdi>978-9004153882</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historic+Cities+of+the+Islamic+World&rft.pages=536&rft.pub=Brill+Academic+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-9004153882&rft.aulast=Bosworth&rft.aufirst=C.+Edmund&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUB4uSVt3ulUC%26q%3Dcarthage%2Bwalls%2Baqueducts%2B698%26pg%3DPA536&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarthage" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ediguplia-8">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ediguplia_8-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ediguplia_8-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnna_Leone2007" class="citation book cs1">Anna Leone (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qO7mlDvtuZ0C&pg=PA179">Changing Townscapes in North Africa from Late Antiquity to the Arab Conquest</a>. Edipuglia srl. pp. 179–186. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8872284988" title="Special:BookSources/978-8872284988"><bdi>978-8872284988</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Changing+Townscapes+in+North+Africa+from+Late+Antiquity+to+the+Arab+Conquest&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E179-%3C%2Fspan%3E186&rft.pub=Edipuglia+srl&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-8872284988&rft.au=Anna+Leone&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DqO7mlDvtuZ0C%26pg%3DPA179&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarthage" class="Z3988"> <code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: <code class="cs1-code">|work=</code> ignored (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#periodical_ignored" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-Mustansir-9">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Mustansir_9-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mustansir_9-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomas_F._MaddenJames_L._NausVincent_Ryan2018" class="citation book cs1">Thomas F. Madden; James L. Naus; Vincent Ryan, eds. (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BHlUDwAAQBAJ&q=carthage+mustansir+walls&pg=PA113">Crusades – Medieval Worlds in Conflict</a>. Oxford University Press. pp. 113, 184. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0198744320" title="Special:BookSources/978-0198744320"><bdi>978-0198744320</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Crusades+%E2%80%93+Medieval+Worlds+in+Conflict&rft.pages=113%2C+184&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-0198744320&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DBHlUDwAAQBAJ%26q%3Dcarthage%2Bmustansir%2Bwalls%26pg%3DPA113&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarthage" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> Skeletal Remains from Punic Carthage Do Not Support Systematic Sacrifice of Infants </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ox.ac.uk/news/2014-01-23-ancient-carthaginians-really-did-sacrifice-their-children">Ancient Carthaginians really did sacrifice their children.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201214154130/https://www.ox.ac.uk/news/2014-01-23-ancient-carthaginians-really-did-sacrifice-their-children">Archived</a> 2020-12-14 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> University of Oxford News </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/37/">"Archaeological Site of Carthage"</a>. World Heritage Centre. UNESCO. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20051128003634/http://whc.unesco.org:80/en/list/37/">Archived</a> from the original on 2005-11-28. Retrieved 19 October 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=World+Heritage+Centre&rft.atitle=Archaeological+Site+of+Carthage&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwhc.unesco.org%2Fen%2Flist%2F37%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarthage" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> c.f. Marlowes <a href="/wiki/Dido,_Queen_of_Carthage_(play)" title="Dido, Queen of Carthage (play)">Dido, Queen of Carthage</a> (c. 1590); Middle English still used the Latin form Carthago, e.g., <a href="/wiki/John_Trevisa" title="John Trevisa">John Trevisa</a>, Polychronicon (1387) 1.169: That womman Dido that founded Carthago was comlynge. </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> see: <ul><li>Wolfgang David Cirilo de Melo (ed), Amphitryon, Volume 4 of The Loeb Classical Library: Plautus, Harvard University Press, 2011, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rXpdAHrox6AC&pg=PA210">p. 210</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221126122953/https://books.google.ch/books?id=rXpdAHrox6AC&pg=PA210">Archived</a> 2022-11-26 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>;</li> <li>D. Gary Miller, Ancient Greek Dialects and Early Authors: Introduction to the Dialect Mixture in Homer, with Notes on Lyric and Herodotus, Walter de Gruyter, 2014, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5vPnBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA39">p. 39</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221126122953/https://books.google.ch/books?id=5vPnBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA39">Archived</a> 2022-11-26 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</li> <li>Knapp, Wilfrid (1977). North West Africa: A Political and Economic Survey. p. 15. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0192156357" title="Special:BookSources/0192156357">0192156357</a>.</li></ul> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.archaeology.ugent.be/carthage/history.php">"Carthage: new excavations in a Mediterranean capital"</a>. ugent.be.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ugent.be&rft.atitle=Carthage%3A+new+excavations+in+a+Mediterranean+capital&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.archaeology.ugent.be%2Fcarthage%2Fhistory.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarthage" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Audetym-17">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Audetym_17-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Audetym_17-1">b</a> Audollent, Carthage Romaine, 146 avant Jésus-Christ – 698 après Jésus-Christ 1901, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mediterranee-antique.fr/Auteurs/Fichiers/ABC/Audollent/Carthage/Cart_203.htm">p. 203</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-CharlesworthEdwards2000-18"><a href="#cite_ref-CharlesworthEdwards2000_18-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMartin_Percival_CharlesworthIorwerth_Eiddon_Stephen_EdwardsJohn_BoardmanFrank_William_Walbank2000" class="citation book cs1">Martin Percival Charlesworth; Iorwerth Eiddon Stephen Edwards; John Boardman; Frank William Walbank (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WgHhAAAAMAAJ&q=">"Rome+was+larger" The Cambridge Ancient History: The fourth century B.C., 2nd ed., 1994</a>. University Press. p. 813. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521263351" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521263351"><bdi>978-0521263351</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Ancient+History%3A+The+fourth+century+B.C.%2C+2nd+ed.%2C+1994&rft.pages=813&rft.pub=University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0521263351&rft.au=Martin+Percival+Charlesworth&rft.au=Iorwerth+Eiddon+Stephen+Edwards&rft.au=John+Boardman&rft.au=Frank+William+Walbank&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWgHhAAAAMAAJ%26q%3D%22Rome%2Bwas%2Blarger%22&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarthage" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Grant2004-19"><a href="#cite_ref-Grant2004_19-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobert_McQueen_Grant2004" class="citation book cs1">Robert McQueen Grant (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=d_vxEB7nT_QC&pg=PP54">Augustus to Constantine: The Rise and Triumph of Christianity in the Roman World</a>. Westminster: John Knox Press. pp. 54–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-664-22772-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-664-22772-2"><bdi>978-0-664-22772-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Augustus+to+Constantine%3A+The+Rise+and+Triumph+of+Christianity+in+the+Roman+World&rft.pages=54-&rft.pub=Westminster%3A+John+Knox+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-664-22772-2&rft.au=Robert+McQueen+Grant&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dd_vxEB7nT_QC%26pg%3DPP54&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarthage" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> Warmington, Carthage (1964) at 138–140, map at 139; at 273n.3, he cites the ancients: <a href="/wiki/Appian" title="Appian">Appian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Strabo" title="Strabo">Strabo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Diodorus_Siculus" title="Diodorus Siculus">Diodorus Siculus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> Harden, The Phoenicians (1962, 2d ed. 1963), text at 34, maps at 31 and 34. According to Harden, the outer walls ran several kilometres to the west of that indicated on the map here. </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> Picard and Picard, The Life and Death of Carthage (1968, 1969) at 395–396. </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> For an ample discussion of the ancient city: Serge Lancel, Carthage (Paris: Arthème Fayard 1992; Oxford: Blackwell 1995, 1997) at 134–172, ancient harbours at 172–192; archaic Carthage at 38–77. </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> Charles-Picard, Daily Life in Carthage (1958; 1968) at 85 (limited area), at 88 (imported skills). </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> e.g., the Greek writers: <a href="/wiki/Appian" title="Appian">Appian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Diodorus_Siculus" title="Diodorus Siculus">Diodorus Siculus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a>; and, the Latin: <a href="/wiki/Livy" title="Livy">Livy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Strabo" title="Strabo">Strabo</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> Serge Lancel, Carthage (Paris 1992), as translated by A. Nevill (Oxford 1997), at 38–45 and 76–77 (archaic Carthage): maps of early city at 39 and 42; burial archaeology quote at 77; short quotes at 43, 38, 45, 39; clay masks at 60–62 (photographs); terracotta and ivory figurines at 64–66, 72–75 (photographs). Ancient coastline from Utica to Carthage: map at 18. </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> Cf., B. H. Warmington, Carthage (London: Robert Hale 1960; 2d ed. 1969) at 26–31. </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> Virgil (70–19 BC), <a href="/wiki/The_Aeneid" class="mw-redirect" title="The Aeneid">The Aeneid</a> [19 BC], translated by <a href="/wiki/Robert_Fitzgerald" title="Robert Fitzgerald">Robert Fitzgerald</a> (New York: Random House 1983), p. 18–19 (Book I, 421–424). Cf., Lancel, Carthage (1997) p. 38. Here capitalized as prose. </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> Virgil here, however, does innocently inject his own Roman cultural notions into his imagined description, e.g., Punic Carthage evidently built no theaters per se. Cf., Charles-Picard, Daily Life in Carthage (1958; 1968). </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> The harbours, often mentioned by ancient authors, remain an archaeological problem due to the limited, fragmented evidence found. Lancel, Carthage (1992; 1997) at 172–192 (the two harbours). </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> Harden, The Phoenicians (1962, 2d ed. 1963) at 32, 130–131. </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> Warmington, Carthage (1960, 1964) at 138. </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> Sebkrit er Riana to the north, and <a href="/wiki/Lake_of_Tunis" title="Lake of Tunis">El Bahira</a> to the south [their modern names]. Harden, The Phoenicians (1962, 2d ed. 1963) at 31–32. Ships then could also be beached on the sand. </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> Cf., Lancel, Carthage (1992; 1997) at 139–140, city map at 138. </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> The lands immediately south of the hill is often also included by the term Byrsa. </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> Serge Lancel, Carthage. A history (Paris: Librairie Arthème Fayard 1992; Oxford: Blackwell 1995) at 148–152; 151 and 149 map (leveling operations on the Byrsa, circa 25 BC, to prepare for new construction), 426 (Temple of Eshmun), 443 (Byrsa diagram, circa 1859). The Byrsa had been destroyed during the <a href="/wiki/Third_Punic_War" title="Third Punic War">Third Punic War</a> (149–146). </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> Charles-Picard, Daily Life in Carthage (Paris 1958; London 1961, reprint Macmillan 1968) at 8 (city map showing the Temple of Eshmoun, on the eastern heights of the Byrsa). </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> E. S. Bouchier, Life and Letters in Roman Africa (Oxford: B. H. Blackwell 1913) at 17, and 75. The Roman temple to <a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_deities" title="List of Roman deities">Juno Caelestis</a> is said to be later erected on the site of the ruined temple to <a href="/wiki/Tanit" title="Tanit">Tanit</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> On the Byrsa some evidence remains of quality residential construction of 2nd century BC. Soren, Khader, Slim, Carthage (1990) at 117. </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJeffrey_H._SchwartzFrank_HoughtonRoberto_MacchiarelliLuca_Bondioli2010" class="citation journal cs1">Jeffrey H. Schwartz; Frank Houghton; Roberto Macchiarelli; Luca Bondioli (February 17, 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2822869">"Skeletal Remains from Punic Carthage Do Not Support Systematic Sacrifice of Infants"</a>. PLOS ONE. 5 (2): e9177. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010PLoSO...5.9177S">2010PLoSO...5.9177S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0009177">10.1371/journal.pone.0009177</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2822869">2822869</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20174667">20174667</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PLOS+ONE&rft.atitle=Skeletal+Remains+from+Punic+Carthage+Do+Not+Support+Systematic+Sacrifice+of+Infants&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=e9177&rft.date=2010-02-17&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2822869%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20174667&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0009177&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2010PLoSO...5.9177S&rft.au=Jeffrey+H.+Schwartz&rft.au=Frank+Houghton&rft.au=Roberto+Macchiarelli&rft.au=Luca+Bondioli&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2822869&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarthage" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> B. H. Warmington, Carthage (London: Robert Hale 1960; reprint Penguin 1964) at 15 (quote), 25, 141; (London: Robert Hale, 2d ed. 1969) at 27 (quote), 131–132, 133 (enclosure). </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> See the section on Punic religion below. </li> <li id="cite_note-sacrifice1-43"><a href="#cite_ref-sacrifice1_43-0">^</a> Xella, Paolo, et al. "Cemetery or sacrifice? Infant burials at the Carthage Tophet: Phoenician bones of contention." Antiquity 87.338 (2013): 1199–1207. </li> <li id="cite_note-sacrifice2-44"><a href="#cite_ref-sacrifice2_44-0">^</a> Smith, Patricia, et al. "Cemetery or sacrifice? Infant burials at the Carthage Tophet: Age estimations attest to infant sacrifice at the Carthage Tophet." Antiquity 87.338 (2013): 1191–1199. </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://people.brandonu.ca/nollk/canaanite-religion/#:~:text=At%20the%20center%20of%20Canaanite,crops,%20flocks,%20and%20humans.">"Canaanite Religion | K. L. Noll"</a>. people.brandonu.ca. Retrieved 2024-08-26.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=people.brandonu.ca&rft.atitle=Canaanite+Religion+%7C+K.+L.+Noll&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpeople.brandonu.ca%2Fnollk%2Fcanaanite-religion%2F%23%3A~%3Atext%3DAt%2520the%2520center%2520of%2520Canaanite%2Ccrops%2C%2520flocks%2C%2520and%2520humans.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarthage" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> Cf., Warmington, Carthage (1960, 1964) at 141. </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> Modern archeologists on the site have not yet 'discovered' the ancient agora. Lancel, Carthage (Paris 1992; Oxford 1997) at 141. </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> Warmington, Carthage (1960, 1964) at 142. </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Appian" title="Appian">Appian</a> of Alexandria (c. 95 – c. 160s), Pomaika known as the Roman History, at VII (Libyca), 128. </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> Harden, The Phoenicians (1962, 2d ed. 1963) at 133 & 229n17 (Appian cited). </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> Lancel, Carthage (Paris 1992; Oxford 1997) at 152–172, e.g., 163–165 (floorplans), 167–171 (neighborhood diagrams and photographs). </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> Warmington, Carthage (1960, 1964) at 139 (map of city, re the tophet), 141. </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> Lancel, Carthage (Paris 1992; Oxford 1997) at 138–140. These findings mostly relate to the 3rd century BC. </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a> Picard, The Life and Death of Carthage (Paris 1970; New York 1968) at 162–165 (carvings described), 176–178 (quote). </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a> Lancel, Carthage (1992; 1997) at 138 and 145 (city maps). </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a> This was especially so, later in the Roman era. E.g., Soren, Khader, Slim, Carthage (1990) at 187–210. </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a> Serge Lancel and Jean-Paul Morel, "Byrsa. Punic vestiges"; To save Carthage. Exploration and conservation of the city Punic, Roman and Byzantine, Unesco / INAA, 1992, pp. 43–59 </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a> Stéphanie Gsell, Histoire ancienne de l'Afrique du Nord, volume four (Paris 1920). </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a> Serge Lancel, Carthage. A History (Paris: Arthème Fayard 1992; Oxford: Blackwell 1995) at 273–274 (Mago quoted by Columella), 278–279 (Mago and <a href="/wiki/Cato_the_Elder" title="Cato the Elder">Cato</a>'s book), 358 (translations). </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Charles-Picard" title="Gilbert Charles-Picard">Gilbert</a> and <a href="/wiki/Colette_Picard" title="Colette Picard">Colette Picard</a>, La vie quotidienne à Carthage au temps d'Hannibal (Paris: Librairie Hachette 1958), translated as Daily Life in Carthage (London: George Allen & Unwin 1961; reprint Macmillan, New York 1968) at 83–93: 88 (Mago as retired general), 89–91 (fruit trees), 90 (grafting), 89–90 (vineyards), 91–93 (livestock and bees), 148–149 (wine making). Elephants also, of course, were captured and reared for war (at 92). </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> Sabatino Moscati, Il mondo dei Fenici (1966), translated as The World of the Phoenicians (London: Cardinal 1973) at 219–223. Hamilcar is named as another Carthaginian writing on agriculture (at 219). </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a> Serge Lancel, Carthage (Paris: Arthème Fayard 1992; Oxford: Blackwell 1995), discussion of wine making and its 'marketing' at 273–276. Lancel says (at 274) that about wine making, Mago was silent. Punic agriculture and rural life are addressed at 269–302. </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a> G. and C. Charles-Picard, La vie quotidienne à Carthage au temps d'Hannibal (Paris: Librairie Hachette 1958) translated as Daily Life in Carthage (London: George Allen and Unwin 1961; reprint Macmillan 1968) at 83–93: 86 (quote); 86–87, 88, 93 (management); 88 (overseers). </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> G. C. and C. Picard, Vie et mort de Carthage (Paris: Librairie Hachette 1970) translated (and first published) as The Life and Death of Carthage (New York: Taplinger 1968) at 86 and 129. </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a> Charles-Picard, Daily Life in Carthage (1958; 1968) at 83–84: the development of a "landed nobility". </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a> B. H. Warmington, in his Carthage (London: Robert Hale 1960; reprint Penguin 1964) at 155. </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Mago_(agricultural_writer)" title="Mago (agricultural writer)">Mago</a>, quoted by <a href="/wiki/Columella" title="Columella">Columella</a> at I, i, 18; in Charles-Picard, Daily Life in Carthage (1958; 1968) at 87, 101, n37. </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a> Mago, quoted by Columella at I, i, 18; in Moscati, The World of the Phoenicians (1966; 1973) at 220, 230, n5. </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a> Gilbert and Colette Charles-Picard, Daily Life in Carthage (1958; 1968) at 83–85 (invaders), 86–88 (rural proletariat). </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a> E.g., Gilbert Charles Picard and Colette Picard, The Life and Death of Carthage (Paris 1970; New York 1968) at 168–171, 172–173 (invasion of Agathocles in 310 BC). The mercenary revolt (240–237) following the First Punic War was also largely and actively, though unsuccessfully, supported by rural Berbers. Picard (1970; 1968) at 203–209. </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> (c. 427 – c. 347) in his <a href="/wiki/Laws_(dialogue)" title="Laws (dialogue)">Laws</a> at 674, a-b, mentions regulations at Carthage restricting the consumption of wine in specified circumstances. Cf., Lancel, Carthage (1997) at 276. </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a> Warmington, Carthage (London: Robert Hale 1960, 2d ed. 1969) at 136–137. </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a> Serge Lancel, Carthage (Paris: Arthème Fayard 1992) translated by Antonia Nevill (Oxford: Blackwell 1997) at 269–279: 274–277 (produce), 275–276 (amphora), 269–270 & 405 (Rome), 269–270 (yields), 270 & 277 (lands), 271–272 (towns). </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Diodorus_Siculus" title="Diodorus Siculus">Diodorus Siculus</a>, Bibleoteca, at XX, 8, 1–4, transl. as Library of History (Harvard University 1962), vol.10 [Loeb Classics, no.390); per Soren, Khader, Slim, Carthage (1990) at 88. </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a> Lancel, Carthage (Paris 1992; Oxford 1997) at 277. </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a> Herodotus, V2. 165–167 </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a> Polybius, World History: 1.7–1.60 </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMatisoo-SmithGoslingBoocockKardailsky2016" class="citation journal cs1">Matisoo-Smith, Elizabeth A.; Gosling, Anna L.; Boocock, James; Kardailsky, Olga; Kurumilian, Yara; Roudesli-Chebbi, Sihem; Badre, Leila; Morel, Jean-Paul; Sebaï, Leïla Ladjimi; Zalloua, Pierre A. (2016-05-25). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4880306">"A European Mitochondrial Haplotype Identified in Ancient Phoenician Remains from Carthage, North Africa"</a>. PLOS ONE. 11 (5): e0155046. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2016PLoSO..1155046M">2016PLoSO..1155046M</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0155046">10.1371/journal.pone.0155046</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1932-6203">1932-6203</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4880306">4880306</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27224451">27224451</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PLOS+ONE&rft.atitle=A+European+Mitochondrial+Haplotype+Identified+in+Ancient+Phoenician+Remains+from+Carthage%2C+North+Africa&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=e0155046&rft.date=2016-05-25&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4880306%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2016PLoSO..1155046M&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F27224451&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0155046&rft.issn=1932-6203&rft.aulast=Matisoo-Smith&rft.aufirst=Elizabeth+A.&rft.au=Gosling%2C+Anna+L.&rft.au=Boocock%2C+James&rft.au=Kardailsky%2C+Olga&rft.au=Kurumilian%2C+Yara&rft.au=Roudesli-Chebbi%2C+Sihem&rft.au=Badre%2C+Leila&rft.au=Morel%2C+Jean-Paul&rft.au=Seba%C3%AF%2C+Le%C3%AFla+Ladjimi&rft.au=Zalloua%2C+Pierre+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4880306&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarthage" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPellechia2006" class="citation book cs1">Pellechia, Thomas (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/wine8000yearolds00thom">Wine: The 8,000-Year-Old Story of the Wine Trade</a>. London: Running Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-56025-871-3" title="Special:BookSources/1-56025-871-3"><bdi>1-56025-871-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Wine%3A+The+8%2C000-Year-Old+Story+of+the+Wine+Trade&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Running+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=1-56025-871-3&rft.aulast=Pellechia&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fwine8000yearolds00thom&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarthage" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0001198.html">"Ancient History"</a>. infoplease.com.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=infoplease.com&rft.atitle=Ancient+History&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.infoplease.com%2Fipa%2FA0001198.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarthage" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.megalithic.co.uk/article.php?sid=14906">"C. Michael Hogan (2007) Volubilis, The Megalithic Portal, ed. by A. Burnham"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=C.+Michael+Hogan+%282007%29+Volubilis%2C+The+Megalithic+Portal%2C+ed.+by+A.+Burnham&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.megalithic.co.uk%2Farticle.php%3Fsid%3D14906&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarthage" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRipleyDana1858–1863" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/George_Ripley_(transcendentalist)" title="George Ripley (transcendentalist)">Ripley, George</a>; <a href="/wiki/Charles_Anderson_Dana" title="Charles Anderson Dana">Dana, Charles A.</a> (1858–1863). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/newamericancycl01danagoog#page/n508/mode/1up">"Carthage"</a>. The New American Cyclopædia: a Popular Dictionary of General Knowledge. Vol. 4. New York: D. Appleton. p. 497. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1173144180">1173144180</a>. Retrieved 29 July 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Carthage&rft.btitle=The+New+American+Cyclop%C3%A6dia%3A+a+Popular+Dictionary+of+General+Knowledge&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=497&rft.pub=D.+Appleton&rft.date=1858%2F1863&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1173144180&rft.aulast=Ripley&rft.aufirst=George&rft.au=Dana%2C+Charles+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Fnewamericancycl01danagoog%23page%2Fn508%2Fmode%2F1up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarthage" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Carthage_1988_pp._308-83"><a href="#cite_ref-Carthage_1988_pp._308_83-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWarmington1988" class="citation journal cs1">Warmington, B. H. (1988). "The Destruction of Carthage: A Retractation". Classical Philology. 83 (4): 308–310. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F367123">10.1086/367123</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162850949">162850949</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Classical+Philology&rft.atitle=The+Destruction+of+Carthage%3A+A+Retractation&rft.volume=83&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E308-%3C%2Fspan%3E310&rft.date=1988&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F367123&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A162850949%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Warmington&rft.aufirst=B.+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarthage" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a> Stevens, 1988, pp. 39–40. </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://weburbanist.com/2010/09/26/bridges-that-babble-on-15-amazing-roman-aqueducts">"'Bridges That Babble On: 15 Amazing Roman Aqueducts', Article by Steve, filed under Abandoned Places in the Architecture category"</a>. 26 September 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%27Bridges+That+Babble+On%3A+15+Amazing+Roman+Aqueducts%27%2C+Article+by+Steve%2C+filed+under+Abandoned+Places+in+the+Architecture+category&rft.date=2010-09-26&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fweburbanist.com%2F2010%2F09%2F26%2Fbridges-that-babble-on-15-amazing-roman-aqueducts&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarthage" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a> Brent D. Shaw: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=F8ZRPTgcjrcC&pg=PA234">Sacred Violence: African Christians and Sectarian Hatred in the Age of Augustine</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221126122954/https://books.google.se/books?id=F8ZRPTgcjrcC&pg=PA234">Archived</a> 2022-11-26 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-87">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_87-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_87-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrownHolmes1988" class="citation book cs1">Brown, Thomas; Holmes, George (1988). The Oxford History of Medieval Europe. Great Britain: Oxford University Press. p. 3.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+History+of+Medieval+Europe&rft.place=Great+Britain&rft.pages=3&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft.au=Holmes%2C+George&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarthage" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnna_Leone2007" class="citation book cs1">Anna Leone (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qO7mlDvtuZ0C&pg=PA155">Changing Townscapes in North Africa from Late Antiquity to the Arab Conquest</a>. Edipuglia srl. p. 155. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8872284988" title="Special:BookSources/978-8872284988"><bdi>978-8872284988</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Changing+Townscapes+in+North+Africa+from+Late+Antiquity+to+the+Arab+Conquest&rft.pages=155&rft.pub=Edipuglia+srl&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-8872284988&rft.au=Anna+Leone&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DqO7mlDvtuZ0C%26pg%3DPA155&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarthage" class="Z3988"> <code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: <code class="cs1-code">|work=</code> ignored (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#periodical_ignored" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSinger2013" class="citation book cs1">Singer, Charles (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=H13CAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT145">A Short History of Science to the Nineteenth Century</a>. Courier Corporation. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0486169286" title="Special:BookSources/978-0486169286"><bdi>978-0486169286</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Short+History+of+Science+to+the+Nineteenth+Century&rft.pub=Courier+Corporation&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0486169286&rft.aulast=Singer&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DH13CAgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT145&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarthage" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Patrologia_Latina" title="Patrologia Latina">Patrologia Latina</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREF(Contractus)1853" class="citation web cs1">(Contractus), Hermannus (1853). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=r8EUAAAAQAAJ">"vol. 143, coll. 727–731"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=vol.+143%2C+coll.+727%E2%80%93731&rft.date=1853&rft.aulast=%28Contractus%29&rft.aufirst=Hermannus&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dr8EUAAAAQAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarthage" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBouchier1913" class="citation book cs1">Bouchier, E.S. 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Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 255. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2F0198263996.003.0007">10.1093/0198263996.003.0007</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0198263999" title="Special:BookSources/978-0198263999"><bdi>978-0198263999</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Victorian+Missionary&rft.btitle=The+Church+in+Africa%2C+1450%E2%80%931950&rft.place=Oxford&rft.series=history+of+the+Christian+Church&rft.pages=255&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2F0198263996.003.0007&rft.isbn=978-0198263999&rft.aulast=Hastings&rft.aufirst=Adrian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dr4x7g1w90SkC%26pg%3DPA255&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarthage" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChisholm1911" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm" title="Hugh Chisholm">Chisholm, Hugh</a>, ed. 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Cambridge University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Lavigerie%2C+Charles+Martial+Allemand&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.edition=11th&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1911&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarthage" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/12423b.htm">Joseph Sollier, "Charles-Martial-Allemand Lavigerie"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100612225239/http://newadvent.org/cathen/12423b.htm">Archived</a> 2010-06-12 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> in <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia" title="Catholic Encyclopedia">Catholic Encyclopedia</a> (New York 1910) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJenkins2011" class="citation book cs1">Jenkins, Philip (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EIAKmFFfG3sC&pg=PA46">The next christendom : the coming of global Christianity</a> (3rd ed.). Oxford [u.a.]: Oxford University Press. p. 46. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0199767465" title="Special:BookSources/978-0199767465"><bdi>978-0199767465</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+next+christendom+%3A+the+coming+of+global+Christianity&rft.place=Oxford+%5Bu.a.%5D&rft.pages=46&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0199767465&rft.aulast=Jenkins&rft.aufirst=Philip&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEIAKmFFfG3sC%26pg%3DPA46&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarthage" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a> <img alt="Public Domain" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/12px-PD-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/18px-PD-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/24px-PD-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="196" data-file-height="196" /> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJackson1910" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Jackson, Samuel Macauley, ed. (1910). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GREMAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA425">"Lavigerie, Charles Martial Allemand"</a>. <a href="/wiki/New_Schaff%E2%80%93Herzog_Encyclopedia_of_Religious_Knowledge" class="mw-redirect" title="New Schaff–Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge">New Schaff–Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge</a>. Vol. 6 (third ed.). London and New York: Funk and Wagnalls. p. 425.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Lavigerie%2C+Charles+Martial+Allemand&rft.btitle=New+Schaff%E2%80%93Herzog+Encyclopedia+of+Religious+Knowledge&rft.place=London+and+New+York&rft.pages=425&rft.edition=third&rft.pub=Funk+and+Wagnalls&rft.date=1910&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGREMAAAAIAAJ%26pg%3DPA425&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarthage" class="Z3988"> In 1964, the episcopal see of Carthage had to be de-established again, in a compromise reached with the government of <a href="/wiki/Habib_Bourguiba" title="Habib Bourguiba">Habib Bourguiba</a>, which permitted the Catholic Church in Tunisia to retain legal personality and representation by the <a href="/wiki/Prelate_nullius" class="mw-redirect" title="Prelate nullius">prelate nullius</a> of Tunis. </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a> Charles Ernest Beulé, Fouilles à Carthage, éd. Imprimerie impériale, Paris, 1861. </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a> Azedine Beschaouch, La légende de Carthage, éd. Découvertes Gallimard, Paris, 1993, p. 94. </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a> Dussaud, Bulletin Archéologique (1922), p. 245. </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a> J.B. Hennessey, Palestine Exploration Quarterly (1966) </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchwartzHoughtonMacchiarelliBondioli2010" class="citation journal cs1">Schwartz, Jeffery H.; Houghton, Frank; Macchiarelli, Roberto; Bondioli, Luca (2010-02-17). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2822869">"Skeletal Remains from Punic Carthage Do Not Support Systematic Sacrifice of Infants"</a>. 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The range of variation in the restricted area described extends from a tropical African metric pattern to a European one and supports the phenotypic variability observed in and near Carthage by ancient writers and in morphological studies. Thus the population emerges as a composite entity, no doubt also containing hybrid individuals. However, the centroid value of the combined Maghreb series indicates that the major craniometric pattern is most similar to that of northern dynastic Egyptians. 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Karthala Editions. p. 453. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-8111-0737-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-8111-0737-6"><bdi>978-2-8111-0737-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pr%C3%A9sences+fran%C3%A7aises+outre-mer%2C+XVIe%E2%80%93XXIe+si%C3%A8cles&rft.pages=453&rft.pub=Karthala+Editions&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-2-8111-0737-6&rft.au=Philippe+Bonnichon&rft.au=Pierre+G%C3%A9ny&rft.au=Jean+Nemo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYSSFAAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA453&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarthage" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Staff1954-117"><a href="#cite_ref-Staff1954_117-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEncyclopedie_Mensuelle_d'Outre-mer_staff1954" class="citation book cs1">Encyclopedie Mensuelle d'Outre-mer staff (1954). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jbwqAAAAMAAJ&q=Compagnie+Aeronavale">Tunisia 54</a>. Negro Universities Press. p. 166. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0837124421" title="Special:BookSources/978-0837124421"><bdi>978-0837124421</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tunisia+54&rft.pages=166&rft.pub=Negro+Universities+Press&rft.date=1954&rft.isbn=978-0837124421&rft.au=Encyclopedie+Mensuelle+d%27Outre-mer+staff&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjbwqAAAAMAAJ%26q%3DCompagnie%2BAeronavale&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarthage" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Quisommenous-118"><a href="#cite_ref-Quisommenous_118-0">^</a> "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.erlm.tn/lgf/sommes/">Qui sommes nous ?</a>" (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151107080203/http://www.erlm.tn/lgf/sommes/">Archive</a>). <a href="/wiki/Lyc%C3%A9e_Gustave_Flaubert_(La_Marsa)" title="Lycée Gustave Flaubert (La Marsa)">Lycée Gustave Flaubert (La Marsa)</a>. Retrieved on February 24, 2016. </li> <li id="cite_note-RingSalkin1996-119"><a href="#cite_ref-RingSalkin1996_119-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTrudy_RingRobert_M._SalkinSharon_La_Boda1996" class="citation book cs1">Trudy Ring; Robert M. Salkin; Sharon La Boda (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=R44VRnNCzAYC&pg=PA177">International Dictionary of Historic Places: Middle East and Africa</a>. Taylor & Francis. p. 177. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-884964-03-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-884964-03-9"><bdi>978-1-884964-03-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=International+Dictionary+of+Historic+Places%3A+Middle+East+and+Africa&rft.pages=177&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-1-884964-03-9&rft.au=Trudy+Ring&rft.au=Robert+M.+Salkin&rft.au=Sharon+La+Boda&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DR44VRnNCzAYC%26pg%3DPA177&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarthage" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=B1443DZAtH8C&pg=PA1615">Illustrated Encyclopaedia of World History</a>. Mittal Publications. p. 1615. GGKEY:C6Z1Y8ZWS0N.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Illustrated+Encyclopaedia+of+World+History&rft.pages=1615&rft.pub=Mittal+Publications&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DB1443DZAtH8C%26pg%3DPA1615&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarthage" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150924035238/http://www.ins.nat.tn/fr/rep_population.php">"Statistical Information: Population"</a>. National Institute of Statistics – Tunisia. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ins.nat.tn/fr/rep_population.php">the original</a> on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 3 January 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Statistical+Information%3A+Population&rft.pub=National+Institute+of+Statistics+%E2%80%93+Tunisia&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ins.nat.tn%2Ffr%2Frep_population.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarthage" class="Z3988">; up from 15,922 in 2004 (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131207015451/http://www.ins.nat.tn/fr/rgph2.1.commune.php?code_modalite=24411&Code_indicateur=0301007&Submit3=Envoyer">"Population, ménages et logements par unité administrative"</a> (in French). National Institute of Statistics – Tunisia. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ins.nat.tn/fr/rgph2.1.commune.php?code_modalite=24411&Code_indicateur=0301007&Submit3=Envoyer">the original</a> on 7 December 2013. Retrieved 3 January 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Population%2C+m%C3%A9nages+et+logements+par+unit%C3%A9+administrative&rft.pub=National+Institute+of+Statistics+%E2%80%93+Tunisia&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ins.nat.tn%2Ffr%2Frgph2.1.commune.php%3Fcode_modalite%3D24411%26Code_indicateur%3D0301007%26Submit3%3DEnvoyer&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarthage" class="Z3988">) </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a> David Lambert, Notables des colonies. Une élite de circonstance en Tunisie et au Maroc (1881–1939), éd. Presses universitaires de Rennes, Rennes, 2009, pp. 257–258 </li> <li id="cite_note-bessis-123"><a href="#cite_ref-bessis_123-0">^</a> (in French) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unesco.org/courier/1999_09/fr/signes/intro.htm">Sophie Bessis,"Défendre Carthage, encore et toujours", Le Courrier de l'Unesco, September 1999</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070613164329/http://www.unesco.org/courier/1999_09/fr/signes/intro.htm">Archived</a> 2007-06-13 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20120908214230/http://www.philstar.com/Article.aspx?articleId=648961&publicationSubCategoryId=200">"More Tunisia unrest: Presidential palace gunbattle"</a>. philSTAR.com. 17 January 2011. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.philstar.com/Article.aspx?articleId=648961&publicationSubCategoryId=200">the original</a> on 8 September 2012. Retrieved 28 October 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=More+Tunisia+unrest%3A+Presidential+palace+gunbattle&rft.date=2011-01-17&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.philstar.com%2FArticle.aspx%3FarticleId%3D648961%26publicationSubCategoryId%3D200&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarthage" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a> Cf., Charles-Picard, Daily Life in Carthage (Paris 195; Oxford 1961, reprint Macmillan 1968) at 165, 171–177. </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Donald_Harden" title="Donald Harden">Donald Harden</a>, The Phoenicians (New York: Praeger 1962, 2d ed. 1963) at 57–62 (Cyprus and Aegean), 62–65 (western Mediterranean); 157–170 (trade); 67–70, 84–85, 160–164 (the Greeks). </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Strabo" title="Strabo">Strabo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Geographica" title="Geographica">Geographica</a>, XVII: 3, 15; as translated by H. L. Jones (Loeb Classic Library 1932) at VIII: 385. </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a> Sabatino Moscati, The World of the Phoenicians (1966; 1973) at 223–224. </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a> Richard J. Harrison, Spain at the Dawn of History (London: Thames and Hudson 1988), "Phoenician colonies in Spain" at 41–50 [42]. </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a> Cf., Harden, The Phoenicians (1962, 2d ed. 1963) at 157–166. </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a> E.g., during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Hiram_I" title="Hiram I">Hiram</a> (tenth century) of Tyre. Sabatino Moscati, Il Mondo dei Fenici (1966), translated as The World of the Phoenicians (1968, 1973) at 31–34. </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a> Stéphane Gsell, Histoire ancienne de l'Afrique du Nord (Paris: Librairie Hachette 1924) at volume IV: 113. </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Strabo" title="Strabo">Strabo</a> (c. 63 BC – AD 20s), Geographica at III, 5.11. </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a> Walter W. Hyde, Ancient Greek Mariners (Oxford Univ. 1947) at 45–46. </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a> Warmington, Carthage (1960, 1964) at 81 (secretive), 87 (monopolizing). </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Strabo" title="Strabo">Strabo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Geographica" title="Geographica">Geographica</a>, XVII: 3, 15; in the Loeb Classic Library edition of 1932, translated by H. L. Jones, at VIII: 385. </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a> Cf., <a href="/wiki/Theodor_Mommsen" title="Theodor Mommsen">Theodor Mommsen</a>, Römische Geschicht (Leipzig: Reimer and Hirzel 1854–1856), translated as the <a href="/wiki/History_of_Rome_(Mommsen)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Rome (Mommsen)">History of Rome</a> (London 1862–1866; reprinted by J. M. Dent 1911) at II: 17–18 (Mommsen's Book III, Chapter I). </li> <li id="cite_note-138"><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWarmington1964" class="citation book cs1">Warmington, B. H. (1964) [1960]. Carthage. Robert Hale, Pelican. pp. 144–147.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Carthage&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E144-%3C%2Fspan%3E147&rft.pub=Robert+Hale%2C+Pelican&rft.date=1964&rft.aulast=Warmington&rft.aufirst=B.+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarthage" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a> Aristotle, Politica at Book II, Chapter 11, (1272b–1274b); in The Basic Works of Aristotle edited by R. McKeon, translated by B. Jowett (Random House 1941), Politica at pages 1113–1316, "Carthage" at 1171–1174. </li> <li id="cite_note-140"><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a> Polybius, Histories VI, 11–18, translated as The Rise of the Roman Empire (Penguin 1979) at 311–318. </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a> Warmington, Carthage (1960; Penguin 1964) at 147–148. </li> <li id="cite_note-142"><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a> Warmington, Carthage (1960; Penguin 1964) at 148. </li> <li id="cite_note-143"><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a> Aristotle presents a slightly more expansive interpretation of the role of assemblies. Politica II, 11, (1273a/6–11); McKeon, ed., Basic Works of Aristotle (1941) at 1172. </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a> Compare <a href="/wiki/Roman_assemblies" title="Roman assemblies">Roman assemblies</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-145"><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a> Aristotle, Politica at II, 11, (1273b/17–20), and at VI, 5, (1320b/4–6) re colonies; in McKeon, ed., Basic Works of Aristotle (1941) at 1173, and at 1272. </li> <li id="cite_note-146"><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a> "Aristotle said that the oligarchy was careful to treat the masses liberally and allow them a share in the profitable exploitation of the subject territories." Warmington, Carthage (1960, 1964) at 149, citing Aristotle's Politica as here. </li> <li id="cite_note-147"><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a> Aristotle, Politica at II, 11, (1273b/23–24) re misfortune and revolt, (1272b/29–32) re constitution and loyalty; in McKeon, ed., Basic Works of Aristotle (1941) at 1173, 1171. </li> <li id="cite_note-148"><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a> Aristotle, Politica at II, 11, (1273b/8–16) re one person many offices, and (1273a/22–1273b/7) re oligarchy; in McKeon, ed., Basic Works of Aristotle (1941) at 1173, 1172–1273. </li> <li id="cite_note-149"><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a> Warmington, Carthage (1960, 1964) at 143–144, 148–150. "The fact is that compared to Greeks and Romans the Carthaginians were essentially non-political." Ibid. at 149. </li> <li id="cite_note-150"><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a> H. H. Scullard, A History of the Roman World, 753–146 BC (London: Methuen 1935, 4th ed. 1980; reprint Routledge 1991) at 306–307. </li> <li id="cite_note-151"><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a> Warmington, Carthage at 240–241, citing the Roman historian <a href="/wiki/Livy" title="Livy">Livy</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-152"><a href="#cite_ref-152">^</a> Picard, Life and Death of Carthage (1968) at 80–86 </li> <li id="cite_note-153"><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a> Picard, Life and Death of Carthage (1968, 1969) at 40–41 (Greeks), . </li> <li id="cite_note-154"><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a> Cf., Warmington, Carthage (1960; Penguin 1964) at 24–25 (Greeks), 259–260 (Romans). </li> <li id="cite_note-155"><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a> B.H.Warmington, "The Carthiginian Period" at 246–260, 246 ("No Carthaginian literature has survived."), in General History of Africa, volume III. Ancient Civilizations of Africa (UNESCO 1990) Abridged Edition. </li> <li id="cite_note-156"><a href="#cite_ref-156">^</a> <a href="/wiki/R._Bosworth_Smith" class="mw-redirect" title="R. Bosworth Smith">R. Bosworth Smith</a>, Carthage and the Carthaginians (London: Longmans, Green 1878, 1902) at 12. Smith's catalogue has not been appreciably augmented since, but for newly found inscriptions. </li> <li id="cite_note-157"><a href="#cite_ref-157">^</a> Picard, Life and Death of Carthage (1968, 1969) at 72–73: translation of Romano-Punic Treaty, 509 BC; at 72–78: discussion. </li> <li id="cite_note-158"><a href="#cite_ref-158">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a> (c. 200 – 118), <a href="/wiki/The_Histories_(Polybius)" class="mw-redirect" title="The Histories (Polybius)">Istorion</a> at III, 22–25, selections translated as Rise of the Roman Empire (Penguin 1979) at 199–203. Nota bene: Polybius died well over 70 years before the start of the Roman Empire. </li> <li id="cite_note-159"><a href="#cite_ref-159">^</a> Cf., <a href="/wiki/Arnold_J._Toynbee" title="Arnold J. Toynbee">Arnold J. Toynbee</a>, Hannibal's Legacy (1965) at I: 526, Appendix on the treaties. </li> <li id="cite_note-160"><a href="#cite_ref-160">^</a> Hanno's log translated in full by Warmington, Carthage (1960) at 74–76. </li> <li id="cite_note-161"><a href="#cite_ref-161">^</a> E.g., by <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Terentius_Varro" title="Marcus Terentius Varro">Varro</a> (116–27) in his De re rustica; by <a href="/wiki/Columella" title="Columella">Columella</a> (fl. AD 50–60) in his On trees and On agriculture, and by <a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny</a> (23–79) in his Naturalis Historia. See below, paragraph on Mago's work. </li> <li id="cite_note-162"><a href="#cite_ref-162">^</a> Harden, The Phoenicians (New York: Praeger 1962, 2d ed. 1963) at 122–123 (28 books), 140 (quotation of paragraph). </li> <li id="cite_note-163"><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a> Cf., H. J. Rose, A Handbook of Lanin Literature (London: Methuen 1930, 3d ed. 1954; reprint Dutton, New York 1960) at 51–52, where a plot summary of Poenulus (i.e., "The Man from Carthage") is given. Its main characters are Punic. </li> <li id="cite_note-164"><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a> Eighteen lines from <a href="/wiki/Poenulus" title="Poenulus">Poenulus</a> are spoken in <a href="/wiki/Punic_language" title="Punic language">Punic</a> by the character Hanno in Act 5, scene 1, beginning "Hyth alonim vualonuth sicorathi si ma com sith... ." Plautus gives a Latin paraphrase in the next ten lines. The gist is a prayer seeking divine aid in his quest to find his lost kin. The Comedies of Plautus (London: G. Bell and Sons 1912), translated by <a href="/wiki/Henry_Thomas_Riley" title="Henry Thomas Riley">Henry Thomas Riley</a>. The scholar Bochart considered the first ten lines to be Punic, but the last eight to be 'Lybic'. Another scholar, <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Petit" title="Samuel Petit">Samuel Petit</a>, translated the text as if it were Hebrew, a sister-language of Punic. This according to notes accompanying the above scene by H. T. Riley. </li> <li id="cite_note-165"><a href="#cite_ref-165">^</a> Soren, Ben Khader, Slim, Carthage (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1990) at 42 (over 6000 inscriptions found), at 139 (many very short, on religious stele). </li> <li id="cite_note-166"><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a> An example of a longer inscription (of about 279 Punic characters) exists at <a href="/wiki/Thugga" class="mw-redirect" title="Thugga">Thugga</a>, Tunisia. It concerns the dedication of a temple to the late king <a href="/wiki/Masinissa" title="Masinissa">Masinissa</a>. A translated text appears in Brett and Fentress, The Berbers (1997) at 39. </li> <li id="cite_note-167"><a href="#cite_ref-167">^</a> Glenn E. Markoe, Carthage (2000) at 114. </li> <li id="cite_note-168"><a href="#cite_ref-168">^</a> Picard and Picard, Life and Death of Carthage (1968, 1969) at 30. </li> <li id="cite_note-169"><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a> Cf., Victor Matthews, "The libri punici of King Hiempsal" in American Journal of Philology 93: 330–335 (1972); and, Véronique Krings, "Les libri Punici de Sallust" in L'Africa Romana 7: 109–117 (1989). Cited by Roller (2003) at 27, n110. </li> <li id="cite_note-170"><a href="#cite_ref-170">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a> (23–79), Naturalis Historia at XVIII, 22–23. </li> <li id="cite_note-171"><a href="#cite_ref-171">^</a> Serge Lancel, Carthage (Paris: Librairie Arthème Fayard 1992; Oxford: Blackwell 1995) at 358–360. Lancel here remarks that, following the fall of Carthage, there arose among the Romans there a popular reaction against the late <a href="/wiki/Cato_the_Elder" title="Cato the Elder">Cato the Elder</a> (234–149), the Roman censor who had notoriously lobbied for the destruction of the city. Lancel (1995) at 410. </li> <li id="cite_note-172"><a href="#cite_ref-172">^</a> Ronald Syme, however, in his Sallust (University of California, 1964, 2002) at 152–153, discounts any unique value of the libri punici mentioned in his <a href="/wiki/Bellum_Jugurthinum" title="Bellum Jugurthinum">Bellum Jugurthinum</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-173"><a href="#cite_ref-173">^</a> Lancel, Carthage (1992, 1995) at 359, raises questions concerning the provenance of these books. </li> <li id="cite_note-174"><a href="#cite_ref-174">^</a> Hiempsal II was the great-grandson of <a href="/wiki/Masinissa" title="Masinissa">Masinissa</a> (r. 202–148), through Mastanabal (r. 148–140) and Gauda (r. 105–88). D. W. Roller, The World of Juba II and Kleopatra Selene (2003) at 265. </li> <li id="cite_note-175"><a href="#cite_ref-175">^</a> Sallust, Bellum Iugurthinum (ca. 42) at ¶17, translated as The Jugurthine War (Penguin 1963) at 54. </li> <li id="cite_note-176"><a href="#cite_ref-176">^</a> R. Bosworth Smith, in his Carthage and the Carthaginians (London: Longmans, Green 1878, 1908) at 38, laments that Sallust declined to directly address the history of the city of Carthage. </li> <li id="cite_note-177"><a href="#cite_ref-177">^</a> Duane W. Roller, The World of Juba II and Kleopatra Selene. Royal scholarship on Rome's African frontier (New York: Routledge 2003), at 183, 191, in his Chapter 8: "Libyka" (183–211) [cf., 179]; also at 19, 27, 159 (Juba's library described), 177 (per his book on Hanno). </li> <li id="cite_note-178"><a href="#cite_ref-178">^</a> Juba II's literary works are reviewed by D. W. Roller in The World of Jube II and Kleopatra Selene (2003) at chapters 7, 8, and 10. </li> <li id="cite_note-179"><a href="#cite_ref-179">^</a> Die Fragmente der griechischen Historiker (Leiden 1923–), ed. Felix Jacoby, re "Juba II" at no. 275 (per Roller (2003) at xiii, 313). </li> <li id="cite_note-180"><a href="#cite_ref-180">^</a> Duane W. Roller, The World of Juba II and Kleopatra Selene (2003) at 189, n22; cf., 177. </li> <li id="cite_note-181"><a href="#cite_ref-181">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a> (23–79), Naturalis Historia V, 8; II, 169. </li> <li id="cite_note-182"><a href="#cite_ref-182">^</a> Cf., Picard and Picard, The Life and Death of Carthage (Paris: Hachette [1968]; New York: Taplinger 1969) at 93–98, 115–119. </li> <li id="cite_note-183"><a href="#cite_ref-183">^</a> Serge Lancel, Carthage. A History (Paris 1992; Oxford 1995) at 358–360. </li> <li id="cite_note-184"><a href="#cite_ref-184">^</a> See section herein on <a href="#Berber_relations">Berber relations</a>. See <a href="/wiki/Early_History_of_Tunisia" class="mw-redirect" title="Early History of Tunisia">Early History of Tunisia</a> for both indigenous and foreign reports concerning the Berbers, both in pre-Punic and Punic times. </li> <li id="cite_note-185"><a href="#cite_ref-185">^</a> Glenn E. Markoe, Phoenicians (London: British Museum, Berkeley: University of California 2000) at 21–22 (affinity), 95–96 (economy), 115–119 (religion), 137 (funerals), 143 (art). </li> <li id="cite_note-186"><a href="#cite_ref-186">^</a> David Diringer, Writing (London: Thames and Hudson 1962) at 115–116. The Ugarit tablet were discovered in 1929. </li> <li id="cite_note-187"><a href="#cite_ref-187">^</a> Allen C. Myers, editor, The Eerdmans Bible Dictionary (Grand Rapids: 1987) at 1027–1028. </li> <li id="cite_note-188"><a href="#cite_ref-188">^</a> Markoe, Phoenicians (2000) at 119. <a href="/wiki/Eusebius" title="Eusebius">Eusebius</a> of Caesarea (263–339), the Church Historian, quotes the Greek of <a href="/wiki/Philo_of_Byblos" title="Philo of Byblos">Philo of Byblos</a> whose source was the Phoenician writings of Sanchuniathon. Some doubt the existence of Sanchuniathon. </li> <li id="cite_note-189"><a href="#cite_ref-189">^</a> Cf., Attridge & Oden, Philo of Byblos (1981); Baumgarten, Phoenician History of Philo of Byblos (1981). Cited by Markoe (2000). </li> <li id="cite_note-190"><a href="#cite_ref-190">^</a> Donald Harden, The Phoenicians (New York: Praeger 1962, 2d ed. 1963) at 83–84. </li> <li id="cite_note-191"><a href="#cite_ref-191">^</a> Sabatino Moscati, Il Mondo dei Fenici (1966), translated as The World of the Phoenicians (London: Cardinal 1973) at 55. Moscati offers the tablets found at ancient <a href="/wiki/Ugarit" title="Ugarit">Ugarit</a> as independent substantiation for what we know about Sanchuniathon's writings. </li> <li id="cite_note-192"><a href="#cite_ref-192">^</a> Soren, Khader, Slim, Carthage (1990) at 128–129. </li> <li id="cite_note-193"><a href="#cite_ref-193">^</a> The ancient Romanized Jewish historian <a href="/wiki/Flavius_Josephus" class="mw-redirect" title="Flavius Josephus">Flavius Josephus</a> (37–100s) also mentions a lost Phoenician work; he quotes from a Phoenician History of one "Dius". Josephus, Against Apion (c.100) at I:17; found in The Works of Josephus translated by Whiston (London 1736; reprinted by Hendrickson, Peabody, Massachusetts 1987) at 773–814, 780. </li> <li id="cite_note-194"><a href="#cite_ref-194">^</a> Glenn E. Markoe, Phoenicians (Univ.of California 2002) at 11, 110. Of course, this also applies to Carthage. Cf., Markoe (2000) at 114. </li> <li id="cite_note-195"><a href="#cite_ref-195">^</a> Strabo (c. 63 BC – AD 20s), Geographica at III, 5.11. </li> <li id="cite_note-196"><a href="#cite_ref-196">^</a> "He knows all lingos, but pretends he doesn't. He must be Punic; need we labor it?" From <a href="/wiki/Poenulus" title="Poenulus">Poenulus</a> at 112–113, by the Roman playwright <a href="/wiki/Plautus" title="Plautus">Plautus</a> (c. 250–184). Cited by Hardon, The Phoenicians (1963) at 228, n102. </li> <li id="cite_note-197"><a href="#cite_ref-197">^</a> Markoe, Phoenicians (2000) at 110, at 11. Inserted in second Markoe quote: [language]. </li> <li id="cite_note-198"><a href="#cite_ref-198">^</a> Cf., Harden, The Phoenicians (1963) at 123. [Ancient Peoples and Places] </li> <li id="cite_note-199"><a href="#cite_ref-199">^</a> Soren, Ben Khader, Slim, Carthage (New York: Simon and Schuster 1990) at 34–35 (script), at 42 (inserted in quote: [the alphabet]). </li> <li id="cite_note-200"><a href="#cite_ref-200">^</a> Steven Roger Fischer, A History of Writing (London: Reaktion 2001) at 82–93. Facsimiles of early alphabetical writing from ancient inscriptions are given for: Proto-Canaanite in the Levant of the 2nd millennium (at 88), Phoenician (Old Hebrew) in Moab of 842 (at 91), Phoenician (Punic) in Marseilles [France] c. 300 BC (at 92). Also given (at 92) is a bilingual (Punic and Numidian) inscription from <a href="/wiki/Thugga" class="mw-redirect" title="Thugga">Thugga</a> [Tunisia] circa 218–201, which regards a temple being dedicated to king <a href="/wiki/Masinissa" title="Masinissa">Masinissa</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-201"><a href="#cite_ref-201">^</a> David Diringer, Writing (London: Thames and Hudson 1962) at 112–121. </li> <li id="cite_note-202"><a href="#cite_ref-202">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLandon1836" class="citation book cs1">Landon, Letitia Elizabeth (1836). "picture". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://play.google.com/books/reader?id=39BbAAAAQAAJ&pg=GBS.PA72">Fisher's Drawing Room Scrap Book, 1837</a>. Fisher, Son & Co.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=picture&rft.btitle=Fisher%27s+Drawing+Room+Scrap+Book%2C+1837&rft.pub=Fisher%2C+Son+%26+Co.&rft.date=1836&rft.aulast=Landon&rft.aufirst=Letitia+Elizabeth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplay.google.com%2Fbooks%2Freader%3Fid%3D39BbAAAAQAAJ%26pg%3DGBS.PA72&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarthage" class="Z3988"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLandon1836" class="citation book cs1">Landon, Letitia Elizabeth (1836). "poetical illustration". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://play.google.com/books/reader?id=39BbAAAAQAAJ&pg=GBS.PA74">Fisher's Drawing Room Scrap Book, 1837</a>. Fisher, Son & Co.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=poetical+illustration&rft.btitle=Fisher%27s+Drawing+Room+Scrap+Book%2C+1837&rft.pub=Fisher%2C+Son+%26+Co.&rft.date=1836&rft.aulast=Landon&rft.aufirst=Letitia+Elizabeth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplay.google.com%2Fbooks%2Freader%3Fid%3D39BbAAAAQAAJ%26pg%3DGBS.PA74&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarthage" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-203"><a href="#cite_ref-203">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAsimov1956" class="citation journal cs1">Asimov, Isaac (1956). "The Dead Past". Astounding Science Fiction (April). Street & Smith.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Astounding+Science+Fiction&rft.atitle=The+Dead+Past&rft.issue=April&rft.date=1956&rft.aulast=Asimov&rft.aufirst=Isaac&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarthage" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carthage&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Sources">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCharles-Picard_&_al.1958" class="citation cs2">Charles-Picard, Gibert; et al. (1958), La vie quotidienne à Carthage au temps d'Hannibal [Daily Life in Carthage in the Time of Hannibal], Paris: Hachette</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=La+vie+quotidienne+%C3%A0+Carthage+au+temps+d%27Hannibal+%5BDaily+Life+in+Carthage+in+the+Time+of+Hannibal%5D&rft.place=Paris&rft.pub=Hachette&rft.date=1958&rft.aulast=Charles-Picard&rft.aufirst=Gibert&rft.au=Colette+Charles-Picard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarthage" class="Z3988">. (in French)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBath1981" class="citation cs2">Bath, Tony (1981), Hannibal's Campaigns, New York: Barnes & Noble Books</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hannibal%27s+Campaigns&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Barnes+%26+Noble+Books&rft.date=1981&rft.aulast=Bath&rft.aufirst=Tony&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarthage" class="Z3988">.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAubet1987" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Mar%C3%ADa_Eugenia_Aubet" title="María Eugenia Aubet">Aubet, Maria Eugenia</a> (1987), The Phoenicians and the West: Politics, Colonies, and Trade, <a href="/wiki/Cambridge,_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Cambridge, England">Cambridge</a>: Cambridge University Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Phoenicians+and+the+West%3A+Politics%2C+Colonies%2C+and+Trade&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1987&rft.aulast=Aubet&rft.aufirst=Maria+Eugenia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarthage" class="Z3988">.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSoren_&_al.1990" class="citation cs2">Soren, David; et al. (1990), Carthage: Uncovering the Mysteries and Splendors of Ancient Tunisia, New York: Simon & Schuster</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Carthage%3A+Uncovering+the+Mysteries+and+Splendors+of+Ancient+Tunisia&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=1990&rft.aulast=Soren&rft.aufirst=David&rft.au=Aicha+Ben+Abed+Ben+Kader&rft.au=Heidi+Slim&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarthage" class="Z3988">.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeschaouch1993" class="citation cs2">Beschaouch, Azedine (1993), La légende de Carthage [The Legend of Carthage], <a href="/wiki/D%C3%A9couvertes_Gallimard" title="Découvertes Gallimard">Découvertes Gallimard</a>, vol. 172, Paris: Gallimard</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=La+l%C3%A9gende+de+Carthage+%5BThe+Legend+of+Carthage%5D&rft.place=Paris&rft.series=D%C3%A9couvertes+Gallimard&rft.pub=Gallimard&rft.date=1993&rft.aulast=Beschaouch&rft.aufirst=Azedine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarthage" class="Z3988">. (in French)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRaven2002" class="citation cs2">Raven, S. (2002), Rome in Africa, 3rd ed.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rome+in+Africa%2C+3rd+ed.&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Raven&rft.aufirst=S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarthage" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLipinski2004" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Edward_Lipinski_(orientalist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Edward Lipinski (orientalist)">Lipinski, Edward</a> (2004), Itineraria Phoenicia, Leuven: Uitgeverij Peeters en Department Oosterse Studies</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Itineraria+Phoenicia&rft.place=Leuven&rft.pub=Uitgeverij+Peeters+en+Department+Oosterse+Studies&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Lipinski&rft.aufirst=Edward&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarthage" class="Z3988">.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWinterer2010" class="citation cs2">Winterer, Caroline (2010), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5309/willmaryquar.67.1.3">"Model Empire, Lost City: Ancient Carthage and the Science of Politics in Revolutionary America"</a>, The William and Mary Quarterly, 67 (1): 3–30, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5309%2Fwillmaryquar.67.1.3">10.5309/willmaryquar.67.1.3</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5309/willmaryquar.67.1.3">10.5309/willmaryquar.67.1.3</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+William+and+Mary+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Model+Empire%2C+Lost+City%3A+Ancient+Carthage+and+the+Science+of+Politics+in+Revolutionary+America&rft.volume=67&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E3-%3C%2Fspan%3E30&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5309%2Fwillmaryquar.67.1.3&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F10.5309%2Fwillmaryquar.67.1.3%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Winterer&rft.aufirst=Caroline&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F10.5309%2Fwillmaryquar.67.1.3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarthage" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFreed2011" class="citation cs2">Freed, J. (2011), Bringing Carthage Home: The Excavations of Nathan Davis, 1856–1859</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bringing+Carthage+Home%3A+The+Excavations+of+Nathan+Davis%2C+1856%E2%80%931859&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Freed&rft.aufirst=J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarthage" class="Z3988">.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMiles2011" class="citation cs2">Miles, Richard (2011), Carthage Must Be Destroyed: The Rise and Fall of an Ancient Civilization, Viking</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Carthage+Must+Be+Destroyed%3A+The+Rise+and+Fall+of+an+Ancient+Civilization&rft.pub=Viking&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Miles&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarthage" class="Z3988">.</li> <li>Li, Hansong (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ingentaconnect.com/contentone/imp/hpt/2022/00000043/00000002/art00003">"Locating Mobile Sovereignty: Carthage in Natural Jurisprudence"</a> History of Political Thought 43(2): 246–272.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carthage&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikisource-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/76px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></a></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has the text of the <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">1911 Encyclopædia Britannica</a> article "<a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Carthage_(ancient_city)" class="extiw" title="wikisource:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Carthage (ancient city)">Carthage (ancient city)</a>".</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><link 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class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/24px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/32px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a> The dictionary definition of <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Carthage" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Carthage">Carthago</a> at Wiktionary</li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/16px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/24px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/32px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="193" data-file-height="193" /></a> <a href="https://en.wikivoyage.org/wiki/Carthage#Q6343" class="extiw" title="voy:Carthage">Carthage</a> travel guide from Wikivoyage</li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a> Media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Carthage" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Carthage">Carthage</a> at Wikimedia Commons</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amphitheatre_of_El_Jem" title="Amphitheatre of El Jem">Amphitheatre of El Jem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dougga" title="Dougga">Dougga/Thugga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ichkeul_Lake" class="mw-redirect" title="Ichkeul Lake">Ichkeul National Park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kairouan" title="Kairouan">Kairouan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medina_of_Sousse,_Tunisia" class="mw-redirect" title="Medina of Sousse, Tunisia">Medina of Sousse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medina_of_Tunis" title="Medina of Tunis">Medina of Tunis</a></li> <li>Punic Town of <a href="/wiki/Kerkouane" title="Kerkouane">Kerkuane</a> and its <a href="/wiki/Necropolis_of_Kerkouane" title="Necropolis of Kerkouane">Necropolis</a></li> <li>Site of <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Carthage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Djerba" title="Djerba">Djerba</a>: Testimony to a settlement pattern in an island territory</li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/Tunisia" title="Tunisia"><img alt="Tunisia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Flag_of_Tunisia.svg/40px-Flag_of_Tunisia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Flag_of_Tunisia.svg/60px-Flag_of_Tunisia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Flag_of_Tunisia.svg/80px-Flag_of_Tunisia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_Heritage_Sites_in_Tunisia" title="List of World Heritage Sites in Tunisia">List of World Heritage Sites in Tunisia</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Romano-Berber_cities_in_Roman_North_Africa246" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Romano-Berber_cities_in_Roman_Africa" title="Template:Romano-Berber cities in Roman Africa"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Romano-Berber_cities_in_Roman_Africa" title="Template talk:Romano-Berber cities in Roman Africa"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Romano-Berber_cities_in_Roman_Africa" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Romano-Berber cities in Roman Africa"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Romano-Berber_cities_in_Roman_North_Africa246" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Romano-Berber cities in Roman North Africa</div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div>Sorted by contemporary national borders</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Morocco</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anfa" title="Anfa">Anfa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Cotta" title="Ancient Cotta">Cotta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exilissa" title="Exilissa">Exilissa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iulia_Constantia_Zilil" title="Iulia Constantia Zilil">Iulia Constantia Zilil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iulia_Valentia_Banasa" title="Iulia Valentia Banasa">Iulia Valentia Banasa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iulia_Campestris_Babba" title="Iulia Campestris Babba">Iulia Campestris Babba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lixus_(ancient_city)" title="Lixus (ancient city)">Lixus</a> 2</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mogador_Island" title="Mogador Island">Mogador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ksar_el-Kebir" title="Ksar el-Kebir">Oppidum Novum (Tingitana)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sala_Colonia" class="mw-redirect" title="Sala Colonia">Sala</a> 1</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamuda" title="Tamuda">Tamuda</a> 1</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thamusida" title="Thamusida">Thamusida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tingis" class="mw-redirect" title="Tingis">Tingis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volubilis" title="Volubilis">Volubilis</a> 1</li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="7" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Roman_Arch_of_Trajan_at_Thamugadi_(Timgad),_Algeria_04966r.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Roman_Arch_of_Trajan_at_Thamugadi_%28Timgad%29%2C_Algeria_04966r.jpg/200px-Roman_Arch_of_Trajan_at_Thamugadi_%28Timgad%29%2C_Algeria_04966r.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="171" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Roman_Arch_of_Trajan_at_Thamugadi_%28Timgad%29%2C_Algeria_04966r.jpg/300px-Roman_Arch_of_Trajan_at_Thamugadi_%28Timgad%29%2C_Algeria_04966r.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Roman_Arch_of_Trajan_at_Thamugadi_%28Timgad%29%2C_Algeria_04966r.jpg/400px-Roman_Arch_of_Trajan_at_Thamugadi_%28Timgad%29%2C_Algeria_04966r.jpg 2x" data-file-width="590" data-file-height="504" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Algeria</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aquae_Calidae,_Algeria" title="Aquae Calidae, Algeria">Aquae Calidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albulae" title="Albulae">Albulae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Altava" title="Altava">Altava</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auzia" title="Auzia">Auzia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calama_(Numidia)" title="Calama (Numidia)">Calama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caesarea_in_Mauretania" title="Caesarea in Mauretania">Caesarea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cartennas" class="mw-redirect" title="Cartennas">Cartennas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Castellum_Dimmidi" class="mw-redirect" title="Castellum Dimmidi">Castellum Dimmidi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Castellum_Tingitii" class="mw-redirect" title="Castellum Tingitii">Castellum Tingitanum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Castra_Nova_(Mauretania)" title="Castra Nova (Mauretania)">Castra Nova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cirta" title="Cirta">Cirta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civitas_Popthensis" title="Civitas Popthensis">Civitas Popthensis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collo" title="Collo">Collo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cohors_Breucorum" class="mw-redirect" title="Cohors Breucorum">Cohors Breucorum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dj%C3%A9mila" title="Djémila">Cuicul</a> 1</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diana_Veteranorum" title="Diana Veteranorum">Diana Veteranorum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gemellae" title="Gemellae">Gemellae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gunugus" title="Gunugus">Gunugus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippo_Regius" title="Hippo Regius">Hippo Regius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Icosium" title="Icosium">Icosium</a> 1</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Igilgili" title="Igilgili">Igilgili</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tigzirt" title="Tigzirt">Iomnium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamasba" class="mw-redirect" title="Lamasba">Lamasba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lambaesis" title="Lambaesis">Lambaesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madauros" title="Madauros">Madauros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mascula" title="Mascula">Mascula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesarfelta" title="Mesarfelta">Mesarfelta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milevum" title="Milevum">Milevum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A%C3%AFn_Defla" title="Aïn Defla">Oppidum Novum (Caesariensis)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthenia_(Mauretania)" title="Parthenia (Mauretania)">Parthenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tlemcen" title="Tlemcen">Pomaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portus_Divinus" class="mw-redirect" title="Portus Divinus">Portus Divinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portus_Magnus,_Algeria" title="Portus Magnus, Algeria">Portus Magnus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quiza_Xenitana" title="Quiza Xenitana">Quiza Xenitana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rapidum" title="Rapidum">Rapidum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rusguniae" class="mw-redirect" title="Rusguniae">Rusguniae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rusucurru" class="mw-redirect" title="Rusucurru">Rusucurru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saldae" title="Saldae">Saldae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Setifis" title="Setifis">Setifis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siga" title="Siga">Siga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thagaste" title="Thagaste">Thagaste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thamugadi" class="mw-redirect" title="Thamugadi">Thamugadi</a> 1</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theveste" title="Theveste">Theveste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thibilis" title="Thibilis">Thibilis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thubursicum" title="Thubursicum">Thubursicum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiddis" title="Tiddis">Tiddis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tingartia" class="mw-redirect" title="Tingartia">Tingartia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tipasa" title="Tipasa">Tipasa</a> 1</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tubusuctu" title="Tubusuctu">Tubusuctu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tubunae" class="mw-redirect" title="Tubunae">Tubunae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unica_Colonia" class="mw-redirect" title="Unica Colonia">Unica Colonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uzinaza" title="Uzinaza">Uzinaza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vescera_(Ad_Piscinam)" title="Vescera (Ad Piscinam)">Vescera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zara%C3%AF" title="Zaraï">Zaraï</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zuccabar" title="Zuccabar">Zuccabar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Tunisia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Althiburos" title="Althiburos">Althiburos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulla_Regia" title="Bulla Regia">Bulla Regia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capsa_(Roman_colonia)" title="Capsa (Roman colonia)">Capsa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Carthage#Roman_Carthage" title="History of Carthage">Carthago</a> 1</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonia_Cillilana" class="mw-redirect" title="Colonia Cillilana">Cillium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dougga" title="Dougga">Dougga</a> 1</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boughrara" title="Boughrara">Gightis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hadrumetum" title="Hadrumetum">Hadrumetum</a> 1</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippo_Diarrhytus" class="mw-redirect" title="Hippo Diarrhytus">Hippo Diarrhytus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelibia" title="Kelibia">Kelibia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leptis_Parva" title="Leptis Parva">Leptis Parva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mactaris" class="mw-redirect" title="Mactaris">Mactaris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pheradi_Majus" class="mw-redirect" title="Pheradi Majus">Pheradi Majus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pupput" title="Pupput">Pupput</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rucuma" title="Rucuma">Rucuma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruspae" class="mw-redirect" title="Ruspae">Ruspae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scillium" title="Scillium">Scillium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sicca_Veneria" class="mw-redirect" title="Sicca Veneria">Sicca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simitthus" class="mw-redirect" title="Simitthus">Simitthus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sbeitla" title="Sbeitla">Sufetula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tacapae" class="mw-redirect" title="Tacapae">Tacapae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taparura" title="Taparura">Taparura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufes" title="Sufes">Sufes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thabraca" class="mw-redirect" title="Thabraca">Thabraca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thanae" class="mw-redirect" title="Thanae">Thanae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thapsus" title="Thapsus">Thapsus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thuburbo_Majus" title="Thuburbo Majus">Thuburbo Majus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thuburnica" title="Thuburnica">Thuburnica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thysdrus" title="Thysdrus">Thysdrus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turris_Tamalleni" title="Turris Tamalleni">Turris Tamalleni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utica,_Tunisia" title="Utica, Tunisia">Utica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uthina" title="Uthina">Uthina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B%C3%A9ja" title="Béja">Vaga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zama_Regia" class="mw-redirect" title="Zama Regia">Zama Regia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Egypt</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Siwa_Oasis" title="Siwa Oasis">Siwa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qara_Oasis" title="Qara Oasis">Qara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Farafra,_Egypt" title="Farafra, Egypt">Farafra</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Spain</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Septem_(Ceuta)" class="mw-redirect" title="Septem (Ceuta)">Septem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rusadir" title="Rusadir">Rusadir</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Kingdoms and provinces</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mauretania" title="Mauretania">Mauretania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mauretania_Tingitana" title="Mauretania Tingitana">Mauretania Tingitana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mauretania_Caesariensis" title="Mauretania Caesariensis">Mauretania Caesariensis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numidia_(Roman_province)" title="Numidia (Roman province)">Numidia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Africa_(Roman_province)" title="Africa (Roman province)">Roman Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crete_and_Cyrenaica" title="Crete and Cyrenaica">Creta et Cyrenaica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Egypt" title="Roman Egypt">Roman Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diocese_of_Africa" title="Diocese of Africa">Diocese of Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zeugitana" class="mw-redirect" title="Zeugitana">Zeugitana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzacena" title="Byzacena">Byzacena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vandal_Kingdom" title="Vandal Kingdom">Vandal Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Praetorian_prefecture_of_Africa" title="Praetorian prefecture of Africa">Praetorian prefecture of Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exarchate_of_Africa" title="Exarchate of Africa">Exarchate of Africa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/North_Africa_during_classical_antiquity" title="North Africa during classical antiquity">North Africa during classical antiquity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Romance" title="African Romance">African Romance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limes_Tripolitanus" title="Limes Tripolitanus">Limes Tripolitanus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Roman_Africa_province" title="Christianity in the Roman Africa province">Christianity in the Roman Africa province</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_African_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Early African Church">Early African Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_of_Carthage" class="mw-redirect" title="Church of Carthage">Church of Carthage</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_colonies_in_North_Africa" title="Roman colonies in North Africa">Roman colonies in Berber Africa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div>1 UNESCO World Heritage Sites 2 Proposed</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="20px&#124;Phoenician_Hippos_ship_Phoenician_cities_and_colonies213" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Phoenician_cities_and_colonies" title="Template:Phoenician cities and colonies"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Phoenician_cities_and_colonies" title="Template talk:Phoenician cities and colonies"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Phoenician_cities_and_colonies" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Phoenician cities and colonies"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="20px&#124;Phoenician_Hippos_ship_Phoenician_cities_and_colonies213" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/File:Phoenician_Hippos_ship_logo.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Phoenician Hippos ship"><img alt="Phoenician Hippos ship" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Phoenician_Hippos_ship_logo.png/20px-Phoenician_Hippos_ship_logo.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Phoenician_Hippos_ship_logo.png/30px-Phoenician_Hippos_ship_logo.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Phoenician_Hippos_ship_logo.png/40px-Phoenician_Hippos_ship_logo.png 2x" data-file-width="714" data-file-height="525" /></a> <a href="/wiki/List_of_Phoenician_cities" title="List of Phoenician cities">Phoenician cities and colonies</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Algeria</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Camarata_(Mauretania)" title="Camarata (Mauretania)">Camarata</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Cartennae" title="Cartennae">Cartennae</a> (<a href="/wiki/T%C3%A9n%C3%A8s" title="Ténès">Tenes</a>)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Hippo_Regius" title="Hippo Regius">Hippo Regius</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Icosium" title="Icosium">Icosium</a> (<a href="/wiki/Algiers" title="Algiers">Algiers</a>)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Igilgili" title="Igilgili">Igilgili</a> (<a href="/wiki/Jijel" title="Jijel">Jijel</a>)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Cherchell" title="Cherchell">Iol (Cherchell)</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Iomnium" title="Iomnium">Iomnium</a> (<a href="/wiki/Tigzirt" title="Tigzirt">Tigzirt</a>)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Cirta" title="Cirta">Cirta</a> (<a href="/wiki/Constantine,_Algeria" title="Constantine, Algeria">Constantine</a>)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Djinet" title="Djinet">Kissi (Djinet)</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Macomades" title="Macomades">Macomades</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Calama_(Numidia)" title="Calama (Numidia)">Malaca</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Rachgoun" title="Rachgoun">Rachgoun</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Rusazus" title="Rusazus">Rusazus</a> (<a href="/wiki/Azeffoun" title="Azeffoun">Azeffoun</a>)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Tamentfoust" title="Tamentfoust">Rusguniae</a> (<a href="/wiki/Tamentfoust" title="Tamentfoust">Tamentfoust</a>)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Skikda" title="Skikda">Rusicade (Skikda)</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Rusippisir" title="Rusippisir">Rusippisir (Taksebt)</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Rusubbicari" title="Rusubbicari">Rusubbicari</a> (<a href="/wiki/Zemmouri" title="Zemmouri">Zemmouri</a> El Bahri)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Dellys" title="Dellys">Rusuccuru (Dellys)</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Zara%C3%AF" title="Zaraï">Sarai</a> (<a href="/wiki/A%C3%AFn_Oulmene" title="Aïn Oulmene">Aïn Oulmene</a>)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Thagora" title="Thagora">Thagora</a> (<a href="/wiki/Taoura" title="Taoura">Taoura</a>)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Tipasa_in_Mauretania" class="mw-redirect" title="Tipasa in Mauretania">Tipasa in Mauretania</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Tipasa_in_Numidia" title="Tipasa in Numidia">Tipasa in Numidia</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Timici" title="Timici">Timici</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cyprus</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Dali,_Cyprus" title="Dali, Cyprus">Dhali</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Kition" title="Kition">Kition</a> (<a href="/wiki/Larnaca" title="Larnaca">Larnaca</a>)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Lapathus_(Cyprus)" title="Lapathus (Cyprus)">Lapathus</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Marion,_Cyprus" title="Marion, Cyprus">Marion</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Greece</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Santorini" title="Santorini">Callista (Santorini)</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Paxi" class="mw-redirect" title="Paxi">Paxi</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Rhodes" title="Rhodes">Rhodes</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Delos" title="Delos">Delos</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Israel</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Achziv" title="Achziv">Achzib</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Acre,_Israel" title="Acre, Israel">Akka (Acre)</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Tel_Dor" title="Tel Dor">Dora</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Tel_Michal" title="Tel Michal">Michal</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Jaffa" title="Jaffa">Jaffa</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Apollonia-Arsuf" class="mw-redirect" title="Apollonia-Arsuf">Reshef</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Tel_Shikmona" title="Tel Shikmona">Shikmona</a> (<a href="/wiki/Haifa" title="Haifa">Haifa</a>)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Caesarea_Maritima" title="Caesarea Maritima">Strato's Tower (Caesarea)</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Italy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Bithia,_Italy" title="Bithia, Italy">Bitan</a> (<a href="/wiki/Chia_(Sardinia)" title="Chia (Sardinia)">Chia</a>)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Cefal%C3%B9" title="Cefalù">Cape Melqart (Cefalù)</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Drepana" title="Drepana">Drepanum</a> (<a href="/wiki/Trapani" title="Trapani">Trapani</a>)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Eryx_(Sicily)" title="Eryx (Sicily)">Eryx</a> (<a href="/wiki/Erice" title="Erice">Erice</a>)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Heraclea_Minoa" title="Heraclea Minoa">Heraclea Minoa</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Soluntum" title="Soluntum">Kapara (Soluntum)</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/History_of_Cagliari" title="History of Cagliari">Karaly</a> (<a href="/wiki/Cagliari" title="Cagliari">Cagliari</a>)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Marsala" title="Marsala">Lilybaeum</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Motya" title="Motya">Motya</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Neapolis,_Sardinia" class="mw-redirect" title="Neapolis, Sardinia">Neapolis</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Nora,_Italy" title="Nora, Italy">Nora</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Olbia" title="Olbia">Olbia</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Pantelleria" title="Pantelleria">Pantelleria</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Selinunte" title="Selinunte">Selinunte</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Sulci" title="Sulci">Sulci</a> (<a href="/wiki/Sant%27Antioco" title="Sant'Antioco">Sant'Antioco</a>)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Tharros" title="Tharros">Tharros</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Palermo" title="Palermo">Ṣiṣ (Palermo)</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lebanon</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Amioun" title="Amioun">Amia</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Enfeh" class="mw-redirect" title="Enfeh">Ampi</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Arqa" title="Arqa">Arqa</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Tripoli,_Lebanon" title="Tripoli, Lebanon">Athar (Tripoli)</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Baalbek" title="Baalbek">Baalbek</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Berytus" title="Berytus">Birut</a> (<a href="/wiki/Beirut" title="Beirut">Beirut</a>)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Batroun" title="Batroun">Botrys (Teros)</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Byblos" title="Byblos">Gebal (Byblos)</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Tell_el-Burak" title="Tell el-Burak">Ornithon (Tell el-Burak)</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Jieh" title="Jieh"> Porphyreon (Jieh)</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Sarepta" title="Sarepta">Sarepta</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Sidon" title="Sidon">Sidon</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Tyre,_Lebanon" title="Tyre, Lebanon">Sur (Tyre)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ushu" title="Ushu">Ushu (Palaetyrus)</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Umm_al-Amad,_Lebanon" title="Umm al-Amad, Lebanon">Umm al-Amad</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Libya</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Leptis_Magna" title="Leptis Magna">Lepcis</a> (<a href="/wiki/Khoms,_Libya" class="mw-redirect" title="Khoms, Libya">Khoms</a>)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Oea" title="Oea">Oyat</a> (<a href="/wiki/Tripoli,_Libya" title="Tripoli, Libya">Tripoli</a>)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Sabratha" title="Sabratha">Tsabratan</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Malta</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dd>Maleth (<a href="/wiki/Cospicua" title="Cospicua">Cospicua</a>)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Melite_(ancient_city)" title="Melite (ancient city)">Ann</a> (<a href="/wiki/Mdina" title="Mdina">Mdina</a>)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Gozo" title="Gozo">Gaulos (Gozo)</a></dd> <dd><a href="/w/index.php?title=G%C4%A7ajn_Qajjet&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Għajn Qajjet (page does not exist)">Għajn Qajjet</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Mtarfa" title="Mtarfa">Mtarfa</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Ras_il-Wardija" title="Ras il-Wardija">Ras il-Wardija</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Tas-Sil%C4%A1" title="Tas-Silġ">Tas-Silġ</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Morocco</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Azemmour" title="Azemmour">Azama (Azemmour)</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Essaouira" title="Essaouira">Arambys (Mogador)</a></dd> <dd><a href="/w/index.php?title=Caricus_Murus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Caricus Murus (page does not exist)">Caricus Murus</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Ksar_es-Seghir" title="Ksar es-Seghir">Heq she Elisha (Ksar es-Seghir)</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Lixus_(ancient_city)" title="Lixus (ancient city)">Likush</a> (<a href="/wiki/Larache" title="Larache">Larache</a>)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Chellah" title="Chellah">Shalat (Chellah)</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Tamusida" class="mw-redirect" title="Tamusida">Tamusida</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Tingis" class="mw-redirect" title="Tingis">Tinga</a> (<a href="/wiki/Tangier" title="Tangier">Tangier</a>)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Anfa" title="Anfa">Anfa</a> (<a href="/wiki/Casablanca" title="Casablanca">Casablanca</a>)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Volubilis" title="Volubilis">Volubilis</a> 1</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Mogador_Island" title="Mogador Island">Mogador</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Rusadir" title="Rusadir">Rusadir</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Oualidia" title="Oualidia">Oualidia</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Iulia_Constantia_Zilil" title="Iulia Constantia Zilil">Zilil</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Agadir" title="Agadir">Gadir</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Chellah" title="Chellah">Sala</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Thymiaterium" title="Thymiaterium">Thymiaterium</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/El_Jadida" title="El Jadida">Rusibis</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Portugal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Portim%C3%A3o" title="Portimão">Portus Hannibalis</a></dd> <dd>Portus Magonis (Portimão)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Lisbon" title="Lisbon">Olissipona (Lisbon)</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Faro,_Portugal" title="Faro, Portugal">Ossonoba (Faro)</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Balsa_(Roman_town)" title="Balsa (Roman town)">Balsa</a> (<a href="/wiki/Tavira" title="Tavira">Tavira</a>)</dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Spain</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Abdera,_Spain" title="Abdera, Spain">Abdera</a> (<a href="/wiki/Adra,_Spain" title="Adra, Spain">Adra</a>)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Abyla" title="Abyla">Abyla</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ceuta" title="Ceuta">Ceuta</a>)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Lucentum" title="Lucentum">Akra Leuka</a> (<a href="/wiki/Alicante" title="Alicante">Alicante</a>)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/C%C3%A1diz" title="Cádiz">Gadir (Cadiz)</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Guardamar_del_Segura" title="Guardamar del Segura">Herna</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Sa_Caleta_Phoenician_Settlement" title="Sa Caleta Phoenician Settlement">Iboshim</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ibiza" title="Ibiza">Ibiza</a>)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Mah%C3%B3n" title="Mahón">Mahón</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/History_of_M%C3%A1laga" title="History of Málaga">Malake</a> (<a href="/wiki/M%C3%A1laga" title="Málaga">Málaga</a>)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Huelva" title="Huelva">Onoba</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Cartagena,_Spain" title="Cartagena, Spain">Carthage (Cartagena)</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Rusadir" title="Rusadir">Rushadir</a> (<a href="/wiki/Melilla" title="Melilla">Melilla</a>)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Saguntum" class="mw-redirect" title="Saguntum">Saguntum</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Sexi_(Phoenician_colony)" title="Sexi (Phoenician colony)">Sexi</a> (<a href="/wiki/Almunecar" class="mw-redirect" title="Almunecar">Almunecar</a>)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/T%C3%ADjola" title="Tíjola">Tagilit (Tíjola)</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Los_Toscanos" title="Los Toscanos">Toscanos</a> (<a href="/wiki/V%C3%A9lez-M%C3%A1laga" title="Vélez-Málaga">Velez</a>)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Peniscola" title="Peniscola">Tyreche</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Syria</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Arwad" title="Arwad">Arwad</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Amrit" title="Amrit">Marat (Amrit)</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Baniyas" title="Baniyas">Balanaea (Baniyas)</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Carne,_Phoenicia" title="Carne, Phoenicia">Carne</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Paltus" title="Paltus">Paltus</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Safita" title="Safita">Safita</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Tell_Sukas" title="Tell Sukas">Shuksi</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Tell_Kazel" title="Tell Kazel">Sumur</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Ugarit" title="Ugarit">Ugarit</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Tunisia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Kelibia" title="Kelibia">Aspis (Kelibia)</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Bulla_Regia" title="Bulla Regia">Bulla Regia</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Carthage" title="Ancient Carthage">Carthage</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Hadrumetum" title="Hadrumetum">Hadrumetum</a> (<a href="/wiki/Sousse" title="Sousse">Sousse</a>)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Bizerte" title="Bizerte">Hippo Diarrhytus (Bizerte)</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Kerkouane" title="Kerkouane">Kerkouane</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Leptis_Parva" title="Leptis Parva">Lepcis</a> (<a href="/wiki/Monastir,_Tunisia" title="Monastir, Tunisia">Monastir</a>)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Maqom_Hadesh" class="mw-redirect" title="Maqom Hadesh">Maqom Hadesh (Ounga)</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Meninx_(town)" title="Meninx (town)">Meninx</a> (<a href="/wiki/Djerba" title="Djerba">Djerba</a>)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Ruspe" title="Ruspe">Ruspe</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Ruspina" title="Ruspina">Ruspina</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/El_Kef" title="El Kef">Sicca (El Kef)</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Tabarka" title="Tabarka">Tabarka</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Thenae" title="Thenae">Tayinat</a> (<a href="/wiki/Thyna" title="Thyna">Thyna</a>)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Thapsus" title="Thapsus">Thapsus</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Thysdrus" title="Thysdrus">Thysdrus</a> (<a href="/wiki/El_Djem" title="El Djem">El Djem</a>)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Utica,_Tunisia" title="Utica, Tunisia">Utica</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Myriandus" title="Myriandus">Myriandus</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Finike" title="Finike">Phoenicus</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Gibraltar" title="Gibraltar">Gibraltar</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Tahpanhes" title="Tahpanhes">Tahpanhes</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ancient_Rome_topics565" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ancient_Rome_topics" title="Template:Ancient Rome topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ancient_Rome_topics" title="Template talk:Ancient Rome topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient_Rome_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient Rome topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ancient_Rome_topics565" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Ancient Rome</a> topics</div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_ancient_Rome" title="Outline of ancient Rome">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Roman_history" title="Timeline of Roman history">Timeline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Rome" title="History of Rome">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Founding_of_Rome" title="Founding of Rome">Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Kingdom" title="Roman Kingdom">Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Overthrow_of_the_Roman_monarchy" title="Overthrow of the Roman monarchy">overthrow</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Republic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Empire</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="History of the Roman Empire">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pax_Romana" title="Pax Romana">Pax Romana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principate" title="Principate">Principate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominate" title="Dominate">Dominate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">fall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Historiography of the fall of the Western Roman Empire">historiography of the fall</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Decline_of_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Decline of the Byzantine Empire">decline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">fall</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Later_Roman_Empire" title="Later Roman Empire">Later Roman Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Later_Roman_Empire" title="History of the Later Roman Empire">History</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_Constitution" title="Roman Constitution">Constitution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Roman_Constitution" title="History of the Roman Constitution">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Roman_Kingdom" title="Constitution of the Roman Kingdom">Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Roman_Republic" title="Constitution of the Roman Republic">Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Constitution of the Roman Empire">Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Late_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitution of the Late Roman Empire">Late Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Senate" title="Roman Senate">Senate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_assemblies" title="Roman assemblies">Legislative assemblies</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Curiate_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Curiate Assembly">Curiate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centuriate_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Centuriate Assembly">Centuriate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribal Assembly">Tribal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plebeian_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="Plebeian Council">Plebeian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_magistrate" title="Roman magistrate">Executive magistrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SPQR" title="SPQR">SPQR</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_law" title="Roman law">Law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Twelve_Tables" title="Twelve Tables">Twelve Tables</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mos_maiorum" title="Mos maiorum">Mos maiorum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_citizenship" title="Roman citizenship">Citizenship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auctoritas" title="Auctoritas">Auctoritas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperium" title="Imperium">Imperium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Status_in_Roman_legal_system" title="Status in Roman legal system">Status</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_litigation" title="Roman litigation">Litigation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Political_institutions_of_ancient_Rome" title="Political institutions of ancient Rome">Government</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Curia" title="Curia">Curia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forum_(Roman)" title="Forum (Roman)">Forum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cursus_honorum" title="Cursus honorum">Cursus honorum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collegiality#In_the_Roman_Republic" title="Collegiality">Collegiality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_emperor" title="Roman emperor">Emperor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legatus" class="mw-redirect" title="Legatus">Legatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dux" title="Dux">Dux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Officium_(ancient_Rome)" title="Officium (ancient Rome)">Officium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Praefectus" title="Praefectus">Praefectus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vicarius" title="Vicarius">Vicarius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vigintisexviri" title="Vigintisexviri">Vigintisexviri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lictor" title="Lictor">Lictor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magister_militum" title="Magister militum">Magister militum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperator" title="Imperator">Imperator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Princeps_senatus" title="Princeps senatus">Princeps senatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pontifex_maximus" title="Pontifex maximus">Pontifex maximus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustus_(title)" title="Augustus (title)">Augustus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caesar_(title)" title="Caesar (title)">Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetrarchy" title="Tetrarchy">Tetrarch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optimates_and_populares" title="Optimates and populares">Optimates and populares</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_province" title="Roman province">Province</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_magistrate" title="Roman magistrate">Magistrates</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Ordinary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_consul" title="Roman consul">Consul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_censor" title="Roman censor">Censor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Praetor" title="Praetor">Praetor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribune" title="Tribune">Tribune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribune_of_the_plebs" title="Tribune of the plebs">Tribune of the plebs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_tribune" title="Military tribune">Military tribune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quaestor" title="Quaestor">Quaestor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aedile" title="Aedile">Aedile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Promagistrate" title="Promagistrate">Promagistrate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_governor" title="Roman governor">Governor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Extraordinary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/King_of_Rome" title="King of Rome">Rex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interrex" title="Interrex">Interrex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_dictator" title="Roman dictator">Dictator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magister_equitum" title="Magister equitum">Magister equitum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decemviri" title="Decemviri">Decemviri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribuni_militum_consulari_potestate" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribuni militum consulari potestate">Consular tribune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triumvirate_(ancient_Rome)" title="Triumvirate (ancient Rome)">Triumvir</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Military_of_ancient_Rome" title="Military of ancient Rome">Military</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_ancient_Rome" title="Military history of ancient Rome">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Borders_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Borders of the Roman Empire">Borders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_establishment_of_the_Roman_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Military establishment of the Roman Republic">Establishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Structural history of the Roman military">Structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campaign_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Campaign history of the Roman military">Campaigns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Political history of the Roman military">Political control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategy_of_the_Roman_military" title="Strategy of the Roman military">Strategy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_engineering" title="Roman military engineering">Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_frontiers_and_fortifications" title="Roman military frontiers and fortifications">Frontiers and fortifications</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Castra" title="Castra">castra</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Technological history of the Roman military">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_army" title="Roman army">Army</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_legion" title="Roman legion">Legion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_infantry_tactics" title="Roman infantry tactics">Infantry tactics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_personal_equipment" title="Roman military personal equipment">Personal equipment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_siege_engines" title="Roman siege engines">Siege engines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_(Roman_history)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege (Roman history)">Siege in Ancient Rome</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_navy" title="Roman navy">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auxilia" title="Auxilia">Auxiliaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_decorations_and_punishments" title="Roman military decorations and punishments">Decorations and punishments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippika_gymnasia" title="Hippika gymnasia">Hippika gymnasia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_economy" title="Roman economy">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_ancient_Rome" title="Agriculture in ancient Rome">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_during_the_Roman_period" title="Deforestation during the Roman period">Deforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_commerce" title="Roman commerce">Commerce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_finance" title="Roman finance">Finance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_currency" title="Roman currency">Currency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republican_currency" title="Roman Republican currency">Republican currency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Imperial_currency" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Imperial currency">Imperial currency</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_ancient_Rome" title="Culture of ancient Rome">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_architecture" title="Ancient Roman architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_art" title="Roman art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_bathing" title="Ancient Roman bathing">Bathing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_calendar" title="Roman calendar">Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clothing_in_ancient_Rome" title="Clothing in ancient Rome">Clothing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmetics_in_ancient_Rome" title="Cosmetics in ancient Rome">Cosmetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_cuisine" title="Ancient Roman cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_ancient_Rome" title="Education in ancient Rome">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_folklore" title="Roman folklore">Folklore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_hairstyles" title="Roman hairstyles">Hairstyles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_literature" title="Latin literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_ancient_Rome" title="Music of ancient Rome">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_mythology" title="Roman mythology">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">Religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_deities" title="List of Roman deities">Deities</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanization_(cultural)" title="Romanization (cultural)">Romanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_people" title="Roman people">Romans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexuality_in_ancient_Rome" title="Sexuality in ancient Rome">Sexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spectacles_in_ancient_Rome" title="Spectacles in ancient Rome">Spectacles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_ancient_Rome" title="Theatre of ancient Rome">Theatre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toys_and_games_in_ancient_Rome" title="Toys and games in ancient Rome">Toys and games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome_and_wine" title="Ancient Rome and wine">Wine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_ancient_Rome" title="Social class in ancient Rome">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Patrician_(ancient_Rome)" title="Patrician (ancient Rome)">Patricians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plebeians" title="Plebeians">Plebs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_of_the_Orders" title="Conflict of the Orders">Conflict of the Orders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secessio_plebis" title="Secessio plebis">Secessio plebis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equites" title="Equites">Equites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gens" title="Gens">Gens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_tribe" title="Roman tribe">Tribes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribal Assembly">Assembly</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patronage_in_ancient_Rome" title="Patronage in ancient Rome">Patronage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_naming_conventions" title="Roman naming conventions">Naming conventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demography_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Demography of the Roman Empire">Demography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_ancient_Rome" title="Women in ancient Rome">Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marriage_in_ancient_Rome" title="Marriage in ancient Rome">Marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adoption_in_ancient_Rome" title="Adoption in ancient Rome">Adoption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Rome" title="Slavery in ancient Rome">Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bagaudae" title="Bagaudae">Bagaudae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_technology" title="Ancient Roman technology">Technology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_amphitheatre" title="Roman amphitheatre">Amphitheatres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_aqueduct" title="Roman aqueduct">Aqueducts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_bridge" title="Roman bridge">Bridges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_circus" title="Roman circus">Circuses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_engineering" title="Ancient Roman engineering">Civil engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_concrete" title="Roman concrete">Concrete</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Roman_and_Byzantine_domes" title="History of Roman and Byzantine domes">Domes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_metallurgy" title="Roman metallurgy">Metallurgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_numerals" title="Roman numerals">Numerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_roads" title="Roman roads">Roads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanitation_in_ancient_Rome" title="Sanitation in ancient Rome">Sanitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ships_of_ancient_Rome" title="Ships of ancient Rome">Ships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_temple" title="Roman temple">Temples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_theatre_(structure)" title="Roman theatre (structure)">Theatres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermae" title="Thermae">Thermae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Latin" title="History of Latin">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_alphabet" title="Latin alphabet">Alphabet</a></li> <li>Versions <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Latin" title="Old Latin">Old</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Latin" title="Classical Latin">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vulgar_Latin" title="Vulgar Latin">Vulgar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Latin" title="Late Latin">Late</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Latin" title="Medieval Latin">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_Latin" title="Renaissance Latin">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Latin" title="Neo-Latin">Neo-Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_Latin" title="Contemporary Latin">Contemporary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecclesiastical_Latin" title="Ecclesiastical Latin">Ecclesiastical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance languages</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Writers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Latin_literature" title="Latin literature">Latin</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aelius_Donatus" title="Aelius Donatus">Aelius Donatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus" title="Ammianus Marcellinus">Ammianus Marcellinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apuleius" title="Apuleius">Appuleius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Asconius_Pedianus" title="Quintus Asconius Pedianus">Asconius Pedianus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aurelius_Victor" title="Aurelius Victor">Aurelius Victor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ausonius" title="Ausonius">Ausonius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boethius" title="Boethius">Boëthius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catullus" title="Catullus">Catullus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cassiodorus" title="Cassiodorus">Cassiodorus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Censorinus" title="Censorinus">Censorinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claudian" title="Claudian">Claudian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columella" title="Columella">Columella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornelius_Nepos" title="Cornelius Nepos">Cornelius Nepos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ennius" title="Ennius">Ennius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eutropius_(historian)" title="Eutropius (historian)">Eutropius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Fabius_Pictor" title="Quintus Fabius Pictor">Fabius Pictor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sextus_Pompeius_Festus" title="Sextus Pompeius Festus">Sextus Pompeius Festus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Festus_(historian)" title="Festus (historian)">Rufus Festus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Works_attributed_to_Florus" class="mw-redirect" title="Works attributed to Florus">Florus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frontinus" title="Frontinus">Frontinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Cornelius_Fronto" title="Marcus Cornelius Fronto">Fronto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fabius_Planciades_Fulgentius" title="Fabius Planciades Fulgentius">Fulgentius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aulus_Gellius" title="Aulus Gellius">Gellius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horace" title="Horace">Horace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydatius" title="Hydatius">Hydatius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaius_Julius_Hyginus" title="Gaius Julius Hyginus">Hyginus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerome" title="Jerome">Jerome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jordanes" title="Jordanes">Jordanes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Paulus" title="Julius Paulus">Julius Paulus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justin_(historian)" title="Justin (historian)">Justin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juvenal" title="Juvenal">Juvenal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lactantius" title="Lactantius">Lactantius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Livy" title="Livy">Livy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucan" title="Lucan">Lucan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucretius" title="Lucretius">Lucretius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macrobius" title="Macrobius">Macrobius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcellus_Empiricus" title="Marcellus Empiricus">Marcellus Empiricus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius" title="Marcus Aurelius">Marcus Aurelius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Manilius" title="Marcus Manilius">Manilius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martial" title="Martial">Martial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolaus_of_Damascus" title="Nicolaus of Damascus">Nicolaus Damascenus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonius_Marcellus" title="Nonius Marcellus">Nonius Marcellus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Obsequens" title="Julius Obsequens">Obsequens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orosius" title="Orosius">Orosius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ovid" title="Ovid">Ovid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petronius" title="Petronius">Petronius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phaedrus_(fabulist)" title="Phaedrus (fabulist)">Phaedrus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plautus" title="Plautus">Plautus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Younger" title="Pliny the Younger">Pliny the Younger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomponius_Mela" title="Pomponius Mela">Pomponius Mela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priscian" title="Priscian">Priscian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propertius" title="Propertius">Propertius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Claudius_Quadrigarius" title="Quintus Claudius Quadrigarius">Quadrigarius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintilian" title="Quintilian">Quintilian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Curtius_Rufus" title="Quintus Curtius Rufus">Quintus Curtius Rufus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sallust" title="Sallust">Sallust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Elder" title="Seneca the Elder">Seneca the Elder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Younger" title="Seneca the Younger">Seneca the Younger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurus_Servius_Honoratus" class="mw-redirect" title="Maurus Servius Honoratus">Servius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidonius_Apollinaris" title="Sidonius Apollinaris">Sidonius Apollinaris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silius_Italicus" title="Silius Italicus">Silius Italicus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statius" title="Statius">Statius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suetonius" title="Suetonius">Suetonius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Aurelius_Symmachus" title="Quintus Aurelius Symmachus">Symmachus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tacitus" title="Tacitus">Tacitus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terence" title="Terence">Terence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibullus" title="Tibullus">Tibullus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valerius_Antias" title="Valerius Antias">Valerius Antias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valerius_Maximus" title="Valerius Maximus">Valerius Maximus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Terentius_Varro" title="Marcus Terentius Varro">Varro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Velleius_Paterculus" title="Velleius Paterculus">Velleius Paterculus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verrius_Flaccus" title="Verrius Flaccus">Verrius Flaccus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virgil" title="Virgil">Vergil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitruvius" title="Vitruvius">Vitruvius</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_literature" title="Ancient Greek literature">Greek</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Claudius_Aelianus" title="Claudius Aelianus">Aelian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A%C3%ABtius_of_Amida" title="Aëtius of Amida">Aëtius of Amida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appian" title="Appian">Appian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arrian" title="Arrian">Arrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cassius_Dio" title="Cassius Dio">Cassius Dio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diodorus_Siculus" title="Diodorus Siculus">Diodorus Siculus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diogenes_La%C3%ABrtius" class="mw-redirect" title="Diogenes Laërtius">Diogenes Laërtius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dionysius_of_Halicarnassus" title="Dionysius of Halicarnassus">Dionysius of Halicarnassus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedanius_Dioscorides" class="mw-redirect" title="Pedanius Dioscorides">Dioscorides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eusebius" title="Eusebius">Eusebius of Caesaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galen" title="Galen">Galen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herodian" title="Herodian">Herodian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josephus" title="Josephus">Josephus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_(emperor)" title="Julian (emperor)">Julian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libanius" title="Libanius">Libanius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucian" title="Lucian">Lucian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pausanias_(geographer)" title="Pausanias (geographer)">Pausanias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philostratus" title="Philostratus">Philostratus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phlegon_of_Tralles" title="Phlegon of Tralles">Phlegon of Tralles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photios_I_of_Constantinople" title="Photios I of Constantinople">Photius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyaenus" title="Polyaenus">Polyaenus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porphyry_(philosopher)" title="Porphyry (philosopher)">Porphyrius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priscus" title="Priscus">Priscus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Procopius" title="Procopius">Procopius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simplicius_of_Cilicia" title="Simplicius of Cilicia">Simplicius of Cilicia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sozomen" title="Sozomen">Sozomen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephanus_of_Byzantium" title="Stephanus of Byzantium">Stephanus Byzantinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strabo" title="Strabo">Strabo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Themistius" title="Themistius">Themistius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodoret" title="Theodoret">Theodoret</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joannes_Zonaras" title="Joannes Zonaras">Zonaras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zosimus_(historian)" title="Zosimus (historian)">Zosimus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Major cities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antioch" title="Antioch">Antioch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquileia" title="Aquileia">Aquileia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berytus" title="Berytus">Berytus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bologna" title="Bologna">Bononia</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Carthage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinopolis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eboracum" title="Eboracum">Eboracum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leptis_Magna" title="Leptis Magna">Leptis Magna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Londinium" title="Londinium">Londinium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lugdunum" title="Lugdunum">Lugdunum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lutetia" title="Lutetia">Lutetia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mediolanum" title="Mediolanum">Mediolanum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pompeii" title="Pompeii">Pompeii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ravenna" title="Ravenna">Ravenna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Roma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smyrna" title="Smyrna">Smyrna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vindobona" title="Vindobona">Vindobona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volubilis" title="Volubilis">Volubilis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists and other topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_founded_by_the_Romans" title="List of cities founded by the Romans">Cities and towns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_of_ancient_Rome" title="Climate of ancient Rome">Climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_consuls" title="List of Roman consuls">Consuls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_dictators" title="List of Roman dictators">Dictators</a></li> <li><a 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href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Iranian_relations" title="Roman–Iranian relations">Roman–Iranian relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_external_wars_and_battles" title="List of Roman external wars and battles">External wars and battles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_civil_wars_and_revolts" title="List of Roman civil wars and revolts">Civil wars and revolts</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/316429855">VIAF</a><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/4549154387113230970004">2</a></li></ul></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/1896920/">FAST</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4029802-4">Germany</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85020502">United States</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11941736v">France</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11941736v">BnF data</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00565072">Japan</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ge129543&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" 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