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vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">外观</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">移至侧栏</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">隐藏</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">维基百科，自由的百科全书</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="zh" dir="ltr"><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:VKG_Energia_panoraam.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/VKG_Energia_panoraam.jpg/220px-VKG_Energia_panoraam.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/VKG_Energia_panoraam.jpg/330px-VKG_Energia_panoraam.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/VKG_Energia_panoraam.jpg/440px-VKG_Energia_panoraam.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3500" data-file-height="2333" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/%E6%84%9B%E6%B2%99%E5%B0%BC%E4%BA%9E" class="mw-redirect" title="愛沙尼亞">愛沙尼亞</a><a href="/w/index.php?title=Viru_Keemia_Grupp%E6%8E%A7%E8%82%A1&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Viru Keemia Grupp控股（页面不存在）">Viru Keemia Grupp控股</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viru_Keemia_Grupp" class="extiw" title="en:Viru Keemia Grupp">Viru Keemia Grupp</a>）旗下電力公司 - VKG Energia。</figcaption></figure> 油頁岩產業（英語：Oil shale industry）是種<a href="/wiki/%E6%8E%A1%E7%A4%A6%E6%A5%AD" class="mw-redirect" title="採礦業">開採</a>出<a href="/wiki/%E6%B2%B9%E9%A0%81%E5%B2%A9" title="油頁岩">油頁岩</a>之後，將之加工的產業。而油頁岩是種細粒組成的<a href="/wiki/%E6%B2%89%E7%A9%8D%E5%B2%A9" class="mw-redirect" title="沉積岩">沉積岩</a>，含有大量<a href="/wiki/%E6%B2%B9%E6%AF%8D%E8%B3%AA" title="油母質">油母質</a>（固態有機<a href="/wiki/%E5%8C%96%E5%90%88%E7%89%A9" title="化合物">化合物</a>），可從中提煉出液態<a href="/wiki/%E7%A2%B3%E6%B0%AB%E5%8C%96%E5%90%88%E7%89%A9" class="mw-redirect" title="碳氫化合物">碳氫化合物</a>。此產業在<a href="/wiki/%E5%B7%B4%E8%A5%BF" title="巴西">巴西</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E5%9C%8B" title="中國">中國</a>及<a href="/wiki/%E6%84%9B%E6%B2%99%E5%B0%BC%E4%BA%9E" class="mw-redirect" title="愛沙尼亞">愛沙尼亞</a>有不短的歷史，而在<a href="/wiki/%E5%BE%B7%E5%9C%8B" class="mw-redirect" title="德國">德國</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E4%BF%84%E7%BE%85%E6%96%AF" class="mw-redirect" title="俄羅斯">俄羅斯</a>也有一定程度的發展。目前有幾個國家正研究其國內<a href="/wiki/%E6%B2%B9%E9%A0%81%E5%B2%A9%E5%84%B2%E9%87%8F" title="油頁岩儲量">油頁岩儲量</a>，也研究能提高效率及採收率的生產工藝（參見<a href="/wiki/%E9%A0%81%E5%B2%A9%E6%B2%B9%E6%8F%90%E7%85%89" title="頁岩油提煉">頁岩油提煉</a>）。<a href="#cite_note-wec-1">[1]</a>根據一份在2005年發表的研究報告，愛沙尼亞的油頁岩產量在世界的佔比約為70%。<a href="#cite_note-research-2">[2]</a> 人類在17世紀初即已開採油頁岩，取得其中的礦物質用於工業目的。自19世紀後期起，因其含有<a href="/wiki/%E9%A1%B5%E5%B2%A9%E6%B2%B9" title="页岩油">頁岩油</a>而被當作火力發電的低階燃料使用。但除擁有大量油頁岩礦藏的國家外，這種材料並未廣泛用於發電。同樣的，對擁有油頁岩礦藏，卻仰賴進口常規石油的國家，因油頁岩可提煉<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%90%88%E6%88%90%E5%8E%9F%E6%B2%B9&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="合成原油（页面不存在）">合成原油</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synthetic_crude" class="extiw" title="en:Synthetic crude">Synthetic crude</a>），而被視為是種可增加國內油料產量的方案。 <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="歷史">歷史</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%B2%B9%E9%A1%B5%E5%B2%A9%E5%B7%A5%E4%B8%9A&action=edit&section=1" title="编辑章节：歷史">编辑</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r85100532">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-size:small}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:2em;margin-bottom:0.8em;margin-top:0.8em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote-notice-img::after{content:"\202f \202f \202f \202f "}.mw-parser-output .hatnote-notice-img-small::after{content:"\202f \202f "}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .hatnote-notice-img,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .hatnote-notice-img-small{display:none}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">主条目：<a href="/wiki/%E6%B2%B9%E9%A0%81%E5%B2%A9%E7%94%A2%E6%A5%AD%E5%8F%B2" title="油頁岩產業史">油頁岩產業史</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Production_of_oil_shale.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Production_of_oil_shale.png/350px-Production_of_oil_shale.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0a/Production_of_oil_shale.png 1.5x" data-file-width="525" data-file-height="341" /></a><figcaption>世界各國油頁岩產量線圖（單位：百萬公噸，期間：1880年-2010年，作者：Pierre Allix及Alan K. Burnham（<a href="/wiki/%E7%BE%8E%E5%9C%8B%E5%9C%B0%E8%B3%AA%E8%AA%BF%E6%9F%A5%E5%B1%80" title="美國地質調查局">美國地質調查局</a>）。<a href="#cite_note-oilfield-3">[3]</a></figcaption></figure> 人類自遠古以來就開始使用油頁岩。現代工業化的開採始於1837年<a href="/wiki/%E6%B3%95%E5%9C%8B" class="mw-redirect" title="法國">法國</a>的<a href="/wiki/%E6%AD%90%E5%9D%A6" title="歐坦">歐坦</a>油頁岩礦，隨後<a href="/wiki/%E8%8B%B1%E5%9C%8B" class="mw-redirect" title="英國">英國</a>、德國和其他幾國跟進。<a href="#cite_note-wec-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-laherrere-4">[4]</a>此產業在<a href="/wiki/%E7%AC%AC%E4%B8%80%E6%AC%A1%E4%B8%96%E7%95%8C%E5%A4%A7%E6%88%B0" class="mw-redirect" title="第一次世界大戰">第一次世界大戰</a>之前即開始增長，原因是汽車和卡車的大規模生產以及所需的汽油短缺。位於愛沙尼亞的塔林發電廠（Tallinn Power Plant）於1924年改以油頁岩為燃料，是世界上首做如此做的<a href="/wiki/%E7%99%BC%E9%9B%BB%E5%BB%A0" title="發電廠">發電廠</a>。 <a href="#cite_note-arvoots-5">[5]</a> <a href="/wiki/%E7%AC%AC%E4%BA%8C%E6%AC%A1%E4%B8%96%E7%95%8C%E5%A4%A7%E6%88%B0" class="mw-redirect" title="第二次世界大戰">第二次世界大戰</a>結束後，由於有大量易於開採且價格低廉的常規石油被發現，油頁岩產業隨之沒落。<a href="#cite_note-wec-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-laherrere-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-dyni-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-fushun2-7">[7]</a>但愛沙尼亞、俄羅斯和中國的產量仍持續增長。 <a href="/wiki/%E7%AC%AC%E4%B8%80%E6%AC%A1%E7%9F%B3%E6%B2%B9%E5%8D%B1%E6%A9%9F" class="mw-redirect" title="第一次石油危機">1973年石油危機</a>之後，有幾國重啟油頁岩產業，又因<a href="/wiki/1980%E5%B9%B4%E4%BB%A3%E7%9F%B3%E6%B2%B9%E9%81%8E%E5%89%A9" class="mw-redirect" title="1980年代石油過剩">1980年代石油過剩</a>導致油價下跌，許多業者因之倒閉。全球油頁岩產業從1990年代中期再次增長。<a href="/wiki/%E7%BE%8E%E5%9C%8B" class="mw-redirect" title="美國">美國</a>在2003年啟動油頁岩開發計劃，在2005年引入油頁岩和<a href="/wiki/%E6%B2%B9%E7%A0%82" title="油砂">油砂</a>礦藏所在土地的商業租賃計劃。<a href="#cite_note-blm-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-anl-9">[9]</a> 截至2007年5月，愛沙尼亞仍有大規模的油頁岩開採活動，產量佔全世界的70%。<a href="#cite_note-bbj-10">[10]</a>愛沙尼亞的獨特之處是其油頁岩儲量僅佔<a href="/wiki/%E6%AD%90%E6%B4%B2%E8%81%AF%E7%9B%9F" class="mw-redirect" title="歐洲聯盟">歐盟</a>總儲量的17%，但國內的電力中有90%係依靠燃燒油頁岩所生產。該國油頁岩產業僱用7,500人，約佔全國就業人數的1%，佔<a href="/wiki/%E5%9C%8B%E5%85%A7%E7%94%9F%E7%94%A2%E6%AF%9B%E9%A1%8D" class="mw-redirect" title="國內生產毛額">國內生產毛額</a>（GDP）的4%。<a href="#cite_note-eu-11">[11]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="採礦">採礦</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%B2%B9%E9%A1%B5%E5%B2%A9%E5%B7%A5%E4%B8%9A&action=edit&section=2" title="编辑章节：採礦">编辑</a>]</div> 開採油頁岩，利用的是傳統的<a href="/wiki/%E5%9C%B0%E4%B8%8B%E5%BC%80%E9%87%87" title="地下开采">地下開採</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underground_soft-rock_mining" class="extiw" title="en:Underground soft-rock mining">Underground soft-rock mining</a>）或是<a href="/wiki/%E9%9C%B2%E5%A4%A9%E5%BC%80%E9%87%87" title="露天开采">露天開採</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surfac_mining" class="extiw" title="en:Surfac mining">Surfac mining</a>）法。有幾種開採技術，但共同目標是把油頁岩礦石破碎，而後運送到發電廠或是乾餾廠。最常見的露天開採方式有<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E9%9C%B2%E5%A4%A9%E6%8E%A1%E7%A4%A6&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="露天採礦（页面不存在）">露天採礦</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/open-pit_mining" class="extiw" title="en:open-pit mining">open-pit mining</a>）和<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%A4%A6%E5%B1%A4%E6%8E%A1%E7%A4%A6&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="礦層採礦（页面不存在）">礦層採礦</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/strip_mining" class="extiw" title="en:strip mining">strip mining</a>）兩種。地下開採的重要工藝是<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%88%BF%E6%9F%B1%E5%BC%8F%E6%8E%A1%E7%A4%A6%E6%B3%95&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="房柱式採礦法（页面不存在）">房柱式採礦法</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/room-and-pillar_method" class="extiw" title="en:room-and-pillar method">room-and-pillar method</a>）。<a href="#cite_note-rand-12">[12]</a>此法採平面式開採，並刻意留下未採的部分，當作“柱子”來支撐礦頂。這類支柱可把礦坑倒塌的可能性降低。有時在<a href="/wiki/%E7%85%A4%E7%82%AD%E9%96%8B%E6%8E%A1" class="mw-redirect" title="煤炭開採">煤礦開採</a>作業中，也會採到油頁岩，作為副產品。<a href="#cite_note-wec-1">[1]</a> 愛沙尼亞油頁岩礦（Estonia Mine）是世界上最大的油頁岩礦場，由<a href="/w/index.php?title=Enefit_Kaevandused&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Enefit Kaevandused（页面不存在）">Enefit Kaevandused</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enefit_Kaevandused" class="extiw" title="en:Enefit Kaevandused">Enefit Kaevandused</a>）（為國營能源公司<a href="/w/index.php?title=Eesti_Energia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Eesti Energia（页面不存在）">Eesti Energia</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eesti_Energia" class="extiw" title="en:Eesti Energia">Eesti Energia</a>）的子公司）經營。<a href="#cite_note-ep-13">[13]</a>愛沙尼亞在2005年已開採1,480萬噸油頁岩。<a href="#cite_note-eu-11">[11]</a>而該國在同年核准近2,400萬噸的採礦許可，且另有2,600萬噸的採礦申請。<a href="#cite_note-eu-11">[11]</a><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%84%9B%E6%B2%99%E5%B0%BC%E4%BA%9E%E5%96%AE%E4%B8%80%E5%9C%8B%E6%9C%83&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="愛沙尼亞單一國會（页面不存在）">愛沙尼亞單一國會</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riigikogu" class="extiw" title="en:Riigikogu">Riigikogu</a>）在2008年核准《2008-2015年國家油頁岩利用發展計劃（National Development Plan for the Use of Oil Shale 2008-2015）》，把油頁岩年開採量限制最高為2,000萬噸。<a href="#cite_note-nationalplan-14">[14]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="發電">發電</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%B2%B9%E9%A1%B5%E5%B2%A9%E5%B7%A5%E4%B8%9A&action=edit&section=3" title="编辑章节：發電">编辑</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%AD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%AD%D0%A1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/%D0%AD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%AD%D0%A1.jpg/220px-%D0%AD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%AD%D0%A1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/%D0%AD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%AD%D0%A1.jpg/330px-%D0%AD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%AD%D0%A1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/%D0%AD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%AD%D0%A1.jpg/440px-%D0%AD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%AD%D0%A1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="960" /></a><figcaption>位於愛沙尼亞<a href="/wiki/%E7%BA%B3%E7%93%A6" title="纳瓦">納瓦</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narva" class="extiw" title="en:Narva">Narva</a>），燃燒油頁岩發電的Eesti發電廠（Eesti Power Plant）。</figcaption></figure> 油頁岩像<a href="/wiki/%E7%85%A4" title="煤">煤</a>一樣，可作火力發電廠燃料，用來驅動<a href="/wiki/%E8%92%B8%E6%B1%BD%E6%B8%A6%E8%BC%AA%E5%BC%95%E6%93%8E" class="mw-redirect" title="蒸汽渦輪引擎">蒸汽渦輪機</a>。截至2012年，愛沙尼亞擁有4座油頁岩發電廠，發電量為2,967兆瓦 (MW)。<a href="#cite_note-symposium-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-qian3-16">[16]</a><a href="/wiki/%E4%BB%A5%E8%89%B2%E5%88%97" title="以色列">以色列</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E7%BE%85%E9%A6%AC%E5%B0%BC%E4%BA%9E" title="羅馬尼亞">羅馬尼亞</a>和俄羅斯也曾建有油頁岩發電廠，但已關閉，或轉而使用天然氣等其他燃料。<a href="#cite_note-wec-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-symposium-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-globes220311-17">[17]</a><a href="/wiki/%E7%B4%84%E6%97%A6" class="mw-redirect" title="約旦">約旦</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E5%9F%83%E5%8F%8A" title="埃及">埃及</a>已宣布要建造油頁岩火力發電廠的計劃，而<a href="/wiki/%E5%8A%A0%E6%8B%BF%E5%A4%A7" title="加拿大">加拿大</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E5%9C%9F%E8%80%B3%E5%85%B6" title="土耳其">土耳其</a>計劃在發電廠中採同時燃燒油頁岩與煤炭的做法。 <a href="#cite_note-wec-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-symposium-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-alali-18">[18]</a> 以油頁岩為燃料的火力發電廠大多使用兩種燃燒方式。傳統的是粉狀燃燒（Pulverized combustion，PC），愛沙尼亞發電廠的老機組採用；而更先進的方法是<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%B5%81%E5%8C%96%E5%BA%8A%E7%87%83%E7%87%92&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="流化床燃燒（页面不存在）">流化床燃燒</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluidized_bed_combustion" class="extiw" title="en:Fluidized bed combustion">Fluidized bed combustion</a>）（Fluidized bed combustion，FBC），有德國<a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%9A%E6%BB%95%E8%B1%AA%E6%A3%AE" title="多滕豪森">多滕豪森</a>的<a href="/wiki/%E9%9C%8D%E7%88%BE%E5%B8%8C%E5%A7%86" title="霍爾希姆">霍爾希姆</a>水泥廠，以及以色列的<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mishor_Rotem%E7%99%BC%E9%9B%BB%E5%BB%A0&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mishor Rotem發電廠（页面不存在）">Mishor Rotem發電廠</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mishor_Rotem_power_station" class="extiw" title="en:Mishor Rotem power station">Mishor Rotem power station</a>）採用。主要的FBC技術是氣泡流化床燃燒 (Bubbling fluidized bed combustion，BFBC) 和循環流化床燃燒 (Circulating fluidized bed combustion ，CFBC)。<a href="#cite_note-symposium-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-jordan2-19">[19]</a> 全球有60多家發電廠採用CFBC技術，以煤和<a href="/wiki/%E8%A4%90%E7%85%A4" title="褐煤">褐煤</a>為燃料，但只有愛沙尼亞<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%B4%8D%E7%93%A6%E9%9B%BB%E5%BB%A0%E7%BE%A4&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="納瓦電廠群（页面不存在）">納瓦電廠群</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narva_PowerPlants" class="extiw" title="en:Narva PowerPlants">Narva PowerPlants</a>）的兩座新機組，和中國華電集團電廠一座機組採用油頁岩作燃料的CFBC技術。<a href="#cite_note-qian3-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-alali-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-Estonia-20">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-oilshale1-21">[21]</a>最先進、最高效率的燃燒技術是加壓流化床燃燒 (Pressurized fluidized-bed combustion，PFBC)。但這項技術還處於起步階段，尚未成熟。<a href="#cite_note-agabus-22">[22]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="提煉">提煉</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%B2%B9%E9%A1%B5%E5%B2%A9%E5%B7%A5%E4%B8%9A&action=edit&section=4" title="编辑章节：提煉">编辑</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r85100532"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">主条目：<a href="/wiki/%E9%A0%81%E5%B2%A9%E6%B2%B9%E6%8F%90%E7%85%89" title="頁岩油提煉">頁岩油提煉</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Oil_shale_extraction_overview.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A vertical flowchart begins with an oil shale deposit and follows two major branches. Conventional ex situ processes, shown on the right, proceed through mining, crushing, and retorting. Spent shale output is noted. In situ process flows are shown in the left branch of the flowchart. The deposit may or may not be fractured; in either case, the deposit is retorted and the oil is recovered. The two major branches converge at the bottom of the chart, indicating that extraction is followed by refining, which involves thermal and chemical treatment and hydrogenation, yielding liquid fuels and useful byproducts." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Oil_shale_extraction_overview.png/300px-Oil_shale_extraction_overview.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="196" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Oil_shale_extraction_overview.png/450px-Oil_shale_extraction_overview.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Oil_shale_extraction_overview.png/600px-Oil_shale_extraction_overview.png 2x" data-file-width="1352" data-file-height="883" /></a><figcaption>頁岩油開採與提煉概述</figcaption></figure> 主要頁岩油生產國是中國和愛沙尼亞，巴西排在第三位，而<a href="/wiki/%E6%BE%B3%E5%A4%A7%E5%88%A9%E4%BA%9E" class="mw-redirect" title="澳大利亞">澳大利亞</a>、美國、加拿大和約旦已計劃建立或重啟頁岩油生產。<a href="#cite_note-emd-23">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-symposium-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-alali-18">[18]</a>根據<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E4%B8%96%E7%95%8C%E8%83%BD%E6%BA%90%E7%90%86%E4%BA%8B%E6%9C%83&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="世界能源理事會（页面不存在）">世界能源理事會</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Energy_Council" class="extiw" title="en:World Energy Council">World Energy Council</a>）的數據，2008年全球頁岩油總產量為93萬噸，相當於每天17,700桶（2,810立方米/天），其中中國生產375,000噸，愛沙尼亞生產355,000噸，巴西生產200噸。而在2008年，全球的常規石油和<a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%A9%E7%84%B6%E6%B0%A3%E5%87%9D%E6%9E%90%E6%B2%B9" title="天然氣凝析油">天然氣凝析油</a>的產量為39.5億噸（即8,212萬桶/天（13.056×106立方米/天）。<a href="#cite_note-wec-1">[1]</a> 雖然乾餾油頁岩的技術有很多種，但目前投入商業使用的只有四種 - <a href="/w/index.php?title=Kiviter%E5%B7%A5%E8%97%9D&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kiviter工藝（页面不存在）">Kiviter工藝</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiviter_process" class="extiw" title="en:Kiviter process">Kiviter process</a>）、<a href="/w/index.php?title=Galoter%E5%B7%A5%E8%97%9D&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Galoter工藝（页面不存在）">Galoter工藝</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galoter_process" class="extiw" title="en:Galoter process">Galoter process</a>）、<a href="/wiki/%E6%92%AB%E9%A0%86%E5%B7%A5%E8%97%9D" class="mw-redirect" title="撫順工藝">撫順工藝</a>和<a href="/w/index.php?title=Petrosix&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Petrosix（页面不存在）">Petrosix</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petrosix" class="extiw" title="en:Petrosix">Petrosix</a>）工藝。<a href="#cite_note-qian-24">[24]</a>從油頁岩中提煉頁岩油的主要方法有兩種：異地（ex situ）工藝和原位（<a href="/wiki/In_situ" title="In situ">in situ</a>）工藝。異地工藝是油頁岩經開採後，運送到乾餾廠提煉。原位工藝則是把當地油頁岩沉積物中的<a href="/wiki/%E6%B2%B9%E6%AF%8D%E8%B3%AA" title="油母質">油母質</a>轉化，再透過鑽井提取，如同開採普通石油一樣。<a href="#cite_note-AICHE-25">[25]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="其他工業用途">其他工業用途</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%B2%B9%E9%A1%B5%E5%B2%A9%E5%B7%A5%E4%B8%9A&action=edit&section=5" title="编辑章节：其他工業用途">编辑</a>]</div> 愛沙尼亞的Kunda Nordic Cement（水泥廠）、德國的霍爾希姆水泥廠和中國的撫順水泥廠用油頁岩於水泥生產。<a href="#cite_note-wec-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-koel-26">[26]</a>油頁岩還可用來生產不同的化學產品、建築材料和醫藥產品，例如<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%8F%B8%E9%85%B8%E9%8A%A8&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="菸酸銨（页面不存在）">菸酸銨</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ammonium_bituminosulfonate" class="extiw" title="en:ammonium bituminosulfonate">ammonium bituminosulfonate</a>）。<a href="#cite_note-eu-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-alali-18">[18]</a>但用來生產這類產品的情況仍非常少，僅處於試驗階段。 <a href="#cite_note-wec-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-dyni-6">[6]</a> 一些油頁岩經常可產出<a href="/wiki/%E7%A1%AB" title="硫">硫</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E6%B0%A8" title="氨">氨</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E6%B0%A7%E5%8C%96%E9%8B%81" class="mw-redirect" title="氧化鋁">氧化鋁</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E7%A2%B3%E9%85%B8%E9%88%89" class="mw-redirect" title="碳酸鈉">碳酸鈉</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E8%98%87%E6%89%93%E7%9F%B3" title="蘇打石">蘇打石</a>之類的副產品。一些油頁岩還可產出<a href="/wiki/%E9%88%BE" title="鈾">鈾</a>和其他稀有化學元素。在1946年至1952年期間，位於愛沙尼亞<a href="/wiki/%E9%8C%AB%E6%8B%89%E9%82%81%E5%9F%83" title="錫拉邁埃">錫拉邁埃</a>的海洋變種<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%91%E7%89%87%E8%A1%A3%E5%B1%9E" title="云片衣属">云片衣属</a>頁岩被用來提煉鈾，而在1950年至1989年期間，瑞典從明礬頁岩提煉鈾。<a href="#cite_note-dyni-6">[6]</a><a href="/wiki/%E6%B2%B9%E9%A1%B5%E5%B2%A9%E6%B0%94" title="油页岩气">油頁岩氣</a>也可作為天然氣的替代品。愛沙尼亞生產的油頁岩氣在二次世界大戰後供應列寧格勒（現稱<a href="/wiki/%E8%81%96%E5%BD%BC%E5%BE%97%E5%A0%A1" class="mw-redirect" title="聖彼得堡">聖彼得堡</a>）和愛沙尼亞北部的城市使用。 <a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a>但依目前的天然氣價格水準，生產油頁岩氣無法產生經濟利益。<a href="#cite_note-ttu-28">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-proceedings-29">[29]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="經濟學">經濟學</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%B2%B9%E9%A1%B5%E5%B2%A9%E5%B7%A5%E4%B8%9A&action=edit&section=6" title="编辑章节：經濟學">编辑</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r85100532"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">主条目：<a href="/wiki/%E6%B2%B9%E9%A0%81%E5%B2%A9%E7%B6%93%E6%BF%9F%E5%AD%B8" title="油頁岩經濟學">油頁岩經濟學</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:WTI_price_96_09.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A graph of NYMEX light-sweet crude oil price changes from 1996 to 2009 (not adjusted for inflation). In 1996, the price was about $20 per barrel. Since then, the prices saw a sharp rise, peaking at over $140 per barrel in 2008. It dropped to about $70 per barrel in mid 2009." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/WTI_price_96_09.PNG/250px-WTI_price_96_09.PNG" decoding="async" width="250" height="178" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/WTI_price_96_09.PNG/375px-WTI_price_96_09.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/WTI_price_96_09.PNG/500px-WTI_price_96_09.PNG 2x" data-file-width="780" data-file-height="554" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/%E7%B4%90%E7%B4%84%E5%95%86%E5%93%81%E4%BA%A4%E6%98%93%E6%89%80" class="mw-redirect" title="紐約商品交易所">紐約商品交易所</a><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E4%BD%8E%E7%A1%AB%E5%8E%9F%E6%B2%B9&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="低硫原油（页面不存在）">低硫原油</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/sweet_crude_oil" class="extiw" title="en:sweet crude oil">sweet crude oil</a>）1996年到2009年價格走勢圖（未做通膨價格調整）。</figcaption></figure> 目前對經濟上可採的油頁岩數量尚屬未知之數。<a href="#cite_note-weo2010-30">[30]</a>只有當特定地區的頁岩油生產成本低於常規原油或其他替代品之時，開發油頁岩礦才有成功的機會。<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a>根據<a href="/wiki/%E6%99%BA%E5%BA%AB" title="智庫">智庫</a><a href="/wiki/%E5%85%B0%E5%BE%B7%E5%85%AC%E5%8F%B8" title="兰德公司">蘭德公司</a>所做的調查，在一個美國假設的地上乾餾綜合組合（包括礦山、乾餾廠、升級廠、配套公用設施和<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%BB%A2%E6%B2%B9%E9%A0%81%E5%B2%A9&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="廢油頁岩（页面不存在）">廢油頁岩</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/spent_oil_shale" class="extiw" title="en:spent oil shale">spent oil shale</a>）回收），生產頁岩油的成本（依據2005年的美金價值作調整）會落在每桶70-95美元（440-600美元/立方米）。假設產量在商業生產開始後逐漸增加，在達到10億桶（160×106立方米）的里程碑後，成本將進一步下降至每桶30-40美元（190-250美元/立方米）。<a href="#cite_note-eu-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-rand-12">[12]</a> <a href="/wiki/%E6%AE%BC%E7%89%8C" title="殼牌">殼牌</a>公司在2005年宣布其<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%AE%BC%E7%89%8C%E5%8E%9F%E4%BD%8D%E9%96%8B%E6%8E%A1%E9%A0%81%E5%B2%A9%E6%B2%B9%E5%B7%A5%E8%97%9D&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="殼牌原位開採頁岩油工藝（页面不存在）">原位開採工藝</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shell_in_situ_conversion_process" class="extiw" title="en:Shell in situ conversion process">Shell in situ conversion process</a>）所產，在每桶30美元以上的市場價格（190美元/立方米）即可獲利。<a href="#cite_note-rockymountainnews-32">[32]</a> 為提高乾餾油頁岩的效率，並由此提高頁岩油生產量的可行性，研究人員提出並測試過幾種共同<a href="/wiki/%E7%83%AD%E8%A3%82%E8%A7%A3" title="热裂解">熱裂解</a>工藝，另加入其他材料，如<a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E8%B4%A8" title="生物质">生物質</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E6%B3%A5%E7%82%AD" title="泥炭">泥炭</a>、廢<a href="/wiki/%E7%80%9D%E9%9D%92" title="瀝青">瀝青</a>或<a href="/wiki/%E6%A9%A1%E8%86%A0" title="橡膠">橡膠</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E5%A1%91%E6%96%99" title="塑料">塑料</a>廢料。<a href="#cite_note-co-pyrolisis-33">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-co-pyrolisis2-34">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-veski1-35">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-Morocco-36">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-turkey2-37">[37]</a>一些改進的技術，建議把流化床乾餾爐與循環流化床爐結合，用來燃燒熱裂解產生的副產品（碳焦和油頁岩氣），而提高產油率、增加產量並減少乾餾所需時間。<a href="#cite_note-siirde-38">[38]</a> 在1972年石油信息雜誌 (Petrole Informations,ISSN 0755-561X<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a>）的報導，頁岩油的生產與煤炭的液化相比，處於不利地位。文章指出，煤炭液化成本更低，可產出更多的液體燃料，對環境的影響更小。文章提出每噸煤可轉化出650升（170美制加侖；140英制加侖）油品，而每噸油頁岩可產出出150升（40美制加侖）的頁岩油，因此該等到煤炭耗盡之後才開採油頁岩。<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> 開採可行性的一個關鍵指標，是油頁岩產生的能量與開採和加工過程中所需的能量的比率，這種比率稱為“<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%83%BD%E6%BA%90%E6%8A%95%E8%B3%87%E5%9B%9E%E5%A0%B1%E7%8E%87&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="能源投資回報率（页面不存在）">能源投資回報率</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_return_on_investment" class="extiw" title="en:Energy return on investment">Energy return on investment</a>）”(EROEI)。當EROEI為2（即2:1比率）時，表示要生產2桶石油，必須燃燒/消耗1桶石油的等量能量。在1984年所做的一項研究，估計各種已知油頁岩礦藏的EROEI落在0.7–13.3之間。<a href="#cite_note-science2-41">[41]</a>但已知的油頁岩開採項目聲稱EROEI在3到10之間。根據<a href="/wiki/%E5%9C%8B%E9%9A%9B%E8%83%BD%E6%BA%90%E7%BD%B2" title="國際能源署">國際能源署</a>（IEA）發表的《2010年<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E4%B8%96%E7%95%8C%E8%83%BD%E6%BA%90%E5%B1%95%E6%9C%9B&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="世界能源展望（页面不存在）">世界能源展望</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Energy_Outlook" class="extiw" title="en:World Energy Outlook">World Energy Outlook</a>）》，非原位加工的EROEI通常為4至5，而原位加工甚至可能低至2。根據IEA，大部分的能源可利用燃燒廢油頁岩或是油頁岩氣來達成。<a href="#cite_note-laherrere-4">[4]</a> 乾餾油頁岩過程中的大量用水也造成額外的經濟考慮：這會在<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%B0%B4%E8%B3%87%E6%BA%90%E7%A8%80%E7%BC%BA&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="水資源稀缺（页面不存在）">水資源稀缺</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/water_scarcity" class="extiw" title="en:water scarcity">water scarcity</a>）地區成為問題。 <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="環境考慮">環境考慮</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%B2%B9%E9%A1%B5%E5%B2%A9%E5%B7%A5%E4%B8%9A&action=edit&section=7" title="编辑章节：環境考慮">编辑</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r85100532"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">主条目：<a href="/wiki/%E6%B2%B9%E9%A0%81%E5%B2%A9%E7%94%A2%E6%A5%AD%E5%B0%8D%E7%92%B0%E5%A2%83%E7%9A%84%E5%BD%B1%E9%9F%BF" title="油頁岩產業對環境的影響">油頁岩產業對環境的影響</a></div> 開採油頁岩會差生許多環境影響，露天開採比地下開採更為明顯。<a href="#cite_note-mittal-42">[42]</a>包括埋在地下材料突然快速暴露，和隨後<a href="/wiki/%E6%B0%A7%E5%8C%96" title="氧化">氧化</a>引起的酸排放，把包括<a href="/wiki/%E6%B1%9E" title="汞">汞</a>在內的金屬<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a>引入<a href="/wiki/%E5%9C%B0%E8%A1%A8%E6%B0%B4" title="地表水">地表水</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E5%9C%B0%E4%B8%8B%E6%B0%B4" title="地下水">地下水</a>，連同<a href="/wiki/%E4%BE%B5%E8%9A%80%E4%BD%9C%E7%94%A8" title="侵蚀作用">侵蝕作用</a>加劇，含硫氣體排放，以及加工、運輸和支持活動產生的<a href="/wiki/%E6%87%B8%E6%B5%AE%E5%BE%AE%E7%B2%92" class="mw-redirect" title="懸浮微粒">懸浮微粒</a>，而造成危害環境的污染。<a href="#cite_note-Burnham-44">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-carlson-45">[45]</a> <a href="#cite_note-openpitimpacts-46">[46]</a>在2002年，愛沙尼亞約97%的空氣污染、86%的總廢棄物和23%的水污染來自電力行業，而這個行業主要使用頁岩油取得能源。<a href="#cite_note-raukas-47">[47]</a> 油頁岩開採會破壞礦區土地和生態系統的生物和娛樂價值。燃燒和熱處理會產生廢料。此外，油頁岩加工和燃燒產生的大氣排放物包括<a href="/wiki/%E6%BA%AB%E5%AE%A4%E6%B0%A3%E9%AB%94" class="mw-redirect" title="溫室氣體">溫室氣體</a> - <a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%8C%E6%B0%A7%E5%8C%96%E7%A2%B3" title="二氧化碳">二氧化碳</a>。環保主義者反對油頁岩的生產和使用，因為它比傳統的<a href="/wiki/%E5%8C%96%E7%9F%B3%E7%87%83%E6%96%99" title="化石燃料">化石燃料</a>產生更多的溫室氣體。<a href="#cite_note-nrdc-48">[48]</a>實驗性原位轉化過程和<a href="/wiki/%E7%A2%B3%E6%8D%95%E9%9B%86%E4%B8%8E%E5%B0%81%E5%AD%98" title="碳捕集与封存">碳捕集與封存</a>技術可能在未來可將其中一些擔憂降低，但同時又會產生其他問題，包括地下水污染。<a href="#cite_note-BartisBoston-49">[49]</a>通常與油頁岩生產相關的水污染物包括氧和氮<a href="/wiki/%E9%9B%9C%E7%92%B0%E5%8C%96%E5%90%88%E7%89%A9" class="mw-redirect" title="雜環化合物">雜環化合物</a>。常見檢測到的案例包含有<a href="/wiki/%E5%96%B9%E5%95%89" title="喹啉">喹啉</a>衍生物、<a href="/wiki/%E5%90%A1%E5%95%B6" title="吡啶">吡啶</a>和吡啶的各種烷基<a href="/wiki/%E5%90%8C%E7%B3%BB%E7%89%A9" title="同系物">同系物</a>（<a href="/wiki/%E7%94%B2%E5%9F%BA%E5%90%A1%E5%95%B6" class="mw-disambig" title="甲基吡啶">甲基吡啶</a>、<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E4%BA%8C%E7%94%B2%E5%9F%BA%E5%90%A1%E5%95%B6&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="二甲基吡啶（页面不存在）">二甲基吡啶</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/lutidine" class="extiw" title="en:lutidine">lutidine</a>））。<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> 水資源是乾旱地區的敏感問題，例如美國西部和<a href="/wiki/%E4%BB%A5%E8%89%B2%E5%88%97" title="以色列">以色列</a>的<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%A7%E8%93%8B%E5%A4%AB_(%E4%BB%A5%E8%89%B2%E5%88%97)" title="內蓋夫 (以色列)">內蓋夫</a>沙漠，在水資源稀缺的情況下仍計劃擴大油頁岩開採。<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a>根據不同技術，地上乾餾每生產1桶頁岩油需用到1到5桶水。<a href="#cite_note-rand-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-BLM2008-52">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-water-53">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-Al-Ayed-54">[54]</a><a href="/wiki/%E7%BE%8E%E5%9C%8B%E5%85%A7%E6%94%BF%E9%83%A8%E5%9C%9F%E5%9C%B0%E7%AE%A1%E7%90%86%E5%B1%80" title="美國內政部土地管理局">美國內政部土地管理局</a>發布的2008年<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%92%B0%E5%A2%83%E5%BD%B1%E9%9F%BF%E8%81%B2%E6%98%8E&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="環境影響聲明（页面不存在）">環境影響聲明</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_impact_statement" class="extiw" title="en:Environmental impact statement">Environmental impact statement</a>）指出，露天採礦和乾餾作業每產生1短噸（0.91噸）油頁岩，會產生2至10美制加侖（7.6至37.9升；1.7至8.3英制加侖）的污水。<a href="#cite_note-BLM2008-52">[52]</a>據一項估計，原位工藝所用的水量約為舊法的10分之1。<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> 包括<a href="/wiki/%E7%B6%A0%E8%89%B2%E5%92%8C%E5%B9%B3" class="mw-redirect" title="綠色和平">綠色和平</a>組織成員在內的<a href="/wiki/%E7%8E%AF%E5%A2%83%E4%BF%9D%E6%8A%A4%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="环境保护主义">環境保護主義</a>組織針對油頁岩產業所發起的強烈抗議活動。造成<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%98%86%E5%A3%AB%E8%98%AD%E8%83%BD%E6%BA%90%E5%85%AC%E5%8F%B8&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="昆士蘭能源公司（页面不存在）">昆士蘭能源公司</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queensland_Energy_Resources" class="extiw" title="en:Queensland Energy Resources">Queensland Energy Resources</a>）於2004年把擬議中的<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%96%AF%E5%9C%96%E7%88%BE%E7%89%B9%E6%B2%B9%E9%A0%81%E5%B2%A9%E9%A0%85%E7%9B%AE&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="斯圖爾特油頁岩項目（页面不存在）">斯圖爾特油頁岩項目</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stuart_Oil_Shale_Project" class="extiw" title="en:Stuart Oil Shale Project">Stuart Oil Shale Project</a>）擱置。<a href="#cite_note-Burnham-44">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="參見">參見</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%B2%B9%E9%A1%B5%E5%B2%A9%E5%B7%A5%E4%B8%9A&action=edit&section=8" title="编辑章节：參見">编辑</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E6%B2%B9%E9%A0%81%E5%B2%A9%E5%84%B2%E9%87%8F" title="油頁岩儲量">油頁岩儲量</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%BE%8E%E5%9C%8B%E6%B2%B9%E9%A0%81%E5%B2%A9%E7%94%A2%E6%A5%AD%E6%AD%B7%E5%8F%B2&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="美國油頁岩產業歷史（页面不存在）">美國油頁岩產業歷史</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_oil_shale_industry_in_the_United_States" class="extiw" title="en:History of the oil shale industry in the United States">History of the oil shale industry in the United States</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%A0%81%E5%B2%A9%E6%B2%B9%E6%8F%90%E7%85%89" title="頁岩油提煉">頁岩油提煉</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="參考文獻">參考文獻</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%B2%B9%E9%A1%B5%E5%B2%A9%E5%B7%A5%E4%B8%9A&action=edit&section=9" title="编辑章节：參考文獻">编辑</a>]</div> <div class="reflist columns references-column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-wec-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-wec_1-0">1.0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-wec_1-1">1.1</a> <a href="#cite_ref-wec_1-2">1.2</a> <a href="#cite_ref-wec_1-3">1.3</a> <a href="#cite_ref-wec_1-4">1.4</a> <a href="#cite_ref-wec_1-5">1.5</a> <a href="#cite_ref-wec_1-6">1.6</a> <a 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Sydney. 2002-05-02 [2009-04-10]. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230310015733/http://www.smedg.org.au/miningc/SMCMay02text.pdf">存档</a> (PDF)于2023-03-10）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E6%B2%B9%E9%A1%B5%E5%B2%A9%E5%B7%A5%E4%B8%9A&rft.aufirst=Campbell&rft.aulast=Anderson&rft.btitle=Greenpeace+vs+the+future+of+Australian+oil+shale&rft.date=2002-05-02&rft.genre=conference&rft.place=Sydney&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.smedg.org.au%2Fminingc%2FSMCMay02text.pdf&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> </ol></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r84265675">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline 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href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%83%BD%E6%BA%90%E5%B7%A5%E6%A5%AD&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="能源工業（页面不存在）">能源</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_industry" class="extiw" title="en:Energy industry">Energy industry</a>） <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E7%94%B5%E5%8A%9B%E5%B7%A5%E4%B8%9A" class="mw-redirect" title="电力工业">電力</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_power_industry" class="extiw" title="en:Electric power industry">Electric power industry</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%AF%E5%86%8D%E7%94%9F%E8%83%BD%E6%BA%90%E5%95%86%E4%B8%9A%E5%8C%96" title="可再生能源商业化">可再生能源</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%BB%A3%E5%91%8A%E6%A5%AD" class="mw-redirect" title="廣告業">廣告</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8C%96%E5%AD%A6%E5%B7%A5%E4%B8%9A" title="化学工业">化學</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/%E7%AC%AC%E4%B8%89%E4%BA%A7%E4%B8%9A" title="第三产业">第三产业</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E8%B3%87%E8%A8%8A%E6%A5%AD" title="資訊業">訊信技術</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%BB%9F%E9%AB%94%E6%A5%AD&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="軟體業（页面不存在）">軟體</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_industry" class="extiw" title="en:Software industry">Software industry</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%9C%A8%E7%B7%9A%E6%9C%8D%E5%8B%99%E7%87%9F%E9%81%8B&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="在線服務營運（页面不存在）">在線服務</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Online_service_provider" class="extiw" title="en:Online service provider">Online service provider</a>）</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%87%91%E8%9E%8D%E6%9C%8D%E5%8B%99" title="金融服務">金融</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E4%BF%9D%E9%9A%AA" title="保險">保險</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%97%85%E6%B8%B8" title="旅游">旅游和接待</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E9%85%92%E5%BA%97%E6%A5%AD" 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