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class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Periodization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Periodization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Periodization</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Periodization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Language_and_writing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Language_and_writing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Language and writing</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Language_and_writing-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Language and writing subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Language_and_writing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Literature</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Science_and_technology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Science_and_technology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Science and technology</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Science_and_technology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Science and technology subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Science_and_technology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Mathematics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mathematics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Mathematics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mathematics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Algebra" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Algebra"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1.1</span> <span>Algebra</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Algebra-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Astronomy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Astronomy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Astronomy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Astronomy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medicine" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medicine"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Medicine</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medicine-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Technology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Technology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Technology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Technology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religion_and_philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religion_and_philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Religion and philosophy</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Religion_and_philosophy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Religion and philosophy subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Religion_and_philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Philosophy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Culture</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Culture-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Culture subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Festivals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Festivals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Festivals</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Festivals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Music" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Music"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Music</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Music-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Games" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Games"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>Games</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Games-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Family_life" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Family_life"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.4</span> <span>Family life</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Family_life-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Burials" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Burials"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.5</span> <span>Burials</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Burials-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Economy</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Economy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Economy subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Economy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Agriculture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Agriculture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Agriculture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Agriculture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Trade" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Trade"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Trade</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Trade-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Genetics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Genetics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Genetics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Genetics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Government" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Government"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Government</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Government-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Government subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Government-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Kings" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kings"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1</span> <span>Kings</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Power" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Power"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.2</span> <span>Power</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Power-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Warfare" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Warfare"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.3</span> <span>Warfare</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Warfare-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Laws" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Laws"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.4</span> <span>Laws</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Laws-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Art" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Art"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Art</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Art-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Architecture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Architecture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Architecture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Architecture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.1</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.2</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.3</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Mesopotamia</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 158 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-158" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">158 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopotami%C3%AB" title="Mesopotamië – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Mesopotamië" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopotamien" title="Mesopotamien – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Mesopotamien" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%88%98%E1%88%B5%E1%8C%B4%E1%8C%A6%E1%88%9D%E1%8B%AB" title="መስጴጦምያ – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="መስጴጦምያ" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>አማርኛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ab mw-list-item"><a href="https://ab.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D2%A9%D3%A1%D1%8B%D0%B1%D0%B6%D1%8C%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Аҩӡыбжьара – Abkhazian" lang="ab" hreflang="ab" data-title="Аҩӡыбжьара" data-language-autonym="Аԥсшәа" data-language-local-name="Abkhazian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Аԥсшәа</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AF_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%86" title="بلاد الرافدين – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="بلاد الرافدين" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Mesopotamia" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arc mw-list-item"><a href="https://arc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DC%92%DC%9D%DC%AC_%DC%A2%DC%97%DC%AA%DC%9D%DC%A2" title="ܒܝܬ ܢܗܪܝܢ – Aramaic" lang="arc" hreflang="arc" data-title="ܒܝܬ ܢܗܪܝܢ" data-language-autonym="ܐܪܡܝܐ" data-language-local-name="Aramaic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ܐܪܡܝܐ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hyw mw-list-item"><a href="https://hyw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%84%D5%AB%D5%BB%D5%A1%D5%A3%D5%A5%D5%BF%D6%84" title="Միջագետք – Western Armenian" lang="hyw" hreflang="hyw" data-title="Միջագետք" data-language-autonym="Արեւմտահայերէն" data-language-local-name="Western Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Արեւմտահայերէն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%9A%27%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%9F%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%BE" title="মেচ'পটেমিয়া – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="মেচ'পটেমিয়া" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Mesopotamia" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopot%C3%A1mia" title="Mesopotámia – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Mesopotámia" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Avañe'ẽ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopotamiya" title="Mesopotamiya – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Mesopotamiya" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%DB%8C%D9%86%E2%80%8C%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%D9%87%D8%B1%DB%8C%D9%86" title="بین‌النهرین – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="بین‌النهرین" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%9F%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%BE" title="মেসোপটেমিয়া – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="মেসোপটেমিয়া" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Mesopotamia" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Месопотамия – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Месопотамия" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Месапатамія – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Месапатамія" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D1%8D%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Мэсапатамія – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Мэсапатамія" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopotamya" title="Mesopotamya – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Mesopotamya" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bikol Central</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Месопотамия – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Месопотамия" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mezopotamija" title="Mezopotamija – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Mezopotamija" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mezopotamia" title="Mezopotamia – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Mezopotamia" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B8" title="Месопотами – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Месопотами" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Буряад</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopot%C3%A0mia" title="Mesopotàmia – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Mesopotàmia" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B8" title="Месопотами – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Месопотами" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopotamya" title="Mesopotamya – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Mesopotamya" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cebuano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mezopot%C3%A1mie" title="Mezopotámie – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Mezopotámie" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn mw-list-item"><a href="https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia – Shona" lang="sn" hreflang="sn" data-title="Mesopotamia" data-language-autonym="ChiShona" data-language-local-name="Shona" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ChiShona</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Mesopotamia" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopotamien" title="Mesopotamien – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Mesopotamien" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopotamien" title="Mesopotamien – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Mesopotamien" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dv mw-list-item"><a href="https://dv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DE%89%DE%AC%DE%90%DE%AE%DE%95%DE%AE%DE%93%DE%AD%DE%89%DE%A8%DE%87%DE%A7" title="މެސޮޕޮޓޭމިއާ – Divehi" lang="dv" hreflang="dv" data-title="މެސޮޕޮޓޭމިއާ" data-language-autonym="ދިވެހިބަސް" data-language-local-name="Divehi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ދިވެހިބަސް</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopotaamia" title="Mesopotaamia – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Mesopotaamia" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9C%CE%B5%CF%83%CE%BF%CF%80%CE%BF%CF%84%CE%B1%CE%BC%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Μεσοποταμία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Μεσοποταμία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Mesopotamia" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mezopotamio" title="Mezopotamio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Mezopotamio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Mesopotamia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%DB%8C%D9%86%E2%80%8C%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%D9%87%D8%B1%DB%8C%D9%86" title="بین‌النهرین – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="بین‌النهرین" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Mesopotamia" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Fiji Hindi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A9sopotamie" title="Mésopotamie – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Mésopotamie" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopotaamje" title="Mesopotaamje – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Mesopotaamje" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Mheaspat%C3%A1im" title="An Mheaspatáim – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="An Mheaspatáim" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Mesopotamia" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gàidhlig</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Mesopotamia" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-inh mw-list-item"><a href="https://inh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B8" title="Месопотами – Ingush" lang="inh" hreflang="inh" data-title="Месопотами" data-language-autonym="ГӀалгӀай" data-language-local-name="Ingush" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ГӀалгӀай</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan mw-list-item"><a href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%BE%8E%E7%B4%A2%E4%B8%8D%E9%81%94%E7%B1%B3%E4%BA%9E" title="美索不達米亞 – Gan" lang="gan" hreflang="gan" data-title="美索不達米亞" data-language-autonym="贛語" data-language-local-name="Gan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>贛語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-glk mw-list-item"><a href="https://glk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D9%88_%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B1_%D9%85%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C" title="دو روبار میانی – Gilaki" lang="glk" hreflang="glk" data-title="دو روبار میانی" data-language-autonym="گیلکی" data-language-local-name="Gilaki" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>گیلکی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%AE%E0%AB%87%E0%AA%B8%E0%AB%8B%E0%AA%AA%E0%AB%8B%E0%AA%9F%E0%AB%87%E0%AA%AE%E0%AB%80%E0%AA%AF%E0%AA%BE" title="મેસોપોટેમીયા – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="મેસોપોટેમીયા" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ગુજરાતી</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Mesopotamia" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%A9%94%EC%86%8C%ED%8F%AC%ED%83%80%EB%AF%B8%EC%95%84" title="메소포타미아 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="메소포타미아" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Mesopotamia" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hausa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%84%D5%AB%D5%BB%D5%A1%D5%A3%D5%A5%D5%BF%D6%84" title="Միջագետք – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Միջագետք" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE" title="मेसोपोटामिया – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="मेसोपोटामिया" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://hsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mezopotamiska" title="Mezopotamiska – Upper Sorbian" lang="hsb" hreflang="hsb" data-title="Mezopotamiska" data-language-autonym="Hornjoserbsce" data-language-local-name="Upper Sorbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hornjoserbsce</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mezopotamija" title="Mezopotamija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Mezopotamija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mezopotamia" title="Mezopotamia – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Mezopotamia" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Mesopotamia" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ilokano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Mesopotamia" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mes%C3%B3p%C3%B3tam%C3%ADa" title="Mesópótamía – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Mesópótamía" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Mesopotamia" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%A1%D7%95%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%98%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%94" title="מסופוטמיה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מסופוטמיה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Mesopotamia" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopotami" title="Mesopotami – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Mesopotami" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kabɩyɛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AE%E0%B3%86%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%8A%E0%B2%AA%E0%B2%9F%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AF%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%AE%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%AF%E0%B2%BE" title="ಮೆಸೊಪಟ್ಯಾಮಿಯಾ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಮೆಸೊಪಟ್ಯಾಮಿಯಾ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A8%E1%83%A3%E1%83%90%E1%83%9B%E1%83%93%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94%E1%83%97%E1%83%98" title="შუამდინარეთი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="შუამდინარეთი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%9A%D0%BE%D1%81%D3%A9%D0%B7%D0%B5%D0%BD_(%D3%A9%D1%80%D0%BA%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5%D1%82)" title="Қосөзен (өркениет) – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Қосөзен (өркениет)" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopotami" title="Mesopotami – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Mesopotami" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kernowek</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Mesopotamia" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mezopotami" title="Mezopotami – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Mezopotami" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A9zopotami" title="Mézopotami – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Mézopotami" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kriyòl gwiyannen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mezopotamya" title="Mezopotamya – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Mezopotamya" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Месопотамия – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Месопотамия" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lld mw-list-item"><a href="https://lld.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia – Ladin" lang="lld" hreflang="lld" data-title="Mesopotamia" data-language-autonym="Ladin" data-language-local-name="Ladin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ladin</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Mesopotamia" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sen%C4%81_Divupe" title="Senā Divupe – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Senā Divupe" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopotamien" title="Mesopotamien – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Mesopotamien" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopotamija" title="Mesopotamija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Mesopotamija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopotami%C3%AB" title="Mesopotamië – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Mesopotamië" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ln mw-list-item"><a href="https://ln.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mezopotami" title="Mezopotami – Lingala" lang="ln" hreflang="ln" data-title="Mezopotami" data-language-autonym="Lingála" data-language-local-name="Lingala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingála</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Mesopotamia" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Mesopotamia" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mezopot%C3%A1mia" title="Mezopotámia – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Mezopotámia" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Месопотамија – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Месопотамија" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mes%C3%B4p%C3%B4tamia" title="Mesôpôtamia – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Mesôpôtamia" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AE%E0%B5%86%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%8A%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%87%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%AF" title="മെസപ്പൊട്ടേമിയ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="മെസപ്പൊട്ടേമിയ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE" title="मेसोपोटेमिया – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="मेसोपोटेमिया" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A8%E1%83%A5%E1%83%90%E1%83%AC%E1%83%A7%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90" title="შქაწყარმალონა – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="შქაწყარმალონა" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%86%D8%B7%D9%82%D8%A9_%D8%A8%D9%8A%D9%86_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%D9%87%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%86" title="منطقة بين النهرين – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="منطقة بين النهرين" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%DB%8C%D9%88%D9%86%E2%80%8C%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%AF%D9%88%D9%86" title="میون‌رودون – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="میون‌رودون" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مازِرونی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Mesopotamia" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Mesopotamia" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Minangkabau</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C4%AB-s%C5%AB-p%C5%8F%CC%A4-d%C3%A2i-m%C4%AB" title="Mī-sū-pŏ̤-dâi-mī – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Mī-sū-pŏ̤-dâi-mī" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B8" title="Месопотами – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Месопотами" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%99%E1%80%80%E1%80%BA%E1%80%86%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%95%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%90%E1%80%B1%E1%80%B8%E1%80%99%E1%80%AE%E1%80%B8%E1%80%9A%E1%80%AC%E1%80%B8" title="မက်ဆိုပိုတေးမီးယား – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="မက်ဆိုပိုတေးမီးယား" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopotami%C3%AB" title="Mesopotamië – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Mesopotamië" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopotamie" title="Mesopotamie – Low Saxon" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="Mesopotamie" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="Low Saxon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nedersaksies</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE" title="मेसोपोटामिया – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="मेसोपोटामिया" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE" title="मेसोपोतामिया – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="मेसोपोतामिया" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाल भाषा</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%A1%E3%82%BD%E3%83%9D%E3%82%BF%E3%83%9F%E3%82%A2" title="メソポタミア – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="メソポタミア" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B8" title="Месопотами – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Месопотами" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Нохчийн</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopotaamien" title="Mesopotaamien – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Mesopotaamien" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nordfriisk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Mesopotamia" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Mesopotamia" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nrm mw-list-item"><a href="https://nrm.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A9sopotanmie" title="Mésopotanmie – Norman" lang="nrf" hreflang="nrf" data-title="Mésopotanmie" data-language-autonym="Nouormand" data-language-local-name="Norman" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nouormand</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Mesopotamia" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopotamiya" title="Mesopotamiya – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Mesopotamiya" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AE%E0%A9%88%E0%A8%B8%E0%A9%8B%E0%A8%AA%E0%A9%8B%E0%A8%9F%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%AE%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%86" title="ਮੈਸੋਪੋਟਾਮੀਆ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਮੈਸੋਪੋਟਾਮੀਆ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%DB%8C%D9%86_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%DB%81%D8%B1%DB%8C%D9%86" title="بین النہرین – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="بین النہرین" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%DB%8C%D9%86_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%D9%87%D8%B1%DB%8C%D9%86" title="بین النهرین – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="بین النهرین" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopotiemia" title="Mesopotiemia – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Mesopotiemia" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Patois</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-koi mw-list-item"><a href="https://koi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Месопотамия – Komi-Permyak" lang="koi" hreflang="koi" data-title="Месопотамия" data-language-autonym="Перем коми" data-language-local-name="Komi-Permyak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Перем коми</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tpi mw-list-item"><a href="https://tpi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia – Tok Pisin" lang="tpi" hreflang="tpi" data-title="Mesopotamia" data-language-autonym="Tok Pisin" data-language-local-name="Tok Pisin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tok Pisin</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopotamien" title="Mesopotamien – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Mesopotamien" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mezopotamia" title="Mezopotamia – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Mezopotamia" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopot%C3%A2mia" title="Mesopotâmia – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Mesopotâmia" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Mesopotamia" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Мезопотамія – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Мезопотамія" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русиньскый</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Месопотамия – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Месопотамия" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Месопотамия – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Месопотамия" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Саха тыла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sat mw-list-item"><a href="https://sat.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B1%A2%E1%B1%AE%E1%B1%A5%E1%B1%B3%E1%B1%AF%E1%B1%B3%E1%B1%B4%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%A2%E1%B1%A4%E1%B1%AD%E1%B1%9F" title="ᱢᱮᱥᱳᱯᱳᱴᱟᱢᱤᱭᱟ – Santali" lang="sat" hreflang="sat" data-title="ᱢᱮᱥᱳᱯᱳᱴᱟᱢᱤᱭᱟ" data-language-autonym="ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ" data-language-local-name="Santali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Mesopotamia" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sardu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Mesopotamia" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Mesopotamia" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B8%E0%B7%99%E0%B7%83%E0%B7%9C%E0%B6%B4%E0%B7%9C%E0%B6%A7%E0%B7%9A%E0%B6%B8%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%80" title="මෙසොපොටේමියාව – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="මෙසොපොටේමියාව" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Mesopotamia" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%BD%D9%8A%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%A7" title="ميسوپوٽيميا – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="ميسوپوٽيميا" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mezopot%C3%A1mia" title="Mezopotámia – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Mezopotámia" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mezopotamija" title="Mezopotamija – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Mezopotamija" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesobotaamiya" title="Mesobotaamiya – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Mesobotaamiya" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Soomaaliga</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%DB%8E%D8%B2%DB%86%D9%BE%DB%86%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%85%DB%8C%D8%A7" title="مێزۆپۆتامیا – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="مێزۆپۆتامیا" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Месопотамија – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Месопотамија" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mezopotamija" title="Mezopotamija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Mezopotamija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A9sopotamia" title="Mésopotamia – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Mésopotamia" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Mesopotamia" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopotamien" title="Mesopotamien – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Mesopotamien" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopotamya" title="Mesopotamya – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Mesopotamya" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%87%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BE" title="மெசொப்பொத்தேமியா – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="மெசொப்பொத்தேமியா" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Месопотамия – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Месопотамия" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%AE%E0%B1%86%E0%B0%B8%E0%B1%8A%E0%B0%AA%E0%B1%8A%E0%B0%9F%E0%B1%87%E0%B0%AE%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%AF%E0%B0%BE_%E0%B0%A8%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%97%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%95%E0%B0%A4" title="మెసొపొటేమియా నాగరికత – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="మెసొపొటేమియా నాగరికత" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%A1%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%AA%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%9B%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%95%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%A2" title="เมโสโปเตเมีย – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="เมโสโปเตเมีย" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B0%D2%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BD" title="Байнаннаҳрайн – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Байнаннаҳрайн" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mezopotamya" title="Mezopotamya – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Mezopotamya" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tk mw-list-item"><a href="https://tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopotami%C3%BDa" title="Mesopotamiýa – Turkmen" lang="tk" hreflang="tk" data-title="Mesopotamiýa" data-language-autonym="Türkmençe" data-language-local-name="Turkmen" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkmençe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%B6%D0%B8%D1%80%D1%96%D1%87%D1%87%D1%8F" title="Межиріччя – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Межиріччя" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%DB%8C%D9%86_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%DB%81%D8%B1%DB%8C%D9%86" title="بین النہرین – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="بین النہرین" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-za mw-list-item"><a href="https://za.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia – Zhuang" lang="za" hreflang="za" data-title="Mesopotamia" data-language-autonym="Vahcuengh" data-language-local-name="Zhuang" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vahcuengh</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mezopot%C3%A0mia" title="Mezopotàmia – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Mezopotàmia" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vèneto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C6%B0%E1%BB%A1ng_H%C3%A0" title="Lưỡng Hà – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Lưỡng Hà" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vo mw-list-item"><a href="https://vo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopot%C3%A4n" title="Mesopotän – Volapük" lang="vo" hreflang="vo" data-title="Mesopotän" data-language-autonym="Volapük" data-language-local-name="Volapük" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Volapük</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%85%A9%E6%B2%B3%E4%B9%8B%E7%9B%82" title="兩河之盂 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="兩河之盂" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>文言</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Mesopotamia" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wo mw-list-item"><a href="https://wo.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A9ewum_%C3%B1aari_dex_yi" title="Réewum ñaari dex yi – Wolof" lang="wo" hreflang="wo" data-title="Réewum ñaari dex yi" data-language-autonym="Wolof" data-language-local-name="Wolof" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Wolof</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%BE%8E%E7%B4%A2%E4%B8%8D%E8%BE%BE%E7%B1%B3%E4%BA%9A" title="美索不达米亚 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="美索不达米亚" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%A2%D7%A1%D7%90%D7%A4%D7%90%D7%98%D7%90%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%A2" title="מעסאפאטאמיע – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="מעסאפאטאמיע" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%85%A9%E6%B2%B3%E6%B5%81%E5%9F%9F%E6%96%87%E6%98%8E" title="兩河流域文明 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="兩河流域文明" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mezopotamya" title="Mezopotamya – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Mezopotamya" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Zazaki" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Zazaki</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopotam%C4%97j%C4%97" title="Mesopotamėjė – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Mesopotamėjė" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Žemaitėška</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a 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.hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Mesopotamia (disambiguation)">Mesopotamia (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"The Two Rivers" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Two_Rivers_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Two Rivers (disambiguation)">Two Rivers</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:292px;max-width:292px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader">Mesopotamia</div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:290px;max-width:290px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:203px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:N-Mesopotamia_and_Syria_english.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/N-Mesopotamia_and_Syria_english.svg/288px-N-Mesopotamia_and_Syria_english.svg.png" decoding="async" width="288" height="203" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/N-Mesopotamia_and_Syria_english.svg/432px-N-Mesopotamia_and_Syria_english.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/N-Mesopotamia_and_Syria_english.svg/576px-N-Mesopotamia_and_Syria_english.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="3281" data-file-height="2318" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">A map showing the extent of Mesopotamia. Shown are <a href="/wiki/Washukanni" class="mw-redirect" title="Washukanni">Washukanni</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nineveh" title="Nineveh">Nineveh</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hatra" title="Hatra">Hatra</a>, <a href="/wiki/Assur" title="Assur">Assur</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nuzi" title="Nuzi">Nuzi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Palmyra" title="Palmyra">Palmyra</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mari,_Syria" title="Mari, Syria">Mari</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sippar" title="Sippar">Sippar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Babylon" title="Babylon">Babylon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kish_(Sumer)" title="Kish (Sumer)">Kish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nippur" title="Nippur">Nippur</a>, <a href="/wiki/Isin" title="Isin">Isin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lagash" title="Lagash">Lagash</a>, <a href="/wiki/Uruk" title="Uruk">Uruk</a>, <a href="/wiki/Charax_Spasinu" title="Charax Spasinu">Charax Spasinu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ur" title="Ur">Ur</a>, from north to south.</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:290px;max-width:290px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:156px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Mesopotamia_9_October_2020.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Mesopotamia_9_October_2020.jpg/288px-Mesopotamia_9_October_2020.jpg" decoding="async" width="288" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Mesopotamia_9_October_2020.jpg/432px-Mesopotamia_9_October_2020.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Mesopotamia_9_October_2020.jpg/576px-Mesopotamia_9_October_2020.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4096" data-file-height="2221" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">A modern satellite view of Mesopotamia, October 2020.</div></div></div></div></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output 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a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile vcard hlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><div class="sidebar-pretitle" style="margin: -0.2em 0; font-size:69%; font-weight:normal;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_Iraq" title="Category:History of Iraq">a series</a> on the</div></th> </tr><tr> <th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style=""><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iraq" title="History of Iraq">History of <span class="fn org label">Iraq</span></a></th> </tr><tr><td style="padding-bottom: 0.4em; border-bottom: 1px solid #ccc;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Berl%C3%ADn_Ishtar_05.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Berl%C3%ADn_Ishtar_05.JPG/250px-Berl%C3%ADn_Ishtar_05.JPG" decoding="async" width="250" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Berl%C3%ADn_Ishtar_05.JPG/375px-Berl%C3%ADn_Ishtar_05.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Berl%C3%ADn_Ishtar_05.JPG/500px-Berl%C3%ADn_Ishtar_05.JPG 2x" data-file-width="5184" data-file-height="3456" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Prehistory" title="Prehistory">Prehistory</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ubaid_period" title="Ubaid period">Ubaid period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hassuna_culture" title="Hassuna culture">Hassuna culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halaf_culture" title="Halaf culture">Halaf culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halaf-Ubaid_Transitional_period" title="Halaf-Ubaid Transitional period">Halaf-Ubaid Transitional period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samarra_culture" title="Samarra culture">Samarra culture</a> (<a href="/wiki/Eridu" title="Eridu">Eridu</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uruk_period" title="Uruk period">Uruk period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jemdet_Nasr_Period" class="mw-redirect" title="Jemdet Nasr Period">Jemdet Nasr Period</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Dynastic_Period_(Mesopotamia)" title="Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)">Early Dynastic Period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer">Sumer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamazi" title="Hamazi">Hamazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkadian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gutian_rule_in_Mesopotamia" title="Gutian rule in Mesopotamia">Gutian Dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Dynasty_of_Ur" title="Third Dynasty of Ur">Neo-Sumerian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isin-Larsa_period" title="Isin-Larsa period">Isin-Larsa period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simurrum" title="Simurrum">Simurrum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Babylonian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="First Babylonian Empire">First Babylonian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kassites" title="Kassites">Kassites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Assyrian_Empire" title="Middle Assyrian Empire">Middle Assyrian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian Empire</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Assyria" title="Achaemenid Assyria">Achaemenid Assyria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid Babylonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian Babylonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia_(Roman_province)" title="Mesopotamia (Roman province)">Roman Mesopotamia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/As%C5%8Drist%C4%81n" class="mw-redirect" title="Asōristān">Sasanian Asorestan</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_conquest_of_Iraq" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic conquest of Iraq">Islamic conquest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamdanid_dynasty" title="Hamdanid dynasty">Hamdanids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buyid_dynasty" title="Buyid dynasty">Buyid amirate of Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marwanids_(Diyar_Bakr)" title="Marwanids (Diyar Bakr)">Marwanids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uqaylid_dynasty" title="Uqaylid dynasty">Uqaylids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mazeedi" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Mazeedi">Al-Mazeedi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayyubid_dynasty" title="Ayyubid dynasty">Ayyubids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seljuk_Empire" title="Seljuk Empire">Seljuk Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eldiguzids" title="Eldiguzids">Atabegs of Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zengid_dynasty" title="Zengid dynasty">Zengids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ilkhanate" title="Ilkhanate">Ilkhanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jalairid_Sultanate" class="mw-redirect" title="Jalairid Sultanate">Jalairid Sultanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timurid_Empire" title="Timurid Empire">Timurid Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kara_Koyunlu" class="mw-redirect" title="Kara Koyunlu">Kara Koyunlu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aq_Qoyunlu" title="Aq Qoyunlu">Aq Qoyunlu</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">Early modern period</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Safavid_Iran" title="Safavid Iran">Safavids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Iraq" title="Ottoman Iraq">Ottoman Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mamluk_dynasty_(Iraq)" title="Mamluk dynasty (Iraq)">Mamluk dynasty</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Modern_history_of_Iraq" title="Modern history of Iraq">Modern Iraq</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mandatory_Iraq" title="Mandatory Iraq">Mandatory Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Iraq" title="Kingdom of Iraq">Kingdom of Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Republic_(1958%E2%80%931968)" title="Iraqi Republic (1958–1968)">Republic of Iraq (1958–68)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ba%27athist_Iraq" title="Ba'athist Iraq">Ba'athist rule (1968–2003)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iraq_(2003%E2%80%932011)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Iraq (2003–2011)">Occupation (2003–11)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iraq_(2011%E2%80%93present)" title="History of Iraq (2011–present)">Recent history</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="border-top:#aaa 1px solid; border-bottom:#aaa 1px solid;"> <span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Flag_of_Iraq.svg/16px-Flag_of_Iraq.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Flag_of_Iraq.svg/24px-Flag_of_Iraq.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Flag_of_Iraq.svg/32px-Flag_of_Iraq.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Iraq" title="Portal:Iraq">Iraq portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_Iraq" title="Template:History of Iraq"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_Iraq" title="Template talk:History of Iraq"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_Iraq" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of Iraq"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Mesopotamia</b><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is a <a href="/wiki/Historical_region" title="Historical region">historical region</a> of <a href="/wiki/West_Asia" title="West Asia">West Asia</a> situated within the <a href="/wiki/Tigris%E2%80%93Euphrates_river_system" title="Tigris–Euphrates river system">Tigris–Euphrates river system</a>, in the northern part of the <a href="/wiki/Fertile_Crescent" title="Fertile Crescent">Fertile Crescent</a>. Today, Mesopotamia is known as present-day <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-miqueletal_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-miqueletal-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the broader sense, the historical region of Mesopotamia also includes parts of present-day <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a>, <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a>, <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kuwait" title="Kuwait">Kuwait</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-research_gate_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-research_gate-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Mesopotamia is the site of the earliest developments of the <a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Revolution" title="Neolithic Revolution">Neolithic Revolution</a> from around 10,000 BC. It has been identified as having "inspired some of the most important developments in human history, including the invention of the <a href="/wiki/Wheel" title="Wheel">wheel</a>, the planting of the first <a href="/wiki/Cereal" title="Cereal">cereal</a> <a href="/wiki/Crop" title="Crop">crops</a>, the development of <a href="/wiki/Cursive" title="Cursive">cursive</a> script, <a href="/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">mathematics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">astronomy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Agriculture" title="Agriculture">agriculture</a>". It is recognised as the cradle of some of the world's earliest civilizations.<sup id="cite_ref-historyandpolicy_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-historyandpolicy-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer">Sumerians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Akkadians" class="mw-redirect" title="Akkadians">Akkadians</a>, each originating from different areas, dominated Mesopotamia from the beginning of <a href="/wiki/Recorded_history" title="Recorded history">recorded history</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 3100 BC</span>) to the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Babylon" title="Fall of Babylon">fall of Babylon</a> in 539 BC. The rise of empires, beginning with <a href="/wiki/Sargon_of_Akkad" title="Sargon of Akkad">Sargon of Akkad</a> around 2350 BC, characterized the subsequent 2,000 years of Mesopotamian history, marked by the succession of kingdoms and empires such as the <a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkadian Empire</a>. The early second millennium BC saw the polarization of Mesopotamian society into <a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyria</a> in the north and <a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonia</a> in the south. From 900 to 612 BC, the <a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian Empire</a> asserted control over much of the ancient Near East. Subsequently, the Babylonians, who had long been overshadowed by Assyria, <a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">seized power</a>, dominating the region for a century as the final independent Mesopotamian realm until the modern era.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 539 BC, Mesopotamia was conquered by the <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a>. The area was next conquered by <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a> in 332 BC. After his death, it became part of the Greek <a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid Empire</a>. </p><p>Around 150 BC, Mesopotamia was under the control of the <a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian Empire</a>. It became a battleground between the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Romans</a> and Parthians, with western parts of the region coming under ephemeral Roman control. In 226 AD, the eastern regions of Mesopotamia fell to the <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sassanid Persians</a>. The division of the region between the Roman Byzantine Empire from 395 AD and the Sassanid Empire lasted until the 7th century <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Persia" title="Muslim conquest of Persia">Muslim conquest of Persia</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian Empire</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_the_Levant" title="Muslim conquest of the Levant">Muslim conquest of the Levant</a> from the Byzantines. A number of primarily neo-Assyrian and Christian native Mesopotamian states existed between the 1st century BC and 3rd century AD, including <a href="/wiki/Adiabene" title="Adiabene">Adiabene</a>, <a href="/wiki/Osroene" title="Osroene">Osroene</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Hatra" title="Hatra">Hatra</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2></div> <p>The regional toponym <i>Mesopotamia</i> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˌ/: secondary stress follows">ˌ</span><span title="'m' in 'my'">m</span><span title="/ɛ/: 'e' in 'dress'">ɛ</span><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span><span title="'p' in 'pie'">p</span><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'t' in 'tie'">t</span><span title="/eɪ/: 'a' in 'face'">eɪ</span><span title="'m' in 'my'">m</span><span title="/i/: 'y' in 'happy'">i</span><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span></span>/</a></span></span>, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greek language">Ancient Greek</a>: <span lang="grc">Μεσοποταμία</span> '[land] between rivers'; <a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>: <span lang="ar" dir="rtl">بِلَاد ٱلرَّافِدَيْن</span> <span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">Bilād ar-Rāfidayn</i></span> or <span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">بَيْن ٱلنَّهْرَيْن</span></span> <span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">Bayn an-Nahrayn</i></span>; <a href="/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language">Persian</a>: <span lang="fa" dir="rtl">میان‌رودان</span> <span title="Persian-language romanization"><i lang="fa-Latn">miyân rudân</i></span>; <a href="/wiki/Syriac_language" title="Syriac language">Syriac</a>: <span lang="syr" dir="rtl">ܒܝܬ ܢܗܪ̈ܝܢ</span> <span title="Syriac-language romanization"><i lang="syr-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Beth_Nahrain" title="Beth Nahrain">Beth Nahrain</a></i></span> "(land) between the (two) rivers") comes from the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">ancient Greek</a> root words <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">μέσος</span></span> (<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">mesos</i></span>, 'middle') and <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">ποταμός</span></span> (<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">potamos</i></span>, 'river')<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and translates to '(land) between rivers', likely being a <a href="/wiki/Calque" title="Calque">calque</a> of the older <a href="/wiki/Aramaic" title="Aramaic">Aramaic</a> term, with the Aramaic term itself likely being a calque of the <a href="/wiki/Akkadian_language" title="Akkadian language">Akkadian</a> <i>birit narim</i>. It is used throughout the Greek <a href="/wiki/Septuagint" title="Septuagint">Septuagint</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 250 BC</span>) to translate the Hebrew and Aramaic equivalent <i>Naharaim</i>. An even earlier Greek usage of the name <i>Mesopotamia</i> is evident from <i><a href="/wiki/The_Anabasis_of_Alexander" class="mw-redirect" title="The Anabasis of Alexander">The Anabasis of Alexander</a></i>, which was written in the late 2nd century AD but specifically refers to sources from the time of <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a>. In the <i>Anabasis</i>, Mesopotamia was used to designate the land east of the <a href="/wiki/Euphrates" title="Euphrates">Euphrates</a> in north <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a>. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Akkadian_language" title="Akkadian language">Akkadian</a> term <span title="Imperial Aramaic (700-300 BCE)-language romanization"><i lang="arc-Latn">biritum/birit narim</i></span> corresponded to a similar geographical concept.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Later, the term <i>Mesopotamia</i> was more generally applied to all the lands between the Euphrates and the <a href="/wiki/Tigris" title="Tigris">Tigris</a>, thereby incorporating not only parts of Syria but also almost all of <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a> and southeastern <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-fosterpolingerfoster_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fosterpolingerfoster-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The neighbouring <a href="/wiki/Steppe" title="Steppe">steppes</a> to the west of the Euphrates and the western part of the <a href="/wiki/Zagros_Mountains" title="Zagros Mountains">Zagros Mountains</a> are also often included under the wider term <i>Mesopotamia</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-canard_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-canard-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-wilkinson2000_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wilkinson2000-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-matthews2003_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-matthews2003-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A further distinction is usually made between <i>Northern</i> or <i><a href="/wiki/Upper_Mesopotamia" title="Upper Mesopotamia">Upper Mesopotamia</a></i> and <i>Southern</i> or <i><a href="/wiki/Lower_Mesopotamia_(region)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lower Mesopotamia (region)">Lower Mesopotamia</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-miqueletal_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-miqueletal-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Upper Mesopotamia, also known as the <i>Jazira</i>, is the area between the Euphrates and the Tigris from their sources down to <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-canard_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-canard-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lower Mesopotamia is the area from Baghdad to the <a href="/wiki/Persian_Gulf" title="Persian Gulf">Persian Gulf</a> and includes Kuwait and parts of western Iran.<sup id="cite_ref-miqueletal_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-miqueletal-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In modern academic usage, the term <i>Mesopotamia</i> often also has a chronological connotation. It is usually used to designate the area until the <a href="/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests" title="Early Muslim conquests">Muslim conquests</a>, with names like <i>Syria</i>, <i>Jazira</i>, and <i>Iraq</i> being used to describe the region after that date.<sup id="cite_ref-fosterpolingerfoster_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fosterpolingerfoster-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-bahrani_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bahrani-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It has been argued that these later euphemisms<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (September 2021)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> are <a href="/wiki/Eurocentrism" title="Eurocentrism">Eurocentric</a> terms attributed to the region in the midst of various 19th-century Western encroachments.<sup id="cite_ref-bahrani_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bahrani-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Geography">Geography</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Mesopotamia" title="Geography of Mesopotamia">Geography of Mesopotamia</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mosul_river.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Mosul_river.jpg/220px-Mosul_river.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Mosul_river.jpg/330px-Mosul_river.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Mosul_river.jpg/440px-Mosul_river.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1334" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Tigris" title="Tigris">Tigris</a> river flowing through the region of modern <a href="/wiki/Mosul" title="Mosul">Mosul</a> in Upper Mesopotamia.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%D8%A7%D9%87%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%82_%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%84%D8%A7.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/%D8%A7%D9%87%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%82_%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%84%D8%A7.jpg/220px-%D8%A7%D9%87%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%82_%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%84%D8%A7.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/%D8%A7%D9%87%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%82_%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%84%D8%A7.jpg/330px-%D8%A7%D9%87%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%82_%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%84%D8%A7.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/%D8%A7%D9%87%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%82_%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%84%D8%A7.jpg/440px-%D8%A7%D9%87%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%82_%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%84%D8%A7.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5873" data-file-height="3952" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_Marshes" title="Mesopotamian Marshes">Mesopotamian Marshes</a> at night, southern Iraq. A reed house (<a href="/wiki/Mudhif" title="Mudhif">Mudhif</a>) and a narrow canoe (<a href="/wiki/Mashoof" title="Mashoof">Mashoof</a>) are in the water. Mudhif structures have been one of the traditional types of structures, built by the <a href="/wiki/Marsh_Arabs" title="Marsh Arabs">Marsh people</a> of southern Mesopotamia for at least 5,000 years. A carved elevation of a typical mudhif, dating to around 3,300 BC was discovered at <a href="/wiki/Uruk" title="Uruk">Uruk</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Mesopotamia encompasses the land between the <a href="/wiki/Euphrates" title="Euphrates">Euphrates</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tigris" title="Tigris">Tigris</a> rivers, both of which have their headwaters in the neighboring <a href="/wiki/Armenian_highlands" title="Armenian highlands">Armenian highlands</a>. Both rivers are fed by numerous tributaries, and the entire river system drains a vast mountainous region. Overland routes in Mesopotamia usually follow the Euphrates because the banks of the Tigris are frequently steep and difficult. The climate of the region is semi-arid with a vast desert expanse in the north which gives way to a 15,000-square-kilometre (5,800 sq mi) region of marshes, lagoons, mudflats, and reed banks in the south. In the extreme south, the Euphrates and the Tigris unite and empty into the <a href="/wiki/Persian_Gulf" title="Persian Gulf">Persian Gulf</a>. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Aridity" title="Aridity">arid</a> environment ranges from the northern areas of rain-fed agriculture to the south where irrigation of agriculture is essential.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEmberling2015255_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEmberling2015255-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This irrigation is aided by a high water table and by melting snows from the high peaks of the northern <a href="/wiki/Zagros_Mountains" title="Zagros Mountains">Zagros Mountains</a> and from the Armenian Highlands, the source of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers that give the region its name. The usefulness of irrigation depends upon the ability to mobilize sufficient labor for the construction and maintenance of canals, and this, from the earliest period, has assisted the development of urban settlements and centralized systems of political authority. </p><p>Agriculture throughout the region has been supplemented by nomadic pastoralism, where tent-dwelling nomads herded sheep and goats (and later camels) from the river pastures in the dry summer months, out into seasonal grazing lands on the desert fringe in the wet winter season. The area is generally lacking in building stone, precious metals, and timber, and so historically has relied upon long-distance trade of agricultural products to secure these items from outlying areas.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEmberling2015256_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEmberling2015256-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the marshlands to the south of the area, a complex water-borne fishing culture has existed since prehistoric times and has added to the cultural mix. </p><p>Periodic breakdowns in the cultural system have occurred for a number of reasons. The demands for labor has from time to time led to population increases that push the limits of the ecological <a href="/wiki/Carrying_capacity" title="Carrying capacity">carrying capacity</a>, and should a period of climatic instability ensue, collapsing central government and declining populations can occur. Alternatively, military vulnerability to invasion from marginal hill tribes or nomadic pastoralists has led to periods of trade collapse and neglect of irrigation systems. Equally, centripetal tendencies amongst city-states have meant that central authority over the whole region, when imposed, has tended to be ephemeral, and localism has fragmented power into tribal or smaller regional units.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These trends have continued to the present day in Iraq. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Mesopotamia" title="History of Mesopotamia">History of Mesopotamia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Prehistory_of_Mesopotamia" title="Prehistory of Mesopotamia">Prehistory of Mesopotamia</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Iraq" title="History of Iraq">History of Iraq</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Middle_East" title="History of the Middle East">History of the Middle East</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Chronology_of_the_ancient_Near_East" title="Chronology of the ancient Near East">Chronology of the ancient Near East</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Statue_Gudea_Met_59.2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Statue_Gudea_Met_59.2.jpg/180px-Statue_Gudea_Met_59.2.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="271" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Statue_Gudea_Met_59.2.jpg/270px-Statue_Gudea_Met_59.2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Statue_Gudea_Met_59.2.jpg/360px-Statue_Gudea_Met_59.2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2687" data-file-height="4044" /></a><figcaption>One of 18 <a href="/wiki/Statues_of_Gudea" title="Statues of Gudea">Statues of Gudea</a>, a ruler around 2090 BC</figcaption></figure> <p>The prehistory of the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Near_East" title="Ancient Near East">Ancient Near East</a> begins in the <a href="/wiki/Lower_Paleolithic" title="Lower Paleolithic">Lower Paleolithic</a> period. Therein, writing emerged with a pictographic script, <a href="/wiki/Proto-cuneiform" title="Proto-cuneiform">Proto-cuneiform</a>, in the Uruk IV period (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> late 4th millennium BC</span>). The documented record of actual historical events—and the ancient history of lower Mesopotamia—commenced in the early-third millennium BC with cuneiform records of early dynastic kings. This entire history ends with either the arrival of the <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a> in the late 6th century BC or with the Muslim conquest and the establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate">Caliphate</a> in the late 7th century AD, from which point the region came to be known as <a href="/wiki/History_of_Iraq" title="History of Iraq">Iraq</a>. In the long span of this period, Mesopotamia housed some of the world's most ancient highly developed, and socially complex states. </p><p>The region was one of the <a href="/wiki/River_valley_civilization" title="River valley civilization">four riverine civilizations</a> where <a href="/wiki/Writing" title="Writing">writing</a> was invented, along with the <a href="/wiki/Nile" title="Nile">Nile</a> valley in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Ancient Egypt</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Indus Valley civilization">Indus Valley civilization</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Yellow_River" title="Yellow River">Yellow River</a> in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient China">Ancient China</a>. Mesopotamia housed historically important cities such as <a href="/wiki/Uruk" title="Uruk">Uruk</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nippur" title="Nippur">Nippur</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nineveh" title="Nineveh">Nineveh</a>, <a href="/wiki/Assur" title="Assur">Assur</a> and <a href="/wiki/Babylon" title="Babylon">Babylon</a>, as well as major territorial states such as the city of <a href="/wiki/Eridu" title="Eridu">Eridu</a>, the Akkadian kingdoms, the <a href="/wiki/Third_Dynasty_of_Ur" title="Third Dynasty of Ur">Third Dynasty of Ur</a>, and the various <a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyrian</a> empires. Some of the important historical Mesopotamian leaders were <a href="/wiki/Ur-Nammu" title="Ur-Nammu">Ur-Nammu</a> (king of Ur), <a href="/wiki/Sargon_of_Akkad" title="Sargon of Akkad">Sargon of Akkad</a> (who established the Akkadian Empire), <a href="/wiki/Hammurabi" title="Hammurabi">Hammurabi</a> (who established the Old Babylonian state), <a href="/wiki/Ashur-uballit_I" title="Ashur-uballit I">Ashur-uballit I</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tiglath-Pileser_I" title="Tiglath-Pileser I">Tiglath-Pileser I</a> (who established the Assyrian Empire). </p><p>Scientists analysed <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a> from the 8,000-year-old remains of early farmers found at an ancient graveyard in <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a>. They compared the genetic signatures to those of modern populations and found similarities with the DNA of people living in today's <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a> and <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-BBC1_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BBC1-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Periodization">Periodization</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jarmo_to_Ubaid_7000-4500.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Jarmo_to_Ubaid_7000-4500.jpg/330px-Jarmo_to_Ubaid_7000-4500.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="274" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Jarmo_to_Ubaid_7000-4500.jpg/495px-Jarmo_to_Ubaid_7000-4500.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Jarmo_to_Ubaid_7000-4500.jpg/660px-Jarmo_to_Ubaid_7000-4500.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2125" data-file-height="1766" /></a><figcaption>After early starts in <a href="/wiki/Jarmo" title="Jarmo">Jarmo</a> (red dot, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 7500 BC</span>), the civilization of Mesopotamia in the 7th–5th millennium BC was centered around the <a href="/wiki/Hassuna_culture" title="Hassuna culture">Hassuna culture</a> in the north, the <a href="/wiki/Halaf_culture" title="Halaf culture">Halaf culture</a> in the northwest, the <a href="/wiki/Samarra_culture" title="Samarra culture">Samarra culture</a> in central Mesopotamia and the <a href="/wiki/Ubaid_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Ubaid culture">Ubaid culture</a> in the southeast, which later expanded to encompass the whole region.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ancient_Egypt_and_Mesopotamia_c._1450_BC.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Ancient_Egypt_and_Mesopotamia_c._1450_BC.png/220px-Ancient_Egypt_and_Mesopotamia_c._1450_BC.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="270" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Ancient_Egypt_and_Mesopotamia_c._1450_BC.png/330px-Ancient_Egypt_and_Mesopotamia_c._1450_BC.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Ancient_Egypt_and_Mesopotamia_c._1450_BC.png/440px-Ancient_Egypt_and_Mesopotamia_c._1450_BC.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="1473" /></a><figcaption>A map of 15th century BC, showing the core territory of <a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyria</a> with its two major cities <a href="/wiki/Assur" title="Assur">Assur</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nineveh" title="Nineveh">Nineveh</a> wedged between <a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonia</a> downstream. The states of <a href="/wiki/Mitanni" title="Mitanni">Mitanni</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hittite_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Hittite Empire">Hatti</a> are upstream.</figcaption></figure> <ul><li>Pre- and protohistory <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Pottery_Neolithic_A" title="Pre-Pottery Neolithic A">Pre-Pottery Neolithic A</a> (10,000–8700 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Pottery_Neolithic_B" title="Pre-Pottery Neolithic B">Pre-Pottery Neolithic B</a> (8700–6800 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jarmo" title="Jarmo">Jarmo</a> (7500–5000 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hassuna_culture" title="Hassuna culture">Hassuna</a> (~6000 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samarra_culture" title="Samarra culture">Samarra</a> (~5700–4900 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halaf_culture" title="Halaf culture">Halaf cultures</a> (~6000–5300 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ubaid_period" title="Ubaid period">Ubaid period</a> (~6500–4000 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uruk_period" title="Uruk period">Uruk period</a> (~4000–3100 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jemdet_Nasr_period" title="Jemdet Nasr period">Jemdet Nasr period</a> (~3100–2900 BC)<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></li> <li>Early Bronze Age <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Dynastic_Period_(Mesopotamia)" title="Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)">Early Dynastic period</a> (~2900–2350 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkadian Empire</a> (~2350–2100 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Dynasty_of_Ur" title="Third Dynasty of Ur">Third Dynasty of Ur</a> (2112–2004 BC)</li></ul></li> <li>Middle Bronze Age <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Isin-Larsa_period" title="Isin-Larsa period">Isin-Larsa period</a> (19th to 18th century BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Babylonian_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="First Babylonian dynasty">First Babylonian dynasty</a> (18th to 17th century BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minoan_eruption" title="Minoan eruption">Minoan eruption</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1620 BC</span>)</li></ul></li> <li>Late Bronze Age <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Assyrian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Assyrian Empire">Old Assyrian period</a> (16th to 11th century BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Assyrian_Empire" title="Middle Assyrian Empire">Middle Assyrian period</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1365–1076 BC</span>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kassites" title="Kassites">Kassites</a> in <a href="/wiki/Babylon" title="Babylon">Babylon</a>, (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1595–1155 BC</span>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Bronze_Age_collapse" title="Late Bronze Age collapse">Late Bronze Age collapse</a> (12th to 11th century BC)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Syro-Hittite_states" title="Syro-Hittite states">Syro-Hittite states</a> (11th to 7th century BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian Empire</a> (10th to 7th century BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian Empire</a> (7th to 6th century BC)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Classical antiquity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Babylon" title="Fall of Babylon">Fall of Babylon</a> (6th century BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Babylonia" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian Babylonia">Achaemenid Babylonia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Assyria" title="Achaemenid Assyria">Achaemenid Assyria</a> (6th to 4th century BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid</a> Mesopotamia (4th to 3rd century BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian Babylonia</a> (3rd century BC to 3rd century AD)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osroene" title="Osroene">Osroene</a> (2nd century BC to 3rd century AD)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adiabene" title="Adiabene">Adiabene</a> (1st to 2nd century AD)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hatra" title="Hatra">Hatra</a> (1st to 2nd century AD)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia_(Roman_province)" title="Mesopotamia (Roman province)">Roman Mesopotamia</a> (2nd to 7th century AD), <a href="/wiki/Assyria_(Roman_province)" title="Assyria (Roman province)">Roman Assyria</a> (2nd century AD)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Antiquity" class="mw-redirect" title="Late Antiquity">Late Antiquity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/As%C5%8Drist%C4%81n" class="mw-redirect" title="Asōristān">Asōristān</a> (3rd to 7th century AD)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Persia" title="Muslim conquest of Persia">Muslim conquest</a> (mid-7th century AD)</li></ul></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Language_and_writing">Language and writing</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:P1050763_Louvre_code_Hammurabi_face_rwk.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Square, yellow plaque showing a lion biting in the neck of a man lying on his back" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/P1050763_Louvre_code_Hammurabi_face_rwk.JPG/180px-P1050763_Louvre_code_Hammurabi_face_rwk.JPG" decoding="async" width="180" height="296" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/P1050763_Louvre_code_Hammurabi_face_rwk.JPG/270px-P1050763_Louvre_code_Hammurabi_face_rwk.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/P1050763_Louvre_code_Hammurabi_face_rwk.JPG/360px-P1050763_Louvre_code_Hammurabi_face_rwk.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1215" data-file-height="2000" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Code_of_Hammurabi" title="Code of Hammurabi">Code of Hammurabi</a> is a <a href="/wiki/Babylon" title="Babylon">Babylonian</a> legal text composed <abbr>c.</abbr> 1755–1750 BC. It is the longest, best-organised, and best-preserved legal text from the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Near_East" title="Ancient Near East">ancient Near East</a>. It is written in the Old Babylonian dialect of <a href="/wiki/Akkadian_language" title="Akkadian language">Akkadian</a>, purportedly by <a href="/wiki/Hammurabi" title="Hammurabi">Hammurabi</a>, sixth king of the <a href="/wiki/First_Dynasty_of_Babylon" class="mw-redirect" title="First Dynasty of Babylon">First Dynasty of Babylon</a>.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Akkadian_language" title="Akkadian language">Akkadian language</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sumerian_language" title="Sumerian language">Sumerian language</a></div> <p>The earliest language written in Mesopotamia was <a href="/wiki/Sumerian_language" title="Sumerian language">Sumerian</a>, an <a href="/wiki/Agglutinative_language" title="Agglutinative language">agglutinative</a> <a href="/wiki/Language_isolate" title="Language isolate">language isolate</a>. Along with Sumerian, <a href="/wiki/Semitic_languages" title="Semitic languages">Semitic languages</a> were also spoken in early Mesopotamia.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Subartu" title="Subartu">Subartuan</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a language of the Zagros possibly related to the <a href="/wiki/Hurro-Urartian_languages" title="Hurro-Urartian languages">Hurro-Urartuan language family</a>, is attested in personal names, rivers and mountains and in various crafts. <a href="/wiki/Akkadian_language" title="Akkadian language">Akkadian</a> came to be the dominant language during the <a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkadian Empire</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyrian</a> empires, but Sumerian was retained for administrative, religious, literary and scientific purposes. </p><p>Different varieties of Akkadian were used until the end of the <a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian</a> period. <a href="/wiki/Old_Aramaic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Aramaic language">Old Aramaic</a>, which had already become common in Mesopotamia, then became the official provincial administration language of first the <a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian Empire</a>, and then the <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a>: the official <a href="/wiki/Variety_(linguistics)" title="Variety (linguistics)">lect</a> is called <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Aramaic" title="Imperial Aramaic">Imperial Aramaic</a>. Akkadian fell into disuse, but both it and Sumerian were still used in temples for some centuries. The last Akkadian texts date from the late 1st century AD. </p><p>Early in Mesopotamia's history, around the mid-4th millennium BC, <a href="/wiki/Cuneiform" title="Cuneiform">cuneiform</a> was invented for the Sumerian language. Cuneiform literally means "wedge-shaped", due to the triangular tip of the stylus used for impressing signs on wet clay. The standardized form of each cuneiform sign appears to have been developed from <a href="/wiki/Pictogram" title="Pictogram">pictograms</a>. The earliest texts, 7 archaic tablets, come from the <a href="/wiki/%C3%89_(temple)" title="É (temple)">É</a>, a temple dedicated to the goddess Inanna at Uruk, from a building labeled as Temple C by its excavators. </p><p>The early <a href="/wiki/Logogram" title="Logogram">logographic</a> system of cuneiform script took many years to master. Thus, only a limited number of individuals were hired as <a href="/wiki/Scribe" title="Scribe">scribes</a> to be trained in its use. It was not until the widespread use of a <a href="/wiki/Syllabary" title="Syllabary">syllabic</a> script was adopted under Sargon's rule<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that significant portions of the Mesopotamian population became literate. Massive archives of texts were recovered from the archaeological contexts of Old Babylonian scribal schools, through which literacy was disseminated. </p><p>Akkadian gradually replaced Sumerian as the spoken language of Mesopotamia somewhere around the turn of the 3rd and the 2nd millennium BC. The exact dating being a matter of debate.<sup id="cite_ref-woods_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-woods-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sumerian continued to be used as a sacred, ceremonial, literary, and scientific language in Mesopotamia until the 1st century AD. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Literature">Literature</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Akkadian_literature" title="Akkadian literature">Akkadian literature</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sumerian_literature" title="Sumerian literature">Sumerian literature</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tablet_XI_or_the_Flood_Tablet_of_the_Epic_of_Gilgamesh,_currently_housed_in_the_British_Museum_in_London.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Tablet_XI_or_the_Flood_Tablet_of_the_Epic_of_Gilgamesh%2C_currently_housed_in_the_British_Museum_in_London.jpg/220px-Tablet_XI_or_the_Flood_Tablet_of_the_Epic_of_Gilgamesh%2C_currently_housed_in_the_British_Museum_in_London.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Tablet_XI_or_the_Flood_Tablet_of_the_Epic_of_Gilgamesh%2C_currently_housed_in_the_British_Museum_in_London.jpg/330px-Tablet_XI_or_the_Flood_Tablet_of_the_Epic_of_Gilgamesh%2C_currently_housed_in_the_British_Museum_in_London.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Tablet_XI_or_the_Flood_Tablet_of_the_Epic_of_Gilgamesh%2C_currently_housed_in_the_British_Museum_in_London.jpg/440px-Tablet_XI_or_the_Flood_Tablet_of_the_Epic_of_Gilgamesh%2C_currently_housed_in_the_British_Museum_in_London.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6016" data-file-height="4016" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Epic_of_Gilgamesh" title="Epic of Gilgamesh">Epic of Gilgamesh</a>, an <a href="/wiki/Epic_poetry" title="Epic poetry">epic poem</a> from ancient Mesopotamia, regarded as the earliest surviving notable literature.</figcaption></figure> <p>Libraries were extant in towns and temples during the Babylonian Empire. An old Sumerian proverb averred that "he who would excel in the school of the scribes must rise with the dawn." Women as well as men learned to read and write,<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and for the <a href="/wiki/Semitic_languages" title="Semitic languages">Semitic</a> Babylonians, this involved knowledge of the extinct Sumerian language, and a complicated and extensive syllabary. </p><p>A considerable amount of Babylonian literature was translated from Sumerian originals, and the language of religion and law long continued to be the old agglutinative language of Sumer. Vocabularies, grammars, and interlinear translations were compiled for the use of students, as well as commentaries on the older texts and explanations of obscure words and phrases. The characters of the syllabary were all arranged and named, and elaborate lists were drawn up. </p><p>Many Babylonian literary works are still studied today. One of the most famous of these was the <a href="/wiki/Epic_of_Gilgamesh" title="Epic of Gilgamesh">Epic of Gilgamesh</a>, in twelve books, translated from the original Sumerian by a certain <a href="/wiki/S%C3%AEn-l%C4%93qi-unninni" title="Sîn-lēqi-unninni">Sîn-lēqi-unninni</a>, and arranged upon an astronomical principle. Each division contains the story of a single adventure in the career of <a href="/wiki/Gilgamesh" title="Gilgamesh">Gilgamesh</a>. The whole story is a composite product, although it is probable that some of the stories are artificially attached to the central figure. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Science_and_technology">Science and technology</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mathematics">Mathematics</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Babylonian_mathematics" title="Babylonian mathematics">Babylonian mathematics</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Clay_tablet,_mathematical,_geometric-algebraic,_similar_to_the_Euclidean_geometry._From_Tell_Harmal,_Iraq._2003-1595_BCE._Iraq_Museum.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Clay_tablet%2C_mathematical%2C_geometric-algebraic%2C_similar_to_the_Euclidean_geometry._From_Tell_Harmal%2C_Iraq._2003-1595_BCE._Iraq_Museum.jpg/220px-Clay_tablet%2C_mathematical%2C_geometric-algebraic%2C_similar_to_the_Euclidean_geometry._From_Tell_Harmal%2C_Iraq._2003-1595_BCE._Iraq_Museum.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="306" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Clay_tablet%2C_mathematical%2C_geometric-algebraic%2C_similar_to_the_Euclidean_geometry._From_Tell_Harmal%2C_Iraq._2003-1595_BCE._Iraq_Museum.jpg/330px-Clay_tablet%2C_mathematical%2C_geometric-algebraic%2C_similar_to_the_Euclidean_geometry._From_Tell_Harmal%2C_Iraq._2003-1595_BCE._Iraq_Museum.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Clay_tablet%2C_mathematical%2C_geometric-algebraic%2C_similar_to_the_Euclidean_geometry._From_Tell_Harmal%2C_Iraq._2003-1595_BCE._Iraq_Museum.jpg/440px-Clay_tablet%2C_mathematical%2C_geometric-algebraic%2C_similar_to_the_Euclidean_geometry._From_Tell_Harmal%2C_Iraq._2003-1595_BCE._Iraq_Museum.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1499" data-file-height="2084" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Clay_tablet" title="Clay tablet">clay tablet</a>, mathematical, geometric-algebraic, similar to the Euclidean geometry. From <a href="/wiki/Shaduppum" title="Shaduppum">Shaduppum</a> Iraq. 2003–1595 BC. <a href="/wiki/Iraq_Museum" title="Iraq Museum">Iraq Museum</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Mesopotamian mathematics and science was based on a <a href="/wiki/Sexagesimal" title="Sexagesimal">sexagesimal</a> (base 60) <a href="/wiki/Numeral_system" title="Numeral system">numeral system</a>. This is the source of the 60-minute hour, the 24-hour day, and the 360-<a href="/wiki/Degree_(angle)" title="Degree (angle)">degree</a> circle. The <a href="/wiki/Sumerian_calendar" class="mw-redirect" title="Sumerian calendar">Sumerian calendar</a> was lunisolar, with three seven-day weeks of a lunar month. This form of mathematics was instrumental in early <a href="/wiki/History_of_cartography" title="History of cartography">map-making</a>. The Babylonians also had theorems on how to measure the area of several shapes and solids. They measured the circumference of a circle as three times the diameter and the area as one-twelfth the square of the circumference, which would be correct if <span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">π</span> were fixed at 3.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The volume of a cylinder was taken as the product of the area of the base and the height; however, the volume of the <a href="/wiki/Frustum" title="Frustum">frustum</a> of a cone or a <a href="/wiki/Square_pyramid" title="Square pyramid">square pyramid</a> was incorrectly taken as the product of the height and half the sum of the bases. Also, there was a recent discovery in which a tablet used <span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">π</span> as 25/8 (3.125 instead of 3.14159~). The Babylonians are also known for the Babylonian mile, which was a measure of distance equal to about seven modern miles (11 km). This measurement for distances eventually was converted to a time-mile used for measuring the travel of the Sun, therefore, representing time.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Algebra">Algebra</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Algebra" title="Algebra">Algebra</a> and <a href="/wiki/Square_root_of_2" title="Square root of 2">Square root of 2</a></div> <p>The roots of algebra can be traced to the ancient Babylonia<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> who developed an advanced arithmetical system with which they were able to do calculations in an <a href="/wiki/Algorithm" title="Algorithm">algorithmic</a> fashion. </p><p><br /> The <a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonian</a> clay tablet <a href="/wiki/YBC_7289" title="YBC 7289">YBC 7289</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1800</span>–1600 BC) gives an approximation of <span class="texhtml"><span class="nowrap">√<span style="border-top:1px solid; padding:0 0.1em;">2</span></span></span> in four <a href="/wiki/Sexagesimal" title="Sexagesimal">sexagesimal</a> figures, <span class="nowrap">1 24 51 10</span>, which is accurate to about six <a href="/wiki/Decimal" title="Decimal">decimal</a> digits,<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and is the closest possible three-place sexagesimal representation of <span class="texhtml"><span class="nowrap">√<span style="border-top:1px solid; padding:0 0.1em;">2</span></span></span>: </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle 1+{\frac {24}{60}}+{\frac {51}{60^{2}}}+{\frac {10}{60^{3}}}={\frac {305470}{216000}}=1.41421{\overline {296}}.}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mn>1</mn> <mo>+</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>24</mn> <mn>60</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>51</mn> <msup> <mn>60</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>10</mn> <msup> <mn>60</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>3</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>305470</mn> <mn>216000</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mn>1.41421</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mover> <mn>296</mn> <mo accent="false">¯</mo> </mover> </mrow> <mo>.</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 1+{\frac {24}{60}}+{\frac {51}{60^{2}}}+{\frac {10}{60^{3}}}={\frac {305470}{216000}}=1.41421{\overline {296}}.}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/a4a6b8bda34d47615a804af983dff49df2d9c632" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.338ex; width:47.154ex; height:5.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle 1+{\frac {24}{60}}+{\frac {51}{60^{2}}}+{\frac {10}{60^{3}}}={\frac {305470}{216000}}=1.41421{\overline {296}}.}"></span></dd></dl> <p><br /> The Babylonians were not interested in exact solutions, but rather approximations, and so they would commonly use <a href="/wiki/Linear_interpolation" title="Linear interpolation">linear interpolation</a> to approximate intermediate values.<sup id="cite_ref-Boyer_Babylon_p30_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Boyer_Babylon_p30-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One of the most famous tablets is the <a href="/wiki/Plimpton_322" title="Plimpton 322">Plimpton 322 tablet</a>, created around 1900–1600 BC, which gives a table of <a href="/wiki/Pythagorean_triples" class="mw-redirect" title="Pythagorean triples">Pythagorean triples</a> and represents some of the most advanced mathematics prior to Greek mathematics.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Astronomy">Astronomy</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Babylonian_astronomy" title="Babylonian astronomy">Babylonian astronomy</a></div> <p>From <a href="/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer">Sumerian</a> times, temple priesthoods had attempted to associate current events with certain positions of the planets and stars. This continued to Assyrian times, when <a href="/wiki/Limmu" title="Limmu">Limmu</a> lists were created as a year by year association of events with planetary positions, which, when they have survived to the present day, allow accurate associations of relative with absolute dating for establishing the history of Mesopotamia. </p><p>The Babylonian astronomers were very adept at mathematics and could predict <a href="/wiki/Eclipse_cycle" title="Eclipse cycle">eclipses</a> and <a href="/wiki/Solstice#Solstice_determination" title="Solstice">solstices</a>. Scholars thought that everything had some purpose in astronomy. Most of these related to religion and omens. Mesopotamian astronomers worked out a 12-month calendar based on the cycles of the moon. They divided the year into two seasons: summer and winter. The origins of astronomy as well as astrology date from this time. </p><p>During the 8th and 7th centuries BC, Babylonian astronomers developed a new approach to astronomy. They began studying philosophy dealing with the ideal nature of the early <a href="/wiki/Universe" title="Universe">universe</a> and began employing an internal logic within their predictive planetary systems. This was an important contribution to astronomy and the <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">philosophy of science</a> and some scholars have thus referred to this new approach as the first scientific revolution.<sup id="cite_ref-Brown_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brown-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This new approach to astronomy was adopted and further developed in Greek and Hellenistic astronomy. </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Seleucid" class="mw-redirect" title="Seleucid">Seleucid</a> and <a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian</a> times, the astronomical reports were thoroughly scientific. How much earlier their advanced knowledge and methods were developed is uncertain. The Babylonian development of methods for predicting the motions of the planets is considered to be a major episode in the <a href="/wiki/Assyrian_astronomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Assyrian astronomy">history of astronomy</a>. </p><p>The only Greek-Babylonian astronomer known to have supported a <a href="/wiki/Heliocentrism" title="Heliocentrism">heliocentric</a> model of planetary motion was <a href="/wiki/Seleucus_of_Seleucia" title="Seleucus of Seleucia">Seleucus of Seleucia</a> (b. 190 BC).<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Seleucus is known from the writings of <a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a>. He supported Aristarchus of Samos' heliocentric theory where the <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_rotation" title="Earth's rotation">Earth rotated</a> around its own axis which in turn revolved around the <a href="/wiki/Sun" title="Sun">Sun</a>. According to <a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a>, Seleucus even proved the heliocentric system, but it is not known what arguments he used, except that he correctly theorized on tides as a result of the Moon's attraction. </p><p>Babylonian astronomy served as the basis for much of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_astronomy" title="Ancient Greek astronomy">Greek</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indian_astronomy" title="Indian astronomy">classical Indian</a>, Sassanian, <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syrian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Astronomy_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world">medieval Islamic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asian</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Western_Europe" title="Western Europe">Western European</a> astronomy.<sup id="cite_ref-dp1998_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dp1998-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Medicine">Medicine</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Medical_recipe_concerning_poisoning._Terracotta_tablet,_from_Nippur,_Iraq,_18th_century_BCE._Ancient_Orient_Museum,_Istanbul.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Medical_recipe_concerning_poisoning._Terracotta_tablet%2C_from_Nippur%2C_Iraq%2C_18th_century_BCE._Ancient_Orient_Museum%2C_Istanbul.jpg/220px-Medical_recipe_concerning_poisoning._Terracotta_tablet%2C_from_Nippur%2C_Iraq%2C_18th_century_BCE._Ancient_Orient_Museum%2C_Istanbul.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="325" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Medical_recipe_concerning_poisoning._Terracotta_tablet%2C_from_Nippur%2C_Iraq%2C_18th_century_BCE._Ancient_Orient_Museum%2C_Istanbul.jpg/330px-Medical_recipe_concerning_poisoning._Terracotta_tablet%2C_from_Nippur%2C_Iraq%2C_18th_century_BCE._Ancient_Orient_Museum%2C_Istanbul.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Medical_recipe_concerning_poisoning._Terracotta_tablet%2C_from_Nippur%2C_Iraq%2C_18th_century_BCE._Ancient_Orient_Museum%2C_Istanbul.jpg/440px-Medical_recipe_concerning_poisoning._Terracotta_tablet%2C_from_Nippur%2C_Iraq%2C_18th_century_BCE._Ancient_Orient_Museum%2C_Istanbul.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3379" data-file-height="4999" /></a><figcaption>A medical recipe concerning poisoning. Terracotta tablet, from <a href="/wiki/Nippur" title="Nippur">Nippur</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The oldest Babylonian texts on <a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">medicine</a> date back to the <a href="/wiki/First_Babylonian_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="First Babylonian dynasty">Old Babylonian</a> period in the first half of the <a href="/wiki/2nd_millennium_BC" title="2nd millennium BC">2nd millennium BC</a>. The most extensive Babylonian medical text, however, is the <i>Diagnostic Handbook</i> written by the <i>ummânū</i>, or chief scholar, <a href="/wiki/Esagil-kin-apli" title="Esagil-kin-apli">Esagil-kin-apli</a> of <a href="/wiki/Borsippa" title="Borsippa">Borsippa</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Stol-99_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stol-99-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> during the reign of the Babylonian king <a href="/wiki/Adad-apla-iddina" title="Adad-apla-iddina">Adad-apla-iddina</a> (1069–1046 BC).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStol199355_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStol199355-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Along with contemporary <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_medicine" title="Ancient Egyptian medicine">Egyptian medicine</a>, the Babylonians introduced the concepts of <a href="/wiki/Medical_diagnosis" title="Medical diagnosis">diagnosis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prognosis" title="Prognosis">prognosis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Physical_examination" title="Physical examination">physical examination</a>, <a href="/wiki/Enema" title="Enema">enemas</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Medical_prescription" title="Medical prescription">prescriptions</a>. The <i>Diagnostic Handbook</i> introduced the methods of <a href="/wiki/Therapy" title="Therapy">therapy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aetiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Aetiology">aetiology</a> and the use of <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">empiricism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logic</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Rationality" title="Rationality">rationality</a> in diagnosis, prognosis and therapy. The text contains a list of medical <a href="/wiki/Symptom" class="mw-redirect" title="Symptom">symptoms</a> and often detailed empirical <a href="/wiki/Observation" title="Observation">observations</a> along with logical rules used in combining observed symptoms on the body of a <a href="/wiki/Patient" title="Patient">patient</a> with its diagnosis and prognosis.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The symptoms and diseases of a patient were treated through therapeutic means such as <a href="/wiki/Bandage" title="Bandage">bandages</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cream_(pharmaceutical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cream (pharmaceutical)">creams</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pill_(pharmacy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pill (pharmacy)">pills</a>. If a patient could not be cured physically, the Babylonian physicians often relied on <a href="/wiki/Exorcism" title="Exorcism">exorcism</a> to cleanse the patient from any <a href="/wiki/Curse" title="Curse">curses</a>. Esagil-kin-apli's <i>Diagnostic Handbook</i> was based on a logical set of <a href="/wiki/Axiom" title="Axiom">axioms</a> and assumptions, including the modern view that through the examination and <a href="/wiki/Inspection" title="Inspection">inspection</a> of the symptoms of a patient, it is possible to determine the patient's <a href="/wiki/Disease" title="Disease">disease</a>, its aetiology, its future development, and the chances of the patient's recovery.<sup id="cite_ref-Stol-99_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stol-99-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Esagil-kin-apli discovered a variety of <a href="/wiki/Illness" class="mw-redirect" title="Illness">illnesses</a> and diseases and described their symptoms in his <i>Diagnostic Handbook</i>. These include the symptoms for many varieties of <a href="/wiki/Epilepsy" title="Epilepsy">epilepsy</a> and related <a href="/wiki/Ailment" class="mw-redirect" title="Ailment">ailments</a> along with their diagnosis and prognosis.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStol19935_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStol19935-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some treatments used were likely based off the known characteristics of the ingredients used. The others were based on the symbolic qualities.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Technology">Technology</h3></div> <p>Mesopotamian people invented many technologies including metal and copper-working, glass and lamp making, textile weaving, <a href="/wiki/Flood_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Flood control">flood control</a>, water storage, and irrigation. They were also one of the first <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a> societies in the world. They developed from copper, bronze, and gold on to iron. Palaces were decorated with hundreds of kilograms of these very expensive metals. Also, copper, bronze, and iron were used for armor as well as for different weapons such as swords, daggers, spears, and <a href="/wiki/Mace_(bludgeon)" title="Mace (bludgeon)">maces</a>. </p><p>According to a recent hypothesis, the <a href="/wiki/Archimedes%27_screw" title="Archimedes' screw">Archimedes' screw</a> may have been used by Sennacherib, King of Assyria, for the water systems at the <a href="/wiki/Hanging_Gardens_of_Babylon" title="Hanging Gardens of Babylon">Hanging Gardens of Babylon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nineveh" title="Nineveh">Nineveh</a> in the 7th century BC, although mainstream scholarship holds it to be a <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Greek</a> invention of later times.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Later, during the Parthian or Sasanian periods, the <a href="/wiki/Baghdad_Battery" title="Baghdad Battery">Baghdad Battery</a>, which may have been the world's first battery, was created in Mesopotamia.<sup id="cite_ref-BBC2_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BBC2-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Religion_and_philosophy">Religion and philosophy</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Mesopotamian_religion" title="Ancient Mesopotamian religion">Ancient Mesopotamian religion</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lilith_Periodo_de_Isin_Larsa_y_Babilonia.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Lilith_Periodo_de_Isin_Larsa_y_Babilonia.JPG/200px-Lilith_Periodo_de_Isin_Larsa_y_Babilonia.JPG" decoding="async" width="200" height="254" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Lilith_Periodo_de_Isin_Larsa_y_Babilonia.JPG/300px-Lilith_Periodo_de_Isin_Larsa_y_Babilonia.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Lilith_Periodo_de_Isin_Larsa_y_Babilonia.JPG/400px-Lilith_Periodo_de_Isin_Larsa_y_Babilonia.JPG 2x" data-file-width="778" data-file-height="990" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Burney_Relief" title="Burney Relief">Burney Relief</a>, <a href="/wiki/First_Babylonian_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="First Babylonian dynasty">First Babylonian dynasty</a>, around 1800 BC</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Mesopotamian_religion" title="Ancient Mesopotamian religion">Ancient Mesopotamian religion</a> was the first recorded. Mesopotamians believed that the world was a flat disc,<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> surrounded by a huge, holed space, and above that, <a href="/wiki/Heaven" title="Heaven">heaven</a>. They believed that water was everywhere, the top, bottom and sides, and that the <a href="/wiki/Universe" title="Universe">universe</a> was born from this enormous sea. Mesopotamian religion was <a href="/wiki/Polytheism" title="Polytheism">polytheistic</a>. Although the <a href="/wiki/Belief" title="Belief">beliefs</a> described above were held in common among Mesopotamians, there were regional variations. The Sumerian word for universe is <b>an-ki</b>, which refers to the god <a href="/wiki/Anu" title="Anu">An</a> and the goddess <a href="/wiki/Ki_(goddess)" title="Ki (goddess)">Ki</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Their son was Enlil, the air god. They believed that Enlil was the most powerful god. He was the chief god of the <a href="/wiki/Pantheon_(religion)" title="Pantheon (religion)">pantheon</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Philosophy">Philosophy</h3></div> <p>The numerous civilizations of the area influenced the <a href="/wiki/Abrahamic_religions" title="Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic religions</a>, especially the <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_Bible" title="Hebrew Bible">Hebrew Bible</a>. Its cultural values and literary influence are especially evident in the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Genesis" title="Book of Genesis">Book of Genesis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Giorgio_Buccellati" title="Giorgio Buccellati">Giorgio Buccellati</a> believes that the origins of <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a> can be traced back to early Mesopotamian <a href="/wiki/Wisdom" title="Wisdom">wisdom</a>, which embodied certain philosophies of life, particularly <a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">ethics</a>, in the forms of <a href="/wiki/Dialectic" title="Dialectic">dialectic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dialogue" title="Dialogue">dialogues</a>, <a href="/wiki/Epic_poetry" title="Epic poetry">epic poetry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Folklore" title="Folklore">folklore</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hymn" title="Hymn">hymns</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lyrics" title="Lyrics">lyrics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prose" title="Prose">prose</a> works, and <a href="/wiki/Proverb" title="Proverb">proverbs</a>. Babylonian <a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">reason</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rationality" title="Rationality">rationality</a> developed beyond <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">empirical</a> observation.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Babylonian thought was also based on an <a href="/wiki/Open_system_(systems_theory)" title="Open system (systems theory)">open-systems</a> <a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">ontology</a> which is compatible with <a href="/wiki/Ergodic" class="mw-redirect" title="Ergodic">ergodic</a> axioms.<sup id="cite_ref-Sheila_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sheila-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Logic was employed to some extent in <a href="/wiki/Babylonian_astronomy" title="Babylonian astronomy">Babylonian astronomy</a> and medicine. </p><p>Babylonian thought had a considerable influence on early <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Ancient Greek</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Hellenistic philosophy</a>. In particular, the Babylonian text <i><a href="/wiki/Dialogue_of_Pessimism" title="Dialogue of Pessimism">Dialogue of Pessimism</a></i> contains similarities to the agonistic thought of the <a href="/wiki/Sophist" title="Sophist">Sophists</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Heraclitean" class="mw-redirect" title="Heraclitean">Heraclitean</a> doctrine of <a href="/wiki/Dialectic" title="Dialectic">dialectic</a>, and the dialogs of <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>, as well as a precursor to the <a href="/wiki/Socratic_method" title="Socratic method">Socratic method</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Ionians" title="Ionians">Ionian</a> philosopher <a href="/wiki/Thales" class="mw-redirect" title="Thales">Thales</a> was influenced by Babylonian cosmological ideas. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Culture">Culture</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kudurru_Melishipak_Louvre_Sb23_n02.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Kudurru_Melishipak_Louvre_Sb23_n02.jpg/220px-Kudurru_Melishipak_Louvre_Sb23_n02.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="198" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Kudurru_Melishipak_Louvre_Sb23_n02.jpg/330px-Kudurru_Melishipak_Louvre_Sb23_n02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Kudurru_Melishipak_Louvre_Sb23_n02.jpg/440px-Kudurru_Melishipak_Louvre_Sb23_n02.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2913" data-file-height="2623" /></a><figcaption>King <a href="/wiki/Meli-Shipak_II" title="Meli-Shipak II">Meli-shipak I</a> (1186–1172 BC) presents his daughter to the goddess <a href="/wiki/Nanaya" title="Nanaya">Nannaya</a>. The crescent moon represents the god <a href="/wiki/Sin_(mythology)" title="Sin (mythology)">Sin</a>, the sun the <a href="/wiki/Utu" class="mw-redirect" title="Utu">Shamash</a> and the star the goddess <a href="/wiki/Inanna" title="Inanna">Ishtar</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlackGreen1992156,_169–170_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlackGreen1992156,_169–170-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiungman2004228_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiungman2004228-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Festivals">Festivals</h3></div> <p>Ancient Mesopotamians had ceremonies each month. The theme of the rituals and festivals for each month was determined by at least six important factors: </p> <ol><li>The <a href="/wiki/Lunar_phase" title="Lunar phase">Lunar phase</a> (a waxing moon meant abundance and growth, while a waning moon was associated with decline, conservation, and festivals of the Underworld)</li> <li>The phase of the annual agricultural cycle</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equinoxes" class="mw-redirect" title="Equinoxes">Equinoxes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Solstices" class="mw-redirect" title="Solstices">solstices</a></li> <li>The local mythos and its divine Patrons</li> <li>The success of the reigning Monarch</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Akitu" title="Akitu">Akitu</a>, or <a href="/wiki/New_Year" title="New Year">New Year</a> Festival (first full moon after spring equinox)</li> <li>Commemoration of specific historical events (founding, military victories, temple holidays, etc.)</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Music">Music</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Music_of_Mesopotamia" title="Music of Mesopotamia">Music of Mesopotamia</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Queen%27s_gold_lyre_from_the_Royal_Cemetery_at_Ur._C._2500_BCE._Iraq_Museum.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/The_Queen%27s_gold_lyre_from_the_Royal_Cemetery_at_Ur._C._2500_BCE._Iraq_Museum.jpg/220px-The_Queen%27s_gold_lyre_from_the_Royal_Cemetery_at_Ur._C._2500_BCE._Iraq_Museum.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/The_Queen%27s_gold_lyre_from_the_Royal_Cemetery_at_Ur._C._2500_BCE._Iraq_Museum.jpg/330px-The_Queen%27s_gold_lyre_from_the_Royal_Cemetery_at_Ur._C._2500_BCE._Iraq_Museum.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/The_Queen%27s_gold_lyre_from_the_Royal_Cemetery_at_Ur._C._2500_BCE._Iraq_Museum.jpg/440px-The_Queen%27s_gold_lyre_from_the_Royal_Cemetery_at_Ur._C._2500_BCE._Iraq_Museum.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3536" data-file-height="4016" /></a><figcaption>The Queen's gold <a href="/wiki/Lyres_of_Ur" title="Lyres of Ur">lyre</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Cemetery_at_Ur" title="Royal Cemetery at Ur">Royal Cemetery at Ur</a>. <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 2500 BC</span>. <a href="/wiki/Iraq_Museum" title="Iraq Museum">Iraq Museum</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Some songs were written for the gods but many were written to describe important events. Although music and songs amused <a href="/wiki/Monarch" title="Monarch">kings</a>, they were also enjoyed by ordinary people who liked to sing and dance in their homes or in the <a href="/wiki/Marketplace" title="Marketplace">marketplaces</a>. </p><p>Songs were sung to children who passed them on to their children. Thus songs were passed on through many <a href="/wiki/Generation" title="Generation">generations</a> as an oral tradition until writing was more universal. These songs provided a means of passing on through the <a href="/wiki/Century" title="Century">centuries</a> highly important information about historical events. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Games">Games</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jemdet_Nasr_Cylinder_Seal_With_Hunting_Scene.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Jemdet_Nasr_Cylinder_Seal_With_Hunting_Scene.png/220px-Jemdet_Nasr_Cylinder_Seal_With_Hunting_Scene.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="70" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Jemdet_Nasr_Cylinder_Seal_With_Hunting_Scene.png/330px-Jemdet_Nasr_Cylinder_Seal_With_Hunting_Scene.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Jemdet_Nasr_Cylinder_Seal_With_Hunting_Scene.png/440px-Jemdet_Nasr_Cylinder_Seal_With_Hunting_Scene.png 2x" data-file-width="1282" data-file-height="406" /></a><figcaption>Jemdet Nasr Cylinder presenting a hunting scene, with two lions and an antelope. <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 3100</span> to 2900 BC. </figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Hunting" title="Hunting">Hunting</a> was popular among Assyrian kings. <a href="/wiki/Boxing" title="Boxing">Boxing</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wrestling" title="Wrestling">wrestling</a> feature frequently in art, and some form of <a href="/wiki/Polo" title="Polo">polo</a> was probably popular, with men sitting on the shoulders of other men rather than on horses.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>They also played a board game similar to <a href="/wiki/Senet" title="Senet">senet</a> and <a href="/wiki/Backgammon" title="Backgammon">backgammon</a>, now known as the "<a href="/wiki/Royal_Game_of_Ur" title="Royal Game of Ur">Royal Game of Ur</a>". </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Family_life">Family life</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Babylonian_marriage_market.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Babylonian_marriage_market.jpg/300px-Babylonian_marriage_market.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="168" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Babylonian_marriage_market.jpg/450px-Babylonian_marriage_market.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Babylonian_marriage_market.jpg/600px-Babylonian_marriage_market.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3069" data-file-height="1720" /></a><figcaption><i>The Babylonian marriage market</i> by the 19th-century painter <a href="/wiki/Edwin_Long" title="Edwin Long">Edwin Long</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Mesopotamia, as shown by successive law codes, those of <a href="/wiki/Urukagina" title="Urukagina">Urukagina</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lipit_Ishtar" class="mw-redirect" title="Lipit Ishtar">Lipit Ishtar</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hammurabi" title="Hammurabi">Hammurabi</a>, across its history became more and more a <a href="/wiki/Patriarchal_society" class="mw-redirect" title="Patriarchal society">patriarchal society</a>, one in which the men were far more powerful than the women. For example, during the earliest Sumerian period, the <i>"en"</i>, or high priest of male gods was originally a woman, that of female goddesses. <a href="/wiki/Thorkild_Jacobsen" title="Thorkild Jacobsen">Thorkild Jacobsen</a>, as well as others, have suggested that early Mesopotamian society was ruled by a "council of elders" in which men and women were equally represented, but that over time, as the status of women fell, that of men increased.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As for schooling, only royal offspring and sons of the rich and professionals, such as scribes, physicians, temple administrators, went to school. Most boys were taught their father's trade or were apprenticed out to learn a trade.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Girls had to stay home with their mothers to learn <a href="/wiki/Housekeeping" title="Housekeeping">housekeeping</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cooking" title="Cooking">cooking</a>, and to look after the younger children. Some children would help with crushing grain or cleaning birds. Unusually for that time in history, women in Mesopotamia had <a href="/wiki/Rights" title="Rights">rights</a>. They could own <a href="/wiki/Property" title="Property">property</a> and, if they had good reason, get a <a href="/wiki/Divorce" title="Divorce">divorce</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Kramer1963_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kramer1963-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 78–79">: 78–79 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Burials">Burials</h3></div> <p>Hundreds of <a href="/wiki/Grave_(burial)" class="mw-redirect" title="Grave (burial)">graves</a> have been excavated in parts of Mesopotamia, revealing information about Mesopotamian <a href="/wiki/Burial" title="Burial">burial</a> habits. In the city of <a href="/wiki/Ur" title="Ur">Ur</a>, most people were buried in family graves under their houses, along with some possessions. A few have been found wrapped in mats and <a href="/wiki/Carpets" class="mw-redirect" title="Carpets">carpets</a>. Deceased children were put in big "jars" which were placed in the family <a href="/wiki/Chapel" title="Chapel">chapel</a>. Other remains have been found buried in common city <a href="/wiki/Graveyard" class="mw-redirect" title="Graveyard">graveyards</a>. 17 graves have been found with very precious objects in them. It is assumed that these were royal graves. Rich of various periods, have been discovered to have sought burial in Bahrein, identified with Sumerian Dilmun.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Economy">Economy</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Metal_production_in_Ancient_Middle_East.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Metal_production_in_Ancient_Middle_East.svg/290px-Metal_production_in_Ancient_Middle_East.svg.png" decoding="async" width="290" height="161" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Metal_production_in_Ancient_Middle_East.svg/435px-Metal_production_in_Ancient_Middle_East.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Metal_production_in_Ancient_Middle_East.svg/580px-Metal_production_in_Ancient_Middle_East.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1249" data-file-height="693" /></a><figcaption>Mining areas of the ancient <a href="/wiki/West_Asia" title="West Asia">West Asia</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Sumerian temples functioned as banks and developed the first large-scale <a href="/wiki/Economy" title="Economy">system of loans and credit</a>. The Babylonians developed the earliest system of commercial <a href="/wiki/Banking" class="mw-redirect" title="Banking">banking</a>. It was comparable in some ways to modern <a href="/wiki/Post-Keynesian_economics" title="Post-Keynesian economics">post-Keynesian economics</a>, but with a more "anything goes" approach.<sup id="cite_ref-Sheila_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sheila-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Agriculture">Agriculture</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Mesopotamia" title="Agriculture in Mesopotamia">Agriculture in Mesopotamia</a></div> <p>Irrigated agriculture spread southwards from the Zagros foothills with the Samara and Hadji Muhammed culture, from about 5,000 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-Cengage_Learning,_1_Jan_2010_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cengage_Learning,_1_Jan_2010-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the early period down to <a href="/wiki/Ur_III" class="mw-redirect" title="Ur III">Ur III</a> temples owned up to one third of the available land, declining over time as royal and other private holdings increased in frequency. The word <a href="/wiki/Ens%C3%AD" class="mw-redirect" title="Ensí"><i>Ensi</i></a> was used to describe the official who organized the work of all facets of temple agriculture. <a href="/wiki/Villein" title="Villein">Villeins</a> are known to have worked most frequently within agriculture, especially in the grounds of temples or palaces.<sup id="cite_ref-H._W._F._Saggs_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-H._W._F._Saggs-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The geography of southern Mesopotamia is such that agriculture is possible only with irrigation and with good drainage, a fact which had a profound effect on the evolution of early Mesopotamian civilization. The need for irrigation led the Sumerians, and later the Akkadians, to build their cities along the Tigris and Euphrates and the branches of these rivers. Major cities, such as Ur and Uruk, took root on tributaries of the Euphrates, while others, notably Lagash, were built on branches of the Tigris. The rivers provided the further benefits of fish, used both for food and fertilizer, reeds, and clay, for building materials. With irrigation, the <a href="/wiki/Food_supply" class="mw-redirect" title="Food supply">food supply</a> in Mesopotamia was comparable to that of the Canadian prairies.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fertile_Crescent.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Fertile_Crescent.svg/220px-Fertile_Crescent.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="258" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Fertile_Crescent.svg/330px-Fertile_Crescent.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Fertile_Crescent.svg/440px-Fertile_Crescent.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="294" data-file-height="345" /></a><figcaption>A map of the Fertile Crescent including the location of ancient Mesopotamia between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers.</figcaption></figure> <p>The Tigris and Euphrates River valleys form the northeastern portion of the <a href="/wiki/Fertile_Crescent" title="Fertile Crescent">Fertile Crescent</a>, which also included the Jordan River valley and that of the Nile. Although land nearer to the rivers was fertile and good for <a href="/wiki/Crops" class="mw-redirect" title="Crops">crops</a>, portions of land farther from the water were dry and largely uninhabitable. Thus the development of <a href="/wiki/Irrigation" title="Irrigation">irrigation</a> became very important for <a href="/wiki/Settler" title="Settler">settlers</a> of Mesopotamia. Other Mesopotamian <a href="/wiki/Innovation" title="Innovation">innovations</a> include the control of water by <a href="/wiki/Dam" title="Dam">dams</a> and the use of aqueducts. Early settlers of fertile land in Mesopotamia used wooden <a href="/wiki/Plow" class="mw-redirect" title="Plow">plows</a> to soften the <a href="/wiki/Soil" title="Soil">soil</a> before planting crops such as <a href="/wiki/Barley" title="Barley">barley</a>, <a href="/wiki/Onion" title="Onion">onions</a>, <a href="/wiki/Grape" title="Grape">grapes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Turnip" title="Turnip">turnips</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Apple" title="Apple">apples</a>. </p><p>Mesopotamian settlers were some of the first people to make <a href="/wiki/Beer" title="Beer">beer</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wine" title="Wine">wine</a>. As a result of the skill involved in farming in the Mesopotamian region, farmers did not generally depend on <a href="/wiki/Slaves" class="mw-redirect" title="Slaves">slaves</a> to complete farm work for them, but there were some exceptions. There were too many risks involved to make slavery practical, i.e. the escape/mutiny of the slaves. Although the rivers sustained life, they also destroyed it by frequent floods that ravaged entire cities. The unpredictable Mesopotamian weather was often hard on farmers. Crops were often ruined, so backup sources of food such as cows and lambs were kept. Over time the southernmost parts of Sumerian Mesopotamia suffered from increased salinity of the soils, leading to a slow urban decline and a centring of power in Akkad, further north. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Trade">Trade</h3></div> <p>Mesopotamian trade with the <a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_civilisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Indus Valley civilisation">Indus Valley civilisation</a> flourished as early as the third millennium BC.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cylinder seals found throughout ANE is evidence of trade between Mesopotamian cities.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Starting in the 4th millennium BC, Mesopotamian civilizations also traded with <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">ancient Egypt</a> (see <a href="/wiki/Egypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia_relations" title="Egypt–Mesopotamia relations">Egypt–Mesopotamia relations</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-Shaw,_Ian_1995_p._109_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shaw,_Ian_1995_p._109-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Mitchell_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mitchell-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For much of history, Mesopotamia served as a <a href="/wiki/Trade_route" title="Trade route">trade nexus</a> – east-west between Central Asia and the Mediterranean world<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (part of the <a href="/wiki/Silk_Road" title="Silk Road">Silk Road</a>), as well as north–south between the Eastern Europe and <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a> (<a href="/wiki/Volga_trade_route" title="Volga trade route">Volga trade route</a>). <a href="/wiki/Vasco_da_Gama" title="Vasco da Gama">Vasco da Gama</a>'s pioneering (1497–1499) of the <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_discovery_of_the_sea_route_to_India" title="Portuguese discovery of the sea route to India">sea route between India and Europe</a> and the opening of the <a href="/wiki/Suez_Canal" title="Suez Canal">Suez Canal</a> in 1869 impacted on this nexus.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Genetics">Genetics</h2></div> <p>Genetic studies on the modern day people of <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a> are limited and generally restricted to analysis of classical keys due to the country's modern political instability,<sup id="cite_ref-Zahery_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zahery-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although lately, there have been several published studies displaying a genealogical connection between all Iraqis and the neighboring countries, across religious, ethnic and linguistic barriers. Studies indicate that the different ethno-religious groups of Iraq (Mesopotamia) share significant similarities in genetics and that Mesopotamian Arabs, who make up the majority of Iraqis, are more genetically similar to Iraqi Kurds than other Arab populations in the <a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arabia" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabia">Arabia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Hayder_Lazim,_Eida_Khalaf_Almohammed,_Sibte_Hadi_&_Judith_Smith_-_Scientific_Reports_volume_10,_Article_number:_15289_(2020)_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hayder_Lazim,_Eida_Khalaf_Almohammed,_Sibte_Hadi_&_Judith_Smith_-_Scientific_Reports_volume_10,_Article_number:_15289_(2020)-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There were no significant differences in Y-DNA variation were observed among Iraqi Mesopotamian Arabs, Assyrians, or Kurds.<sup id="cite_ref-Zahery_69-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zahery-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Modern genetic studies indicate that Iraqi Mesopotamian Arabs are more related to <a href="/wiki/Iraqi-Assyrians" class="mw-redirect" title="Iraqi-Assyrians">Iraqi-Assyrians</a> than <a href="/wiki/Kurds_in_Iraq" title="Kurds in Iraq">Iraqi Kurds</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-CS_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CS-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Genetic_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Genetic-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Dogan et. al (2017) states that contemporary <a href="/wiki/Syriacs" class="mw-redirect" title="Syriacs">Assyrian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yazidis" title="Yazidis">Yazidis</a> from northern Iraq might "have stronger continuity with the original genetic stock of the Mesopotamian people, which possibly provided the basis for the ethnogenesis of various subsequent Near Eastern populations." Among northern Iraqi Assyrians, <a href="/wiki/Haplogroup_J_(Y-DNA)" title="Haplogroup J (Y-DNA)">J</a> and <a href="/wiki/Haplogroup_R_(Y-DNA)" title="Haplogroup R (Y-DNA)">R</a> subclades were observed at 36% and 41% respectively, where <a href="/wiki/Haplogroup_R1a" title="Haplogroup R1a">R1a</a>, <a href="/wiki/Haplogroup_R1b" title="Haplogroup R1b">R1b</a>, <a href="/wiki/Haplogroup_J-M267" title="Haplogroup J-M267">J1</a> and <a href="/wiki/Haplogroup_J-M172" title="Haplogroup J-M172">J2</a> sub-clades accounted for 11%, 30%, 12% and 24%. For Yazidis, R haplogroup subclades dominate, where R1a and R1b account for 9% and 21%, respectively. The high prevalence of R and J macrohaplogroups is attributed to pre-<a href="/wiki/Last_Glacial_Maximum" title="Last Glacial Maximum">Last Glacial Maximum</a> events in the Near East.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many historians and anthropologists provide strong circumstantial evidence to presuppose that Iraq's <a href="/wiki/Marsh_Arabs" title="Marsh Arabs">Marsh Arabs</a> share very strong links to the ancient Sumerians.<sup id="cite_ref-BMC_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BMC-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While other studies indicate that the Iraqi-Assyrian population was found to be significantly related to other Iraqis, especially Mesopotamian Arabs,<sup id="cite_ref-Genetic2_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Genetic2-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-BMC_74-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BMC-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> likely due to the assimilation of indigenous Assyrians with other people groups who occupied and settled Mesopotamia after the fall of the <a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian Empire</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Government">Government</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_institutions_in_Mesopotamia" title="History of institutions in Mesopotamia">History of institutions in Mesopotamia</a></div> <p>The geography of Mesopotamia had a profound impact on the political development of the region. Among the rivers and streams, the Sumerian people built the first cities, along with irrigation canals which were separated by vast stretches of open desert or swamp where nomadic tribes roamed. Communication among the isolated cities was difficult and, at times, dangerous. Thus, each Sumerian city became a <a href="/wiki/City-state" title="City-state">city-state</a>, independent of the others and protective of its independence. </p><p>At times, one city would try to conquer and unify the region, but such efforts were resisted and failed for centuries. As a result, the political history of Sumer is one of almost constant warfare. Eventually Sumer was unified by <a href="/wiki/Eannatum" title="Eannatum">Eannatum</a>. The unification was tenuous and failed to last, as the Akkadians conquered Sumer in 2331 BC only a generation later. The Akkadian Empire was the first successful empire to last beyond a generation and see a peaceful succession of kings. The empire was relatively short-lived, as the Babylonians conquered them within only a few generations. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kings">Kings</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/List_of_Mesopotamian_dynasties" title="List of Mesopotamian dynasties">List of Mesopotamian dynasties</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_kings_of_Babylon" title="List of kings of Babylon">List of kings of Babylon</a>, and <a href="/wiki/List_of_Assyrian_kings" title="List of Assyrian kings">List of Assyrian kings</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ashurbanipal_in_a_chariot,_wall_relief,_7th_century_BC,_from_Nineveh,_the_British_Museum.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Ashurbanipal_in_a_chariot%2C_wall_relief%2C_7th_century_BC%2C_from_Nineveh%2C_the_British_Museum.jpg/220px-Ashurbanipal_in_a_chariot%2C_wall_relief%2C_7th_century_BC%2C_from_Nineveh%2C_the_British_Museum.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Ashurbanipal_in_a_chariot%2C_wall_relief%2C_7th_century_BC%2C_from_Nineveh%2C_the_British_Museum.jpg/330px-Ashurbanipal_in_a_chariot%2C_wall_relief%2C_7th_century_BC%2C_from_Nineveh%2C_the_British_Museum.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Ashurbanipal_in_a_chariot%2C_wall_relief%2C_7th_century_BC%2C_from_Nineveh%2C_the_British_Museum.jpg/440px-Ashurbanipal_in_a_chariot%2C_wall_relief%2C_7th_century_BC%2C_from_Nineveh%2C_the_British_Museum.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6016" data-file-height="4016" /></a><figcaption>A 7th-century BC relief depicting <a href="/wiki/Ashurbanipal" title="Ashurbanipal">Ashurbanipal</a>, <span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> </span>669–631 BC, and three royal attendants in a <a href="/wiki/Chariot" title="Chariot">chariot</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The Mesopotamians believed their kings and queens were descended from the city <a href="/wiki/Deity" title="Deity">gods</a>, but, unlike the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptians" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Egyptians">ancient Egyptians</a>, they never believed their kings were real gods.<sup id="cite_ref-Robert_Dalling_2004_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Robert_Dalling_2004-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most kings named themselves "king of the universe" or "great king". Another common name was "<a href="/wiki/Shepherd" title="Shepherd">shepherd</a>", as kings had to look after their people. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Power">Power</h3></div> <p>When Assyria grew into an empire, it was divided into smaller parts, called <a href="/wiki/Provinces" class="mw-redirect" title="Provinces">provinces</a>. Each of these were named after their main cities, like <a href="/wiki/Nineveh" title="Nineveh">Nineveh</a>, <a href="/wiki/Samaria" title="Samaria">Samaria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Arpad_(Syria)" class="mw-redirect" title="Arpad (Syria)">Arpad</a>. They all had their own governor, who had to make sure everyone paid their taxes. Governors had to call up soldiers to war and supply workers when a temple was built. He was responsible for enforcing the laws. In this way, it was easier to keep control of a large empire. </p><p>Although Babylon was quite a small <a href="/wiki/Sovereign_state" title="Sovereign state">state</a> in Sumer, it grew tremendously throughout the time of <a href="/wiki/Hammurabi" title="Hammurabi">Hammurabi</a>'s rule. He was known as "the lawmaker" and created the <a href="/wiki/Code_of_Hammurabi" title="Code of Hammurabi">Code of Hammurabi</a>. Soon <a href="/wiki/Babylon" title="Babylon">Babylon</a> became one of the main cities in Mesopotamia. It was later called Babylonia, which meant "the gateway of the gods." It became one of history's greatest centers of learning. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Warfare">Warfare</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Military history of the Neo-Assyrian Empire">Military history of the Neo-Assyrian Empire</a> and <a href="/wiki/Warfare_in_Sumer" title="Warfare in Sumer">Warfare in Sumer</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Campaign_in_southern_Iraq_of_Ashurbanipal_-_fighting_in_the_marshes.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="See caption" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Campaign_in_southern_Iraq_of_Ashurbanipal_-_fighting_in_the_marshes.jpg/220px-Campaign_in_southern_Iraq_of_Ashurbanipal_-_fighting_in_the_marshes.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Campaign_in_southern_Iraq_of_Ashurbanipal_-_fighting_in_the_marshes.jpg/330px-Campaign_in_southern_Iraq_of_Ashurbanipal_-_fighting_in_the_marshes.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Campaign_in_southern_Iraq_of_Ashurbanipal_-_fighting_in_the_marshes.jpg/440px-Campaign_in_southern_Iraq_of_Ashurbanipal_-_fighting_in_the_marshes.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5720" data-file-height="4000" /></a><figcaption>A relief showing a campaign in the <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_Marshes" title="Mesopotamian Marshes">Mesopotamian Marshes</a> of southern <a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonia</a> during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Ashurbanipal" title="Ashurbanipal">Ashurbanipal</a>. Assyrian soldiers are on a boat, chasing fleeing enemies. Some are hiding in the reeds</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Denis_Bourez_-_British_Museum,_London_(8747049029)_(2).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Denis_Bourez_-_British_Museum%2C_London_%288747049029%29_%282%29.jpg/220px-Denis_Bourez_-_British_Museum%2C_London_%288747049029%29_%282%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Denis_Bourez_-_British_Museum%2C_London_%288747049029%29_%282%29.jpg/330px-Denis_Bourez_-_British_Museum%2C_London_%288747049029%29_%282%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Denis_Bourez_-_British_Museum%2C_London_%288747049029%29_%282%29.jpg/440px-Denis_Bourez_-_British_Museum%2C_London_%288747049029%29_%282%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4288" data-file-height="3216" /></a><figcaption>The Standard of Ur, 2600 BC, the Early Dynastic Period III. Shell, red limestone and lapis lazuli on wood. Discovered at the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Cemetery_at_Ur" title="Royal Cemetery at Ur">Royal Cemetery at Ur</a>, Dhi Qar Governorate, <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a></figcaption></figure> <p>With the end of the <a href="/wiki/Uruk" title="Uruk">Uruk</a> phase, walled cities grew. Many isolated <a href="/wiki/Ubaid_period" title="Ubaid period">Ubaid</a> villages were abandoned, indicating a rise in communal violence. An early king <a href="/wiki/Lugalbanda" title="Lugalbanda">Lugalbanda</a> was supposed to have built the white walls around the city. As <a href="/wiki/City-states" class="mw-redirect" title="City-states">city-states</a> began to grow, their spheres of influence overlapped, creating arguments between other city-states, especially over land and canals. These arguments were recorded in tablets several hundreds of years before any major war—the first recording of a war occurred around 3200 BC, but was not common until about 2500 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An <a href="/wiki/Early_Dynastic_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Dynastic II">Early Dynastic II</a> king (Ensi) of Uruk in Sumer, Gilgamesh (c. 2600 BC), was commended for military exploits against <a href="/wiki/Humbaba" title="Humbaba">Humbaba</a> guardian of the Cedar Mountain, and was later celebrated in many later poems and songs in which he was claimed to be two-thirds god and only one-third human. The later <a href="/wiki/Stele_of_the_Vultures" title="Stele of the Vultures">Stele of the Vultures</a> at the end of the <a href="/wiki/Early_Dynastic_III" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Dynastic III">Early Dynastic III</a> period (2600–2350 BC), commemorating the victory of <a href="/wiki/Eannatum" title="Eannatum">Eannatum</a> of <a href="/wiki/Lagash" title="Lagash">Lagash</a> over the neighbouring rival city of <a href="/wiki/Umma" title="Umma">Umma</a>, is the oldest monument in the world that celebrates a massacre.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>From this point forwards, warfare was incorporated into the Mesopotamian political system. At times, a neutral city acted as an arbitrator for two rival cities. This helped to form unions between cities, leading to regional states.<sup id="cite_ref-Robert_Dalling_2004_78-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Robert_Dalling_2004-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When empires were created, they went to war more with foreign countries. King Sargon, for example, conquered all the cities of Sumer, some cities in Mari, and then went to war with cities in modern-day Syria. Many Assyrian and Babylonian palace walls were decorated with pictures of the successful fights and the enemy either desperately escaping or hiding amongst reeds. </p><p>The Neo-Babylonian kings used deportation as a means of control, like their predecessors, the Assyrians. For the Neo-Babylonian kings, war was a means to obtain tribute, plunder, sought after materials such as various metals and quality wood, and prisoners of war which could be put to work as slaves in the temples which they built. The Assyrians displaced populations throughout their vast empire. This practice under the Babylonian kings was more limited, only being used to establish new populations in Babylonia itself. Though royal inscriptions from the Neo-Babylonian period don't speak of acts of destruction and deportation in the same boastful way royal inscriptions from the Neo-Assyrian period do, this does not prove that the practice ceased, or that the Babylonians were less brutal than the Assyrians, since there is evidence that the city <a href="/wiki/Ascalon" title="Ascalon">Ascalon</a> was destroyed by <a href="/wiki/Nebuchadnezzar_II" title="Nebuchadnezzar II">Nebuchadnezzar II</a> in 604 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeaulieu200557–58_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeaulieu200557–58-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStager199657–69,_76–77_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStager199657–69,_76–77-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Laws">Laws</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_marriage_law" title="Mesopotamian marriage law">Mesopotamian marriage law</a></div> <p>City-states of Mesopotamia created the first law codes, drawn from legal precedence and decisions made by kings. The codes of <a href="/wiki/Urukagina" title="Urukagina">Urukagina</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lipit-Ishtar" title="Lipit-Ishtar">Lipit-Ishtar</a> (the <a href="/wiki/Code_of_Lipit-Ishtar" title="Code of Lipit-Ishtar">Code of Lipit-Ishtar</a>) have been found. The most renowned of these was that of <a href="/wiki/Hammurabi" title="Hammurabi">Hammurabi</a>, as mentioned above, who was posthumously famous for his set of laws, the <a href="/wiki/Code_of_Hammurabi" title="Code of Hammurabi">Code of Hammurabi</a>, created <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1780 BC</span>, which is one of the earliest sets of laws found and one of the best preserved examples of this type of document from ancient Mesopotamia. He codified over 200 laws for Mesopotamia. Examination of the laws show a progressive weakening of the rights of women, and increasing severity in the treatment of slaves.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Art">Art</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Art_of_Mesopotamia" title="Art of Mesopotamia">Art of Mesopotamia</a></div> <p>The art of Mesopotamia rivalled <a href="/wiki/Art_of_Ancient_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Ancient Egypt">that of Ancient Egypt</a> as the most grand, sophisticated and elaborate in western <a href="/wiki/Eurasia" title="Eurasia">Eurasia</a>, from the 4th millennium BC until the <a href="/wiki/Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Persia">Persian</a> Achaemenid Empire conquered the region in the 6th century BC. The main emphasis was on very durable, forms of sculpture in stone and clay. Little painting has survived, but what has suggests that painting was mainly used for geometrical and plant-based decorative schemes. Most sculpture was also painted. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Protoliterate_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Protoliterate period">Protoliterate period</a>, dominated by <a href="/wiki/Uruk" title="Uruk">Uruk</a>, saw the production of sophisticated works like the <a href="/wiki/Warka_Vase" title="Warka Vase">Warka Vase</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cylinder_seal" title="Cylinder seal">cylinder seals</a>.The <a href="/wiki/Guennol_Lioness" title="Guennol Lioness">Guennol Lioness</a> is an outstanding small <a href="/wiki/Limestone" title="Limestone">limestone</a> figure from <a href="/wiki/Elam" title="Elam">Elam</a> of about 3000–2800 BC, part man and part lion.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrankfort197024–37_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrankfort197024–37-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A little later there are a number of figures of large-eyed priests and worshippers, mostly in alabaster and up to a foot high, who attended temple <a href="/wiki/Cult_image" title="Cult image">cult images</a> of the deity, but very few of these have survived.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrankfort197045–59_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrankfort197045–59-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sculptures from the <a href="/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer">Sumerian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkadian</a> period generally had large, staring eyes, and long beards on the men. Many masterpieces have been found at the Royal Cemetery at <a href="/wiki/Ur" title="Ur">Ur</a> (c. 2650 BC), including the two figures of a <i><a href="/wiki/Ram_in_a_Thicket" title="Ram in a Thicket">Ram in a Thicket</a></i>, the <i><a href="/wiki/Copper_Bull" title="Copper Bull">Copper Bull</a></i> and a bull's head on one of the <a href="/wiki/Lyres_of_Ur" title="Lyres of Ur">Lyres of Ur</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrankfort197061–66_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrankfort197061–66-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>From the many subsequent periods before the ascendency of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, Mesopotamian art survives in a number of forms: cylinder seals, relatively small figures in the round, and reliefs of various sizes, including cheap plaques of moulded pottery for the home, some religious and some apparently not.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrankfort1970Chapters_2–5_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrankfort1970Chapters_2–5-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Burney_Relief" title="Burney Relief">Burney Relief</a> is an unusual elaborate and relatively large (20 x 15 inches) <a href="/wiki/Terracotta" title="Terracotta">terracotta</a> plaque of a naked winged goddess with the feet of a bird of prey, and attendant owls and lions. It comes from the 18th or 19th century BC, and may also be moulded.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrankfort1970110–112_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrankfort1970110–112-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Stone <a href="/wiki/Stela" class="mw-redirect" title="Stela">stelae</a>, <a href="/wiki/Votive_offering" title="Votive offering">votive offerings</a>, or ones probably commemorating victories and showing feasts, are found from temples, which unlike more official ones lack inscriptions that would explain them.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrankfort197066–74_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrankfort197066–74-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The fragmentary <a href="/wiki/Stele_of_the_Vultures" title="Stele of the Vultures">Stele of the Vultures</a> is an early example of the inscribed type.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrankfort197071–73_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrankfort197071–73-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Assyrian <a href="/wiki/Black_Obelisk_of_Shalmaneser_III" title="Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III">Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III</a> a large and solid late one.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrankfort197066–74,_167_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrankfort197066–74,_167-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The conquest of the whole of Mesopotamia and much surrounding territory by the Assyrians created a larger and wealthier state than the region had known before, and very grandiose art in palaces and public places, no doubt partly intended to match the splendour of the art of the neighbouring Egyptian empire. The Assyrians developed a style of extremely large schemes of very finely detailed narrative low reliefs in stone for palaces, with scenes of war or hunting. The <a href="/wiki/British_Museum" title="British Museum">British Museum</a> has an outstanding collection. They produced very little sculpture in the round, except for colossal guardian figures, often the human-headed <a href="/wiki/Lamassu" title="Lamassu">lamassu</a>, which are sculpted in high relief on two sides of a rectangular block, with the heads effectively in the round, and five legs, so that both views seem complete. Even before dominating the region, they continued the cylinder seal tradition, with designs which are often exceptionally energetic and refined.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrankfort1970141–193_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrankfort1970141–193-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Mask_of_Sargon_of_Akkad.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Bronze head of an Akkadian ruler, discovered in Nineveh in 1931, presumably depicting either Sargon of Akkad or Sargon's grandson Naram-Sin.[92]"><img alt="Bronze head of an Akkadian ruler, discovered in Nineveh in 1931, presumably depicting either Sargon of Akkad or Sargon's grandson Naram-Sin.[92]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Mask_of_Sargon_of_Akkad.jpg/120px-Mask_of_Sargon_of_Akkad.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="84" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Mask_of_Sargon_of_Akkad.jpg/180px-Mask_of_Sargon_of_Akkad.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Mask_of_Sargon_of_Akkad.jpg/240px-Mask_of_Sargon_of_Akkad.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3653" data-file-height="2562" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Bronze head of an Akkadian ruler, discovered in <a href="/wiki/Nineveh" title="Nineveh">Nineveh</a> in 1931, presumably depicting either <a href="/wiki/Sargon_of_Akkad" title="Sargon of Akkad">Sargon of Akkad</a> or Sargon's grandson <a href="/wiki/Naram-Sin_of_Akkad" title="Naram-Sin of Akkad">Naram-Sin</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Striding_lions_-_Processional_Way_of_Babylon_-_Pergamonmuseum_-_Berlin_-_Germany_2017.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Striding lions from the Processional Street of Babylon."><img alt="Striding lions from the Processional Street of Babylon." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Striding_lions_-_Processional_Way_of_Babylon_-_Pergamonmuseum_-_Berlin_-_Germany_2017.jpg/120px-Striding_lions_-_Processional_Way_of_Babylon_-_Pergamonmuseum_-_Berlin_-_Germany_2017.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Striding_lions_-_Processional_Way_of_Babylon_-_Pergamonmuseum_-_Berlin_-_Germany_2017.jpg/180px-Striding_lions_-_Processional_Way_of_Babylon_-_Pergamonmuseum_-_Berlin_-_Germany_2017.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Striding_lions_-_Processional_Way_of_Babylon_-_Pergamonmuseum_-_Berlin_-_Germany_2017.jpg/240px-Striding_lions_-_Processional_Way_of_Babylon_-_Pergamonmuseum_-_Berlin_-_Germany_2017.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5184" data-file-height="3456" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Striding lions from the Processional Street of <a href="/wiki/Babylon" title="Babylon">Babylon</a>.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Assyrian_Winged_Bull.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Lamassu, initially depicted as a goddess in Sumerian times, when it was called Lamma, it was later depicted from Assyrian times as a hybrid of a human, bird, and either a bull or lion—specifically having a human head, the body of a bull or a lion, and bird wings, under the name Lamassu.[93][94]"><img alt="Lamassu, initially depicted as a goddess in Sumerian times, when it was called Lamma, it was later depicted from Assyrian times as a hybrid of a human, bird, and either a bull or lion—specifically having a human head, the body of a bull or a lion, and bird wings, under the name Lamassu.[93][94]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Assyrian_Winged_Bull.jpg/90px-Assyrian_Winged_Bull.jpg" decoding="async" width="90" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Assyrian_Winged_Bull.jpg/135px-Assyrian_Winged_Bull.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Assyrian_Winged_Bull.jpg/180px-Assyrian_Winged_Bull.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3024" data-file-height="4032" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Lamassu" title="Lamassu">Lamassu</a>, initially depicted as a goddess in Sumerian times, when it was called <i>Lamma</i>, it was later depicted from Assyrian times as a hybrid of a human, bird, and either a bull or lion—specifically having a human head, the body of a bull or a lion, and bird wings, under the name <i>Lamassu</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-GL109_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GL109-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Livius.org_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Livius.org-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Ancient_Egyptian,_Assyrian,_and_Persian_costumes_and_decorations_(1920)_(14741970056).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Assyrian ornaments and patterns, illustrated in a book from 1920"><img alt="Assyrian ornaments and patterns, illustrated in a book from 1920" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Ancient_Egyptian%2C_Assyrian%2C_and_Persian_costumes_and_decorations_%281920%29_%2814741970056%29.jpg/93px-Ancient_Egyptian%2C_Assyrian%2C_and_Persian_costumes_and_decorations_%281920%29_%2814741970056%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="93" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Ancient_Egyptian%2C_Assyrian%2C_and_Persian_costumes_and_decorations_%281920%29_%2814741970056%29.jpg/140px-Ancient_Egyptian%2C_Assyrian%2C_and_Persian_costumes_and_decorations_%281920%29_%2814741970056%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Ancient_Egyptian%2C_Assyrian%2C_and_Persian_costumes_and_decorations_%281920%29_%2814741970056%29.jpg/186px-Ancient_Egyptian%2C_Assyrian%2C_and_Persian_costumes_and_decorations_%281920%29_%2814741970056%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1958" data-file-height="2522" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Assyrian ornaments and patterns, illustrated in a book from 1920</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Detail,_Nebuchadnezzar_II%27s_Building_Inscription_plaque_of_the_Ishtar_Gate,_from_Babylon,_Iraq._6th_century_BCE._Pergamon_Museum.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Detail of Nebuchadnezzar II's Building Inscription plaque of the Ishtar Gate, from Babylon"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Detail%2C_Nebuchadnezzar_II%27s_Building_Inscription_plaque_of_the_Ishtar_Gate%2C_from_Babylon%2C_Iraq._6th_century_BCE._Pergamon_Museum.jpg/120px-Detail%2C_Nebuchadnezzar_II%27s_Building_Inscription_plaque_of_the_Ishtar_Gate%2C_from_Babylon%2C_Iraq._6th_century_BCE._Pergamon_Museum.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Detail%2C_Nebuchadnezzar_II%27s_Building_Inscription_plaque_of_the_Ishtar_Gate%2C_from_Babylon%2C_Iraq._6th_century_BCE._Pergamon_Museum.jpg/180px-Detail%2C_Nebuchadnezzar_II%27s_Building_Inscription_plaque_of_the_Ishtar_Gate%2C_from_Babylon%2C_Iraq._6th_century_BCE._Pergamon_Museum.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Detail%2C_Nebuchadnezzar_II%27s_Building_Inscription_plaque_of_the_Ishtar_Gate%2C_from_Babylon%2C_Iraq._6th_century_BCE._Pergamon_Museum.jpg/240px-Detail%2C_Nebuchadnezzar_II%27s_Building_Inscription_plaque_of_the_Ishtar_Gate%2C_from_Babylon%2C_Iraq._6th_century_BCE._Pergamon_Museum.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6016" data-file-height="4016" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Detail of Nebuchadnezzar II's Building Inscription plaque of the Ishtar Gate, from <a href="/wiki/Babylon" title="Babylon">Babylon</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Artist%E2%80%99s_impression_of_a_hall_in_an_Assyrian_palace_from_The_Monuments_of_Nineveh_by_Sir_Austen_Henry_Layard,_1853.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Artist's impression of a hall in an Assyrian palace from The Monuments of Nineveh by Austen Henry Layard, 1853"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Artist%E2%80%99s_impression_of_a_hall_in_an_Assyrian_palace_from_The_Monuments_of_Nineveh_by_Sir_Austen_Henry_Layard%2C_1853.jpg/120px-Artist%E2%80%99s_impression_of_a_hall_in_an_Assyrian_palace_from_The_Monuments_of_Nineveh_by_Sir_Austen_Henry_Layard%2C_1853.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="73" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Artist%E2%80%99s_impression_of_a_hall_in_an_Assyrian_palace_from_The_Monuments_of_Nineveh_by_Sir_Austen_Henry_Layard%2C_1853.jpg/180px-Artist%E2%80%99s_impression_of_a_hall_in_an_Assyrian_palace_from_The_Monuments_of_Nineveh_by_Sir_Austen_Henry_Layard%2C_1853.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Artist%E2%80%99s_impression_of_a_hall_in_an_Assyrian_palace_from_The_Monuments_of_Nineveh_by_Sir_Austen_Henry_Layard%2C_1853.jpg/240px-Artist%E2%80%99s_impression_of_a_hall_in_an_Assyrian_palace_from_The_Monuments_of_Nineveh_by_Sir_Austen_Henry_Layard%2C_1853.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1960" data-file-height="1200" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Artist's impression of a hall in an Assyrian palace from <i>The Monuments of Nineveh</i> by <a href="/wiki/Austen_Henry_Layard" title="Austen Henry Layard">Austen Henry Layard</a>, 1853</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Ashur_god.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="A Neo-Assyrian relief of Ashur as a feather robed archer holding a bow instead of a ring (9th-8th century BC)"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Ashur_god.jpg/120px-Ashur_god.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="87" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Ashur_god.jpg/180px-Ashur_god.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Ashur_god.jpg/240px-Ashur_god.jpg 2x" data-file-width="359" data-file-height="260" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">A <a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-Assyrian">Neo-Assyrian</a> relief of Ashur as a <a href="/wiki/Feather_robed_archer" class="mw-redirect" title="Feather robed archer">feather robed archer</a> holding a bow instead of a ring (9th-8th century BC)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Assyrian_king_Shalmaneser_III_receives_tribute_from_Sua,_king_of_Gilzanu,_The_Black_Obelisk..JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="The Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III. The king, surrounded by his royal attendants and a high-ranking official, receives a tribute from Sua, king of Gilzanu (north-west Iran), who bows and prostrates before the king. From Nimrud"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/The_Assyrian_king_Shalmaneser_III_receives_tribute_from_Sua%2C_king_of_Gilzanu%2C_The_Black_Obelisk..JPG/120px-The_Assyrian_king_Shalmaneser_III_receives_tribute_from_Sua%2C_king_of_Gilzanu%2C_The_Black_Obelisk..JPG" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/The_Assyrian_king_Shalmaneser_III_receives_tribute_from_Sua%2C_king_of_Gilzanu%2C_The_Black_Obelisk..JPG/180px-The_Assyrian_king_Shalmaneser_III_receives_tribute_from_Sua%2C_king_of_Gilzanu%2C_The_Black_Obelisk..JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/The_Assyrian_king_Shalmaneser_III_receives_tribute_from_Sua%2C_king_of_Gilzanu%2C_The_Black_Obelisk..JPG/240px-The_Assyrian_king_Shalmaneser_III_receives_tribute_from_Sua%2C_king_of_Gilzanu%2C_The_Black_Obelisk..JPG 2x" data-file-width="4288" data-file-height="2848" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Black_Obelisk_of_Shalmaneser_III" title="Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III">Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III</a>. The king, surrounded by his royal attendants and a high-ranking official, receives a tribute from Sua, king of Gilzanu (north-west Iran), who bows and prostrates before the king. From <a href="/wiki/Nimrud" title="Nimrud">Nimrud</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Genien,_Nimrud_870_v._Chr._Aegyptisches_Museum,_Muenchen-4.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title=""Winged genie", Nimrud c. 870 BC, with inscription running across his midriff."><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Genien%2C_Nimrud_870_v._Chr._Aegyptisches_Museum%2C_Muenchen-4.jpg/80px-Genien%2C_Nimrud_870_v._Chr._Aegyptisches_Museum%2C_Muenchen-4.jpg" decoding="async" width="80" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Genien%2C_Nimrud_870_v._Chr._Aegyptisches_Museum%2C_Muenchen-4.jpg/121px-Genien%2C_Nimrud_870_v._Chr._Aegyptisches_Museum%2C_Muenchen-4.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Genien%2C_Nimrud_870_v._Chr._Aegyptisches_Museum%2C_Muenchen-4.jpg/161px-Genien%2C_Nimrud_870_v._Chr._Aegyptisches_Museum%2C_Muenchen-4.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2056" data-file-height="3060" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">"<a href="/wiki/Winged_genie" title="Winged genie">Winged genie</a>", <a href="/wiki/Nimrud" title="Nimrud">Nimrud</a> c. 870 BC, with inscription running across his midriff.</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Architecture">Architecture</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_Mesopotamia" title="Architecture of Mesopotamia">Architecture of Mesopotamia</a></div> <p>The study of ancient Mesopotamian architecture is based on available <a href="/wiki/Archaeological" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaeological">archaeological</a> evidence, pictorial representation of buildings, and texts on building practices. Scholarly literature usually concentrates on temples, palaces, city walls and gates, and other monumental buildings, but occasionally one finds works on residential architecture as well.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Archaeological surface surveys also allowed for the study of urban form in early Mesopotamian cities. </p><p>Brick is the dominant material, as the material was freely available locally, whereas building stone had to be brought a considerable distance to most cities.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Ziggurat" title="Ziggurat">ziggurat</a> is the most distinctive form, and cities often had large gateways, of which the <a href="/wiki/Ishtar_Gate" title="Ishtar Gate">Ishtar Gate</a> from Neo-Babylonian Babylon, decorated with beasts in polychrome brick, is the most famous, now largely in the <a href="/wiki/Pergamon_Museum" title="Pergamon Museum">Pergamon Museum</a> in <a href="/wiki/Berlin" title="Berlin">Berlin</a>. </p><p>The most notable architectural remains from early Mesopotamia are the temple complexes at <a href="/wiki/Uruk" title="Uruk">Uruk</a> from the 4th millennium BC, temples and palaces from the <a href="/wiki/Early_Dynastic_Period_(Mesopotamia)" title="Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)">Early Dynastic period</a> sites in the <a href="/wiki/Diyala_River" title="Diyala River">Diyala River</a> valley such as Khafajah and Tell Asmar, the <a href="/wiki/Third_Dynasty_of_Ur" title="Third Dynasty of Ur">Third Dynasty of Ur</a> remains at <a href="/wiki/Nippur" title="Nippur">Nippur</a> (Sanctuary of <a href="/wiki/Enlil" title="Enlil">Enlil</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Ur" title="Ur">Ur</a> (Sanctuary of <a href="/wiki/Sin_(mythology)" title="Sin (mythology)">Nanna</a>), Middle <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a> remains at Syrian-Turkish sites of <a href="/wiki/Ebla" title="Ebla">Ebla</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mari,_Syria" title="Mari, Syria">Mari</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alalakh" title="Alalakh">Alalakh</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aleppo" title="Aleppo">Aleppo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kultepe" class="mw-redirect" title="Kultepe">Kultepe</a>, Late Bronze Age palaces at <a href="/wiki/Hattusa" title="Hattusa">Hattusa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ugarit" title="Ugarit">Ugarit</a>, <a href="/wiki/Assur" title="Assur">Ashur</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nuzi" title="Nuzi">Nuzi</a>. </p><p>Iron Age palaces and temples are found at the <a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyrian</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kalhu" class="mw-redirect" title="Kalhu">Kalhu</a>/Nimrud, <a href="/wiki/Khorsabad" class="mw-redirect" title="Khorsabad">Khorsabad</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nineveh" title="Nineveh">Nineveh</a>), <a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonian</a> (<a href="/wiki/Babylon" title="Babylon">Babylon</a>), <a href="/wiki/Urartian" class="mw-redirect" title="Urartian">Urartian</a> (<a href="/wiki/Tushpa" title="Tushpa">Tushpa</a>/Van, Kalesi, Cavustepe, Ayanis, <a href="/wiki/Armavir,_Armenia" title="Armavir, Armenia">Armavir</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yerevan" title="Yerevan">Erebuni</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bastam" title="Bastam">Bastam</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Neo-Hittite" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-Hittite">Neo-Hittite</a> sites (<a href="/wiki/Carchemish" title="Carchemish">Karkamis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tell_Halaf" title="Tell Halaf">Tell Halaf</a>, <a href="/wiki/Karatepe" title="Karatepe">Karatepe</a>). Houses are mostly known from Old Babylonian remains at Nippur and Ur. Among the textual sources on building construction and associated rituals, are Gudea's cylinders from the late 3rd millennium, as well as the Assyrian and Babylonian royal inscriptions from the <a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a>. </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Ishtar_Gate.gif" class="mw-file-description" title="The Ishtar gate was constructed in about 575 BC by order of King Nebuchadnezzar II. Pergamon Museum, Berlin"><img alt="The Ishtar gate was constructed in about 575 BC by order of King Nebuchadnezzar II. Pergamon Museum, Berlin" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Ishtar_Gate.gif/110px-Ishtar_Gate.gif" decoding="async" width="110" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Ishtar_Gate.gif/165px-Ishtar_Gate.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Ishtar_Gate.gif/220px-Ishtar_Gate.gif 2x" data-file-width="275" data-file-height="300" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Ishtar_Gate" title="Ishtar Gate">Ishtar gate</a> was constructed in about 575 BC by order of King <a href="/wiki/Nebuchadnezzar_II" title="Nebuchadnezzar II">Nebuchadnezzar II</a>. <a href="/wiki/Pergamon_Museum" title="Pergamon Museum">Pergamon Museum</a>, Berlin</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Street_in_Babylon.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The walls of Babylon, in Babylon"><img alt="The walls of Babylon, in Babylon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Street_in_Babylon.jpg/120px-Street_in_Babylon.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Street_in_Babylon.jpg/180px-Street_in_Babylon.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Street_in_Babylon.jpg/240px-Street_in_Babylon.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6000" data-file-height="4000" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The walls of Babylon, in <a href="/wiki/Babylon" title="Babylon">Babylon</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Zig_front_right_side.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="The Ziggurat of Ur"><img alt="The Ziggurat of Ur" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Zig_front_right_side.JPG/120px-Zig_front_right_side.JPG" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Zig_front_right_side.JPG/180px-Zig_front_right_side.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Zig_front_right_side.JPG/240px-Zig_front_right_side.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="2304" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Ziggurat_of_Ur" title="Ziggurat of Ur">Ziggurat of Ur</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:The_ziggurat_at_Aqar_Quf.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The ziggurat of Dur-kuriagalzu in 2010"><img alt="The ziggurat of Dur-kuriagalzu in 2010" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/The_ziggurat_at_Aqar_Quf.jpg/120px-The_ziggurat_at_Aqar_Quf.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="83" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/The_ziggurat_at_Aqar_Quf.jpg/180px-The_ziggurat_at_Aqar_Quf.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/The_ziggurat_at_Aqar_Quf.jpg/240px-The_ziggurat_at_Aqar_Quf.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2100" data-file-height="1446" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The ziggurat of <a href="/wiki/Dur-Kurigalzu" title="Dur-Kurigalzu">Dur-kuriagalzu</a> in 2010</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:SumerianZiggurat.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="A suggested reconstruction of the appearance of a Sumerian ziggurat"><img alt="A suggested reconstruction of the appearance of a Sumerian ziggurat" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/SumerianZiggurat.jpg/120px-SumerianZiggurat.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="96" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/SumerianZiggurat.jpg/180px-SumerianZiggurat.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/SumerianZiggurat.jpg/240px-SumerianZiggurat.jpg 2x" data-file-width="689" data-file-height="550" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">A suggested reconstruction of the appearance of a Sumerian <a href="/wiki/Ziggurat" title="Ziggurat">ziggurat</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:20160105-Abraham_house_in_Ur_Iraq.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The alleged Abraham house in Ur"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/20160105-Abraham_house_in_Ur_Iraq.jpg/120px-20160105-Abraham_house_in_Ur_Iraq.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/20160105-Abraham_house_in_Ur_Iraq.jpg/180px-20160105-Abraham_house_in_Ur_Iraq.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/20160105-Abraham_house_in_Ur_Iraq.jpg/240px-20160105-Abraham_house_in_Ur_Iraq.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5760" data-file-height="3840" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The alleged <a href="/wiki/Abraham" title="Abraham">Abraham</a> house in <a href="/wiki/Ur" title="Ur">Ur</a></div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notes">Notes</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Turkish_language" title="Turkish language">Turkish</a>: <i lang="tr">Mezopotamya</i>; <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greek language">Ancient Greek</a>: <span lang="grc">Μεσοποταμία</span> <i>Mesopotamíā</i>; <a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>: <span lang="ar" dir="rtl">بِلَاد ٱلرَّافِدَيْن</span> <span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">Bilād ar-Rāfidayn</i></span> or <span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">بَيْن‌ُ ٱلْنَهْرَيْن</span></span> <span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">Bayn ul-Nahrayn</i></span>; <a href="/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language">Persian</a>: <span lang="fa" dir="rtl">میان‌رودان</span> <span title="Persian-language romanization"><i lang="fa-Latn">miyân rudân</i></span>; <a href="/wiki/Classical_Syriac_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical Syriac language">Classical Syriac</a>: <span lang="syc" dir="rtl">ܒܝܬ ܢܗܪ̈ܝܢ</span>, <span title="Classical Syriac-language romanization"><i lang="syc-Latn">Bēṯ Nahrēn</i></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFSeymour2004" class="citation journal cs1">Seymour, Michael (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/383004">"Ancient Mesopotamia and Modern Iraq in the British Press, 1980–2003"</a>. <i>Current Anthropology</i>. <b>45</b> (3): 351–368. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F383004">10.1086/383004</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0011-3204">0011-3204</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/383004">10.1086/383004</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:224788984">224788984</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220430014407/https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/383004">Archived</a> from the original on 30 April 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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A. Brebbia, <i>Eco-architecture II: Harmonisation Between Architecture and Nature,</i> WIT Press, 2008, pp. 15–26.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEmberling2015255-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEmberling2015255_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEmberling2015">Emberling 2015</a>, p. 255.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEmberling2015256-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEmberling2015256_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEmberling2015">Emberling 2015</a>, p. 256.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thompson, William R. (2004) "Complexity, Diminishing Marginal Returns, and Serial Mesopotamian Fragmentation", (Vol 3, Journal of World-Systems Research).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-BBC1-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-BBC1_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-11729813">"Migrants from the Near East 'brought farming to Europe'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. BBC. 10 November 2010. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101213144452/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-11729813">Archived</a> from the original on 13 December 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 December</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Migrants+from+the+Near+East+%27brought+farming+to+Europe%27&rft.date=2010-11-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fscience-environment-11729813&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesopotamia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPollock1999" class="citation cs2">Pollock, Susan (1999), <i>Ancient Mesopotamia. The Eden that never was</i>, Case Studies in Early Societies, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p. 2, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-57568-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-57568-3"><bdi>978-0-521-57568-3</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Mesopotamia.+The+Eden+that+never+was&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.series=Case+Studies+in+Early+Societies&rft.pages=2&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-521-57568-3&rft.aulast=Pollock&rft.aufirst=Susan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesopotamia" class="Z3988"></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/cultures/mesopotamia_gallery_03.shtml">"Ancient History in depth: Mesopotamia"</a>. BBC History. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170628234445/http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/cultures/mesopotamia_gallery_03.shtml">Archived</a> from the original on 28 June 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 July</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Ancient+History+in+depth%3A+Mesopotamia&rft.pub=BBC+History&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fhistory%2Fancient%2Fcultures%2Fmesopotamia_gallery_03.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesopotamia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFinkelstein1955" class="citation journal cs1">Finkelstein, J. J. (1955). "Subartu and Subarian in Old Babylonian Sources". <i>Journal of Cuneiform Studies</i>. <b>9</b> (1): 1–7. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1359052">10.2307/1359052</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1359052">1359052</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:163484083">163484083</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Cuneiform+Studies&rft.atitle=Subartu+and+Subarian+in+Old+Babylonian+Sources&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-7&rft.date=1955&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A163484083%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1359052%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1359052&rft.aulast=Finkelstein&rft.aufirst=J.+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesopotamia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGuo2017" class="citation book cs1">Guo, Rongxing (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Nz8UDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA23"><i>An Economic Inquiry into the Nonlinear Behaviors of Nations: Dynamic Developments and the Origins of Civilizations</i></a>. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 23. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783319487724" title="Special:BookSources/9783319487724"><bdi>9783319487724</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210414130750/https://books.google.com/books?id=Nz8UDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA23">Archived</a> from the original on 14 April 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 July</span> 2019</span>. <q>It was not until the widespread use of a syllabic script was adopted under Sargon's rule that significant portions of Sumerian population became literate.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Economic+Inquiry+into+the+Nonlinear+Behaviors+of+Nations%3A+Dynamic+Developments+and+the+Origins+of+Civilizations&rft.pages=23&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=9783319487724&rft.aulast=Guo&rft.aufirst=Rongxing&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNz8UDgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA23&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesopotamia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-woods-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-woods_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Woods C. (2006). "Bilingualism, Scribal Learning, and the Death of Sumerian". In S. L. Sanders (ed) <i>Margins of Writing, Origins of Culture</i>: 91–120, Chicago, Illinois <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://oi.uchicago.edu/pdf/OIS2.pdf">[1]</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130429121058/http://oi.uchicago.edu/pdf/OIS2.pdf">Archived</a> 29 April 2013 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTetlow2004" class="citation book cs1">Tetlow, Elisabeth Meier (28 December 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ONkJ_Rj1SS8C&pg=PA75"><i>Women, Crime and Punishment in Ancient Law and Society: Volume 1: The Ancient Near East</i></a>. A&C Black. p. 75. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780826416285" title="Special:BookSources/9780826416285"><bdi>9780826416285</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200522152934/https://books.google.com/books?id=ONkJ_Rj1SS8C&pg=PA75">Archived</a> from the original on 22 May 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 June</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Women%2C+Crime+and+Punishment+in+Ancient+Law+and+Society%3A+Volume+1%3A+The+Ancient+Near+East&rft.pages=75&rft.pub=A%26C+Black&rft.date=2004-12-28&rft.isbn=9780826416285&rft.aulast=Tetlow&rft.aufirst=Elisabeth+Meier&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DONkJ_Rj1SS8C%26pg%3DPA75&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesopotamia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEves1969" class="citation book cs1">Eves, Howard (1969). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/introductiontohi00eves_0"><i>An Introduction to the History of Mathematics</i></a></span>. Holt, Rinehart and Winston. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/introductiontohi00eves_0/page/31">31</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780030745508" title="Special:BookSources/9780030745508"><bdi>9780030745508</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+the+History+of+Mathematics&rft.pages=31&rft.pub=Holt%2C+Rinehart+and+Winston&rft.date=1969&rft.isbn=9780030745508&rft.aulast=Eves&rft.aufirst=Howard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fintroductiontohi00eves_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesopotamia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEves1969" class="citation book cs1">Eves, Howard (1969). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/introductiontohi00eves_0"><i>An Introduction to the History of Mathematics</i></a></span>. Holt, Rinehart and Winston. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/introductiontohi00eves_0/page/31">31</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780030745508" title="Special:BookSources/9780030745508"><bdi>9780030745508</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+the+History+of+Mathematics&rft.pages=31&rft.pub=Holt%2C+Rinehart+and+Winston&rft.date=1969&rft.isbn=9780030745508&rft.aulast=Eves&rft.aufirst=Howard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fintroductiontohi00eves_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesopotamia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStruik1987" class="citation book cs1">Struik, Dirk J. (1987). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/concisehistoryof0000stru_m6j1"><i>A Concise History of Mathematics</i></a></span>. New York: Dover Publications. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-486-60255-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-486-60255-4"><bdi>978-0-486-60255-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Concise+History+of+Mathematics&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Dover+Publications&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-0-486-60255-4&rft.aulast=Struik&rft.aufirst=Dirk+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fconcisehistoryof0000stru_m6j1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesopotamia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fowler and Robson, p. 368. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://it.stlawu.edu/%7Edmelvill/mesomath/tablets/YBC7289.html">Photograph, illustration, and description of the <i>root(2)</i> tablet from the Yale Babylonian Collection</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120813054036/http://it.stlawu.edu/%7Edmelvill/mesomath/tablets/YBC7289.html">Archived</a> 2012-08-13 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.math.ubc.ca/%7Ecass/Euclid/ybc/ybc.html">High resolution photographs, descriptions, and analysis of the <i>root(2)</i> tablet (YBC 7289) from the Yale Babylonian Collection</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200712173830/http://www.math.ubc.ca/~cass/Euclid/ybc/ybc.html">Archived</a> 12 July 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Boyer_Babylon_p30-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Boyer_Babylon_p30_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBoyer1991">Boyer 1991</a>, "Mesopotamia" p. 30: "Babylonian mathematicians did not hesitate to interpolate by proportional parts to approximate intermediate values. Linear interpolation seems to have been a commonplace procedure in ancient Mesopotamia, and the positional notation lent itself conveniently to the rile of three. [...] a table essential in Babylonian algebra; this subject reached a considerably higher level in Mesopotamia than in Egypt. Many problem texts from the Old Babylonian period show that the solution of the complete three-term quadratic equation afforded the Babylonians no serious difficulty, for flexible algebraic operations had been developed. They could transpose terms in an equations by adding equals to equals, and they could <a href="/wiki/Multiplication" title="Multiplication">multiply</a> both sides by like quantities to remove <a href="/wiki/Fraction" title="Fraction">fractions</a> or to eliminate factors. By adding <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle 4ab}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mn>4</mn> <mi>a</mi> <mi>b</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 4ab}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/95c3aa7de31a0db7f6e7142f59baa42456dcda49" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:3.39ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle 4ab}"></span> to <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle (a-b)^{2}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>a</mi> <mo>−</mo> <mi>b</mi> <msup> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle (a-b)^{2}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/5f2e353b8d078fad165f745bdc00c0138244c33f" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:7.931ex; height:3.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle (a-b)^{2}}"></span> they could obtain <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle (a+b)^{2}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>a</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mi>b</mi> <msup> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle (a+b)^{2}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/2ceb5efe73b6089f83653aacb8db72a3dcc0d49b" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:7.931ex; height:3.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle (a+b)^{2}}"></span> for they were familiar with many simple forms of factoring. [...]Egyptian algebra had been much concerned with linear equations, but the Babylonians evidently found these too elementary for much attention. [...] In another problem in an Old Babylonian text we find two simultaneous linear equations in two unknown quantities, called respectively the "first silver ring" and the "second silver ring.""</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJoyce,_David_E.1995" class="citation web cs1">Joyce, David E. (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://aleph0.clarku.edu/~djoyce/mathhist/plimpnote.html">"Plimpton 322"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110308060531/http://aleph0.clarku.edu/~djoyce/mathhist/plimpnote.html">Archived</a> from the original on 8 March 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 June</span> 2022</span>. <q>The clay tablet with the catalog number 322 in the G. A. Plimpton Collection at Columbia University may be the most well known mathematical tablet, certainly the most photographed one, but it deserves even greater renown. It was scribed in the Old Babylonian period between −1900 and −1600 and shows the most advanced mathematics before the development of Greek mathematics.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Plimpton+322&rft.date=1995&rft.au=Joyce%2C+David+E.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Faleph0.clarku.edu%2F~djoyce%2Fmathhist%2Fplimpnote.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesopotamia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Brown-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Brown_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">D. Brown (2000), <i>Mesopotamian Planetary Astronomy-Astrology</i>, Styx Publications, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-5693-036-2" title="Special:BookSources/90-5693-036-2">90-5693-036-2</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Otto_E._Neugebauer" title="Otto E. Neugebauer">Otto E. Neugebauer</a> (1945). "The History of Ancient Astronomy Problems and Methods", <i>Journal of Near Eastern Studies</i> <b>4</b> (1), pp. 1–38.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/George_Sarton" title="George Sarton">George Sarton</a> (1955). "Chaldaean Astronomy of the Last Three Centuries B.C.", <i>Journal of the American Oriental Society</i> <b>75</b> (3), pp. 166–173 [169].</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">William P. D. Wightman (1951, 1953), <i>The Growth of Scientific Ideas</i>, Yale University Press, p. 38.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-dp1998-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-dp1998_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPingree1998">Pingree (1998)</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Stol-99-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Stol-99_38-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stol-99_38-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">H. F. J. Horstmanshoff, Marten Stol, Cornelis Tilburg (2004), <i>Magic and Rationality in Ancient Near Eastern and Graeco-Roman Medicine</i>, p. 99, <a href="/wiki/Brill_Publishers" title="Brill Publishers">Brill Publishers</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-04-13666-5" title="Special:BookSources/90-04-13666-5">90-04-13666-5</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStol199355-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStol199355_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStol1993">Stol 1993</a>, p. 55.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFriedenwaldMorrison1940" class="citation journal cs1">Friedenwald, Julius; Morrison, Samuel (January 1940). "The History of the Enema with Some Notes on Related Procedures (Part I)". <i>Bulletin of the History of Medicine</i>. <b>8</b> (1). <a href="/wiki/Johns_Hopkins_University_Press" title="Johns Hopkins University Press">Johns Hopkins University Press</a>: 77. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/44442727">44442727</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bulletin+of+the+History+of+Medicine&rft.atitle=The+History+of+the+Enema+with+Some+Notes+on+Related+Procedures+%28Part+I%29&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=77&rft.date=1940-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F44442727%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Friedenwald&rft.aufirst=Julius&rft.au=Morrison%2C+Samuel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesopotamia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">H. F. J. Horstmanshoff, Marten Stol, Cornelis Tilburg (2004), <i>Magic and Rationality in Ancient Near Eastern and Graeco-Roman Medicine</i>, pp. 97–98, <a href="/wiki/Brill_Publishers" title="Brill Publishers">Brill Publishers</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-04-13666-5" title="Special:BookSources/90-04-13666-5">90-04-13666-5</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStol19935-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStol19935_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStol1993">Stol 1993</a>, p. 5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTeall2014" class="citation journal cs1">Teall, Emily (October 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholarworks.gvsu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1056&context=gvjh">"Medicine and Doctoring in Ancient Mesopotamia"</a>. <i>Grand Valley Journal of History</i>. <b>3</b> (1): 3.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Grand+Valley+Journal+of+History&rft.atitle=Medicine+and+Doctoring+in+Ancient+Mesopotamia&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=3&rft.date=2014-10&rft.aulast=Teall&rft.aufirst=Emily&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fscholarworks.gvsu.edu%2Fcgi%2Fviewcontent.cgi%3Farticle%3D1056%26context%3Dgvjh&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesopotamia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stephanie Dalley and <a href="/wiki/John_Peter_Oleson" title="John Peter Oleson">John Peter Oleson</a> (January 2003). "Sennacherib, Archimedes, and the Water Screw: The Context of Invention in the Ancient World", <i>Technology and Culture</i> <b>44</b> (1).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-BBC2-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-BBC2_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTwist2005" class="citation cs2">Twist, Jo (20 November 2005), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/4450052.stm">"Open media to connect communities"</a>, <i>BBC News</i>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190517132329/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/4450052.stm">archived</a> from the original on 17 May 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 August</span> 2007</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=Open+media+to+connect+communities&rft.date=2005-11-20&rft.aulast=Twist&rft.aufirst=Jo&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F2%2Fhi%2Ftechnology%2F4450052.stm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesopotamia" class="Z3988"></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLambert2016" class="citation book cs1">Lambert, W. G. (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dTLWQddp8zwC&pg=PA111"><i>Ancient Mesopotamian Religion and Mythology: Selected Essays</i></a>. The Cosmology of Sumer & Babylon. Mohr Siebeck. p. 111. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3161536748" title="Special:BookSources/978-3161536748"><bdi>978-3161536748</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220501165046/https://books.google.com/books?id=dTLWQddp8zwC">Archived</a> from the original on 1 May 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Hoboken: Taylor and Francis. p. 399. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781317677666" title="Special:BookSources/9781317677666"><bdi>9781317677666</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Cosmology+%28Routledge+Revivals%29+%3A+Historical%2C+Philosophical%2C+and+Scientific+Foundations+of+Modern+Cosmology.&rft.place=Hoboken&rft.pages=399&rft.pub=Taylor+and+Francis&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9781317677666&rft.aulast=Hetherington&rft.aufirst=Norriss+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesopotamia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBertman2005" class="citation book cs1">Bertman, Stephen (2005). <i>Handbook to life in ancient Mesopotamia</i> (Paperback ed.). Oxford [u.a.], England: Oxford University Press. p. 312. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-518364-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-518364-1"><bdi>978-0-19-518364-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Handbook+to+life+in+ancient+Mesopotamia&rft.place=Oxford+%5Bu.a.%5D%2C+England&rft.pages=312&rft.edition=Paperback&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-19-518364-1&rft.aulast=Bertman&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesopotamia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Giorgio Buccellati (1981), "Wisdom and Not: The Case of Mesopotamia", <i>Journal of the American Oriental Society</i> <b>101</b> (1), pp. 35–47.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sheila-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sheila_50-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sheila_50-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDow2005" class="citation journal cs1">Dow, Sheila C. (April 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01603477.2005.11051453">"Axioms and Babylonian thought: A reply"</a>. <i>Journal of Post Keynesian Economics</i>. <b>27</b> (3): 385–391. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F01603477.2005.11051453">10.1080/01603477.2005.11051453</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:153637070">153637070</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200803222653/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01603477.2005.11051453">Archived</a> from the original on 3 August 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 December</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Post+Keynesian+Economics&rft.atitle=Axioms+and+Babylonian+thought%3A+A+reply&rft.volume=27&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=385-391&rft.date=2005-04&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F01603477.2005.11051453&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A153637070%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Dow&rft.aufirst=Sheila+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.tandfonline.com%2Fdoi%2Fabs%2F10.1080%2F01603477.2005.11051453&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesopotamia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Giorgio Buccellati (1981), "Wisdom and Not: The Case of Mesopotamia", <i>Journal of the American Oriental Society</i> <b>101</b> (1), pp. 35–47 43.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlackGreen1992156,_169–170-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlackGreen1992156,_169–170_52-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBlackGreen1992">Black & Green 1992</a>, pp. 156, 169–170.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELiungman2004228-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiungman2004228_53-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLiungman2004">Liungman 2004</a>, p. 228.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNemet-Nejat1998" class="citation cs2">Nemet-Nejat, Karen Rhea (1998), <i>Daily Life in Ancient Mesopotamia</i></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Daily+Life+in+Ancient+Mesopotamia&rft.date=1998&rft.aulast=Nemet-Nejat&rft.aufirst=Karen+Rhea&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesopotamia" class="Z3988"></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarris2000" class="citation cs2">Harris, Rivkah (2000), <i>Gender and Aging in Mesopotamia</i></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gender+and+Aging+in+Mesopotamia&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Harris&rft.aufirst=Rivkah&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesopotamia" class="Z3988"></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarris2000" class="citation cs2">Harris, Rivkah (2000), <i>Gender and Aging in Mesopotamia</i></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gender+and+Aging+in+Mesopotamia&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Harris&rft.aufirst=Rivkah&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesopotamia" class="Z3988"></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kramer1963-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Kramer1963_57-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKramer1963" class="citation book cs1">Kramer, Samuel Noah (1963). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sumerianstheirhi00samu"><i>The Sumerians: Their History, Culture, and Character</i></a></span>. 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Cengage Learning. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-538-74438-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-538-74438-6"><bdi>978-0-538-74438-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210414161613/https://books.google.com/books?id=jvsVSqhw-FAC&pg=PA29">Archived</a> from the original on 14 April 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 May</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Earth+and+Its+Peoples%3A+A+Global+History&rft.pub=Cengage+Learning&rft.date=2010-01-01&rft.isbn=978-0-538-74438-6&rft.aulast=Bulliet&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft.au=Crossley%2C+Pamela+Kyle&rft.au=Headrick%2C+Daniel&rft.au=Hirsch%2C+Steven&rft.au=Johnson%2C+Lyman&rft.au=Northup%2C+David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjvsVSqhw-FAC%26pg%3DPA29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesopotamia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-H._W._F._Saggs-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-H._W._F._Saggs_60-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSaggs2000" class="citation book cs1">Saggs, H. W. F. – Professor Emeritus of Semitic Languages at University College, Cardiff, Wales (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BPdLxEyHci0C&pg=PA58"><i>Babylonians</i></a>. University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-20222-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-20222-1"><bdi>978-0-520-20222-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210414130752/https://books.google.com/books?id=BPdLxEyHci0C&pg=PA58">Archived</a> from the original on 14 April 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 May</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Babylonians&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-520-20222-1&rft.aulast=Saggs&rft.aufirst=H.+W.+F.+%E2%80%93+Professor+Emeritus+of+Semitic+Languages+at+University+College%2C+Cardiff%2C+Wales&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DBPdLxEyHci0C%26pg%3DPA58&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesopotamia" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Roux, Georges, (1993) "Ancient Iraq" (Penguin).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWheeler1953" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Mortimer_Wheeler" title="Mortimer Wheeler">Wheeler, Mortimer</a> (1953). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9cs7AAAAIAAJ"><i>The Indus Civilization</i></a>. Cambridge history of India: Supplementary volume (3 ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press (published 1968). p. 111. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521069588" title="Special:BookSources/9780521069588"><bdi>9780521069588</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210410083125/https://books.google.com/books?id=9cs7AAAAIAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 10 April 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 April</span> 2021</span>. <q>In calculating the significance of Indus contacts with Mesopotamia, it is obvious that the economic vitality of Mesopotamia is the controlling factor. Documentary evidence there vouches for vigorous commercial activity in the Sarginid and Larsa phases [...]</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Indus+Civilization&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.series=Cambridge+history+of+India%3A+Supplementary+volume&rft.pages=111&rft.edition=3&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1953&rft.isbn=9780521069588&rft.aulast=Wheeler&rft.aufirst=Mortimer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9cs7AAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesopotamia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWayneWilliam2012" class="citation journal cs1">Wayne, Alexander; William, Violet (February 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://asbbs.org/files/ASBBS2012V1/PDF/A/AlexanderW.pdf">"Trade and Traders of Mesopotamian Ur"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Journal of Business and Behavior Sciences</i>. <b>19</b> (2012): 2.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Business+and+Behavior+Sciences&rft.atitle=Trade+and+Traders+of+Mesopotamian+Ur&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=2012&rft.pages=2&rft.date=2012-02&rft.aulast=Wayne&rft.aufirst=Alexander&rft.au=William%2C+Violet&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fasbbs.org%2Ffiles%2FASBBS2012V1%2FPDF%2FA%2FAlexanderW.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesopotamia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Shaw,_Ian_1995_p._109-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Shaw,_Ian_1995_p._109_64-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Shaw, Ian. & Nicholson, Paul, <i>The Dictionary of Ancient Egypt,</i> (London: British Museum Press, 1995), p. 109.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mitchell-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Mitchell_65-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMitchell" class="citation web cs1">Mitchell, Larkin. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.archaeology.org/9903/newsbriefs/egypt.html">"Earliest Egyptian Glyphs"</a>. <i>Archaeology</i>. Archaeological Institute of America. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121227081007/http://www.archaeology.org/9903/newsbriefs/egypt.html">Archived</a> from the original on 27 December 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 February</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Archaeology&rft.atitle=Earliest+Egyptian+Glyphs&rft.aulast=Mitchell&rft.aufirst=Larkin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.archaeology.org%2F9903%2Fnewsbriefs%2Fegypt.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesopotamia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBryce1886" class="citation journal cs1">Bryce, James (1886). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YIEkAQAAIAAJ">"The Relations of History and Geography"</a>. <i>Littell's Living Age</i>. 5. <b>169</b>. Boston: Littell and Company: 70. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210411224831/https://books.google.com/books?id=YIEkAQAAIAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 11 April 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 April</span> 2021</span>. <q>There was also an important trade route through central Asia, which coming down through Persia and Mesopotamia to the Levant, reached the sea in northern Syria [...]. These trade routes assumed enormous importance in the earlier Middle Ages, and upon them great political issues turned.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Littell%27s+Living+Age&rft.atitle=The+Relations+of+History+and+Geography&rft.volume=169&rft.pages=70&rft.date=1886&rft.aulast=Bryce&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYIEkAQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesopotamia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBullietCrossleyHeadrickHirsch2009" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Bulliet" title="Richard Bulliet">Bulliet, Richard</a>; <a href="/wiki/Pamela_Kyle_Crossley" title="Pamela Kyle Crossley">Crossley, Pamela Kyle</a>; <a href="/wiki/Daniel_R._Headrick" title="Daniel R. Headrick">Headrick, Daniel R.</a>; Hirsch, Steven W.; Johnson, Lyman L.; Northrup, David (2009). "Interregional Patterns of Culture and Contact". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8kfAAgAAQBAJ"><i>The Earth and Its Peoples: A Global History</i></a> (6 ed.). Cengage Learning (published 2014). p. 279. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781305147096" title="Special:BookSources/9781305147096"><bdi>9781305147096</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210411224830/https://books.google.com/books?id=8kfAAgAAQBAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 11 April 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 April</span> 2021</span>. <q>Eurasia's overland trade faded, and merchants, soldiers, and explorers took to the seas.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Interregional+Patterns+of+Culture+and+Contact&rft.btitle=The+Earth+and+Its+Peoples%3A+A+Global+History&rft.pages=279&rft.edition=6&rft.pub=Cengage+Learning&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9781305147096&rft.aulast=Bulliet&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft.au=Crossley%2C+Pamela+Kyle&rft.au=Headrick%2C+Daniel+R.&rft.au=Hirsch%2C+Steven+W.&rft.au=Johnson%2C+Lyman+L.&rft.au=Northrup%2C+David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8kfAAgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesopotamia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrebbiaMartinez_Boquera2016" class="citation book cs1">Brebbia, Carlos A.; Martinez Boquera, A., eds. (28 December 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=q37zDQAAQBAJ"><i>Islamic Heritage Architecture</i></a>. Volume 159 of WIT transactions on the built environment. Southampton: WIT Press (published 2016). p. 111. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781784662370" title="Special:BookSources/9781784662370"><bdi>9781784662370</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 April</span> 2021</span>. <q>[...] the Silk Road [...] passed through central Asia and Mesopotamia. When the Suez Canal was inaugurated in 1869, trade was diverted to the sea [...].</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islamic+Heritage+Architecture&rft.place=Southampton&rft.series=Volume+159+of+WIT+transactions+on+the+built+environment&rft.pages=111&rft.pub=WIT+Press&rft.date=2016-12-28&rft.isbn=9781784662370&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dq37zDQAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesopotamia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Zahery-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Zahery_69-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Zahery_69-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAl-Zahery2003" class="citation web cs1">Al-Zahery, N.; et al. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101227053418/http://www.familytreedna.com/pdf/Al_Zahery.pdf">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>"Y-chromosome and mtDNA polymorphisms in Iraq, a crossroad of the early human dispersal and of post-Neolithic migrations"<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.familytreedna.com/pdf/Al_Zahery.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 27 December 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Genetic tree of West Asia"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110614015416/http://www.atour.com/health/images/genetics.gif">Archived</a> from the original on 14 June 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 December</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Cavalli-Sforza+et+al.+Genetic+tree+of+West+Asia&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.atour.com%2Fhealth%2Fimages%2Fgenetics.gif&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesopotamia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDoganGurkanDoganEmin_Balkaya2017" class="citation journal cs1">Dogan, Serkan; Gurkan, Cemal; Dogan, Mustafa; et al. 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Routledge. pp. 109–110. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-134-64102-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-134-64102-4"><bdi>978-1-134-64102-4</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211121170406/https://books.google.com/books?id=_pqEAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA109">Archived</a> from the original on 21 November 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 March</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Dictionary+of+Ancient+Near+Eastern+Mythology&rft.pages=109-110&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-1-134-64102-4&rft.aulast=Leick&rft.aufirst=Gwendolyn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_pqEAgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA109&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesopotamia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Livius.org-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Livius.org_95-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.livius.org/la-ld/lamassu/lamassu.html">"Livius.org"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140601064047/http://www.livius.org/la-ld/lamassu/lamassu.html">Archived</a> from the original on 1 June 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 March</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Livius.org&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.livius.org%2Fla-ld%2Flamassu%2Flamassu.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesopotamia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDunham2005" class="citation cs2">Dunham, Sally (2005), "Ancient Near Eastern architecture", in Snell, Daniel (ed.), <i>A Companion to the Ancient Near East</i>, Oxford, England: Blackwell, pp. 266–280, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-631-23293-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-631-23293-3"><bdi>978-0-631-23293-3</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ancient+Near+Eastern+architecture&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+the+Ancient+Near+East&rft.place=Oxford%2C+England&rft.pages=266-280&rft.pub=Blackwell&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-631-23293-3&rft.aulast=Dunham&rft.aufirst=Sally&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesopotamia" class="Z3988"></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldhistory.org/Mesopotamia/">"Mesopotamia"</a>. <i>World History Encyclopedia</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210410223519/https://www.worldhistory.org/Mesopotamia/">Archived</a> from the original on 10 April 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 July</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Mesopotamia&rft.btitle=World+History+Encyclopedia&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldhistory.org%2FMesopotamia%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesopotamia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeaulieu2005" class="citation book cs1">Beaulieu, P. A. (2005). "World Hegemony, 900–300 BCE". In Snell, D. C. (ed.). <i>A Companion to the Ancient Near East</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1405160018" title="Special:BookSources/978-1405160018"><bdi>978-1405160018</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=World+Hegemony%2C+900%E2%80%93300+BCE&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+the+Ancient+Near+East&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1405160018&rft.aulast=Beaulieu&rft.aufirst=P.+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesopotamia" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlackGreen1992" class="citation book cs1">Black, Jeremy; Green, Anthony (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=05LXAAAAMAAJ&q=Inana"><i>Gods, Demons and Symbols of Ancient Mesopotamia: An Illustrated Dictionary</i></a>. The British Museum Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7141-1705-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7141-1705-8"><bdi>978-0-7141-1705-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gods%2C+Demons+and+Symbols+of+Ancient+Mesopotamia%3A+An+Illustrated+Dictionary&rft.pub=The+British+Museum+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-7141-1705-8&rft.aulast=Black&rft.aufirst=Jeremy&rft.au=Green%2C+Anthony&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D05LXAAAAMAAJ%26q%3DInana&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesopotamia" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoyer1991" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Carl_Benjamin_Boyer" title="Carl Benjamin Boyer">Boyer, Carl B.</a> (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofmathema00boye"><i>A History of Mathematics</i></a> (2nd ed.). John Wiley & Sons. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471-54397-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-471-54397-8"><bdi>978-0-471-54397-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Mathematics&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-471-54397-8&rft.aulast=Boyer&rft.aufirst=Carl+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoryofmathema00boye&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesopotamia" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEmberling2015" class="citation book cs1">Emberling, Geoff (2015). "Mesopotamian cities and urban process, 3500–1600 BCE". In <a href="/wiki/Norman_Yoffee" title="Norman Yoffee">Yoffee, Norman</a> (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SQS7BwAAQBAJ"><i>Early Cities in Comparative Perspective, 4000 BCE–1200 CE</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Cambridge_World_History" title="The Cambridge World History">The Cambridge World History</a>. Vol. 3. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-19008-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-19008-4"><bdi>978-0-521-19008-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Mesopotamian+cities+and+urban+process%2C+3500%E2%80%931600+BCE&rft.btitle=Early+Cities+in+Comparative+Perspective%2C+4000+BCE%E2%80%931200+CE&rft.series=The+Cambridge+World+History&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-521-19008-4&rft.aulast=Emberling&rft.aufirst=Geoff&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSQS7BwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesopotamia" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrankfort1970" class="citation book cs1">Frankfort, Henri (1970). <i>The Art and Architecture of the Ancient Orient</i>. Pelican History of Art (4th ed.). Penguin (now Yale History of Art). <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-14-056107-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-14-056107-2"><bdi>0-14-056107-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Art+and+Architecture+of+the+Ancient+Orient&rft.series=Pelican+History+of+Art&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Penguin+%28now+Yale+History+of+Art%29&rft.date=1970&rft.isbn=0-14-056107-2&rft.aulast=Frankfort&rft.aufirst=Henri&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesopotamia" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLiungman2004" class="citation book cs1">Liungman, Carl G. (2004). <i>Symbols: Encyclopedia of Western Signs and Ideograms</i>. Lidingö, Sweden: HME Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-91-972705-0-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-91-972705-0-2"><bdi>978-91-972705-0-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Symbols%3A+Encyclopedia+of+Western+Signs+and+Ideograms&rft.place=Liding%C3%B6%2C+Sweden&rft.pub=HME+Publishing&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-91-972705-0-2&rft.aulast=Liungman&rft.aufirst=Carl+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesopotamia" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPingree1998" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Pingree" title="David Pingree">Pingree, David</a> (1998). "Legacies in Astronomy and Celestial Omens". In <a href="/wiki/Stephanie_Dalley" title="Stephanie Dalley">Dalley, Stephanie</a> (ed.). <i>The Legacy of Mesopotamia</i>. Oxford University Press. pp. 125–137. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-814946-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-814946-0"><bdi>978-0-19-814946-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Legacies+in+Astronomy+and+Celestial+Omens&rft.btitle=The+Legacy+of+Mesopotamia&rft.pages=125-137&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-19-814946-0&rft.aulast=Pingree&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesopotamia" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStager1996" class="citation journal cs1">Stager, L. E. (1996). "The fury of Babylon: Ashkelon and the archaeology of destruction". <i>Biblical Archaeology Review</i>. <b>22</b> (1).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Biblical+Archaeology+Review&rft.atitle=The+fury+of+Babylon%3A+Ashkelon+and+the+archaeology+of+destruction&rft.volume=22&rft.issue=1&rft.date=1996&rft.aulast=Stager&rft.aufirst=L.+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesopotamia" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStol1993" class="citation book cs1">Stol, Marten (1993). <i>Epilepsy in Babylonia</i>. <a href="/wiki/Brill_Publishers" title="Brill Publishers">Brill Publishers</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-72371-63-1" title="Special:BookSources/90-72371-63-1"><bdi>90-72371-63-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Epilepsy+in+Babylonia&rft.pub=Brill+Publishers&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=90-72371-63-1&rft.aulast=Stol&rft.aufirst=Marten&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesopotamia" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Guillermo_Algaze" title="Guillermo Algaze">Algaze, Guillermo</a>, 2008<i><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Mesopotamia_at_the_Dawn_of_Civilization" title="Ancient Mesopotamia at the Dawn of Civilization"> Ancient Mesopotamia at the Dawn of Civilization: the Evolution of an Urban Landscape</a></i>. University of Chicago Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780226013770" title="Special:BookSources/9780226013770">9780226013770</a>.</li> <li><i>Atlas de la Mésopotamie et du Proche-Orient ancien</i>, Brepols, 1996 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/2-503-50046-3" title="Special:BookSources/2-503-50046-3">2-503-50046-3</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Bott%C3%A9ro" title="Jean Bottéro">Bottéro, Jean</a>; 1987. <span class="languageicon">(in French)</span> <i>Mésopotamie. L'écriture, la raison et les dieux</i>, Gallimard, coll. « Folio Histoire », <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/2-07-040308-4" title="Special:BookSources/2-07-040308-4">2-07-040308-4</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBottéro1995" class="citation book cs1">Bottéro, Jean (15 June 1995). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mesopotamia00jean"><i>Mesopotamia: Writing, Reasoning, and the Gods</i></a></span>. Translated by <a href="/wiki/Zainab_Bahrani" title="Zainab Bahrani">Bahrani, Zainab</a>; Van de Mieroop, Marc. University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0226067278" title="Special:BookSources/978-0226067278"><bdi>978-0226067278</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mesopotamia%3A+Writing%2C+Reasoning%2C+and+the+Gods&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1995-06-15&rft.isbn=978-0226067278&rft.aulast=Bott%C3%A9ro&rft.aufirst=Jean&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmesopotamia00jean&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesopotamia" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Edzard, Dietz Otto; 2004. <i>Geschichte Mesopotamiens. Von den Sumerern bis zu Alexander dem Großen</i>, München, Germany, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-406-51664-5" title="Special:BookSources/3-406-51664-5">3-406-51664-5</a>.</li> <li>Hrouda, Barthel and Rene Pfeilschifter; 2005. <i>Mesopotamien. Die antiken Kulturen zwischen Euphrat und Tigris.</i> München, Germany 2005 (4. Aufl.), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-406-46530-7" title="Special:BookSources/3-406-46530-7">3-406-46530-7</a>.</li> <li>Joannès, Francis (2001). <i>Dictionnaire de la civilisation mésopotamienne</i>, Robert Laffont.</li> <li>Korn, Wolfgang; 2004. <i>Mesopotamien – Wiege der Zivilisation. 6000 Jahre Hochkulturen an Euphrat und Tigris</i>, Stuttgart, Germany, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-8062-1851-X" title="Special:BookSources/3-8062-1851-X">3-8062-1851-X</a>.</li> <li>Matthews, Roger; 2005. <i>The early prehistory of Mesopotamia – 500,000 to 4,500 BC</i>, Turnhout 2005, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/2-503-50729-8" title="Special:BookSources/2-503-50729-8">2-503-50729-8</a>.</li> <li>Oppenheim, A. Leo; 1964. <i>Ancient Mesopotamia: Portrait of a dead civilization</i>. The University of Chicago Press: Chicago, Illinois and London, England. Revised edition completed by Erica Reiner, 1977.</li> <li>Pollock, Susan; 1999.<i> Ancient Mesopotamia: the Eden that never was</i>. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge.</li> <li>Postgate, J. Nicholas; 1992. <i>Early Mesopotamia: Society and Economy at the dawn of history</i>. Routledge: London, England and New York.</li> <li>Roux, Georges; 1964. <i>Ancient Iraq</i>, Penguin Books.</li> <li>Silver, Morris; 2007. <i>Redistribution and Markets in the Economy of Ancient Mesopotamia: Updating Polanyi</i>, <a href="/wiki/Antiguo_Oriente" title="Antiguo Oriente">Antiguo Oriente</a> 5: 89–112.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Smith_Williams" title="Henry Smith Williams">Williams, Henry Smith (Ed.)</a> 1904, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/51514">The historians' history of the world in twenty-five volumes, volume 01: Prolegomena; Egypt, Mesopotamia</a>, Press of J. J. Little & Company. New York, U.S.A.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Mesopotamia" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/40px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/60px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/80px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="193" data-file-height="193" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikivoyage has a travel guide for <i><b><a href="https://en.wikivoyage.org/wiki/Ancient_Mesopotamia#Q11767" class="extiw" title="wikivoyage:Ancient Mesopotamia">Ancient Mesopotamia</a></b></i>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/40px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/60px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/80px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="193" data-file-height="193" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikivoyage has a travel guide for <i><b><a href="https://en.wikivoyage.org/wiki/Mesopotamia_(Region)#Q11767" class="extiw" title="wikivoyage:Mesopotamia (Region)">Mesopotamia (Region)</a></b></i>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldhistory.org/Mesopotamia/">Ancient Mesopotamia</a> – timeline, definition, and articles at World History Encyclopedia</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mesopotamia.co.uk/">Mesopotamia</a> – introduction to Mesopotamia from the <a href="/wiki/British_Museum" title="British Museum">British Museum</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070721235759/http://fax.libs.uga.edu/DS49xB8x1920/"><i>By Nile and Tigris, a narrative of journeys in Egypt and Mesopotamia on behalf of the British museum between the years 1886 and 1913</i></a>, by Sir E. A. <a href="/wiki/Wallis_Budge" class="mw-redirect" title="Wallis Budge">Wallis Budge</a>, 1920 (a searchable facsimile at the University of Georgia Libraries; <a href="/wiki/DjVu" title="DjVu">DjVu</a> & <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081121055457/http://fax.libs.uga.edu/DS49xB8x1920/1f">layered PDF</a> format)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://fax.libs.uga.edu/DS69x5xH236M/"><i>Mesopotamian Archaeology</i></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050215054649/http://fax.libs.uga.edu/DS69x5xH236M/">Archived</a> 15 February 2005 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, by Percy S. P. Handcock, 1912 (a searchable facsimile at the University of Georgia Libraries; <a href="/wiki/DjVu" title="DjVu">DjVu</a> & <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20051007220405/http://fax.libs.uga.edu/DS69x5xH236M/1f/mesopotamian_archaeology.pdf">"layered PDF format"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://fax.libs.uga.edu/DS69x5xH236M/1f/mesopotamian_archaeology.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 7 October 2005<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 September</span> 2005</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=layered+PDF+format&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffax.libs.uga.edu%2FDS69x5xH236M%2F1f%2Fmesopotamian_archaeology.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesopotamia" class="Z3988"></span> <span style="font-size:85%;">(12.8 MB)</span>)</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output 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style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.2em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iraq" title="History of Iraq">Chronology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ubaid_period" title="Ubaid period">Ubaid period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hassuna_culture" title="Hassuna culture">Hassuna culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halaf_culture" title="Halaf culture">Halaf culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halaf-Ubaid_Transitional_period" title="Halaf-Ubaid Transitional period">Halaf-Ubaid Transitional period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samarra_culture" title="Samarra culture">Samarra culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uruk_period" title="Uruk period">Uruk period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jemdet_Nasr_period" title="Jemdet Nasr period">Jemdet Nasr period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer">Sumer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subartu" title="Subartu">Subartu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkadian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gutian_rule_in_Mesopotamia" title="Gutian rule in Mesopotamia">Gutian dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Dynasty_of_Ur" title="Third Dynasty of Ur">Neo-Sumerian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isin-Larsa_period" title="Isin-Larsa period">Isin-Larsa period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Babylonian_Empire" title="Old Babylonian Empire">First Babylonian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Assyrian_Period" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Assyrian Period">Old Assyrian Period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Assyrian_Empire" title="Middle Assyrian Empire">Middle Assyrian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kassites" title="Kassites">Kassite dynasty of the Babylonian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simurrum" title="Simurrum">Simurrum culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_captivity" title="Babylonian captivity">Babylonian captivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Babylon" title="Fall of Babylon">Fall of Babylon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Assyria" title="Achaemenid Assyria">Achaemenid Assyria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid Babylonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian Babylonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asoristan" title="Asoristan">Sassanid Asorestan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.2em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">638–1958</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Persia" title="Muslim conquest of Persia">Muslim conquest of Mesopotamia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buyid_dynasty" title="Buyid dynasty">Buyid dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qara_Qoyunlu" title="Qara Qoyunlu">Qara Qoyunlu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aq_Qoyunlu" title="Aq Qoyunlu">Aq Qoyunlu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safavid_Iran" title="Safavid Iran">Safavids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Iraq" title="Ottoman Iraq">Ottoman Iraq</a> (incl. <a href="/wiki/Mamluk_dynasty_(Iraq)" title="Mamluk dynasty (Iraq)">Mamluk dynasty</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandate_for_Mesopotamia" title="Mandate for Mesopotamia">Mandate for Mesopotamia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandatory_Iraq" title="Mandatory Iraq">Mandatory Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Iraq" title="Kingdom of Iraq">Kingdom of Iraq</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_kings_of_Iraq" title="List of kings of Iraq">Kings</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Federation" title="Arab Federation">Arab Federation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.2em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Republic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Republic_(1958%E2%80%931968)" title="Iraqi Republic (1958–1968)">1958–1968</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ba%27athist_Iraq" title="Ba'athist Iraq">1968–2003</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Iraq_(2003%E2%80%932011)" title="Occupation of Iraq (2003–2011)">2003–2011</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">2011–<span style="font-size:85%;">present</span></a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Iraq_Region" title="Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Iraq Region">Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Iraq Region</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party_(Iraqi-dominated_faction)" title="Ba'ath Party (Iraqi-dominated faction)">National Command</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saddam_Hussein" title="Saddam Hussein">Saddam Hussein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi%E2%80%93Kurdish_conflict" title="Iraqi–Kurdish conflict">Iraqi–Kurdish conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1974%E2%80%9375_Shatt_al-Arab_conflict" title="1974–75 Shatt al-Arab conflict">1974–1975 Shatt al-Arab clashes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1977_Shia_uprising_in_Iraq" title="1977 Shia uprising in Iraq">1977 Shia uprising in Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1979%E2%80%931980_Shia_uprising_in_Iraq" title="1979–1980 Shia uprising in Iraq">1979–1980 Shia uprising in Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraq_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Iraq and weapons of mass destruction">Weapons of mass destruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Iraq_War" title="Iran–Iraq War">Iran–Iraq War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Opera" title="Operation Opera">Operation Opera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Kuwait" class="mw-redirect" title="Invasion of Kuwait">Invasion of Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_War" title="Gulf War">Gulf War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1991_Iraqi_uprisings" title="1991 Iraqi uprisings">1991 uprisings</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanctions_against_Iraq" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanctions against Iraq">Sanctions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraq_War" title="Iraq War">Iraq War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2003_invasion_of_Iraq" title="2003 invasion of Iraq">U.S. invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_insurgency_(2003%E2%80%932011)" title="Iraqi insurgency (2003–2011)">Iraqi insurgency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Withdrawal_of_United_States_troops_from_Iraq_(2007%E2%80%932011)" title="Withdrawal of United States troops from Iraq (2007–2011)">U.S. troop withdrawal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_insurgency_(2011%E2%80%932013)" title="Iraqi insurgency (2011–2013)">Insurgency (2011–2013)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_in_Iraq_(2013%E2%80%932017)" title="War in Iraq (2013–2017)">War (2014–2017)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Mosul" title="Fall of Mosul">Fall of Mosul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mosul_(2016%E2%80%932017)" title="Battle of Mosul (2016–2017)">Mosul liberation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_State_insurgency_in_Iraq_(2017%E2%80%93present)" title="Islamic State insurgency in Iraq (2017–present)">Insurgency</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2019%E2%80%932021_Iraqi_protests" title="2019–2021 Iraqi protests">2019–2021 protests</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2021%E2%80%932022_Iraqi_political_crisis" title="2021–2022 Iraqi political crisis">2021–2022 Iraqi political crisis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Geography" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Iraq" title="Geography of Iraq">Geography</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Faw_peninsula" title="Al-Faw peninsula">Faw peninsula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upper_Mesopotamia" title="Upper Mesopotamia">Upper Mesopotamia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lower_Mesopotamia" title="Lower Mesopotamia">Lower Mesopotamia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Borders_of_Iraq" title="Template:Borders of Iraq">Borders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euphrates" title="Euphrates">Euphrates river</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamrin_Mountains" title="Hamrin Mountains">Hamrin Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Kurdistan" title="Iraqi Kurdistan">Iraqi Kurdistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Lakes_of_Iraq" title="Category:Lakes of Iraq">Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_Iraq" title="List of islands of Iraq">Islands</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Mesopotamia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_Marshes" title="Mesopotamian Marshes">Mesopotamian Marshes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Gulf" title="Persian Gulf">Persian Gulf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_places_in_Iraq" title="List of places in Iraq">Places</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shatt_al-Arab" title="Shatt al-Arab">Shatt al-Arab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Desert" title="Syrian Desert">Syrian Desert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tigris" title="Tigris">Tigris river</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umm_Qasr" title="Umm Qasr">Umm Qasr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zagros_Mountains" title="Zagros Mountains">Zagros Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_of_Iraq" title="Wildlife of Iraq">Wildlife</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinjar_Mountains" title="Sinjar Mountains">Sinjar Mountains</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Politics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Iraq" title="Politics of Iraq">Politics</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Governorates_of_Iraq" title="Governorates of Iraq">Administrative divisions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Iraq" title="Constitution of Iraq">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Representatives_of_Iraq" title="Council of Representatives of Iraq">Council of Representatives <span style="font-size:85%;">(legislative)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_Iraq" title="Democracy in Iraq">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Iraq" title="Elections in Iraq">Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_aid_to_Iraq" title="Foreign aid to Iraq">Foreign aid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Iraq" title="Foreign relations of Iraq">Foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_government_of_Iraq" title="Federal government of Iraq">Government</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Ministers_(Iraq)" title="Council of Ministers (Iraq)">Council of Ministers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_Council_of_Iraq" title="Presidency Council of Iraq">Presidency Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_of_Iraq" title="President of Iraq">President</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_Iraq" title="List of presidents of Iraq">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Iraq" title="Prime Minister of Iraq">Prime Minister</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_prime_ministers_of_Iraq" title="List of prime ministers of Iraq">List</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Iraq" title="Human rights in Iraq">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_pre-Saddam_Iraq" title="Human rights in pre-Saddam Iraq">in pre-Saddam Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Saddam_Hussein%27s_Iraq" class="mw-redirect" title="Human rights in Saddam Hussein's Iraq">in Saddam Hussein's Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_post-invasion_Iraq" title="Human rights in post-invasion Iraq">in post-invasion Iraq</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Islamic_State-controlled_territory" title="Human rights in Islamic State-controlled territory">in ISIL-controlled territory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_Iraq" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in Iraq">LGBT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion_in_Iraq" title="Freedom of religion in Iraq">Freedom of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Iraq" title="Women in Iraq">Women</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Iraq" title="Law of Iraq">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Armed_Forces" title="Iraqi Armed Forces">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Police" title="Iraqi Police">Police</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_Iraq" title="List of political parties in Iraq">Political parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_of_Iraq" title="Judiciary of Iraq">Judiciary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_wars_involving_Iraq" title="List of wars involving Iraq">Wars and conflicts</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Economy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Iraq" title="Economy of Iraq">Economy</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_banks_in_Iraq" title="List of banks in Iraq">Banks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Bank_of_Iraq" title="Central Bank of Iraq">Central Bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_companies_of_Iraq" title="List of companies of Iraq">Companies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Iraq" title="Corruption in Iraq">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_dinar" title="Iraqi dinar">Dinar <span style="font-size:85%;">(currency)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infrastructure_of_Iraq" title="Infrastructure of Iraq">Infrastructure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Investment_in_post-invasion_Iraq" title="Investment in post-invasion Iraq">Foreign Investment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petroleum_industry_in_Iraq" title="Petroleum industry in Iraq">Oil Industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_reserves_in_Iraq" title="Oil reserves in Iraq">Oil reserves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Investment_in_post-invasion_Iraq" title="Investment in post-invasion Iraq">Reconstruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraq_Stock_Exchange" title="Iraq Stock Exchange">Stock Exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Iraq" title="Telecommunications in Iraq">Telecommunications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_Iraq" title="Transport in Iraq">Transportation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_airlines_of_Iraq" title="List of airlines of Iraq">Airlines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Republic_Railways" title="Iraqi Republic Railways">Railways</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_Iraq" title="Tourism in Iraq">Tourism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Society" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Category:Society_of_Iraq" title="Category:Society of Iraq">Society</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Iraq" title="Demographics of Iraq">Demographics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iraqis" title="Iraqis">Iraqis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Iraq" title="Languages of Iraq">Languages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_Arabic" title="Mesopotamian Arabic">Mesopotamian Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Aramaic_languages" title="Neo-Aramaic languages">Aramaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurdish_language" title="Kurdish language">Kurdish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Turkmen#Language" title="Iraqi Turkmen">Iraqi Turkmen/Turkoman dialects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language">Persian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minorities_in_Iraq" title="Minorities in Iraq">Minorities</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Armenians" title="Iraqi Armenians">Armenians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrian_people" title="Assyrian people">Assyrians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circassians_in_Iraq" title="Circassians in Iraq">Circassians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurds_in_Iraq" title="Kurds in Iraq">Kurds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandaeans" title="Mandaeans">Mandaeans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marsh_Arabs" title="Marsh Arabs">Marsh Arabs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ajam_of_Iraq" class="mw-redirect" title="Ajam of Iraq">Persians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solluba" title="Solluba">Solluba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Turkmen" title="Iraqi Turkmen">Iraqi Turkmen</a>/Turkoman</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Iraq" title="History of the Jews in Iraq">Jews</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Iraq" title="Religion in Iraq">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secularism_in_Iraq" title="Secularism in Iraq">Secularism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Iraq" title="Islam in Iraq">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Iraq" title="Christianity in Iraq">Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandaeism" title="Mandaeism">Mandaeism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yazidis" title="Yazidis">Yazidis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irreligion_in_Iraq" title="Irreligion in Iraq">Irreligion</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_art" title="Iraqi art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_Iraq" title="Cinema of Iraq">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_cuisine" title="Iraqi cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Iraq" title="Culture of Iraq">Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literature_of_Iraq" class="mw-redirect" title="Literature of Iraq">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Iraq" title="Education in Iraq">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_in_Iraq" title="Health in Iraq">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_media_in_Iraq" title="Mass media in Iraq">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Television_in_Iraq" title="Television in Iraq">Television</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Iraq" title="Music of Iraq">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smoking_in_Iraq" title="Smoking in Iraq">Smoking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sport_in_Iraq" title="Sport in Iraq">Sports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Squatting_in_Iraq" title="Squatting in Iraq">Squatting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_Iraq" title="Public holidays in Iraq">Public holidays</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Akitu" title="Akitu">Mesopotamian spring festival (Akitu)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dehwa_Rabba" title="Dehwa Rabba">Mandaean New Year</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Iraq" title="Category:Iraq">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Iraq" title="Portal:Iraq">Portal</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="WikiProject"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Iraq" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Iraq">WikiProject</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Iraq" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Iraq">Commons</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ancient_Mesopotamia" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ancient_Mesopotamia_topics" title="Template:Ancient Mesopotamia topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ancient_Mesopotamia_topics" title="Template talk:Ancient Mesopotamia topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient_Mesopotamia_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient Mesopotamia topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ancient_Mesopotamia" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Ancient Mesopotamia</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Mesopotamia" title="Geography of Mesopotamia">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Modern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Upper_Mesopotamia" title="Upper Mesopotamia">Upper Mesopotamia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lower_Mesopotamia" title="Lower Mesopotamia">Lower Mesopotamia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_Marshes" title="Mesopotamian Marshes">Mesopotamian Marshes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Gulf" title="Persian Gulf">Persian Gulf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Desert" title="Syrian Desert">Syrian Desert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taurus_Mountains" title="Taurus Mountains">Taurus Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tigris%E2%80%93Euphrates_river_system" title="Tigris–Euphrates river system">Tigris–Euphrates river system</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Euphrates" title="Euphrates">Euphrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tigris" title="Tigris">Tigris</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zagros_Mountains" title="Zagros Mountains">Zagros Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamrin_Mountains" title="Hamrin Mountains">Hamrin Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinjar_Mountains" title="Sinjar Mountains">Sinjar Mountains</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ancient</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fertile_Crescent" title="Fertile Crescent">Fertile Crescent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adiabene" title="Adiabene">Adiabene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akkad_(city)" title="Akkad (city)">Akkad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armani_(kingdom)" title="Armani (kingdom)">Armani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chaldea" title="Chaldea">Chaldea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elam" title="Elam">Elam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gutian_people" title="Gutian people">Gutium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamazi" title="Hamazi">Hamazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hittites" title="Hittites">Hittites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kassites" title="Kassites">Kassites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medes" title="Medes">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitanni" title="Mitanni">Mitanni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simurrum" title="Simurrum">Simurrum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subartu" title="Subartu">Subartu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suhum" title="Suhum">Suhum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer">Sumer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turukkaeans" title="Turukkaeans">Tukri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urartu" title="Urartu">Urartu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_of_the_ancient_Near_East" title="List of cities of the ancient Near East">Cities</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="7" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Ishtar_Gate.gif" class="mw-file-description" title="Ishtar Gate in the city of Babylon"><img alt="Ishtar Gate in the city of Babylon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Ishtar_Gate.gif/110px-Ishtar_Gate.gif" decoding="async" width="110" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Ishtar_Gate.gif/165px-Ishtar_Gate.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Ishtar_Gate.gif/220px-Ishtar_Gate.gif 2x" data-file-width="275" data-file-height="300" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">(Pre)history</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Prehistory_of_Mesopotamia" title="Prehistory of Mesopotamia">Prehistory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acheulean" title="Acheulean">Acheulean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mousterian" title="Mousterian">Mousterian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trialetian" class="mw-redirect" title="Trialetian">Trialetian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zarzian_culture" title="Zarzian culture">Zarzian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natufian_culture" title="Natufian culture">Natufian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nemrik_9" title="Nemrik 9">Nemrik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khiamian" class="mw-redirect" title="Khiamian">Khiamian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Pottery_Neolithic_A" title="Pre-Pottery Neolithic A">Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Pottery_Neolithic_B" title="Pre-Pottery Neolithic B">Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hassuna_culture" title="Hassuna culture">Hassuna</a>/<a href="/wiki/Samarra_culture" title="Samarra culture">Samarra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halaf_culture" title="Halaf culture">Halaf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ubaid_period" title="Ubaid period">Ubaid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uruk_period" title="Uruk period">Uruk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jemdet_Nasr_period" title="Jemdet Nasr period">Jemdet Nasr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kish_civilization" title="Kish civilization">Kish civilization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Mesopotamia" title="History of Mesopotamia">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Dynastic_Period_(Mesopotamia)" title="Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)">Early Dynastic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkadian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gutian_rule_in_Mesopotamia" title="Gutian rule in Mesopotamia">Gutians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simurrum" title="Simurrum">Simurrum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Dynasty_of_Ur" title="Third Dynasty of Ur">Ur III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isin-Larsa_period" title="Isin-Larsa period">Isin-Larsa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Babylonian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="First Babylonian Empire">Old Babylonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kassite_dynasty" title="Kassite dynasty">Kassite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Babylonian_period" title="Middle Babylonian period">Middle Babylonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Babylon" title="Fall of Babylon">Fall of Babylon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Assyria" title="Achaemenid Assyria">Achaemenid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia_(Roman_province)" title="Mesopotamia (Roman province)">Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Persia" title="Muslim conquest of Persia">Muslim conquest</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Assyriology" title="Assyriology">Languages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_language" title="Akkadian language">Akkadian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amorite_language" title="Amorite language">Amorite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aramaic" title="Aramaic">Aramaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eblaite_language" title="Eblaite language">Eblaite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elamite_language" title="Elamite language">Elamite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gutian_language" title="Gutian language">Gutian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hittite_language" title="Hittite language">Hittite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hurrian_language" title="Hurrian language">Hurrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kassite_language" title="Kassite language">Kassite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luwian_language" title="Luwian language">Luwian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Median_language" title="Median language">Median</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Persian" title="Middle Persian">Middle Persian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Persian" title="Old Persian">Old Persian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthian_language" title="Parthian language">Parthian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Armenian_language" title="Proto-Armenian language">Proto-Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sutean_language" title="Sutean language">Sutean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sumerian_language" title="Sumerian language">Sumerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urartian_language" title="Urartian language">Urartian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Culture/society</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_Mesopotamia" title="Architecture of Mesopotamia">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Mesopotamia" title="Art of Mesopotamia">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akitu" title="Akitu">Akitu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuneiform" title="Cuneiform">Cuneiform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_astronomy" title="Babylonian astronomy">Babylonian astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_mathematics" title="Babylonian mathematics">Babylonian mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_literature" title="Akkadian literature">Akkadian literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Sumer" title="Economy of Sumer">Economy of Sumer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warfare_in_Sumer" title="Warfare in Sumer">Warfare in Sumer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Military history of the Neo-Assyrian Empire">Military history of the Neo-Assyrian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sumerian_cuisine&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sumerian cuisine (page does not exist)">Sumerian cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sumerian_literature" title="Sumerian literature">Sumerian literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Mesopotamia" title="Music of Mesopotamia">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indus-Mesopotamia_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="Indus-Mesopotamia relations">Indus-Mesopotamia relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egypt-Mesopotamia_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="Egypt-Mesopotamia relations">Egypt-Mesopotamia relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_royal_titulary" title="Akkadian royal titulary">Royal titles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Mesopotamian_dynasties" title="List of Mesopotamian dynasties">List of rulers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Archaeology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaeological_looting_in_Iraq" title="Archaeological looting in Iraq">Looting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Destruction_of_cultural_heritage_by_ISIL" class="mw-redirect" title="Destruction of cultural heritage by ISIL">Destruction by ISIL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tell_(archaeology)" title="Tell (archaeology)">Tell</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Religion</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Mesopotamian_religion" title="Ancient Mesopotamian religion">Ancient Mesopotamian religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sumerian_religion" title="Sumerian religion">Sumerian religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Mesopotamian_deities" title="List of Mesopotamian deities">Deities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_myths" class="mw-redirect" title="Mesopotamian myths">Mesopotamian myths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_divination" title="Mesopotamian divination">Divination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_prayer" title="Mesopotamian prayer">Prayers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ziggurat" title="Ziggurat">Ziggurat (Temple)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assyriology" title="Assyriology">Assyriology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Assyriologists" title="List of Assyriologists">Assyriologists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hittitology" title="Hittitology">Hittitology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_Sumerian_Dictionary" title="Pennsylvania Sumerian Dictionary">Pennsylvania Sumerian Dictionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Assyrian_Dictionary" title="Chicago Assyrian Dictionary">Chicago Assyrian Dictionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Hittite_Dictionary" title="Chicago Hittite Dictionary">Chicago Hittite Dictionary</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;justify-content:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-unbordered{padding:0 1.7em;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;padding:0.15em 0;column-gap:1em;align-items:baseline;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-item{display:inline-block;margin:0.15em 0.2em;min-height:24px;line-height:24px}@media screen and (max-width:768px){.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;flex-flow:column wrap;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{text-align:center;flex:0;padding-left:0.5em;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;align-items:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;align-items:center;flex:0;column-gap:1em;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0 auto;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{border-top:none;margin:0;list-style:none}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.sister-bar{margin-top:-1px}</style><div class="portal-bar noprint metadata noviewer portal-bar-bordered" role="navigation" aria-label="Portals"><span class="portal-bar-header"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Portals" title="Wikipedia:Contents/Portals">Portals</a>:</span><ul class="portal-bar-content"><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Asia_(orthographic_projection).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/19px-Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/29px-Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/38px-Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="541" data-file-height="541" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Asia" title="Portal:Asia">Asia</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/21px-P_history.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/32px-P_history.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/42px-P_history.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="360" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:History" title="Portal:History">History</a></li></ul></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11767#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11767#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11767#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/234579587">VIAF</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4038788-4">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh97001366">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Mezopotámie"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ge138159&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000123325&P_CON_LNG=ENG">Latvia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://libris.kb.se/fcrtsnzz50p6171">Sweden</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" 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