Aegean - World History Encyclopedia

<!DOCTYPE html> <html lang="en"> <head prefix="og: http://ogp.me/ns# fb: http://ogp.me/ns/fb# article: http://ogp.me/ns/article#"> <title>Aegean - World History Encyclopedia</title>   <link rel="preload" fetchpriority="high" href="/template/images/bg_timeline.png" as="image"> <link rel="preconnect" href="https://fonts.gstatic.com" crossorigin> <link rel="preconnect" href="https://cdn.consentmanager.net"> <link rel="preconnect" href="https://b.delivery.consentmanager.net">  <link rel="preconnect" href="https://btloader.com"> <link rel="preconnect" href="https://securepubads.g.doubleclick.net"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="https://static.cloudflareinsights.com"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="https://tpc.googlesyndication.com"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="https://pagead2.googlesyndication.com"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="https://adservice.google.com"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="https://www.googleadservices.com"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="https://sb.scorecardresearch.co">  <meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1.0, shrink-to-fit=no"> <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8" /> <meta name="theme-color" content="#082865" /> <meta name="msapplication-navbutton-color" content="#082865"> <meta name="apple-mobile-web-app-status-bar-style" content="#082865"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:large"> <meta name="description" content="The Aegean Sea lies between the coast of Greece and Asia Minor (modern-day Turkey). It contains over 2,000 islands which were settled by the ancient Greeks; the..."> <meta name="keywords" content="Aegean,Asia Minor,Greece,Kos,Naxos,Samothrace,Trade"> <meta name="author" content="Joshua J. Mark"> <meta name="subjects" content="Places"> <meta name="regions" content="Mediterranean"> <meta name="periods" content="Ancient"> <link rel="alternate" hreflang="fr" href="https://www.worldhistory.org/trans/fr/1-118/mer-egee/" /> <link rel="alternate" hreflang="it" href="https://www.worldhistory.org/trans/it/1-118/mar-egeo/" /> <link rel="alternate" hreflang="es" href="https://www.worldhistory.org/trans/es/1-118/egeo/" /> <link rel="alternate" hreflang="en" href="https://www.worldhistory.org/aegean/" /> <link rel="alternate" hreflang="x-default" href="https://www.worldhistory.org/aegean/" /> <meta property="push:bimage" content="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/750x750/17921.png"/> <meta http-equiv="Content-Security-Policy" content="upgrade-insecure-requests"> <meta name="impact-site-verification" value="-720600813" /> <meta name="p:domain_verify" content="b24695bfa00137b2e95cb4ca94c3f5dd"/> <meta property="twitter:account_id" content="4503599627388175" /> <meta name="flattr:id" content="62l7dn">  <meta property="og:type" content="article"> <meta property="og:url" content="https://www.worldhistory.org/aegean/"> <meta property="og:site_name" content="World History Encyclopedia"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/1200x627/17921.png"> <meta property="og:title" content="Aegean"> <meta property="og:description" content="The Aegean Sea lies between the coast of Greece and Asia Minor (modern-day Turkey). It contains over 2,000 islands which were settled by the ancient Greeks; the largest among them being Crete (Kriti..."> <meta property="article:publisher" content="https://link.worldhistory.org/facebook">  <meta name="twitter:card" content="summary_large_image"> <meta name="twitter:site" content="@whencyclopedia"> <meta name="twitter:title" content="Aegean"> <meta name="twitter:description" content="The Aegean Sea lies between the coast of Greece and Asia Minor (modern-day Turkey). It contains over 2,000 islands which were settled by the ancient Greeks; the largest among them being Crete (Kriti..."> <meta name="twitter:creator" content="@whencyclopedia"> <meta name="twitter:image:src" content="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/1200x627/17921.png"> <meta name="twitter:domain" content="https://www.worldhistory.org">  <link rel="canonical" href="https://www.worldhistory.org/aegean/" />  <script type="application/ld+json"> {"@context":"https://schema.org","@type":"Organization","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org#organization","brand":"World History Encyclopedia","legalName":"World History Publishing Ltd","name":"World History Encyclopedia","url":"https://www.worldhistory.org","sameAs":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_History_Encyclopedia","image":"https://www.worldhistory.org/template/images/header/whe-logo-954x231px.png","duns":"218445829","address":{"@type":"PostalAddress","addressCountry":"United Kingdom","addressLocality":"Godalming","addressRegion":"Surrey","postalCode":"GU7 1HE","streetAddress":"Brook House, Mint Street"},"logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https://www.worldhistory.org/template/images/header/whe-logo-318x77px.png","width":318,"height":77}} </script> <script type="application/ld+json"> {"@context":"https://schema.org","@type":"WebSite","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org#website","url":"https://www.worldhistory.org","potentialAction":{"@type":"SearchAction","target":"https://www.worldhistory.org/search/?q={search_term_string}","query-input":"required name=search_term_string"},"publisher":"https://www.worldhistory.org#organization","name":"World History Encyclopedia"} </script> <script type="application/ld+json"> {"@context":"https://schema.org","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org/aegean/","@type":"ScholarlyArticle","about":{"@type":"Thing","name":"Aegean Sea","description":"part of the Mediterranean Sea, between the Greek mainland, the Turkish mainland, Crete, and Rhodes","sameAs":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q34575"},"author":{"@type":"Person","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org/user/JPryst/#person","name":"Joshua J. Mark","url":"https://www.worldhistory.org/user/JPryst/","sameAs":["https://www.linkedin.com/pub/joshua-j-mark/38/614/339/"],"image":"https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/profile_photos/150-JPryst.JPG","description":"Joshua J. Mark is World History Encyclopedia's co-founder and Content Director. He was previously a professor at Marist College (NY) where he taught history, philosophy, literature, and writing. He has traveled extensively and lived in Greece and Germany.","jobTitle":"Content Director","worksFor":"https://www.worldhistory.org#organization"},"citation":[{"@type":"Book","name":"The Life of Greece","author":{"@type":"Person","name":"Durant, W"},"isbn":"B004ZZS4YA","datePublished":"2011","publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Simon & Schuster"}},{"@type":"Book","name":"The Greek Way","author":{"@type":"Person","name":"Hamilton, E"},"isbn":"B004AE34PU","datePublished":"2010","publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"W. W. Norton & Company"}},{"@type":"Book","name":"The Collected Dialogues of Plato","author":{"@type":"Person","name":"Plato"},"isbn":"0691097186","datePublished":"2005","publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Princeton University Press"}}],"copyrightNotice":"By: Joshua J. Mark - CC BY-NC-SA - This license lets others remix, tweak, and build upon this content non-commercially, as long as they credit the author and license their new creations under the identical terms. When republishing on the web a hyperlink back to the original content source URL must be included.","creditText":"Joshua J. Mark (World History Encyclopedia, https://www.worldhistory.org, CC BY-NC-SA)","dateModified":"2023-09-25T06:10:05+0000","datePublished":"2011-04-28T08:48:54+0000","description":"The Aegean Sea lies between the coast of Greece and Asia Minor (modern-day Turkey). It contains over 2,000 islands which were settled by the ancient Greeks; the largest among them being Crete (Kriti...","headline":"Aegean","image":["https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/images/17921.png","https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/1600x900/17921.png","https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/1200x900/17921.png","https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1500x1500/17921.png"],"inLanguage":{"@type":"Language","name":"English","alternateName":"en"},"isAccessibleForFree":true,"isFamilyFriendly":true,"isPartOf":"https://www.worldhistory.org#website","keywords":"Aegean,Asia Minor,Greece,Kos,Naxos,Samothrace,Trade","license":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/","mainEntityOfPage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/aegean/","mentions":[{"@type":"Thing","name":"Ancient Greece","description":"Greek civilization from c. 1200 BC to c. 600 AD","sameAs":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11772"},{"@type":"Thing","name":"Anatolia","description":"peninsula in Western Asia","sameAs":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q51614"}],"publisher":"https://www.worldhistory.org#organization","publishingPrinciples":"https://www.worldhistory.org/static/editorial-policy/","speakable":{"@type":"SpeakableSpecification","cssSelector":["h1","article"]},"url":"https://www.worldhistory.org/aegean/"} </script>  <script type="text/javascript"> window.AHE = {}; AHE.domain = 'worldhistory.org'; AHE.lastDeploy = '1738769252'; AHE.ayEntityID = 'rBndncCqbjkzwhcPC'; window.idleQueue = []; const coreScriptsLoadedEvent = new Event('coreScriptsReady'); </script>  <script>function async_load_js(script_url,cbfunc,defer){if(defer==undefined)defer=true;var s=document.createElement('script');s.src=script_url;if(defer){s.defer=true}else s.async=true;s.importance='low';s.fetchpriority='low';var x=document.getElementsByTagName('script')[0];x.parentNode.append(s);if(cbfunc)s.addEventListener('load',function(e){cbfunc(e)},{once:true});if(cbfunc)s.addEventListener('error',function(e){cbfunc(e)},{once:true})} function scheduleIdleQueue(){if(window.idleQueue.length>0)if(window.isRequestIdleCallbackScheduled){return}else{window.isRequestIdleCallbackScheduled=true;if('requestIdleCallback'in window){requestIdleCallback(processIdleQueue,{timeout:2e3})}else processIdleQueue()}} function processIdleQueue(deadline){window.isRequestIdleCallbackScheduled=false;if(typeof deadline==='undefined')deadline={timeRemaining:function(){return Number.MAX_VALUE}};while((deadline.timeRemaining()>0||deadline.didTimeout)&&window.idleQueue.length>0){var queueFunc=window.idleQueue.shift();queueFunc()};scheduleIdleQueue()} function jsQueue(func){window.idleQueue.push(func);if(window.pageIsReady)if(document.readyState=='complete'||document.readyState=='loaded'||document.readyState=='interactive')scheduleIdleQueue()} function getUrlParameter(url,name){name=name.replace(/[\[]/,'\\[').replace(/[\]]/,'\\]');var regex=new RegExp('[\\?&]'+name+'=([^&#]*)'),results=regex.exec(url);return results===null?'':decodeURIComponent(results[1].replace(/\+/g,' '))} function get_media_layout(){var width=document.documentElement.clientWidth;if(width<768){return"mobile"}else if(width<992){return"tablet"}else if(width<1200){return"desktop-narrow"}else return"desktop-wide"} function getCookie(c_name){var i,x,y,ARRcookies=document.cookie.split(";");for(i=0;i<ARRcookies.length;i++){x=ARRcookies[i].substr(0,ARRcookies[i].indexOf("="));y=ARRcookies[i].substr(ARRcookies[i].indexOf("=")+1);x=x.replace(/^\s+|\s+$/g,"");if(x==c_name)return unescape(y)}} function jsonStore(key,value){if(value){return localStorage.setItem(key,JSON.stringify(value))}else return JSON.parse(localStorage.getItem(key))}</script>  <script defer class="requiredJS ipJS" type="text/javascript" fetchpriority="high" importance="high" src="/ajax/visitor-info.js.php?v=1738769252"></script> <script defer class="requiredJS" type="text/javascript" fetchpriority="high" importance="high" src="https://cdn.jsdelivr.net/npm/jquery@3.6.1/dist/jquery.min.js"></script> <script defer class="requiredJS" type="text/javascript" fetchpriority="high" importance="high" src="/js/ahe-min.js?v=1738769252"></script> <script defer class="requiredJS" type="text/javascript" fetchpriority="high" importance="high" src="/analytics/pageview.js?v=1738769252"></script>  <script> var url_parts = window.location.href.split("/"); var is_member = 0; var subdomain = url_parts[2].split(".")[0]; var currentURL = window.location.href; </script>  <script> var requiredScripts = document.querySelectorAll('.requiredJS'); var loadedScripts = 0; const scriptsReady = new Promise((resolve,reject) => { requiredScripts.forEach(function(elem) { elem.addEventListener('load',function(elem) { loadedScripts++; if (loadedScripts == requiredScripts.length) { console.log('scriptsReady'); dispatchEvent(coreScriptsLoadedEvent); document.coreScriptsReady = true; resolve('scriptsLoaded'); } },false) }); }); const ipScriptReady = new Promise((resolve,reject) => { document.querySelector('.ipJS').addEventListener('load',function(elem) { console.log('ipScriptReady'); document.ipReady = true; resolve('ipScriptReady'); },false); }); const pageReady = new Promise((resolve,reject) => { document.addEventListener("DOMContentLoaded", function() { scriptsReady.then(function() { setTimeout(function() { window.pageIsReady = true; resolve('pageReady'); },50); }) }); }); const privacyReady = new Promise((resolve,reject) => { pageReady.then(()=>{ if (AHE.isEU) { AHE.tcfConsentResolved = false; // CMP Listener Loop let cmpListenerInvterval = setInterval(()=>{ if (typeof window.__cmp == 'function') { AHE.consentStatus = __cmp('consentStatus'); AHE.consentData = __cmp('getCMPData'); if (typeof AHE.consentStatus == 'object' && AHE.consentStatus.userChoiceExists == true) { /* Purpose 1 - Store and/or access information on a device Purpose 2 - Select basic ads Purpose 3 - Create a personalized ads profile Purpose 4 - Select personalized ads Purpose 5 - Create a personalized content profile Purpose 6 - Select personalized content Purpose 7 - Measure ad performance Purpose 8 - Measure content performance Purpose 9 - Apply market research to generate audience insights Purpose 10 - Develop and improve products */ if (AHE.consentData.gdprApplies === true) { // EU Privacy Rules AHE.usPrivacyString = '1---'; if (typeof AHE.consentData.purposeConsents == 'object' && typeof AHE.consentData.purposeConsents[1] == 'boolean') { let purposes = AHE.consentData.purposeConsents; AHE.privacyAdConsent = (purposes[2] && purposes[3] && purposes[4] && purposes[7]) || false; AHE.privacyContentConsent = (purposes[5] && purposes[6] && purposes[8]) || false; AHE.privacyAnalyticsConsent = (purposes[8]) || false; AHE.tcfConsentResolved = true; } else if (AHE.consentStatus.userChoiceExists) { AHE.privacyAdConsent = false; AHE.privacyContentConsent = false; AHE.privacyAnalyticsConsent = false; AHE.tcfConsentResolved = true; } } else if (AHE.consentData.gdprApplies === false) { AHE.privacyAdConsent = true; AHE.privacyContentConsent = true; AHE.privacyAnalyticsConsent = true; AHE.tcfConsentResolved = true; } } } if (AHE.tcfConsentResolved) { clearInterval(cmpListenerInvterval); console.log('Privacy consent (region | advertising | content | analytics):','EU (' + ipCountry + ')',AHE.privacyAdConsent,AHE.privacyContentConsent,AHE.privacyAnalyticsConsent); resolve('privacyReady'); } },100); // Fallback timeout setTimeout(()=>{ if (!AHE.tcfConsentResolved) { AHE.privacyAdConsent = false; AHE.privacyContentConsent = false; AHE.privacyAnalyticsConsent = false; AHE.tcfConsentResolved = true; clearInterval(cmpListenerInvterval); console.warn('Privacy consent TIMEOUT (region | advertising | content | analytics):','EU (' + ipCountry + ')',AHE.privacyAdConsent,AHE.privacyContentConsent,AHE.privacyAnalyticsConsent); resolve('privacyReady'); } },10000); } else { // No Privacy Rules AHE.privacyAdConsent = true; AHE.privacyContentConsent = true; AHE.privacyAnalyticsConsent = true; console.log('Privacy consent (region | advertising | content | analytics):','non-EU (' + ipCountry + ')',AHE.privacyAdConsent,AHE.privacyContentConsent,AHE.privacyAnalyticsConsent); resolve('privacyReady'); } }); }); const deferredLoadedEvent = new Event('deferredLoaded'); const deferredReady = new Promise((resolve,reject) => { document.addEventListener('deferredLoaded',function(elem) { resolve('deferredReady'); }) }); </script>  <script type="text/javascript"> var tag = "aegean"; var tags_json = ["aegean","Asia_Minor","greece","Kos","Naxos","Samothrace","trade"]; var media_layout = get_media_layout(); var euCountries = ["at", "be", "bg", "cy", "cz", "de", "dk", "ee", "es", "fi", "fr", "gb", "gr", "hr", "hu", "ie", "it", "is", "lt", "lu", "lv", "mt", "nl", "pl", "pt", "ro", "se", "si", "sk"]; var USDGBP = 0.79059; var EURGBP = 0.82854; var is_admin = 0; var ci_title = "Aegean"; var forced_country = getUrlParameter(window.location.href,"country"); // A/B Testing let abParameter = getUrlParameter(window.location.href,"ab"); if (['a','b','c'].includes(abParameter)) { console.log('Set A/B test to ' + abParameter) AHE.ab = abParameter; } else if (getCookie('ahe_ab_group') == 'a' || getCookie('ahe_ab_group') == 'b') { AHE.ab = getCookie('ahe_ab_group'); } else if (Math.random() >= 0.5) { AHE.ab = 'a'; } else { AHE.ab = 'b'; } console.log('A/B group: ',AHE.ab); // Core Definitions AHE.contentLang = 'en'; AHE.siteName = 'World History Encyclopedia'; AHE.ci_id = "1-118"; AHE.ci_type_id = 1; AHE.ci_type = 'Definition'; AHE.ci_author = 'JPryst'; AHE.ci_author_id = '594'; AHE.ci_translator_id = ''; AHE.lang_rtl = 0; AHE.ci_trans = 0; AHE.ci_translator = ''; AHE.siteKeywords = 'history,ancient,antiquity,medieval,education,k12,university,travel,culture,heritage'; AHE.contentKeywords = ["Aegean","Asia Minor","Greece","Kos","Naxos","Samothrace","Trade"]; AHE.contentKeywords.push('History'); AHE.cattaxIAB = 6; AHE.siteIAB = [ '132', // Education '133', // Adult Education '135', // Secondary Education '137', // College Education '141', // Undergraduate Education '145', // Homeschooling '146', // Homework & Study '148', // Online Education '1001', // Editorial / Professional '1011', // Academic Research Content '1013', // Educational Content '1216', // Professionally Produced ]; AHE.contentTitle = ci_title; AHE.contentUrl = 'https://www.worldhistory.org/aegean/'; AHE.canonicalPath = '/aegean/'; AHE.contentIAB = Array.from(AHE.siteIAB); AHE.userLoggedin = '0'; AHE.digiTrustMemberID = 'Rk7R77ItMJ'; AHE.digiTrustSiteID = 'blvtF3tRZY'; AHE.userActivityTimeout = 120; AHE.categories = {"ci_subject_ids":[8],"ci_region_ids":[8],"ci_period_ids":[2],"ci_categories":[80]}; AHE.categoriesHuman = {"ci_subject_ids":["Places"],"ci_region_ids":["Mediterranean"],"ci_period_ids":["Ancient"],"ci_categories":["Featured"]}; AHE.media_layout = media_layout; AHE.username = false; AHE.is_admin = is_admin; AHE.is_member = AHE.is_member || 0; AHE.is_editor = 0; AHE.prebidAuctionRun = false; AHE.adLoadMethod = null; AHE.deferredLoaded = false; AHE.deferredTimeout = 5000; // milliseconds AHE.search_term = null; AHE.usPrivacyString = getCookie('usprivacy') || false; AHE.usPrivacyOptOut = false; AHE.pubcidOptout = getCookie('_pubcid_optout') || false; AHE.cmpLinkMoved = false; AHE.isEU = false; AHE.isUS = false; AHE.deviceType = (AHE.media_layout == 'mobile' || AHE.media_layout == 'tablet') ? 'mobile' : 'desktop'; AHE.idHashSha1 = null || getCookie('esh1') || getUrlParameter(window.location.href, 'es1') || null; AHE.idHashSha256 = null || getCookie('esh') || getUrlParameter(window.location.href, 'esh') || null; AHE.idHashSha256Clean = null || getCookie('esh-clean') || null; AHE.idHashMd5 = null || getCookie('emd') || getUrlParameter(window.location.href, 'emd') || null; AHE.imageErrors = []; AHE.visitCount = Math.max(1, (getCookie("visitCount") || 0) * 1); AHE.pageViewCount = Math.max(1, (getCookie("pageViewCount") || 0) * 1); AHE.articleReadCount = (getCookie('articleReadCount') || 0) * 1; AHE.interestEmailOptIn = getCookie('interest_email_opt_in'); AHE.interestGroup = getCookie('interestGroup') || null; AHE.mcLists = getCookie('mcLists'); AHE.feedbackThanks = 'Thank you for your feedback!'; AHE.membershipPrices = {"co":{"price":12000,"cursymb":"COP","curticker":"COP","curname":"Colombian Pesos","monthly":"price_1Lbl7t2UunIs5vtkpUk1JnvM","annual":"price_1Lbl7t2UunIs5vtkPcVXm37P"},"ph":{"price":140,"cursymb":"PHP","curticker":"PHP","curname":"Philippine Pisos","monthly":"price_1Lbl7t2UunIs5vtkEoLUtx27","annual":"price_1Lbl7t2UunIs5vtkOYQa1lvS"},"in":{"price":150,"cursymb":"\u20b9","curticker":"INR","curname":"Indian Rupees","monthly":"price_1Lbl7t2UunIs5vtkDIggQ5Kk","annual":"price_1Lbl7t2UunIs5vtkdFQe2TOl"},"ca":{"price":6,"cursymb":"CA$","curticker":"CAD","curname":"Canadian Dollars","monthly":"price_1Lbl7t2UunIs5vtk3h0ZzsHk","annual":"price_1Lbl7t2UunIs5vtk8R6BfmDY"},"ar":{"price":300,"cursymb":"ARS","curticker":"ARS","curname":"Argentine Pesos","monthly":"price_1Lbl7t2UunIs5vtkSgP1i7ry","annual":"price_1Lbl7t2UunIs5vtkmn9cSOWz"},"mx":{"price":60,"cursymb":"MX$","curticker":"MXN","curname":"Mexican Pesos","monthly":"price_1Lbl7t2UunIs5vtkJuSy5Bu9","annual":"price_1Lbl7t2UunIs5vtkWWocq1D9"},"au":{"price":6.5,"cursymb":"A$","curticker":"AUD","curname":"Australian Dollars","monthly":"price_1Lbl7t2UunIs5vtkdjUrjeVm","annual":"price_1Lbl7t2UunIs5vtkdDShq92X"},"eu":{"price":4,"cursymb":"\u20ac","curticker":"EUR","curname":"Euros","monthly":"price_1Lbl7t2UunIs5vtkE9eS0s1w","annual":"price_1Lbl7u2UunIs5vtkaWNWJlaJ"},"gb":{"price":3.5,"cursymb":"\u00a3","curticker":"GBP","curname":"British Pounds","monthly":"price_1Lbl7u2UunIs5vtkJP6XWDj7","annual":"price_1Lbl7u2UunIs5vtkWMIAjA35"},"us":{"price":5,"cursymb":"$","curticker":"USD","curname":"US Dollars","monthly":"price_1Lbl7u2UunIs5vtkNDtNDiIi","annual":"price_1Lbl7u2UunIs5vtkYAGjycku"}}; AHE.userEngagement = 'none'; AHE.userEngagementLevel = 0; AHE.userDevice = {}; AHE.userID = ''; AHE.appNexusUser = { language: navigator.language.substr(0,2) }; AHE.appNexusSupplyType = media_layout.includes('desktop') ? 'web' : 'mobile_web'; AHE.isHumanVerified = getCookie('whe_hv') || 0; AHE.isBot = navigator.webdriver || /bot|crawl|spider|googleother|google-extended|apis-google|mediapartners|baidu|bing|msn|teoma|slurp|yandex|anthropic|claude|chatgpt|cohere/i.test(navigator.userAgent); AHE.isIVT = false; AHE.IPv4 = null; AHE.IPv6 = null; AHE.cfTurnstileKey = '0x4AAAAAAAAwX90u0VMXFYiR'; AHE.gamTags = [].concat(tags_json); AHE.popupShown = null; AHE.cachebuster = Math.round(Math.random()*10000000); AHE.acq_referrer = getCookie('acq_referrer') || (document.referrer ? URL.parse(document.referrer).hostname : '(direct)') || '(direct)'; AHE.acq_source = getCookie('acq_source') || getUrlParameter(window.location.href,'utm_source') || '(none)'; AHE.acq_medium = getCookie('acq_medium') || getUrlParameter(window.location.href,'utm_medium') || '(none)'; AHE.acq_campaign = getCookie('acq_campaign') || getUrlParameter(window.location.href,'utm_campaign') || '(none)'; AHE.flagLanguages = {"af":{"ci_lang":"af","ci_count":81,"lang_name":"Afrikaans","lang_flag":"za.svg"},"sq":{"ci_lang":"sq","ci_count":7,"lang_name":"Albanian","lang_flag":"al.svg"},"be":{"ci_lang":"be","ci_count":2,"lang_name":"Belarusian","lang_flag":"by.svg"},"bg":{"ci_lang":"bg","ci_count":9,"lang_name":"Bulgarian","lang_flag":"bg.svg"},"zh":{"ci_lang":"zh","ci_count":233,"lang_name":"Chinese","lang_flag":"cn.svg"},"hr":{"ci_lang":"hr","ci_count":5,"lang_name":"Croatian","lang_flag":"hr.svg"},"cs":{"ci_lang":"cs","ci_count":7,"lang_name":"Czech","lang_flag":"cz.svg"},"nl":{"ci_lang":"nl","ci_count":149,"lang_name":"Dutch","lang_flag":"nl.svg"},"fr":{"ci_lang":"fr","ci_count":3671,"lang_name":"French","lang_flag":"fr.svg"},"de":{"ci_lang":"de","ci_count":178,"lang_name":"German","lang_flag":"de.svg"},"el":{"ci_lang":"el","ci_count":203,"lang_name":"Greek","lang_flag":"gr.svg"},"hi":{"ci_lang":"hi","ci_count":10,"lang_name":"Hindi","lang_flag":"in.svg"},"hu":{"ci_lang":"hu","ci_count":10,"lang_name":"Hungarian","lang_flag":"hu.svg"},"id":{"ci_lang":"id","ci_count":108,"lang_name":"Indonesian","lang_flag":"id.svg"},"it":{"ci_lang":"it","ci_count":539,"lang_name":"Italian","lang_flag":"it.svg"},"ja":{"ci_lang":"ja","ci_count":4,"lang_name":"Japanese","lang_flag":"jp.svg"},"ko":{"ci_lang":"ko","ci_count":9,"lang_name":"Korean","lang_flag":"kr.svg"},"ms":{"ci_lang":"ms","ci_count":60,"lang_name":"Malay","lang_flag":"my.svg"},"ml":{"ci_lang":"ml","ci_count":2,"lang_name":"Malayalam","lang_flag":"in.svg"},"nb":{"ci_lang":"nb","ci_count":1,"lang_name":"Norwegian Bokm\u00e5l","lang_flag":"no.svg"},"fa":{"ci_lang":"fa","ci_count":200,"lang_name":"Persian","lang_flag":"ir.svg"},"pl":{"ci_lang":"pl","ci_count":70,"lang_name":"Polish","lang_flag":"pl.svg"},"pt":{"ci_lang":"pt","ci_count":967,"lang_name":"Portuguese","lang_flag":"pt.svg"},"ro":{"ci_lang":"ro","ci_count":13,"lang_name":"Romanian","lang_flag":"ro.svg"},"ru":{"ci_lang":"ru","ci_count":58,"lang_name":"Russian","lang_flag":"ru.svg"},"sr":{"ci_lang":"sr","ci_count":59,"lang_name":"Serbian","lang_flag":"rs.svg"},"es":{"ci_lang":"es","ci_count":2297,"lang_name":"Spanish","lang_flag":"es.svg"},"sv":{"ci_lang":"sv","ci_count":15,"lang_name":"Swedish","lang_flag":"se.svg"},"tl":{"ci_lang":"tl","ci_count":1,"lang_name":"Tagalog","lang_flag":"ph.svg"},"tr":{"ci_lang":"tr","ci_count":779,"lang_name":"Turkish","lang_flag":"tr.svg"},"uk":{"ci_lang":"uk","ci_count":50,"lang_name":"Ukrainian","lang_flag":"ua.svg"}}; AHE.minLangHomeForward = 300; // Minimum number of published translated articles to forward the homepage AHE.knownUser = +(AHE.idHashMd5 != null && AHE.idHashMd5.length > 0); // Referrer Cleanup try { if (typeof AHE.acq_referrer == 'string') { if (AHE.acq_referrer.includes(window.location.hostname)) AHE.acq_referrer = '(direct)'; AHE.acq_referrer = AHE.acq_referrer.replace('www.',''); } else { AHE.acq_referrer = '(direct)'; } } catch (e) { console.error('Error cleaning up acq_referrer!'); } // JS-dependent definitions scriptsReady.then(function() { // Acquisition Cookies if (AHE.acq_referrer) setCookie('acq_referrer',AHE.acq_referrer,365); if (AHE.acq_source) setCookie('acq_source',AHE.acq_source,365); if (AHE.acq_medium) setCookie('acq_medium',AHE.acq_medium,365); if (AHE.acq_campaign) setCookie('acq_campaign',AHE.acq_campaign,365); window.userLastActivity = Math.floor(Date.now() / 1000); AHE.privacyAdConsent = AHE.privacyAdConsent || getCookie('privacyAdConsent') || false; AHE.privacyContentConsent = AHE.privacyContentConsent || getCookie('privacyContentConsent') || false; AHE.privacyAnalyticsConsent = AHE.privacyAnalyticsConsent || getCookie('privacyAnalyticsConsent') || false; // Store A/B Test Cookie setCookie('ahe_ab_group',AHE.ab); // IP Information if (typeof clientIP == 'string') { if (clientIP.includes(':')) { AHE.IPv6 = clientIP; } else if (clientIP.includes('.')) { AHE.IPv4 = clientIP; } } // Engagement Categories if (AHE.pageViewCount >= 15 && AHE.articleReadCount >= 3 && AHE.visitCount >= 4) { AHE.userEngagement = 'veryhigh'; AHE.userEngagementLevel = 4; } else if (AHE.pageViewCount >= 7 && AHE.articleReadCount >= 2 && AHE.visitCount >= 3) { AHE.userEngagement = 'high'; AHE.userEngagementLevel = 3; } else if (AHE.pageViewCount >= 3 && AHE.visitCount >= 2) { AHE.userEngagement = 'medium'; AHE.userEngagementLevel = 2; } else if (AHE.pageViewCount >= 2) { AHE.userEngagement = 'low'; AHE.userEngagementLevel = 1; } else { AHE.userEngagement = 'none'; AHE.userEngagementLevel = 0; } if (typeof AHE.mcLists == 'string') { AHE.mcLists = AHE.mcLists.split(','); } else { AHE.mcLists = []; } // Country-Specific JS adminLog("IP Country: " + ipCountry); if (forced_country) { console.log("ipCountry override: " + forced_country); ipCountry = forced_country; } AHE.ipCountry = ipCountry; if (euCountries.includes(ipCountry)) { // EU User AHE.isEU = true; } else if (ipCountry == 'us') { // US User AHE.isUS = true; } else { // Other Country } // Inline JS (if any) }); </script>   <script data-no-optimize="1" data-cfasync="false"> ipScriptReady.then(()=>{ if (AHE.is_member) { // Has Membership, Remove Ads console.log('Membership detected!'); pageReady.then(()=>{ handleMemberLayout(); }); } else { // No Membership, Show Ads (function(w, d) { w.adthrive = w.adthrive || {}; w.adthrive.cmd = w. adthrive.cmd || []; w.adthrive.plugin = 'adthrive-ads-manual'; w.adthrive.host = 'ads.adthrive.com';var s = d.createElement('script'); s.async = true; s.fetchPriority = 'high'; s.importance = 'high'; s.referrerpolicy='no-referrer-when-downgrade'; s.src = 'https://' + w.adthrive.host + '/sites/65a6e420255ef424515e267b/ads.min.js?referrer=' + w.encodeURIComponent(w.location.href) + '&cb=' + (Math.floor(Math.random() * 100) + 1); var n = d.getElementsByTagName('script')[0]; n.parentNode.insertBefore(s, n); })(window, document); try { window.adthrive.cmd.push(function() { window.adthrive.siteAds.targeting.push( {key: 'at_custom_1', value: (AHE.interestGroup || 'unknown')} ); }); window.adthrive.cmd.push(function() { window.adthrive.siteAds.targeting.push( {key: 'at_custom_2', value: (AHE.contentLang || 'en')} ); }); console.log('Raptive interest group & language set:',(AHE.interestGroup || 'unknown'),(AHE.contentLang || 'en')); } catch (e) { console.warn('Error setting Raptive user group!',e); } } }); </script>   <script> !function(){"use strict";function e(e){const t=e.match(/((?=([a-z0-9._!#$%+^&*()[\]<>-]+))\2@[a-z0-9._-]+\.[a-z0-9._-]+)/gi);return t?t[0]:""}function t(t){return e(a(t.toLowerCase()))}function a(e){return e.replace(/\s/g,"")}async function n(e){const t={sha256Hash:"",sha1Hash:""};if(!("msCrypto"in window)&&"https:"===location.protocol&&"crypto"in window&&"TextEncoder"in window){const a=(new TextEncoder).encode(e),[n,c]=await Promise.all([s("SHA-256",a),s("SHA-1",a)]);t.sha256Hash=n,t.sha1Hash=c}return t}async function s(e,t){const a=await crypto.subtle.digest(e,t);return Array.from(new Uint8Array(a)).map(e=>("00"+e.toString(16)).slice(-2)).join("")}function c(e){let t=!0;return Object.keys(e).forEach(a=>{0===e[a].length&&(t=!1)}),t}function i(e,t,a){e.splice(t,1);const n="?"+e.join("&")+a.hash;history.replaceState(null,"",n)}var o={checkEmail:e,validateEmail:t,trimInput:a,hashEmail:n,hasHashes:c,removeEmailAndReplaceHistory:i,detectEmails:async function(){const e=new URL(window.location.href),a=Array.from(e.searchParams.entries()).map(e=>`${e[0]}=${e[1]}`);let s,o;const r=["adt_eih","sh_kit"];if(a.forEach((e,t)=>{const a=decodeURIComponent(e),[n,c]=a.split("=");if("adt_ei"===n&&(s={value:c,index:t,emsrc:"url"}),r.includes(n)){o={value:c,index:t,emsrc:"sh_kit"===n?"urlhck":"urlh"}}}),s)t(s.value)&&n(s.value).then(e=>{if(c(e)){const t={value:e,created:Date.now()};localStorage.setItem("adt_ei",JSON.stringify(t)),localStorage.setItem("adt_emsrc",s.emsrc)}});else if(o){const e={value:{sha256Hash:o.value,sha1Hash:""},created:Date.now()};localStorage.setItem("adt_ei",JSON.stringify(e)),localStorage.setItem("adt_emsrc",o.emsrc)}s&&i(a,s.index,e),o&&i(a,o.index,e)},cb:"adthrive"};const{detectEmails:r,cb:l}=o;r()}(); </script>   <script> pageReady.then(()=>{ window.adthrive = window.adthrive || {}; window.adthrive.cmd = window.adthrive.cmd || []; if (AHE.idHashSha256 && AHE.domain) { window.adthrive.cmd.push(function () { let idHash = AHE.idHashSha256; if (AHE.idHashSha256Clean) { idHash = AHE.idHashSha256Clean; } window.adthrive.identityApi({ source: AHE.domain, sha256: idHash }, ({ success, data }) => { if (success) { // Identity API success! console.log(`Raptive Identity API success: ${data.message}`) } else { // Identity API error, check message console.error(`Error calling Raptive identity API: ${data.message}`) } }) }); } }); </script>   <link rel="stylesheet" fetchpriority="high" importance="high" type="text/css" href="https://fonts.googleapis.com/css?family=Karla:400,700|Libre+Baskerville:400,400i,700&subset=latin-ext&display=swap"> <style>aside .adthrive-ad.adthrive-sticky-sidebar{margin-top:40px !important}aside .adthrive-ad.adthrive-sticky-sidebar>div{top:20px !important}#primis_intext .adthrive-collapse-player{padding:0 !important}.adthrive-collapse-bottom-right{margin-right:10px !important}#footer .adthrive-footer-message{padding-bottom:40px}#footer .adthrive-footer-message>span{border-top:0;padding-top:5px;text-transform:none;color:#e0e0e0}.adthrive-device-phone #footer .adthrive-footer-message{margin-bottom:40px}footer .adthrive-ccpa-link{color:#e0e0e0 !important}footer .adthrive-ccpa-link a{color:#fff;text-decoration:none;border:1px solid #fff;border-radius:5px;padding:4px 8px;margin:10px;display:inline-block;font-weight:normal}footer .adthrive-ccpa-link a:hover{color:#293744;background-color:#fff}.ad_Mobile_Intext .adcontainer{min-height:250px}a.book_list_item:hover{text-decoration:none}a.book_list_item:hover .book_title{text-decoration:none;color:#b52600;transition:.25s}a.book_list_item{display:block;clear:both;min-height:115px;border-bottom:1px solid #e3e3e3;padding:20px 0}a.book_list_item:first-of-type{border-top:1px solid #e3e3e3}.book_list_item .book_image{float:left;max-width:70px;height:auto;box-shadow:0 7px 10px -9px #222}.book_data{vertical-align:top;margin-left:120px}.book_list_item .book_title{font-size:18px;color:#000}.book_list_item .book_details{font-size:16px;font-family:Karla;line-height:130%;font-weight:normal;color:#666}.book_list_item .book_pricing{margin:.33em 0}.book_pricing .amazon_icon,.book_pricing .bookdepository_icon{background-image:url("/images/amazon_icon.svg");width:16px;height:16px;display:inline-block;background-position:0 0;position:relative;top:4px;margin-right:2px;background-size:contain}.book_pricing .bookdepository_icon{background-position:10px 0;width:10px;margin-right:4px;top:3px}.book_list_item .book_price{color:#000;margin-right:1em}a.book_purchase_button{color:#000;display:inline-block;border:1px solid #222;border-radius:5px;padding:50px 15px 10px 15px;font-family:Karla;line-height:130%;margin-right:20px;margin-bottom:10px;font-weight:normal;min-width:160px;background-repeat:no-repeat;background-position:center 10px;text-align:center}a.book_purchase_button:hover{text-decoration:none;cursor:pointer;border:1px solid #000;background-color:#f3f3f3;transition:.25s}a.book_purchase_button.amazon{background-image:url('/images/amazon-logo.svg');background-size:100px;background-position:center 15px}a.book_purchase_button.bookshoporg{background-image:url('/images/bookshoporg-logo.svg');background-size:160px;background-position:center center}a.book_purchase_button.bookdepository{background-image:url('/images/book-depository-logo.svg');background-size:100px;background-position:center 7px}a.book_purchase_button.waterstones{background-image:url('/images/waterstones-logo.svg');background-size:60px;background-position:center 11px}a.book_purchase_button.betterworldbooks{background-image:url('/images/betterworldbooks-logo-150px.png');background-size:150px;background-position:center 10px}a.book_purchase_button .shipping{font-size:14px;color:#999}.book_purchase_buttons{margin:25px 0;background-color:#f3f3f3;padding:15px 20px;border-radius:5px;display:block}.book_purchase_buttons .purchase{text-transform:uppercase;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;font-weight:bold;margin-right:20px}.book_purchase_buttons .sym{color:#b52600;font-size:20px;position:relative;top:2px;margin-right:5px}.book_purchase_buttons .lp_download_wrapper{padding-left:28px;margin-top:5px}.book_purchase_affiliate_explainer{color:#999;font-family:Karla;font-size:14px;line-height:130%;margin-top:1em}.btn_book_blacklist{float:right}.headline_button,.content_button_tiny,.grey_button,.ci_rel_type{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;color:#b52600;padding:0 10px;text-transform:uppercase;border-radius:5px;background-color:#f3f3f3;cursor:pointer}.content_button_tiny{top:0;float:right;margin-right:4px;padding:0 5px;line-height:160%;font-size:12px}a.ci_rel_type{font-weight:normal}.headline_button:hover,.content_button_tiny:hover,.grey_button:hover,.ci_rel_type:hover{background-color:#b52600;color:white;text-decoration:none;transition-duration:.25s}.outline_button{border:1px solid #222;padding:3px 10px;border-radius:3px;color:#222;font-family:Karla;font-size:14px;text-transform:uppercase;cursor:pointer;font-weight:normal !important;white-space:nowrap}.outline_button:hover,.outline_button.selector:hover{color:#FFF !important;background-color:#222;transition-duration:.25s;text-decoration:none;border:1px solid #222 !important}.outline_button.red{border:1px solid #b52600;color:#b52600}.outline_button.red:hover{border:1px solid #222;color:#FFF}.outline_button.selector{margin:5px 5px 0 0;display:inline-block;line-height:15px;text-transform:none;border:1px solid #999;color:#999}.outline_button.selected{border:1px solid #b52600;background-color:#b52600;color:white}.outline_button input{display:none}.ci_rel_type{display:inline-block;text-transform:none;cursor:pointer;margin:0 2px;top:auto}.ci_rel_type.selected,.grey_button.selected{background-color:#b52600;color:#FFF}.ci_rel_type.selected .ci_rel_type_count{color:#BBB}.ci_rel_type_count{display:none;margin-top:-11px;font-size:8pt;color:#666}.grey_button{float:none;line-height:15px;font-size:14px;white-space:pre;padding:7px 10px;margin:3px 7px 7px 0;display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap}.grey_button.green{background-color:#c9e693;color:#6d9d14}.grey_button.green:hover{background-color:#6d9d14;color:white}.content_button,.link_button,input[type=submit],input[type=button],.link_button.external_link,.content_button.external_link{display:block;width:160px;overflow:hidden;color:#b52600;font-weight:bold;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;font-size:16px;line-height:17px;text-align:center;text-transform:uppercase;padding:6px 6px !important;cursor:pointer;margin:5px 0 5px 0;border-radius:5px;border:2px solid #b52600;background-color:white;position:relative;top:0;white-space:nowrap}input[type=submit].content_button,input[type=button].content_button{height:33px;top:-1px}.green_button{display:inline-block;color:#FFF;background-color:#1bb77d;font-weight:bold;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;font-size:16px;line-height:17px;text-align:center;text-transform:uppercase;padding:6px 12px !important;cursor:pointer;margin:5px 0 5px 0;border-radius:5px;border:2px solid #1bb77d;position:relative;top:-1px;white-space:nowrap}.green_button:hover{text-decoration:none;background:#1bca90;border-color:#1bca90;transition-duration:.25s}input[type=submit],input[type=button]{padding:8px inherit !important}.content_button:hover,.link_button:hover,input[type=submit]:hover,input[type=button]:hover{color:#FFF;text-decoration:none;background:#b52600;transition-duration:.25s}.content_button_narrow.inline,.content_button.inline{display:inline-block;vertical-align:middle}.content_button_narrow,.content_button.narrow{width:auto !important}.content_button.inline{display:inline-block;width:inherit;padding-left:20px !important;padding-right:20px !important}.content_button.red,.content_button.dark{display:inline-block;border:0;background-color:#b52600;color:#fff;line-height:22px;width:auto;padding:6px 14px !important}.content_button.red:hover{background-color:#222;transition-duration:.25s}.content_button.dark{background-color:#222}.content_button.dark:hover{background-color:#b52600;transition-duration:.25s}input[disabled],.content_button.disabled,.content_button_tiny.disabled,.content_button_narrow.disabled{color:silver !important;cursor:default !important}input[disabled].content_button,input[disabled].content_button_tiny,input[disabled].content_button_narrow,.content_button.disabled,.content_button_tiny.disabled,.content_button_narrow.disabled{border:2px solid silver !important}input[disabled]:hover,.content_button.disabled:hover,.content_button_tiny.disabled:hover,.content_button_narrow.disabled:hover{color:silver !important;background-color:white !important}.social_login_button{display:block;width:174px;height:35px;background-image:url('/images/social_signin_buttons.png');background-color:silver}.social_login_button:hover{opacity:.9;transition-duration:.25s}.social_login_button.google{background-position:0 0}.social_login_button.twitter{background-position:0 -36px}.social_login_button.facebook{background-position:0 71px}.social_login_button.patreon{background-position:0 35px}.big_red_button:hover{text-decoration:none;opacity:.9;transition-duration:.25s}.big_red_button{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;font-size:20px;background-color:#b52600;background-image:url("/template/images/big_red_button_bg.jpg");border-radius:5px;color:white;display:block;font-weight:bold;margin:20px auto 0;padding:5px 16px;text-align:center;text-transform:uppercase;width:250px;cursor:pointer;white-space:nowrap}button.big_red_button{padding:6px 16px 7px;outline:0;border-style:none;font-size:13pt;font-family:hypatia-sans-pro;cursor:pointer}.simple_button{border:1px solid #222;color:#222;font-weight:normal;width:auto;padding:6px 14px !important;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;font-size:16px;line-height:33px;text-align:center;text-transform:uppercase;cursor:pointer;margin:5px 5px 5px 0;border-radius:5px;text-decoration:none;display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap}.simple_button:hover{text-decoration:none;background:#444;border:1px solid #444;color:#EEE;transition-duration:.25s}.simple_button.red:hover{border:1px solid #222;background-color:#222;transition-duration:.25s}.simple_button.red{border:1px solid #b52600;background-color:#b52600;color:#fff;font-weight:bold}.simple_button.disabled{border:1px solid silver;color:silver}.simple_button.disabled:hover{border:1px solid silver;color:silver;background:#fff;cursor:default}.ad_membership_notice{text-transform:uppercase;font-weight:bold;position:relative;padding:0 10px;display:inline-block;border-radius:5px;float:right;background-color:#f3f3f3}.ad_membership_notice:hover{background-color:#b52600;color:white;text-decoration:none;transition-duration:.25s}.publish_link span{display:none}.publish_link.publish span.label_publish,.publish_link.unpublish span.label_unpublish,.publish_link.schedule span.label_schedule{display:inline}.content_button.schedule{background-color:#8cb2d6;color:#293744;border-color:#293744}.content_button.schedule:hover{background-color:#293744;color:white}.content_button.schedule.inactive:hover{background-color:#8cb2d6;color:#293744}.content_button.scheduled_label{background-color:#8cb2d6;border-color:#8cb2d6;color:#293744;cursor:default}.content_button.unpublish{background-color:#ebbaa5;color:#983e18;border-color:#983e18}.content_button.publish{background-color:#c9e693;color:#6d9d14;border-color:#6d9d14}.content_button.publish:hover{background-color:#6d9d14;color:white}.content_button.unpublish:hover{background-color:#983e18;color:white}#qc-cmp2-ui button,#qc-cmp2-ui button *{cursor:pointer}.qc-cmp2-summary-buttons button:nth-child(2){background-color:#293744;color:#FFF}.qc-cmp2-summary-buttons button:nth-child(2):hover{background-color:#222;border-color:#222}.content_item{display:inline-block;margin:20px 0;padding:0;max-width:350px;vertical-align:top;position:relative}.content_item:hover h3{text-decoration:underline}.content_item:hover .ci_preview,.content_item:hover h3{color:#b52600 !important;transition:.5s}.content_item:hover{text-decoration:none;padding:0;transition:.5s;color:#b52600 !important}.content_item .ci_type_name{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;font-weight:normal;font-size:14px;margin-bottom:-10px;color:#999;position:relative;top:-2px}.content_item .ci_image{margin:0;box-shadow:0 7px 10px -9px #222;max-width:100%;width:360px;height:auto}.content_item .ci_header h3{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;font-size:16px;font-weight:bold !important;text-transform:none;color:#b52600;margin-bottom:4px;line-height:120%;margin-top:6px}.content_item .ci_preview{color:#444;font-weight:normal;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;line-height:130%;padding-left:30px;margin-top:-1px}.content_item .featured_ci_marker{float:left;background-color:#b52600;color:#fff;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;font-weight:normal;font-size:14px;text-transform:uppercase;padding:1px 15px}.ci_info{display:flex;align-items:center;justify-content:flex-start;color:#999;font-size:14px;line-height:18px;margin:0 0 5px 0;width:100%}.ci_info .block{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;padding:6px}.ci_info .ci_author_image{width:50px;height:50px}.ci_author_image img{border-radius:50%}.ci_header .ci_info.wide{width:100%}.ci_header .rating_stars{margin-left:.5em}.ci_info.wide table{width:100%}.ci_author_and_copyright p{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;line-height:140%;color:#666}#ci_related_type_list{margin-bottom:30px;margin-top:10px}.filter_label{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;font-weight:bold;text-transform:uppercase;font-size:14px;display:block;margin:2px;margin-top:1em}.ci_type_icon{width:30px;height:30px;background-size:20px;background-color:white;background-repeat:no-repeat;background-position:center;border-radius:15px;position:absolute;top:7px;left:7px;opacity:.8}.content_item .ci_header{background:no-repeat left 1px;background-size:20px;padding-left:30px;min-height:21px}.ci_related_content_wrapper .ci_preview{font-size:14px}#ci_status_list_items{padding:0}#ci_status_list_items li{list-style-type:none;padding:.1em 0}*{-webkit-font-smoothing:antialiased;text-rendering:optimizeLegibility;-moz-osx-font-smoothing:grayscale;font-display:swap !important}body{font-family:"Libre Baskerville","Palatino Linotype","Book Antiqua",Palatino,serif;font-display:auto;color:#333}h1#page_title_text{font-style:normal;font-weight:400;font-size:60px;line-height:120%;color:#000;margin-bottom:-12px;border-bottom:1px solid #e3e3e3;margin:0;padding-bottom:10px;break-after:avoid-page}#content h2{font-style:normal;font-weight:400;font-size:30px;line-height:120%;color:#000;padding-bottom:10px;border-bottom:0;margin-bottom:10px;margin-top:60px;min-height:36px;break-after:avoid-page}h3{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;font-size:26px;line-height:130%;font-weight:normal;margin:20px 0 -10px 0;padding:0;color:#000;break-after:avoid-page}article h3 a{font-weight:normal}.link_nobold a{font-weight:normal}h4{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;font-size:16px;color:#000;font-weight:bold;margin:20px 0 0 0}article th{text-align:left;background-color:#f3f3f3}article td,article th{border:1px solid #dadada}strong h3,b h3,h3 strong,h3 b{font-weight:normal !important}dfn{font-weight:bold}cite{font-style:normal}.ci_header h3{margin:4px 0 0 0}#content{font-size:16px;line-height:170%}a{color:#b52600;font-weight:bold;text-decoration:none}a:hover{text-decoration:underline}.messages{display:block;margin:0 auto;width:75%;padding:1em 1em 1em 1em;margin-top:50px}#result_error_messages,.registration_errors,#float_message.msg_error,.errors_in_doc{border:1px solid #b52600;background-color:#f1d1c9;color:#b52600}.errors_in_doc{border:0;border-radius:5px;font-size:18px}#result_messages_in_doc,.info_in_doc{background-color:#ffc600;color:#000;font-size:18px;border-radius:5px}.info_in_doc{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;padding:.5em 1em;line-height:130%;margin:1em 0}#result_messages,#float_message{border:1px solid #999;background-color:#f8ecdd}.error_box{border:2px solid #b52600;background-color:#f1d1c9;padding:10px;margin:0 -12px}blockquote{font-size:16px;line-height:130%;color:grey;padding-left:5px;margin-bottom:0;padding:1px 1em 1px 80px;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;margin-left:0;background-repeat:no-repeat;background-position:15px 15px}blockquote p{margin:.5em 0}.light{color:#999}.light.normal{font-weight:normal}textarea{border:1px solid #dadada;padding:.5em}input[type=text],input[type=url],input[type=number],select,input[type=password],input[type=email],#ahe_dialogue_popup input[type=text],#ahe_dialogue_popup select,#ahe_dialogue_popup input[type=password],#ahe_dialogue_popup input[type=email],#TB_window input[type=text],#TB_window select,#TB_window input[type=password],#TB_window input[type=email]{font-size:16px;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;color:#222;border:1px solid #dadada;border-radius:5px;box-shadow:inset 0 0 5px rgba(0,0,0,.1);padding:6px 10px;position:relative;top:0}input[type=text]:focus,input[type=email]:focus,input[type=url]:focus,input[type=number]:focus,select:focus,input[type=password]:focus,#ahe_dialogue_popup input[type=text]:focus,#ahe_dialogue_popup input[type=email]:focus,#ahe_dialogue_popup select:focus,#ahe_dialogue_popup input[type=password]:focus,#TB_window input[type=text]:focus,#TB_window select:focus,#TB_window input[type=password]:focus{border:1px solid #b52600;box-shadow:inset 0 0 5px rgba(181,38,0,.1);color:#222;outline:0}#content textarea,#TB_window textarea,#ahe_dialogue_popup textarea{font-size:16px;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;color:#222;border:1px solid #dadada;border-radius:5px;box-shadow:inset 0 0 5px rgba(0,0,0,.1);padding:6px 10px;max-width:95%}#content textarea:focus,#TB_window textarea:focus,#ahe_dialogue_popup textarea:focus{border:1px solid #b52600;box-shadow:inset 0 0 5px rgba(181,38,0,.1);color:#222;outline:0}.link_style{color:#b52600;font-weight:bold;cursor:pointer}.link_style:hover{text-decoration:underline}.teamprofiles tr{margin-bottom:2em}.teamprofiles td{font-size:10px;vertical-align:top;padding:17px 7px 30px 7px}.teamprofiles p{margin:0 0 1em 0}.team_member_details li{list-style-type:circle}.big_quote{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;float:right;background:url(/template/images/bg_quote.png) center 20px no-repeat;padding:76px 20px 30px;text-transform:uppercase;font-weight:bold;font-size:26px;text-align:center;color:#b52600;margin:10px;display:block;width:300px}.big_quote .quote_author{font-size:16px;color:#e4ded7}.ahe-ad,.sovrn-onetag-ad,.ahe-ad h4,.ahe-promo h4{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;font-size:13px}.ahe-ad h4,.sovrn-onetag-ad{font-weight:normal;text-transform:uppercase;color:#999;margin-bottom:20px;margin-top:40px}.filter_count{color:#999}.partners_list p{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;font-size:13px;line-height:21px}.statistics_table td{padding-left:.5em;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif}label,.banner-caption{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;line-height:130%}#search_filters li{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif}.breadcrumb_navigation{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;padding-top:5px;padding-bottom:5px;font-size:14px}.search_filters{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;line-height:130%}input::placeholder{color:#999}.form_field_label{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;font-size:14px;line-height:14px;color:#666;font-weight:bold;margin-bottom:2px;margin-top:1em}.errors_in_doc{font-family:Karla;padding:10px 20px;display:inline-block;line-height:130%}.errors_in_doc p{margin:.5em 0}input[type=text]:read-only{opacity:.6}select{background-color:#fff}.error{background-color:orangered;color:white;border-radius:3px;padding:3px 6px}.error a{color:white !important;text-decoration:underline !important;font-weight:bold}.editorial_review_notice{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;font-size:14px;color:#666;line-height:18px;border-top:1px dotted #dadada;border-bottom:1px dotted #dadada;padding:1em 0}.editorial_review_header.translations{margin-top:.5em}.editorial_review_header{text-transform:uppercase;font-weight:bold;color:#222;padding-right:.8em;display:block}.yellow_highlight{background-color:#ffc600;padding:2px 5px;border-radius:3px}.yellow_highlight_box{background-color:#ffc600;padding:5px 10px;border-radius:5px;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif}.success{background-color:#c9e693;color:#6d9d14;border-radius:5px;padding:2px 4px;margin:-2px 0}.failure{background-color:#ebbaa5;color:#983e18;border-radius:5px;padding:2px 4px;margin:-2px 0}.affiliate_notice{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;line-height:130%;font-size:14px;color:#999;margin:1em 0}.sans{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;line-height:130%}.ahe-ad .ad_header{font-weight:normal;text-transform:uppercase;color:#999;margin-bottom:20px;margin-top:40px}li .count,li a.count{font-weight:normal;color:#999}#header{position:relative}#header_ahe_logo{margin:40px;width:318px;height:77px}#header_donate_button{position:relative;float:right}.donate_button{display:inline-block;width:90px;height:32px;color:#FFF;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;font-size:12px;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;line-height:17px;text-transform:uppercase;background:#b52600;border-radius:5px}.donate_button span{position:relative;top:8px}.donate_button span.hover{display:none}.donate_button:hover{text-decoration:none;background:#222;transition-duration:.25s}.donate_button:hover span.base{display:none}.donate_button:hover span.hover{display:initial}#header_tools .patreon_button{color:white;background-color:#b52600;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;border-radius:5px;padding:6px 10px;float:right;margin-left:0;text-transform:uppercase}#header_tools .patreon_button:hover{background-color:#222;text-decoration:none;transition-duration:.25s}#header_wrapper{box-shadow:0 2px 6px silver}.header_sm_link{width:32px;height:32px;display:none;opacity:.25}.header_sm_link svg{width:32px;height:32px}.header_sm_link:hover{opacity:1}.header_sm_link.twitter{background-position:-32px 0;background-position-x:-32px}.header_sm_link.instagram{background-position:-96px 0;background-position-x:-96px}.header_sm_link.youtube{background-position:-128px 0;background-position-x:-128px}#mobile_sm_buttons{display:none}.sf-menu ul li:last-child a{border-bottom:0}a img{border:0}.body img,body.mceContentBody img,.image-wrapper .image img,.tag_definition_image,.tm-grid-item img,.avatar_image,.shadow_image,.in_text_image{margin:1em auto;display:block;box-shadow:0 7px 10px -9px #222}.image_page .copyright{font-size:75%}.image_page .description{margin-top:2em}.image-wrapper .description{margin-top:1em}.image-wrapper figure{margin:0;padding:0;width:100%}figure .image{text-align:center}figure.image_intext_wrapper{margin:1em 0}figure.image_intext_wrapper figcaption,figure.definition_image figcaption{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;line-height:130%;text-align:center;margin-top:-7px}figure.image_intext_wrapper figcaption .figtitle,figure.definition_image figcaption .figtitle{color:#222;font-weight:normal}figure.image_intext_wrapper a:hover,figure.definition_image a:hover{text-decoration:none}figure.image_intext_wrapper a:hover figcaption .figtitle,figure.definition_image a:hover figcaption .figtitle{color:#b52600;transition:.5s}figure.image_intext_wrapper figcaption .figauthor,figure.definition_image figcaption .figauthor{font-size:14px;font-weight:normal;color:#999;display:block}img.tag_definition_image{max-width:300px;height:auto;box-shadow:0 7px 10px -9px #222}figure.definition_image{float:right;margin:0 0 10px 10px;display:table;max-width:300px}.image_large{max-width:100%;height:auto}.round_image{box-shadow:0 7px 10px -9px #222;border-radius:50%;padding:3px;border:1px solid #e7e7e7}body{padding:0;margin:0;overflow-x:hidden}body.iframe{background-color:#FFF}a img{border:0}#page{background-color:#FFF;width:1101px;border-left:1px solid white;border-right:1px solid white;margin:0 auto}#content_wrapper{padding:40px;padding-top:22px}.left_3_column{float:left;width:681px}.right_1_column{float:left;width:300px;margin-left:40px}.left_1_column{float:left;width:300px}.right_3_column{float:left;width:681px;margin-left:40px}.left_2_column{float:left;width:490px}.right_2_column{float:left;width:490px;margin-left:40px}.right_narrow_column{float:left;width:250px;margin-left:40px}.left_narrow_column{float:left;width:160px}.middle_wide_column{float:left;width:531px;margin-left:40px}.middle_2_column{float:left;width:427px;margin-left:21px}.full_4_column{width:1021px}.clear{clear:both}.pagination{margin:10px auto;display:block;text-align:center;font-size:10px;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif}.pagination a{border:1px solid #dadada;padding:5px 7px;margin:2px}.pagination a:hover{color:#FFF;background-color:#b52600;text-decoration:none}.pagination strong{border:1px solid #b52600;padding:5px 7px;margin:2px;background-color:#b52600;color:#FFF}.float_right{float:right}.hidden{display:none}.searchform input[type=text]{height:21px;margin-right:5px;border:1px solid #dadada}.left_1_column .searchform input[type=text]{width:145px;margin-left:-4px}.about_links,.left_menu{margin:0;padding:0;border-bottom:1px solid #e3e3e3}.left_menu a,.about_link a{display:block;border-top:1px solid #e3e3e3;padding:.3em .3em;margin:0;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif}.left_menu a:hover,.about_link a:hover{background-color:#f3f3f3;text-decoration:none}.index_alphabet{display:block;margin:0;width:682px;padding-left:20px;background-image:url('/template/images/index_alphabet_fadout_bg.png');clear:both;max-width:728px}#index_tags_container{display:block;min-height:700px;vertical-align:middle;max-width:400px}input.button_height{font-size:12px;padding:4px}input[type=radio],input[type=checkbox]{position:relative;margin-right:.5em}#content select{height:33px;padding:0 10px;top:0}.uvOverlay1{z-index:2000000001 !important}#delete_reason_wrapper{display:none}table{border-collapse:collapse;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;line-height:140%}table th{text-align:left;background-color:#f3f3f3;color:#000}table td,table th{border-color:#f3f3f3}.team_member_details b{font-size:14px;line-height:20px}.team_member_details{padding-left:2.5em !important}.teamprofiles td img{border:1px solid silver;padding:2px;border-radius:75px}#mce-EMAIL{width:200px;margin-right:5px}.right_narrow_column #mce-EMAIL{width:122px}.right_1_column #mce-EMAIL{width:165px}#mc_embed_signup{background-color:#f3f3f3;margin-top:30px;min-height:436px;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;line-height:140%}#mc_embed_signup .mc-field-group{line-height:150%}#mc_embed_signup form{padding:1px 15px 12px 15px}#mc_embed_signup h3{background-color:#222;display:inline-block;font-size:14px;color:white;border-radius:3px;padding:3px 10px;margin:10px 0 0 0;font-weight:bold}img.newsletter_banner{border-bottom:1px solid #e4ded7}.bottom_float_bar{position:fixed;bottom:0;width:100%;background-color:#353535;left:0;border-top:3px solid #b52600;z-index:10}.youtube-embed-wrapper{max-width:100%;margin:0 auto;box-shadow:0 7px 10px -9px #222}#content.video_page .youtube-embed-wrapper,#content.image3d_page .youtube-embed-wrapper{max-width:100% !important}.youtube-embed-container{position:relative;padding-bottom:56.25%;height:0;overflow:hidden;max-width:100%;width:100%}.youtube-embed-container iframe,.youtube-embed-container object,.youtube-embed-container embed{position:absolute;top:0;left:0;width:100%;height:100%}.ad_Flexi_TopRight{margin-bottom:100px;min-height:600px}.ad_Flexi_MiddleRight{margin:100px 0;min-height:250px}.ad_Flexi_LowerRight{margin:100px 0;min-height:600px}.ad_Flexi_BottomLeft{max-width:728px;margin:auto}.ad_Mobile_Intext{margin:2em 0;clear:both;display:block}@media(max-width:991px){.ad_Mobile_Intext .innerwrapper{text-align:center}}@media(min-width:992px){.ad_Mobile_Intext.intext-ad-1,.ad_Mobile_Intext.intext-ad-2{display:none}}.sticky,.ahe-ad iframe.hstryFrame,.ahe-ad institutional_sub_promo{position:sticky;top:20px;display:block}#ad_sidebar_whitespace_sticky{position:sticky;top:20px;margin-top:100px}.right_1_column .shop_promo{margin:100px 0}.image3d_embed{position:relative;padding-bottom:56.25%;height:0;overflow:hidden;max-width:100%}.image3d_embed iframe{position:absolute;top:0;left:0;width:100%;height:100%}.contribute_page #tag_add_button{float:none}body.iframe{padding:2em}.map_section{margin-top:1em}.pre_article_section{margin:14px 0}.ci_audio_link,.translations_header{clear:both;margin:10px 0;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;color:#999;font-size:14px;line-height:18px}.ci_audio_link img.headphones_icon{width:32px;height:32px;vertical-align:middle;padding-right:13px;position:relative;top:-1px}.translations_header{margin-bottom:6px}.translations_header img{width:32px;height:32px;vertical-align:top;padding-right:9px;position:relative;top:-7px}.translations_title{display:inline-block;vertical-align:top;margin-right:.5em}.translations_links{display:inline-block;vertical-align:top}.inline{display:inline}.collection_contents .ci_listing{margin:2em 0}.collection_contents .ci_listing h3{margin-bottom:.5em}.timeline_outer_wrapper{margin:100px 0}.mosaicflow__column{float:left}.image-list img{float:left;display:block;height:auto;max-width:150px;border-radius:50%;box-shadow:0 7px 10px -9px #222}.image-list .label{margin-left:170px}.image-list .preheader{font-family:Karla;color:#999;font-size:14px;margin-bottom:-8px}.image-list h3.header{margin:0}.image-list .image-list-item{margin:60px 0;min-height:150px;clear:both}.image-list-item .label-content p{margin:.6em 0}.image-list-cards img{display:block;height:auto;max-width:150px;border-radius:50%;box-shadow:0 7px 10px -9px #222;margin:0 auto}.image-list-cards .label{margin-top:15px}.image-list-cards .preheader{color:#999;font-size:14px}.image-list-cards h4{margin:0}.image-list-cards .image-list-item{margin:40px 40px 40px 0;min-height:150px;clear:both;max-width:300px;display:inline-block;vertical-align:top;text-align:center;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;line-height:130%;position:relative}.image-list-cards .coming_soon{background-color:#ea5b3a;display:inline-block;padding:2px 0;color:#FFF;font-size:14px;text-transform:uppercase;line-height:15px;border-radius:3px;position:absolute;top:137px;width:110px;left:95px;left:calc(50% - 55px);font-weight:bold}.image-list-cards .image-list-item .label-content p{margin:.3em 0;color:#999}.image-list-cards.small .image-list-item{max-width:200px;margin:20px 40px 20px 0}.image-list-cards.small img{max-width:100px}.image-list-cards.small .coming_soon{top:90px}.checkbox_wrapper input[type=checkbox]{margin-right:-20px;position:relative;top:-2px}.checkbox_wrapper label{margin-bottom:.5em !important;display:inline-block;vertical-align:top;line-height:130%;margin-left:25px;float:right}.checkbox_wrapper{margin:.5em 0}.adcontainer>div{position:sticky;top:40px}.right_1_column .adcontainer{min-height:280px}.right_1_column .adcontainer>div{position:sticky;top:40px}#div-adcontainer-AHE_Flexi_TopRight,#div-adcontainer-AHE_Flexi_LowerRight{height:600px}#div-adcontainer-AHE_Flexi_MiddleRight{height:280px}#div-adcontainer-AHE_Flexi_BottomLeft{min-height:90px}#div-adcontainer-AHE_Flexi_MobileSticky{max-height:90px;overflow:hidden}.publication_status{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;margin:10px}.publication_status.is_published .published{display:block}.publication_status.is_published .suggested{display:none}.publication_status .published{display:none}.publication_status .suggested{display:block}.publication_status .suggested{color:#983e18}.publication_status .published{color:#6d9d14}.publication_status .sym{font-weight:bold}#footer_spacer{clear:both;height:1px}#footer .social svg{width:30px;height:30px;opacity:70%;filter:invert(1);margin-right:5px}#footer .social a:hover svg{opacity:100%}.clear{clear:both}.inline_block_section{display:inline-block;margin:1em 1em 1em 0}.inline_block_section .form_field_label{margin-top:0}#loadingOverlay{display:none;position:fixed;width:100%;height:100%;background-color:#222;z-index:29999999;opacity:.85}#loadingOverlayMessage{color:white;font-size:60px;font-family:Libre Baskerville;position:fixed;top:50%;left:50%;transform:translate(-50%,-50%)}.membership-below-block-wrapper{min-height:301px}#audio-frame-wrapper{display:none}.highlight_box{display:block;padding:15px;background-color:#f3f3f3;border-radius:5px;font-family:Karla;line-height:130%}#float_message{display:none;position:fixed;top:0;left:50%;margin-right:-50%;transform:translate(-50%,0%);width:700px;padding:10px;border-top:0;font-size:16px;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;z-index:19999999}#float_message_close_wrapper{border-top:1px solid silver;display:block;font-size:10px;text-align:center;padding-top:8px;margin-top:12px}.msg_error #float_message_close_wrapper{border-top:1px solid rgba(181,38,0,.3)}#float_message .content_button{margin-right:10px !important}.membership_below_notice{background-color:#b52600;padding:7px;background-size:cover;background-position:right;margin:40px 0}.membership_below_notice_inner{padding:10px 310px 12px 20px;color:#FFF}#content .membership_below_notice h2{margin:10px 0;padding:0;color:#fff !important}.membership_below_notice p{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;line-height:130%}#content .membership_below_notice .content_button{display:inline-block;border:2px solid white;background-color:white;color:black;width:auto;padding:6px 17px !important}#content .membership_below_notice .content_button:hover{background-color:#ffc600;border-color:#ffc600}@media(max-width:1199px){.membership_below_notice_inner{padding:10px 10px 12px 20px}}main>.grey_box:first-child,aside>.institutional_sub_promo:first-child,#content aside>#mc_embed_signup:first-child{margin-top:60px}.grey_box p{margin:.5em 0 1em 0;font-family:Karla;line-height:140%;font-size:16px !important}.grey_box.about-sidebar p strong,.donate_message p strong,.institutional_sub_promo p strong{background-color:#ffc600;padding:1px 3px;border-radius:3px}.grey_box{background-color:#f3f3f3;padding:20px;position:relative}h4.grey_box_title{position:absolute;top:0;margin-top:0;background-color:#222;color:#fff;padding:0 20px;left:0}h4.grey_box_title.red{background-color:#b52600}.editors_only{border-left:5px solid #dadada;padding-left:15px;margin-left:-20px;position:relative}.editors_only::before{content:"Editors Only";position:absolute;left:-108px;background-color:#dadada;color:#222;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;padding:0 10px}.editors_only .editors_only:before{display:none}.right_1_column .grey_box{margin:40px 0 80px 0}.left_3_column .grey_box{margin:40px 0}.grey_box h2{padding:0;margin:0 !important;line-height:120% !important}#mobilenewsletter{display:none;margin:20px -30px;padding:20px 30px}#mobilenewsletter .headline{font-size:24px;font-weight:bold}#mobilenewsletter form{margin-top:-10px}#mobilenewsletter input[type="submit"]{display:inline-block;width:auto;color:#FFF;background-color:#222;border:0;line-height:21px;position:relative}.membership-intext-promo{background:#f3f3f3;padding:20px;position:relative;margin:1em 0;clear:both}.membership-intext-promo h5{font-size:20px;margin:0}.membership-intext-promo p{margin:.75em 0;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;line-height:140%}.metricoolPixel{position:absolute;top:0;left:-1000px}footer{background-color:#f3f3f3}#membership_sidebar{position:fixed;left:-30px;bottom:100px;width:29px;height:133px;z-index:20}#membership_sidebar:hover{filter:grayscale(1)}.greystripe{background-color:#f3f3f3;box-shadow:0 0 0 100vmax #f3f3f3;clip-path:inset(0 -100vmax)}.right_1_column section{margin:60px 0}.pinterest_button{min-height:28px;position:relative;top:4px;float:right}#primis_intext{min-height:320px;margin-bottom:2em;clear:both;max-width:100%;overflow:hidden}#primis_intext .youtube_notice{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;font-weight:normal;color:#fff;font-size:14px;background-color:#222;padding:3px 7px;position:relative;display:inline-block;margin-top:15px}#primis_intext .youtube_notice:hover{background-color:#b52600;text-decoration:none;color:#fff;transition-duration:.2s}#primis_intext .youtube_notice svg{height:30px;width:30px;display:inline-block;vertical-align:middle;margin-top:-2px;margin-right:3px;filter:invert(1)}#primis_intext .youtube_notice:hover svg{display:inline-block}.tooltip.help{cursor:help}.grid{display:grid;gap:20px}.grid.four_col{grid-template-columns:1fr 1fr 1fr 1fr}.grid.three_col{grid-template-columns:1fr 1fr 1fr}hr.red_bar{width:15%;background-color:#b52600;height:3px;margin:0 auto;border:0}.ad_Flexi_MobileSticky{position:fixed;bottom:0;left:0;padding:0;width:100%;text-align:center;z-index:100;bottom:env(safe-area-inset-bottom)}.pre_article_buttons{margin:1em 0}.left_bar_highlight{border-left:5px solid #b52600;background-color:#B526000a;margin-left:-15px !important;padding-left:10px !important;padding-right:10px;padding-top:.5em;padding-bottom:.5em}.left_bar_highlight.yellow{border-left:5px solid #ffc600;background-color:#ffc6000f}.print_only{display:none}@media print{.print_only{display:unset}}aside .donate_message:first-child{margin-top:60px}.aws_book_item_short a{display:block;text-decoration:none;border-bottom:1px solid silver;font-size:.8em;color:#000 !important;padding:2px}.aws_book_item_short .title{font-weight:bold}.aws_book_item_short a:hover{text-decoration:none !important;background-color:#b52600;color:#FFF !important}#title_search_response{display:block;float:right;width:350px}#references{margin-top:0;font-size:14px;line-height:130%}body.contribute #references{border-top:0}.ref_list.tag_definition{margin:1.5em 0}.lang_rtl #page,.lang_rtl .trans,.lang_rtl .original_article_link{direction:rtl}lang_rtl blockquote{background-position:right 15px;padding:1px 80px 1em 1px;margin-right:0}.lang_rtl .big_quote{float:left}.lang_rtl .ci_info .ci_author_image{float:right;margin-left:8px;top:7px}.lang_rtl .ci_info .ci_author{direction:rtl;float:right}.lang_rtl h2.trans_headline{text-align:right}.lang_rtl h1,.lang_rtl h2.trans_headline{text-align:right}.lang_rtl .left_3_column{float:right;padding-right:0}@media(max-width:1199px) and (min-width:992px){.right_1_column{margin-left:0;margin-right:40px}}.lang_rtl .headphones_icon{padding-left:13px;padding-right:0}.lang_rtl>#ahe_dialogue_popup{direction:rtl}#tag_index_wrapper{margin-top:0}#tag_edit_form p{margin:0}#tag_update_response{position:relative;top:2em}.related_pages ul{list-style-type:none;margin:0;padding:0}#tag_definition_image_selector_wrapper{width:430px;border:1px solid #DDD;padding:2px}#tag_definition_image_selector_wrapper img{padding:2px;cursor:pointer}#tag_definition_image_selector_wrapper .selected_tag_image{border:2px solid #b52600 !important;padding:0}#image_selector_ajax_loader{margin:34px}.tag_definition_image{margin-left:.5em}#tag_to_add{position:relative;top:1px;width:170px;margin-right:5px;margin-top:10px;margin-bottom:10px}#tag_to_add:focus{color:#222}.ci_tag_item,.item_box{padding:5px 10px;border-collapse:collapse;background-color:#f3f3f3;border-radius:5px;margin:5px;display:inline-block;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;font-weight:normal;line-height:16px;position:relative;padding-right:30px}.ci_tag_item a,.item_box a{font-weight:normal}.ci_tag_item .remove_tag_link,.item_box .remove{margin-left:5px;background-color:#e0e0e0;position:absolute;top:0;right:0;line-height:26px;padding:0 7px;border-radius:5px}.ci_tag_item .remove_tag_link:hover,.item_box .remove:hover{color:#fff;background-color:#b52600;transition:.5s;text-decoration:none}#content aside>.timeline_outer_wrapper:first-child{margin-top:65px}#tag_index_wrapper{padding-top:.2em}#time_list{list-style-type:none;margin:0 0 -20px 0 !important;padding:0;width:100%;padding-right:20px;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;line-height:140%}.timeline_entry{margin:1.9em 0}.timeline_entry:last-child{border-bottom:0}.timeline_entry .date{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:20px;margin:1em 0 .2em 0}#content .timeline_wrapper h2{margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0}#timeline_search_form select{padding:3px;border:1px solid #dadada}table.timeline_search_form_wrapper td{vertical-align:top;padding-right:4em;width:300px;padding-left:1px}table.timeline_search_form_wrapper td table{margin:0;padding:0;border-spacing:0}table.timeline_search_form_wrapper td table td{width:auto;padding:0;margin:0;border-spacing:0}.tt_category_wrapper{white-space:nowrap;font-size:14px;display:block;width:150px;margin-bottom:2px}.tt_legend_wrapper{white-space:nowrap;font-size:14px;padding-right:4px;margin-right:4px}.tt_legend_wrapper input{display:none}.tt_legend_wrapper label{padding-left:2px}.visual_timeline_button{margin:0 auto !important}#form_timeline_search #txt_book_search_submit{position:relative;top:-5px}.timeline_search_section{width:300px;float:left}.timeline_page .right_1_column #timeline_search_form{min-height:1000px}.timeline_types_wrapper{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif}#user_management_form small{line-height:12px;font-size:10px}#user_management_form input[type=text]{margin-bottom:.75em;width:200px}#user_management_form label{margin-bottom:.1em}#contact_user_message{width:95%;margin:1em 0}#user_navigation .link_button{float:none !important;display:block;clear:left !important;margin:6px 0}#image_result{margin-bottom:20px;position:relative}#image_result img{display:inline-block;border-radius:100%;width:50px;height:50px}#image_result span{position:absolute;display:inline-block;width:300px;bottom:35%;padding-left:10px}.user_short_bio{padding:15px 15px 15px 125px;min-height:100px;margin:10px 0}.user_short_bio img.avatar_image{float:left;margin-left:-125px;max-width:100px}.user_short_bio .user_name{font-size:20px;margin-bottom:5px}.sm_links{margin-top:10px}.user_biography{margin-left:200px}.user_biography .bio_image{float:left;margin-left:-200px;border-radius:50%}#lead_image_preview{max-width:300px;max-height:300px;width:auto;height:auto}.xres_headline{font-weight:bold}.xres_domain{color:#999;font-size:14px;line-height:18px}.xres_preview{color:#444;font-size:14px;line-height:18px;margin-top:3px}.card .xres picture,.card .xres img{width:100%;height:auto}.card .xres{position:relative;max-width:100%;break-inside:avoid;margin-bottom:0;overflow:hidden;border-bottom:1px solid #dadada;padding-bottom:10px;padding-top:10px}.card .xres a{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;line-height:140%;font-weight:normal;text-decoration:none;display:inline-block}.card .xres .outline_button{position:absolute;right:10px;top:20px;z-index:2;background:white}.card .xres .xres_text{padding:10px 0}.card .xres .xres_domain{display:inline}.card .xres:hover{background-color:#f3f3f3}.card .xres picture{display:block;margin-bottom:-6px}.card .xres .editor_view_link.grey_button{display:none}.xres_categories .simple_button{clear:both}.xres_wrapper.card{margin-top:-20px}.xres_card_default_container .xres{border:1px solid #dadada;padding:10px 15px}.list .xres{margin:0;position:relative;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;line-height:140%}.list .xres:first-of-type{margin-top:1em}.list .xres .editor_view_link{position:absolute;top:11px;right:0;z-index:2;font-weight:normal}.list .xres .editor_view_link.outline_button{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;line-height:140%;font-weight:normal;text-decoration:none;display:inline-block}.list .xres .editor_view_link.outline_button:not(:hover){background-color:white}.list .xres .xres_domain.external_link{display:inline;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;font-weight:normal;position:relative;top:-5px}.list .xres .grey_button,.xres.listitem .grey_button{float:right}.list .xres picture,.list .xres img{display:none}.list .xres .xres_preview{display:none}.list .xres .editor_view_link.outline_button{display:none}.list .xres.listitem{margin:.3em 0}.xres .xres_domain{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif}#moderate_ajax_container .xres.listitem .xres_domain{display:inline-block;position:relative;top:-8px}.xres.listitem .xres_headline,.xres.listitem a{font-weight:normal}.xres.listitem{margin:.2em 0}.xres_categories_dropdown_wrapper .selected_categories_wrapper_outside{border:1px solid #999;padding:10px;border-radius:5px;display:block;max-width:600px}.xres_categories_dropdown_wrapper .selected_categories_header{margin-bottom:5px;display:block}body{background-color:#fff}.img-responsive{height:auto;max-width:100%}.img-responsive-full{height:auto;width:100%}#header_wrapper{background:url('/template/images/header/subject_headers/mesopotamia_shadow.jpg') center bottom repeat-x;padding-bottom:163px}#header{width:930px;margin:0 auto;padding-left:30px;padding-right:30px;position:relative}#header_ahe_logo{margin:40px 40px 36px 0;float:left}#header_tools{float:right;padding-top:50px}#header_tools .header_row_bottom{text-align:right}#header_tools .follow_us{display:inline-block;float:left;padding-top:6px;color:#999;font-size:17px}#header_search_field,.common_search_field{width:220px !important}#header_follow_buttons .addthis_32x32_style span{border-radius:100% !important}#header_ahe_logo{margin-top:25px;margin-bottom:25px}.header_row_bottom{float:left;margin-right:40px}#header_tools .header_row_top{float:right}#header_tools .follow_us{display:none}#title_bar{width:100%;padding-top:20px;min-height:108px}#title_bar .box_wrapper{padding-bottom:5px;margin-bottom:10px}#nav_bar{border-top:1px solid #e3e3e3;width:100%;text-align:center}.box_wrapper{width:930px;margin:0 auto}.v_spacing{padding:20px 0}#footer_wrapper #sponsors_box,#footer_wrapper #partners_list,#footer_wrapper #footer{margin-left:0;margin-right:0}#sponsors_box{padding:25px 20px;margin:0}.sponsors_logos_wrapper a>img{display:inline-block;margin:15px}#page{width:990px;border:0 solid #FFF}#content_wrapper{padding:0 15px}#content{width:960px}.left_narrow_column{width:150px;padding:15px;margin:0}.right_narrow_column{width:250px;padding:15px;margin:0}.middle_wide_column{width:470px;padding:15px;margin:0}.left_3_column,.right_3_column{width:600px;padding:15px;margin:0}.right_1_column,.left_1_column{width:300px;padding:15px;margin:0}.left_2_column{width:435px;padding-right:15px;padding-left:15px;margin-left:0;margin-right:0}.right_2_column{width:435px;padding-left:15px;padding-right:15px;margin-left:0;margin-right:0}#map_container{width:100% !important}#grid_submissions{width:100%}#grid_submissions .item_1_col{min-height:335px}.item_1_col{width:21%;margin:0 1% 15px;float:left}.item_1_col img{width:100%;height:auto}.teamprofiles p{font-size:15px}.team_member{padding-top:20px;padding-bottom:20px}.team_member_details b{font-size:19px;line-height:27px}.team_pic{float:left;width:20%;margin:0;padding:0}.team_pic img{border:1px solid silver;padding:2px;border-radius:75px}.team_member_details{float:right;width:73%;margin-left:5%;margin:0;padding:0}.timeline_wrapper{background-color:#f3f3f3;padding:20px}.timeline_entry{margin:12px 0;border-bottom:1px dashed #e3e3e3;padding:0 0 12px}.content_button_alphabet{display:inline-block;width:35px;height:35px;color:#b52600;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;padding:0;margin:0;margin-bottom:8px;cursor:pointer;border-radius:2px;border:1px solid #e3e3e3;line-height:35px;background:none;transition:all .25s;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif}.content_button_alphabet.selected{background-color:#222;color:#fff}.content_button_alphabet:hover{text-decoration:none !important;background-color:#b52600;border-color:#b52600;color:#FFF}.index_alphabet{width:100%;padding-left:0;background-color:white;clear:both;z-index:1000 !important}.related_pages{margin-top:40px}.related_pages h2{margin-bottom:30px !important}.ci_author_image{float:left;width:32px;margin-right:10px}h3.highlight_box{font-size:20px}.registration_message_page{width:930px !important;padding-left:15px !important;padding-right:15px !important}h2 i{color:#e5c357;font-size:31px}.section-team h3{text-align:center;letter-spacing:-1px;font-size:30px;text-transform:none;margin-bottom:15px}.tab-links{list-style:none;border-bottom:1px solid #e3e3e3;margin-bottom:60px;padding:0}.tab-links li{width:33%;float:left;text-align:center}.tab-links.two li{width:50%}.tab-links.three li{width:33%}.tab-links.four li{width:25%}.tab-links li a{display:block;font-weight:normal;font-size:20px;padding-bottom:20px}.tab-links li a.active{font-weight:bold;padding-bottom:16px;border-bottom:4px solid #c42f28}.tab-links li a:hover{text-decoration:none}.section-team.initial-on{display:block}.item-wrapper{padding:20px;background:#FFF;text-align:center}.tm-grid-item img{margin:0 auto 15px;float:none}.tm-grid-item img,.avatar_image{display:block;height:auto;max-width:150px;border-radius:50%}.tm-grid-item .tm-name{display:block;font-weight:bold;font-size:19px}.tm-grid-item .tm-studies{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;font-size:14px;line-height:130%;margin-bottom:0}.tm-grid-item .tm-description{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;font-size:16px;line-height:130%}.tm-grid-item .tm-position{font-size:15px}.tm-grid-item .tm-summary{color:#666;font-size:16px}.clearfix:before,.clearfix:after{content:'.';display:block;overflow:hidden;visibility:hidden;font-size:0;line-height:0;width:0;height:0}.clearfix:after{clear:both}.clr{clear:both;display:block;overflow:hidden;visibility:hidden;width:0;height:0}#accordion-home{border-radius:5px;box-shadow:0 8px 16px -12px #666;margin:0 15px 15px;height:280px}.kwicks{display:block;list-style-type:none;list-style:none;position:relative;margin:0;padding:0}.kwicks>*{display:block;overflow:hidden;padding:0;margin:0}.kwicks.kwicks-processed>*{margin:0;position:absolute}.kwicks-horizontal>*{float:left}.kwicks-horizontal>:first-child{margin-left:0}.kwicks-vertical>:first-child{margin-top:0}.kwicks{height:280px}.kwicks>li{height:280px}.kwicks>a{height:280px;width:125px;margin-left:5px;float:left}#panel-1{background:url('/template/images/accordion/encyclopedia.png') left bottom no-repeat #fff}#panel-2{background:url('/template/images/accordion/education.png') left bottom no-repeat #fff}#panel-3{background:url('/template/images/accordion/translation.png') left bottom no-repeat #fff}#panel-4{background:url('/template/images/accordion/medialibrary.png') left bottom no-repeat #fff}#panel-5{background:url('/template/images/accordion/books.png') left bottom no-repeat #fff}#panel-6{background:url('/template/images/accordion/maps.png') left bottom no-repeat #fff}#panel-7{background:url('/template/images/accordion/membership.png') left bottom no-repeat #fff}.pagination strong,.pagination a{display:inline-block;width:auto;height:35px;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;padding:0 10px 0;margin:1px;cursor:pointer;font-size:17px;border-radius:2px;border:1px solid #e3e3e3;line-height:35px;transition:all .25s}.book_recommendation_list .book_detail.book_image.book_smallimage{left:15px;top:-45px}.book_recommendation_list h3{line-height:24px;margin:5px 0 0 75px;padding:0}.book_recommendation_list p{margin-top:20px}.content_main_full_width,#map_area{padding-left:15px;padding-right:15px}.full_4_column{width:auto;padding-left:15px;padding-right:15px}.contribute_page td p{padding-right:20px}.tooltipster-default{border-radius:5px;border:1px solid #f3f3f3;background:#f3f3f3;color:#000}.tooltipster-default .tooltipster-content{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;font-size:14px;line-height:16px;padding:8px 10px;overflow:hidden;max-width:350px}.tooltipster-icon{cursor:help;margin-left:4px}.tooltipster-base{padding:0;font-size:0;line-height:0;position:absolute;left:0;top:0;z-index:19999999;pointer-events:none;width:auto;overflow:visible}.tooltipster-base .tooltipster-content{overflow:hidden}.tooltipster-arrow{display:block;text-align:center;width:100%;height:100%;position:absolute;top:1px;left:0;z-index:-1}.tooltipster-arrow span,.tooltipster-arrow-border{display:block;width:0;height:0;position:absolute}.tooltipster-arrow-top span,.tooltipster-arrow-top-right span,.tooltipster-arrow-top-left span{border-left:8px solid transparent !important;border-right:8px solid transparent !important;border-top:8px solid;bottom:-7px}.tooltipster-arrow-top .tooltipster-arrow-border,.tooltipster-arrow-top-right .tooltipster-arrow-border,.tooltipster-arrow-top-left .tooltipster-arrow-border{border-left:9px solid transparent !important;border-right:9px solid transparent !important;border-top:9px solid;bottom:-7px}.tooltipster-arrow-bottom span,.tooltipster-arrow-bottom-right span,.tooltipster-arrow-bottom-left span{border-left:8px solid transparent !important;border-right:8px solid transparent !important;border-bottom:8px solid;top:-7px}.tooltipster-arrow-bottom .tooltipster-arrow-border,.tooltipster-arrow-bottom-right .tooltipster-arrow-border,.tooltipster-arrow-bottom-left .tooltipster-arrow-border{border-left:9px solid transparent !important;border-right:9px solid transparent !important;border-bottom:9px solid;top:-7px}.tooltipster-arrow-top span,.tooltipster-arrow-top .tooltipster-arrow-border,.tooltipster-arrow-bottom span,.tooltipster-arrow-bottom .tooltipster-arrow-border{left:0;right:0;margin:0 auto}.tooltipster-arrow-top-left span,.tooltipster-arrow-bottom-left span{left:6px}.tooltipster-arrow-top-left .tooltipster-arrow-border,.tooltipster-arrow-bottom-left .tooltipster-arrow-border{left:5px}.tooltipster-arrow-top-right span,.tooltipster-arrow-bottom-right span{right:6px}.tooltipster-arrow-top-right .tooltipster-arrow-border,.tooltipster-arrow-bottom-right .tooltipster-arrow-border{right:5px}.tooltipster-arrow-left span,.tooltipster-arrow-left .tooltipster-arrow-border{border-top:8px solid transparent !important;border-bottom:8px solid transparent !important;border-left:8px solid;top:50%;margin-top:-7px;right:-7px}.tooltipster-arrow-left .tooltipster-arrow-border{border-top:9px solid transparent !important;border-bottom:9px solid transparent !important;border-left:9px solid;margin-top:-8px}.tooltipster-arrow-right span,.tooltipster-arrow-right .tooltipster-arrow-border{border-top:8px solid transparent !important;border-bottom:8px solid transparent !important;border-right:8px solid;top:50%;margin-top:-7px;left:-7px}.tooltipster-arrow-right .tooltipster-arrow-border{border-top:9px solid transparent !important;border-bottom:9px solid transparent !important;border-right:9px solid;margin-top:-8px}.tooltipster-fade{opacity:0}.tooltipster-fade-show{opacity:1}.tooltipster-grow{transform:scale(0,0);transition-property:transform}.tooltipster-grow-show{transform:scale(1,1);transition-timing-function:cubic-bezier(0.175,.885,.32,1.15)}.tooltipster-swing{opacity:0;transform:rotateZ(4deg);transition-property:transform}.tooltipster-swing-show{opacity:1;transform:rotateZ(0deg);transition-timing-function:cubic-bezier(0.230,.635,.495,2.4)}.tooltipster-fall{top:0;transition-property:top;transition-timing-function:cubic-bezier(0.175,.885,.32,1.15)}.tooltipster-fall.tooltipster-dying{transition-property:all;top:0 !important;opacity:0}.tooltipster-slide{left:-40px;transition-property:left;transition-timing-function:cubic-bezier(0.175,.885,.32,1.15)}.tooltipster-slide.tooltipster-dying{transition-property:all;left:0 !important;opacity:0}.tooltipster-content-changing{opacity:.5;transform:scale(1.1,1.1)}@media(min-width:992px) and (max-width:1199px){.right_3_column img,.left_3_column img{max-width:100%;height:auto}.ad_Flexi_TopLeft{display:none}.left_1_column{width:200px}.right_3_column{width:700px}.right_3_column .content_item{max-width:320px}.right_3_column .content_item:nth-child(odd){margin-left:50px}.right_1_column{margin-left:40px}.left_3_column{width:560px}.left_3_column .content_item{max-width:255px}.left_3_column .content_item:nth-child(even){margin-left:40px}#books_preview .booklistentry:nth-child(5){display:none}.ci_related_content_wrapper .content_item{margin-right:40px;max-width:255px !important}.ci_related_content_wrapper .content_item .ci_image{width:255px;height:143px}.ci_related_content_wrapper .content_item:nth-child(2n){margin-right:0 !important}.xres_wrapper.card{column-count:2}}@media(min-width:992px){.right_1_column #time_list{max-height:500px;overflow:scroll;overflow-y:scroll;overflow-x:hidden}#nav_bar ul li.toplevel>a{padding-right:2.5em}.sf-arrows .sf-with-ul{padding-right:2.5em;*padding-right:1em;}.sf-arrows .sf-with-ul:after{content:'';position:absolute;top:50%;right:1em;margin-top:-3px;height:0;width:0;border:5px solid transparent;border-top-color:#c02a1c}.sf-arrows>li>.sf-with-ul:focus:after,.sf-arrows>li:hover>.sf-with-ul:after,.sf-arrows>.sfHover>.sf-with-ul:after{border-top-color:#c02a1c}.sf-arrows ul .sf-with-ul:after{margin-top:-5px;margin-right:-3px;border-color:transparent;border-left-color:#c02a1c}.sf-arrows ul li>.sf-with-ul:focus:after,.sf-arrows ul li:hover>.sf-with-ul:after,.sf-arrows ul .sfHover>.sf-with-ul:after{border-left-color:white}.ci_rel_type{margin-bottom:8px !important}#primis_video_mobile_container{display:none}#div-adcontainer-AHE_ad_Search_Top{min-height:90px}}@media(max-height:800px){#header_wrapper{background-size:auto 80px;padding-bottom:70px !important}.sf-menu a{padding-top:15px !important;padding-bottom:15px !important}}@media(min-width:1200px){#header{width:1140px}#page{width:1200px}#content{width:1170px}.left_narrow_column{width:190px}.right_narrow_column{width:250px}.middle_wide_column{width:600px;padding:15px 35px 15px}.left_3_column{width:750px;padding-right:75px}.right_3_column{width:790px;padding-left:35px}.right_1_column,.left_1_column{width:300px}.box_wrapper{width:1140px}.first-menu-item{padding-left:0 !important}.index_alphabet{z-index:1000 !important;top:0 !important;padding-top:15px !important;background-color:#FFF}.left_2_column{width:540px;padding-right:30px;margin-left:0;margin-right:0}.right_2_column{width:540px;padding-left:30px;margin-left:0;margin-right:0}#header_ahe_logo{margin-top:25px;margin-bottom:25px}#header_donate_button{margin-left:60px}.header_sm_link{display:inline-block}.header_row_bottom{float:left;margin-right:100px !important}.membership-intext-promo p,.membership-intext-promo h5{margin:0;width:500px}.membership-intext-promo .content_button.red{position:absolute;right:30px;top:35px}#header_tools .header_row_top{float:right}#header_tools .header_row_bottom{padding-top:0}#header_tools .follow_us{display:none}#header_tools .patreon_button{margin-left:60px}#header_search_field,.common_search_field{width:300px !important}.registration_message_page{width:1140px !important;padding-left:15px !important;padding-right:15px !important}.ad_Flexi_TopLeft{display:none}.left_3_column .content_item:nth-child(even),.right_3_column .content_item:nth-child(even){margin-left:70px}.left_3_column .content_item,.right_3_column .content_item{max-width:335px}.ci_related_content_wrapper .content_item .ci_image{width:220px;height:123px}.ci_related_content_wrapper .content_item:nth-child(3n+0){margin-right:0}.ci_related_content_wrapper .content_item{max-width:220px !important}.ci_related_content_wrapper .content_item:nth-child(3n){margin-right:0 !important}}@media screen{@media(max-width:767px){.left_1_column,#primis_intext{display:none}#audio-frame-close{top:60px}.ad_ad_Search_Top{min-height:100px;margin-bottom:20px}#mobile_sm_buttons{display:block}#mobile_sm_buttons .header_sm_buttons{position:absolute;top:8px;left:15px;margin:0 !important;z-index:1000000}#mobile_sm_buttons .header_sm_link{display:inline-block;margin-right:3px;filter:invert(1);opacity:1}#mobile_sm_buttons .header_sm_buttons .pinterest{display:none}#mobile_sm_buttons strong{display:none}#nav_bar{display:none !important}#meanmenu{min-height:48px}a.meanmenu-reveal{display:none}h1#page_title_text{font-size:40px !important}.home_page .membership-below-block-wrapper{display:none}.pagination .pagination_page{display:none !important}.mean-container .mean-bar{float:left;width:100%;position:relative;background:#b52600;padding:4px 0 0;min-height:42px;z-index:999999;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif}.mean-container a.meanmenu-reveal{width:22px;height:22px;padding:13px 13px 11px 13px;position:absolute;top:0;right:0;cursor:pointer;color:#fff;text-decoration:none;font-size:16px;text-indent:-9999em;line-height:22px;font-size:1px;display:block;font-family:Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;font-weight:700}.mean-container a.meanmenu-reveal span{display:block;background:#fff;height:3px;margin-top:3px}.mean-container .mean-nav{float:left;width:100%;background:#b52600;margin-top:44px}.mean-container .mean-nav ul{padding:0;margin:0;width:100%;list-style-type:none}.mean-container .mean-nav ul li{position:relative;float:left;width:100%}.mean-container .mean-nav ul li a{display:block;float:left;width:90%;padding:1em 5%;margin:0;text-align:left;color:#fff;border-top:1px solid #383838;border-top:1px solid rgba(255,255,255,0.5);text-decoration:none;text-transform:uppercase}.mean-container .mean-nav ul li li a{width:80%;padding:1em 10%;border-top:1px solid #f1f1f1;border-top:1px solid rgba(255,255,255,0.25);opacity:.75;filter:alpha(opacity=75);text-shadow:none !important;visibility:visible;text-transform:none}.mean-container .mean-nav ul li.mean-last a{border-bottom:0;margin-bottom:0}.mean-container .mean-nav ul li li li a{width:70%;padding:1em 15%}.mean-container .mean-nav ul li li li li a{width:60%;padding:1em 20%}.mean-container .mean-nav ul li li li li li a{width:50%;padding:1em 25%}.mean-container .mean-nav ul li a:hover{background:#252525;background:rgba(255,255,255,0.1)}.mean-container .mean-nav ul li a.mean-expand{margin-top:1px;width:26px;height:25px;padding:12px !important;text-align:center;position:absolute;right:0;top:0;z-index:2;font-weight:700;background:rgba(255,255,255,0.1);border:0 !important;border-left:1px solid rgba(255,255,255,0.4) !important;border-bottom:1px solid rgba(255,255,255,0.2) !important}.mean-container .mean-nav ul li a.mean-expand:hover{background:rgba(0,0,0,0.9)}.mean-container .mean-push{float:left;width:100%;padding:0;margin:0;clear:both}.mean-nav .wrapper{width:100%;padding:0;margin:0}.mean-container .mean-bar,.mean-container .mean-bar *{-webkit-box-sizing:content-box;-moz-box-sizing:content-box;box-sizing:content-box}.mean-remove{display:none !important}.ad img{box-shadow:none}#div-adcontainer-AHE_Flexi_BottomLeft{margin:auto;width:320px;min-height:50px !important}#page{margin-bottom:40px}#header{padding-left:0;padding-right:0;width:100%}#header_wrapper{padding-left:15px;padding-right:15px;padding-bottom:0 !important;background-image:none;box-shadow:none}#header_ahe_logo{float:none;display:block;text-align:center;margin:25px auto;padding-top:20px}.header_row_top{display:none}#header_tools{float:none;padding-top:0}#header_tools .header_row_bottom{text-align:center;float:none;margin-right:0}#title_bar{padding-left:15px;padding-right:15px;width:auto;padding-top:5px;text-align:center}.right_narrow_column{display:none}.home #title_bar,.index #title_bar{display:none}.index #page,.home #page{padding-top:30px}.box_wrapper{width:100%}.membership-intext-promo{margin-left:-100px;margin-right:-100px;padding-left:100px;padding-right:100px}.grid.four_col,.grid.three_col{grid-template-columns:1fr}.tab-links{margin-bottom:30px}.tab-links li{width:33%}.tab-links li a{display:block;font-weight:normal;font-size:18px;letter-spacing:-1px;padding-bottom:20px}.tab-links li a.active{font-weight:bold;border-bottom:4px solid #c42f28}.content_item{max-width:100%}.left_1_column,.right_3_column{width:100%;padding:15px 0;margin:0}.left_menu{display:none}.subscribe_button_container{display:block;width:90% !important;padding-left:5% !important;padding-right:5% !important}.content_button.subscribe_button{display:inline-block !important;margin:0 auto;width:80%;line-height:23px}.content_main_full_width{padding-left:0;padding-right:0}.benefit,.reason{width:45% !important;padding-left:1.25%;padding-right:1.25%;padding-top:30px;margin:0 !important}.reasons_list{margin-bottom:40px}.hide-in-mobile{display:none}#accordion-home{display:none}.left_narrow_column{display:none}.middle_wide_column{width:100%;padding-left:0;padding-right:0;margin-left:0;margin-right:0}#page{width:100%;min-width:320px;overflow:hidden !important}#content{width:100%}.left_3_column,.right_1_column{width:100%;padding-left:0;padding-right:0}.map_section{margin-top:40px}.ad_Flexi_TopLeft{margin-bottom:30px}.ad_Flexi_BottomLeft{margin-top:30px}.footer_phrase{margin-top:1px;line-height:130%}#footer{padding-bottom:70px}#footer_contents{background-position:center 80px}.footer_section{margin-right:20px !important;margin-left:20px !important}.footer_section .center,.footer_section .right{margin:60px 0 !important;text-align:center;display:block !important;width:auto !important}.footer_section p{font-size:14px}.footer_section .partners img{margin:15px 15px}.shop_promo{margin-bottom:0 !important}#footer_spacer{height:1px;margin:0}.header_row_bottom search{background:#f3f3f3;padding:20px;margin:20px -15px}body.home .header_row_bottom search{margin:40px -15px -50px}.header_row_bottom search .mobile_search_button{display:inline-block;border-radius:5px;padding:6px 10px;background-color:#dadada;margin-left:2px;width:12px;text-align:center}.header_row_bottom search .mobile_search_button:hover{background-color:#222;color:#fff;cursor:pointer}.header_row_bottom search .mobile_search_button:active{background-color:#b52600;color:#fff;cursor:pointer}#editor_tools,.gravity_widget_wrapper,.gravity_right_col,#middle_float_ad_container,.addthis-smartlayers-desktop,.visual_timeline_button,.ad_Flexi_TopRight,.ad_Flexi_MiddleRight,.ad_Flexi_LowerRight,#uvTab,#squinchpix_results,.share_this,#sponsors_box,#partners_list,.bottomRightStickySpacer,#ad_sidebar_whitespace_sticky{display:none}.search_page .ci_related_content_outer_wrapper{display:block !important}.ci_related_content_outer_wrapper #ci_related_type_list{display:none}.ci_two_cols .columns{column-count:1}#content .search_form_in_content{display:none !important}.search_results_page h2.search_header{display:none}.static_page .left_1_column{display:none}.user_biography .bio_image{float:none;margin:1em 0;display:block}.user_biography{margin-left:0}#txt_book_search.wide{width:100%;max-width:300px}#txt_book_search_submit{display:none}.reasons_list{padding-left:10px;padding-right:10px}.shop_sections_wrapper{text-align:center}.shop_section{margin-right:0}.right_1_column .timeline_wrapper #time_list{margin-top:20px;margin-bottom:20px;overflow:initial}.book_purchase_buttons .lp_download_wrapper{padding-left:0}}@media(max-width:560px){.big_quote{float:none;padding:76px 5% 30px;margin:20px 0;display:block;width:90%}img.tag_definition_image{float:none}figure.definition_image{float:none;margin:0;display:block;width:100%;max-width:100%}.body img,img.tag_definition_image,img.in_text_image,.video_link img,figure.image_intext_wrapper{margin:1em -8px;width:100%;width:calc(100% + 16px) !important;max-width:calc(100% + 16px) !important;display:block;height:auto;max-height:none}.left_2_column,.right_2_column{padding-right:0;padding-left:0;width:100%;margin-left:0;margin-right:0}.item-map{margin-bottom:25px;margin-top:10px}.benefit,.reason{width:100% !important;padding-left:0;padding-right:0}.tm-lg-2{width:100%}.tm-lg-3{width:100%}.tm-lg-4{width:100%}.tm-lg-5{width:100%}.ci_audio_link img.soundcloud_icon{display:none}.book_review_text img.book_image.reviews_img{float:none;display:block;max-width:100%;height:auto}}@media(max-width:360px){.latest_content_items .content_item img.ci_image{margin:1em -15px;width:100%;width:calc(100% + 30px) !important;max-width:calc(100% + 30px) !important;display:block;height:auto;max-height:none}.featured_ci_marker{margin-left:-15px !important}}}@media screen{@media(max-width:991px){.print_button{display:none}#mc_embed_signup{background:none;min-height:auto}aside .newsletter_promo{display:none}.right_1_column .institutional_sub_promo{margin:0 !important;padding:0 !important;background-color:transparent}#header_tools .patreon_button{display:none}.mobile-band{margin-left:-40px !important;margin-right:-40px !important;padding-left:40px !important;padding-right:40px !important}.right_1_column .timeline_wrapper #time_list{height:initial !important;max-height:initial !important}.right_1_column .timeline_wrapper h2{display:block;margin-top:15px !important}.right_1_column .timeline_outer_wrapper{margin:80px 0}.right_1_column .timeline_wrapper{background:transparent;padding:0}.right_1_column .timeline_entry{border-bottom:0;margin:0}.right_1_column #time_list{margin:0}.right_1_column .timeline_entry .date{background-color:#f3f3f3;display:inline-block;padding:5px 15px 5px 200px;margin-left:-200px}#mobilenewsletter{display:block;margin:20px -40px;padding:20px 40px}body.home .membership_below_notice,body.home .membership-below-block-wrapper,img.newsletter_banner,.latest_content_items.featured,.our_videos_wrapper,.right_1_column .timeline_wrapper .timeline_add,#ad_sidebar_whitespace_sticky,#primis_intext{display:none}}@media(min-width:768px){.ci_related_content_wrapper .content_item{margin:20px 40px 20px 0 !important}}@media(min-width:768px) and (max-width:991px){#header{width:708px}#page{width:768px}#content{width:738px}.left_narrow_column{display:none}.right_narrow_column{display:none}.middle_wide_column{width:708px}.left_3_column{width:100%;padding-left:0;padding-right:0}.left_1_column{display:none}.right_3_column{width:100%}.right_1_column{width:100%;padding:0}#accordion-home{display:none}.content_item.featured .ci_preview_content{padding-left:395px}.left_3_column .content_item{max-width:340px}.left_3_column .content_item:nth-child(even){margin-left:50px}.left_3_column .content_item.featured:nth-child(even){margin-left:0}.ci_related_content_wrapper .content_item:nth-child(2n+0){margin-right:0}.ci_related_content_wrapper .content_item{max-width:215px !important;margin-right:40px !important}.ci_related_content_wrapper .content_item .ci_image{width:215px;height:121px}.ci_related_content_wrapper .content_item:nth-child(3n){margin-right:0 !important}.video_embed .right_1_column,.left_1_column{width:300px}.box_wrapper{width:708px;padding-left:30px;padding-right:30px}.ci_info .ci_social_media_buttons{display:none}img.tag_definition_image{margin:20px 0 20px 20px}.follow_us{display:none !important}.right_3_column .big_quote,.left_3_column .big_quote{margin-left:0;margin-right:0;width:338px}.right_3_column img,.left_3_column img{max-width:100%;height:auto}#grid_submissions .item_1_col{min-height:382px}.item_1_col{width:46%;margin:0 2% 0;float:left}.team_member{padding-top:20px;padding-bottom:10px;border-bottom:1px solid #e3e3e3;margin-bottom:10px}.team_pic{float:none;width:100%;margin:0;padding:0;padding-bottom:15px}.team_pic img{border:1px solid silver;padding:2px;border-radius:75px}.team_member_details{float:right;width:100%;margin-left:0;margin:0;padding:0}#header_search_field,.common_search_field{width:220px !important}#header_search_button_new,.common_search_button_new{left:234px !important}#header_tools{padding-top:46px}#footer_contents .footer_connect,#footer_contents .footer_about{width:12%}#footer_contents .footer_contribute{width:16%}#header_ahe_logo{margin-top:25px;margin-bottom:25px;margin-right:0 !important}.header_row_bottom{float:left;margin-right:34px !important}#header_tools .header_row_top{float:right !important}#header_follow_buttons{display:none !important}.registration_message_page{width:708px !important;padding-left:15px !important;padding-right:15px !important}.visual_timeline_button,.ad_Flexi_TopRight,.ad_Flexi_MiddleRight,.ad_Flexi_LowerRight,#uvTab,.bottomRightStickySpacer{display:none}.grid.four_col,.grid.three_col{grid-template-columns:1fr 1fr}}@media(min-width:768px){header nav{min-height:60px}#nav_bar{border-top:0 solid #e3e3e3;border-bottom:1px solid #e3e3e3;background:url('/template/images/bg_timeline.png') left top repeat}.sf-menu{padding-top:0;margin:0 auto}.sf-menu a{padding:20px 1em}#header_wrapper{padding-bottom:156px}.ad_ad_Search_Top{min-height:140px;margin-bottom:20px}.sf-menu,.sf-menu *{margin:0;padding:0;list-style:none}.sf-menu li{position:relative}.sf-menu ul{position:absolute;display:none;top:100%;left:50%;z-index:99;width:180px;margin-left:-96px}.sf-menu>li{float:left}.sf-menu li:hover>ul,.sf-menu li.sfHover>ul{display:block}.sf-menu a{display:block;position:relative}.sf-menu ul ul{top:0;left:100%}.sf-menu{margin-bottom:1em;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;margin:0 auto;margin-bottom:-4px !important;display:inline-block;text-transform:uppercase}.sf-menu ul{box-shadow:2px 2px 6px rgba(0,0,0,.2);min-width:12em;*width:12em;padding-top:18px !important;background:url('/template/images/bg_nav_ul.png') top left no-repeat rgba(0,0,0,0) !important;border-radius:0 0 4px 4px;-moz-border-radius:0 0 4px 4px;-web-border-radius:0 0 4px 4px;-moz-box-shadow:0 15px 10px rgba(0,0,0,.1);box-shadow:0 15px 10px rgba(0,0,0,.1)}.sf-menu ul li{text-transform:none}.sf-menu a{text-decoration:none;zoom:1;transition:all .25s}.sf-menu a{color:#494949;cursor:pointer}.sf-menu li{white-space:nowrap;*white-space:normal;transition:background .25s}.sf-menu ul li{background:#FFF}.sf-menu ul li a{border-bottom:1px solid #f0f0f0;padding:11px 8px;transition:all .25s;margin-left:10px;margin-right:10px;font-size:14px}.sf-menu ul li a:hover{color:#b52600}.sf-menu li:hover,.sf-menu li.sfHover{transition:none}}}</style>  <link rel="alternate" type="application/rss+xml" title="World History Encyclopedia RSS Feed" href="https://www.worldhistory.org/rss2/?lang=en"> <link rel="image_src" href="/img/r/p/500x600/17921.png?v=1695286873" /> <link rel="icon shortcut" type="image/png" href="/template/images/whe-favicon-16px.png" sizes="16x16"> <link rel="icon shortcut" type="image/png" href="/template/images/whe-favicon-32px.png" sizes="32x32"> <link rel="icon shortcut" type="image/png" href="/template/images/whe-favicon-64px.png" sizes="64x64"> <link rel="icon shortcut" type="image/png" href="/template/images/whe-favicon-96px.png" sizes="96x96"> <link rel="icon shortcut" type="image/png" href="/template/images/whe-favicon-128px.png" sizes="128x128"> <link rel="icon shortcut" type="image/png" href="/template/images/whe-favicon-192px.png" sizes="192x192"> <link rel="icon shortcut" type="image/png" href="/template/images/whe-favicon-196px.png" sizes="196x196"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/template/images/whe-favicon-120px.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/template/images/whe-favicon-152px.png" sizes="152x152"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/template/images/whe-favicon-167px.png" sizes="167x167"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/template/images/whe-favicon-180px.png" sizes="180x180">  <script> jsQueue(function(){ wheAnalyticsPageview(); }); </script>   <script defer src="https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtag/js?id=G-DMCY1BLGCJ"></script> <script> window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; function gtag(){dataLayer.push(arguments);} gtag('js', new Date()); pageReady.then(()=>{ jsQueue(()=>{ // Consent Mode Defaults if (AHE.isEU) { if (AHE.is_member) { gtag('consent', 'default', { 'ad_storage': 'denied', 'ad_user_data': 'denied', 'ad_personalization': 'denied' }); } else { gtag('consent', 'default', { 'ad_storage': 'denied', 'ad_user_data': 'denied', 'ad_personalization': 'denied', 'wait_for_update': 2000 }); } } else { gtag('consent', 'default', { 'wait_for_update': 2000 }); } async_load_js('/js/ga4.js?v=1738769252'); }); }); </script>  <script> jsQueue(()=> { async_load_js('/js/deferred-min.js?v=1738769252',false,true); }); </script>  <script> window.addEventListener('load', () => { processIdleQueue(); }); </script> </head> <body class="tag adthrive-cat-aegean adthrive-cat-asia_minor adthrive-cat-greece adthrive-cat-kos adthrive-cat-naxos adthrive-cat-samothrace adthrive-cat-trade">  <img fetchpriority="low" src="https://tracker.metricool.com/c3po.jpg?hash=583da8995f3bf53448b13ddf790ada6c" class="metricoolPixel" /> <div id="mobile_sm_buttons"></div> <div id="meanmenu"></div> <header id="header_wrapper"> <div id="header"> <a href="/" id="logo_link"> <div id="header_ahe_logo" style="width: 318px; height: 77px; position: relative;"> <?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" viewBox="0 0 496.06 120.11"><defs><style>.c{fill:#fff;}.d{fill:#b52600;}.e{fill:#231f20;}</style></defs><g id="a"><path class="e" d="m175.92,47.11h.15c.99-3.38,4.39-14.03,5.68-18.73.37-1.36.41-1.87.41-2.35,0-.66-.4-1.1-2.09-1.1-.18,0-.33-.11-.33-.26,0-.18.18-.26.62-.26,1.87,0,3.42.11,3.75.11.26,0,1.84-.11,2.98-.11.33,0,.52.07.52.22,0,.18-.11.3-.33.3-.15,0-.84.03-1.25.18-1.1.4-1.69,1.95-2.39,3.96-1.62,4.67-5.34,16.35-6.78,20.46-.96,2.72-1.14,3.16-1.55,3.16-.37,0-.59-.48-1.1-1.91l-7.18-20.44h-.07c-1.33,3.53-6.37,16.97-7.7,20.39-.59,1.54-.77,1.94-1.21,1.94-.37,0-.55-.4-1.28-2.9l-6.52-21.79c-.59-1.95-1.06-2.5-2.02-2.87-.47-.18-1.39-.22-1.65-.22-.18,0-.33-.04-.33-.26,0-.18.22-.26.59-.26,1.91,0,3.93.11,4.34.12.33,0,1.95-.11,3.78-.11.52,0,.66.11.66.26,0,.22-.18.26-.37.26-.3,0-.99,0-1.43.22-.22.11-.48.4-.48.88s.33,1.76.7,3.38c.55,2.35,4.36,15.84,4.91,17.79h.07l7.81-20.93c.55-1.5.7-1.69.92-1.69.26,0,.48.48.91,1.73l7.29,20.84Z"/><path class="e" d="m203.84,23.92c8.27,0,14.43,5.23,14.43,13.79,0,8.23-5.82,15.02-14.67,15.01-10.07,0-14.25-7.84-14.24-14.45,0-5.95,4.35-14.36,14.49-14.35Zm.75,27.41c3.31,0,10.14-1.9,10.15-12.59,0-8.82-5.35-13.56-11.16-13.57-6.14,0-10.73,4.03-10.74,12.08,0,8.56,5.13,14.07,11.74,14.08Z"/><path class="e" d="m226.05,35.1c0-5.73,0-6.76-.07-7.93-.07-1.25-.37-1.84-1.58-2.09-.3-.07-.92-.11-1.25-.11-.15,0-.3-.07-.3-.22,0-.22.18-.3.59-.3,1.65,0,3.97.11,4.15.12.4,0,3.2-.11,4.34-.11,2.32,0,4.78.22,6.72,1.62.92.66,2.53,2.47,2.53,5,0,2.72-1.14,5.44-4.45,8.48,3.01,3.86,5.5,7.13,7.63,9.41,1.98,2.09,3.56,2.5,4.48,2.65.7.11,1.21.11,1.43.11.18,0,.33.11.33.22,0,.22-.22.3-.88.29h-2.61c-2.06,0-2.98-.19-3.93-.7-1.58-.85-2.86-2.65-4.95-5.4-1.54-2.02-3.27-4.49-4-5.44-.15-.15-.26-.22-.48-.22l-4.52-.08c-.18,0-.26.11-.26.29v.88c0,3.53,0,6.43.18,7.97.11,1.06.33,1.87,1.43,2.02.51.07,1.32.15,1.65.15.22,0,.3.11.3.22,0,.18-.18.29-.59.29-2.02,0-4.34-.11-4.52-.11-.04,0-2.35.11-3.45.11-.4,0-.59-.07-.59-.3,0-.11.07-.22.29-.22.33,0,.77-.07,1.1-.15.74-.15.92-.95,1.07-2.02.19-1.54.19-4.45.19-7.97v-6.47Zm2.93,3.2c0,.18.07.33.26.44.55.33,2.24.59,3.86.59.88,0,1.91-.11,2.76-.7,1.29-.88,2.24-2.86,2.25-5.65,0-4.59-2.42-7.35-6.35-7.35-1.1,0-2.09.11-2.46.22-.18.07-.3.22-.3.44v12.01Z"/><path class="e" d="m256.83,41.67c0,5.4.14,7.75.8,8.41.59.59,1.54.85,4.41.85,1.95,0,3.56-.04,4.45-1.1.48-.59.85-1.5.96-2.2.04-.3.11-.48.33-.48.18,0,.22.15.22.55,0,.4-.26,2.61-.56,3.67-.26.84-.37.99-2.32.99-5.29,0-7.71-.23-9.85-.23-.15,0-.77.04-1.5.03-.74.04-1.54.07-2.1.07-.4,0-.59-.07-.59-.3,0-.11.07-.22.29-.22.33,0,.77-.07,1.1-.15.74-.15.92-.95,1.07-2.02.19-1.54.19-4.45.19-7.97v-6.47c.01-5.73.01-6.76-.06-7.93-.07-1.25-.37-1.84-1.58-2.09-.3-.07-.92-.11-1.25-.11-.15,0-.3-.07-.3-.22,0-.22.18-.3.59-.3,1.65,0,3.97.11,4.15.11s2.87-.11,3.97-.11c.41,0,.59.07.59.3,0,.15-.15.22-.3.22-.26,0-.77.04-1.21.11-1.07.18-1.36.81-1.44,2.09-.07,1.18-.07,2.21-.08,7.94v6.54Z"/><path class="e" d="m275.49,35.15c0-5.73,0-6.76-.07-7.94-.07-1.25-.37-1.84-1.58-2.09-.3-.07-.92-.11-1.25-.11-.15,0-.3-.07-.3-.22,0-.22.18-.29.59-.29,1.65,0,3.97.11,4.15.11.44,0,2.76-.11,4.96-.11,3.64,0,10.36-.32,14.73,4.2,1.83,1.91,3.56,4.96,3.55,9.34,0,4.63-1.92,8.19-3.98,10.36-1.58,1.65-4.89,4.22-11.14,4.21-3.16,0-7.79-.45-8.16-.45-.18,0-2.5.11-3.6.11-.4,0-.59-.07-.59-.3,0-.11.07-.22.29-.22.33,0,.77-.07,1.1-.15.74-.15.92-.95,1.07-2.02.19-1.54.19-4.45.19-7.97v-6.47Zm3.08,3.97c0,3.89.03,7.27.07,7.97.04.92.11,2.39.4,2.79.48.7,1.91,1.47,6.24,1.48,3.42,0,6.58-1.24,8.75-3.41,1.91-1.87,2.94-5.4,2.95-8.78,0-4.67-2.01-7.68-3.52-9.26-3.45-3.64-7.64-4.16-12.01-4.16-.74,0-2.09.11-2.39.26-.33.15-.44.33-.44.74-.04,1.25-.04,5-.04,7.82v4.56Z"/><path class="e" d="m343.28,41.68c0,3.53,0,6.43.18,7.98.11,1.06.33,1.87,1.43,2.02.51.07,1.32.15,1.65.15.22,0,.3.11.3.22,0,.18-.18.29-.59.29-2.02,0-4.34-.11-4.52-.11s-2.5.11-3.6.11c-.4,0-.59-.07-.59-.3,0-.11.07-.22.3-.22.33,0,.77-.07,1.1-.15.73-.15.92-.95,1.07-2.02.19-1.54.19-4.45.19-7.97v-3.86c0-.15-.11-.22-.22-.22h-15.58c-.11-.01-.22.02-.22.2v3.86c0,3.53,0,6.43.17,7.97.11,1.07.33,1.87,1.43,2.02.52.07,1.32.15,1.65.15.22,0,.29.11.29.22,0,.18-.18.3-.59.3-2.02,0-4.34-.12-4.52-.12s-2.5.11-3.6.11c-.4,0-.59-.07-.59-.29,0-.11.07-.22.29-.22.33,0,.77-.07,1.1-.15.74-.15.92-.95,1.07-2.02.19-1.54.19-4.45.19-7.97v-6.47c.01-5.73.01-6.76-.06-7.94-.07-1.25-.37-1.84-1.58-2.09-.3-.07-.92-.11-1.25-.11-.15,0-.3-.07-.3-.22,0-.22.18-.29.59-.29,1.65,0,3.97.11,4.15.11s2.5-.11,3.6-.11c.4,0,.59.07.59.3,0,.15-.15.22-.3.22-.26,0-.48.04-.92.11-.99.18-1.29.81-1.36,2.09-.07,1.17-.07,2.2-.08,7.93v.77c0,.18.11.22.22.22h15.58c.11.01.22-.02.22-.21v-.77c0-5.73,0-6.76-.06-7.93-.07-1.25-.37-1.84-1.58-2.09-.29-.07-.92-.11-1.25-.11-.15,0-.29-.07-.29-.22,0-.22.18-.3.59-.3,1.65,0,3.97.11,4.15.11s2.5-.11,3.6-.11c.4,0,.59.07.59.3,0,.15-.15.22-.29.22-.26,0-.48.04-.92.11-.99.18-1.29.81-1.36,2.09-.07,1.18-.07,2.2-.08,7.93v6.47Z"/><path class="e" d="m359.43,41.7c0,3.53,0,6.43.18,7.97.11,1.06.33,1.87,1.43,2.02.52.07,1.32.15,1.65.15.22,0,.29.11.29.22,0,.18-.18.3-.59.29-2.02,0-4.34-.11-4.52-.11s-2.5.11-3.6.11c-.4,0-.59-.07-.59-.29,0-.11.07-.22.29-.22.33,0,.77-.07,1.1-.15.74-.15.92-.95,1.07-2.02.19-1.54.19-4.45.19-7.97v-6.47c.01-5.73.01-6.76-.06-7.94-.07-1.25-.44-1.87-1.25-2.06-.4-.11-.88-.15-1.14-.15-.15,0-.3-.07-.3-.22,0-.22.18-.29.59-.29,1.21,0,3.53.11,3.71.11s2.5-.11,3.6-.11c.4,0,.59.07.59.29,0,.15-.15.22-.3.22-.26,0-.48.04-.92.11-.99.18-1.29.81-1.36,2.09-.07,1.18-.07,2.21-.08,7.94v6.47Z"/><path class="e" d="m370.14,51.89c-.51-.26-.55-.4-.55-1.4,0-1.84.15-3.31.19-3.89.04-.4.11-.59.29-.59.22,0,.26.11.26.4,0,.33,0,.85.11,1.36.55,2.72,2.97,3.75,5.43,3.75,3.53,0,5.25-2.53,5.26-4.88,0-2.54-1.06-4.01-4.22-6.62l-1.65-1.36c-3.89-3.2-4.77-5.48-4.77-7.98,0-3.93,2.95-6.61,7.61-6.61,1.43,0,2.5.15,3.42.37.7.15.99.19,1.29.19s.37.07.37.26-.15,1.4-.15,3.89c0,.59-.07.85-.26.84-.22,0-.26-.18-.3-.48-.04-.44-.25-1.43-.47-1.84s-1.21-1.95-4.59-1.95c-2.54,0-4.52,1.58-4.52,4.26,0,2.09,1.02,3.34,4.48,6.18l1.03.81c4.34,3.42,5.36,5.7,5.36,8.64,0,1.51-.59,4.3-3.13,6.1-1.58,1.1-3.56,1.54-5.55,1.54-1.72,0-3.42-.26-4.92-1Z"/><path class="e" d="m401.26,41.74c0,3.53,0,6.43.18,7.97.11,1.07.33,1.87,1.43,2.02.51.07,1.32.15,1.65.15.22,0,.29.11.29.22,0,.18-.18.29-.59.29-2.02,0-4.34-.11-4.52-.11s-2.5.11-3.6.11c-.4,0-.59-.07-.59-.3,0-.11.07-.22.3-.22.33,0,.77-.07,1.1-.15.74-.15.92-.96,1.07-2.02.19-1.54.19-4.45.19-7.97v-15.54s-5.42.07-5.42.07c-2.28.04-3.16.29-3.75,1.17-.41.62-.52.88-.63,1.14-.11.3-.22.37-.37.37-.11,0-.18-.11-.18-.33,0-.37.74-3.52.81-3.82.07-.22.22-.7.37-.7.26,0,.62.37,1.62.45,1.06.11,2.46.19,2.9.19h13.78c1.18.01,2.02-.1,2.61-.17.55-.11.88-.18,1.03-.18.18,0,.18.22.18.44,0,1.1-.12,3.64-.12,4.04,0,.33-.11.48-.26.48-.18,0-.26-.11-.3-.63l-.04-.4c-.15-1.1-.99-1.95-4.52-2.02l-4.63-.08v15.54Z"/><path class="e" d="m428.03,24.13c8.27,0,14.43,5.23,14.43,13.79,0,8.23-5.82,15.02-14.67,15.01-10.07,0-14.25-7.84-14.24-14.45,0-5.95,4.35-14.36,14.49-14.35Zm.75,27.41c3.31,0,10.14-1.9,10.15-12.59,0-8.82-5.35-13.56-11.16-13.57-6.14,0-10.73,4.03-10.74,12.08,0,8.56,5.13,14.07,11.74,14.08Z"/><path class="e" d="m450.24,35.32c0-5.73,0-6.76-.07-7.93-.07-1.25-.37-1.84-1.58-2.09-.3-.07-.92-.11-1.25-.11-.15,0-.3-.07-.3-.22,0-.22.18-.3.59-.3,1.65,0,3.97.12,4.15.12.4,0,3.2-.11,4.34-.11,2.32,0,4.78.22,6.72,1.62.92.66,2.53,2.47,2.53,5,0,2.72-1.14,5.44-4.45,8.48,3.01,3.86,5.5,7.13,7.63,9.41,1.98,2.09,3.56,2.5,4.48,2.65.7.11,1.21.11,1.43.11.18,0,.33.11.33.22,0,.22-.22.3-.88.29h-2.61c-2.06,0-2.98-.19-3.93-.7-1.58-.85-2.86-2.65-4.95-5.4-1.54-2.02-3.27-4.49-4-5.44-.15-.15-.26-.22-.48-.22l-4.52-.08c-.18,0-.26.11-.26.29v.88c0,3.53,0,6.43.18,7.97.11,1.06.33,1.87,1.43,2.02.51.07,1.32.15,1.65.15.22,0,.3.11.3.22,0,.18-.18.29-.59.29-2.02,0-4.34-.11-4.52-.11-.04,0-2.35.11-3.45.11-.4,0-.59-.07-.59-.3,0-.11.07-.22.29-.22.33,0,.77-.07,1.1-.15.74-.15.92-.95,1.07-2.02.19-1.54.19-4.45.19-7.97v-6.47Zm2.93,3.2c0,.18.07.33.26.44.55.33,2.24.59,3.86.59.88,0,1.91-.11,2.76-.7,1.29-.88,2.24-2.86,2.25-5.65,0-4.59-2.42-7.35-6.35-7.35-1.1,0-2.09.11-2.46.22-.18.07-.3.22-.3.44v12.01Z"/><path class="e" d="m481.28,42.95c0-1.98-.37-2.79-.84-3.86-.26-.59-5.17-8.68-6.46-10.59-.92-1.36-1.84-2.28-2.5-2.72-.55-.37-1.25-.59-1.58-.59-.18,0-.37-.07-.37-.26,0-.15.15-.26.48-.26.7,0,3.45.11,3.64.11.26,0,1.65-.11,3.09-.11.4,0,.48.11.48.26s-.22.18-.55.33c-.3.15-.48.37-.48.66,0,.44.18.88.48,1.43.59,1.07,6.09,10.55,6.75,11.62.7-1.54,5.37-9.58,6.11-10.8.48-.77.63-1.39.63-1.87,0-.51-.15-.92-.59-1.03-.33-.11-.55-.18-.55-.37,0-.15.22-.22.59-.22.95,0,2.13.11,2.42.11.22,0,2.87-.11,3.56-.11.26,0,.48.07.48.22,0,.18-.18.3-.48.3-.4,0-1.11.15-1.69.51-.74.44-1.14.88-1.95,1.87-1.22,1.47-6.37,10.1-7.03,11.68-.55,1.32-.55,2.46-.55,3.67v3.16c0,.59,0,2.13.1,3.67.07,1.06.4,1.87,1.5,2.02.52.07,1.32.15,1.65.15.22,0,.29.11.29.22,0,.18-.18.3-.59.3-2.02,0-4.34-.12-4.52-.12s-2.5.11-3.6.11c-.4,0-.59-.07-.59-.29,0-.11.07-.22.29-.22.33,0,.77-.07,1.1-.15.74-.15,1.06-.95,1.14-2.02.11-1.54.11-3.09.11-3.67v-3.16Z"/><path class="e" d="m153.78,81.94c0-6.33,0-7.46-.07-8.76-.08-1.38-.41-2.03-1.74-2.31-.32-.08-1.01-.12-1.38-.12-.16,0-.32-.08-.32-.24,0-.24.2-.32.65-.32,1.82,0,4.38.13,4.58.13.29,0,8.36,0,9.29-.03.77-.04,1.42-.12,1.74-.2.2-.04.37-.2.57-.2.12,0,.16.16.16.37,0,.28-.2.77-.33,1.9-.04.41-.12,2.19-.2,2.68-.04.2-.12.45-.29.45-.24,0-.32-.2-.32-.53,0-.28-.04-.97-.24-1.46-.28-.65-.69-1.13-2.88-1.38-.69-.08-5.11-.13-5.56-.13-.16,0-.24.12-.24.4v11.2c-.01.28.03.4.23.41.53,0,5.52,0,6.45-.07.97-.08,1.54-.16,1.91-.57.28-.32.45-.52.61-.52.12,0,.2.08.2.32s-.21.93-.33,2.27c-.08.81-.16,2.31-.16,2.6,0,.32,0,.77-.28.77-.2,0-.29-.16-.29-.37,0-.4,0-.81-.16-1.34-.16-.57-.52-1.26-2.11-1.42-1.09-.12-5.11-.21-5.8-.21-.2,0-.28.12-.28.28v3.57c0,1.38-.05,6.08,0,6.93.12,2.8.72,3.33,4.7,3.33,1.05,0,2.84,0,3.89-.44,1.06-.45,1.54-1.26,1.83-2.92.08-.45.16-.61.37-.61.24,0,.24.32.24.61,0,.32-.33,3.08-.53,3.93-.28,1.05-.61,1.05-2.19,1.05-6.13,0-8.84-.25-10.02-.25-.2,0-2.76.12-3.97.12-.45,0-.65-.08-.65-.33,0-.12.08-.24.32-.24.37,0,.85-.08,1.22-.16.81-.16,1.01-1.05,1.18-2.23.21-1.7.21-4.91.21-8.8v-7.14Z"/><path class="e" d="m179.6,95.34c.08,3.33.48,4.38,1.58,4.71.77.2,1.66.24,2.03.24.2,0,.32.08.32.24,0,.24-.24.32-.73.32-2.31,0-3.93-.13-4.3-.13s-2.07.12-3.89.12c-.41,0-.65-.04-.65-.33,0-.16.12-.24.32-.24.32,0,1.05-.04,1.66-.24,1.01-.28,1.22-1.46,1.22-5.15l.06-23.24c0-1.58.12-2.03.45-2.03.32,0,1.01.89,1.42,1.3.61.69,6.65,7.22,12.88,13.92,4.01,4.3,8.43,9.26,9.72,10.59l-.43-20.6c-.04-2.64-.32-3.53-1.58-3.86-.73-.16-1.66-.21-1.99-.21-.28,0-.32-.12-.32-.28,0-.24.32-.28.81-.28,1.82,0,3.77.13,4.22.13s1.79-.12,3.45-.12c.45,0,.73.04.73.29,0,.16-.16.28-.45.28-.2,0-.49,0-.98.12-1.34.28-1.5,1.17-1.5,3.61l-.1,23.77c0,2.68-.08,2.88-.37,2.88-.33,0-.81-.45-2.96-2.6-.45-.41-6.28-6.37-10.58-11-4.7-5.07-9.28-10.19-10.57-11.65l.51,19.43Z"/><path class="e" d="m217.2,97.08c-3.93-3.53-4.9-8.15-4.9-12.01,0-2.72.94-7.46,4.55-11.07,2.44-2.43,6.13-4.33,12.37-4.33,1.62,0,3.89.12,5.88.49,1.54.29,2.84.53,4.14.61.45.04.52.2.52.45,0,.32-.12.81-.21,2.27-.08,1.34-.08,3.57-.12,4.18-.04.61-.12.85-.37.85-.28,0-.32-.28-.32-.85,0-1.58-.65-3.24-1.7-4.14-1.42-1.22-4.54-2.32-8.11-2.32-5.39,0-7.91,1.57-9.33,2.95-2.96,2.84-3.66,6.45-3.66,10.58,0,7.75,5.95,14.85,14.63,14.86,3.04,0,5.44-.36,7.06-2.02.85-.89,1.38-2.68,1.5-3.41.08-.45.16-.61.41-.61.2,0,.28.29.28.61,0,.28-.49,3.81-.9,5.19-.24.77-.32.85-1.05,1.18-1.62.65-4.71.93-7.3.92-6.08,0-10.18-1.51-13.38-4.39Z"/><path class="e" d="m254.67,90.43c0-2.19-.4-3.08-.93-4.26-.29-.65-5.71-9.58-7.13-11.69-1.01-1.5-2.02-2.52-2.76-3-.61-.41-1.38-.65-1.74-.65-.2,0-.41-.08-.41-.28,0-.16.16-.29.53-.29.77,0,3.81.13,4.02.13.28,0,1.82-.12,3.41-.12.45,0,.53.12.53.29s-.24.2-.61.36c-.33.16-.53.41-.53.73,0,.49.2.97.53,1.58.65,1.18,6.72,11.65,7.45,12.82.77-1.7,5.93-10.58,6.74-11.92.53-.85.69-1.54.69-2.07,0-.57-.16-1.02-.65-1.14-.37-.12-.61-.2-.61-.41,0-.16.24-.24.65-.24,1.05,0,2.35.12,2.68.12.24,0,3.16-.12,3.93-.12.28,0,.53.08.53.24,0,.2-.2.32-.53.32-.45,0-1.22.16-1.87.57-.81.49-1.26.97-2.15,2.07-1.34,1.62-7.03,11.15-7.76,12.89-.61,1.46-.61,2.72-.61,4.05v3.49c0,.65,0,2.35.11,4.06.08,1.18.44,2.07,1.66,2.23.57.08,1.46.16,1.83.16.24,0,.32.12.32.24,0,.2-.2.32-.65.32-2.23,0-4.79-.13-4.99-.13s-2.76.12-3.98.12c-.45,0-.65-.08-.65-.32,0-.12.08-.24.32-.24.37,0,.85-.08,1.22-.16.81-.16,1.18-1.05,1.26-2.23.12-1.7.12-3.41.12-4.05v-3.49Z"/><path class="e" d="m276.58,97.14c-3.93-3.53-4.9-8.16-4.9-12.01,0-2.72.94-7.46,4.55-11.07,2.44-2.43,6.13-4.33,12.37-4.33,1.62,0,3.89.13,5.88.49,1.54.29,2.84.53,4.14.61.45.04.52.21.52.45,0,.32-.12.81-.2,2.27-.08,1.34-.08,3.57-.13,4.18-.04.61-.12.85-.37.85-.28,0-.32-.28-.32-.85,0-1.58-.65-3.24-1.7-4.14-1.42-1.22-4.54-2.32-8.11-2.32-5.39,0-7.91,1.57-9.33,2.95-2.96,2.84-3.66,6.44-3.66,10.58,0,7.75,5.95,14.85,14.63,14.86,3.04,0,5.44-.36,7.06-2.02.85-.89,1.38-2.68,1.5-3.41.08-.45.16-.61.41-.61.2,0,.28.28.28.61,0,.29-.49,3.81-.9,5.19-.24.77-.32.85-1.05,1.18-1.62.65-4.71.93-7.3.93-6.08,0-10.18-1.51-13.38-4.39Z"/><path class="e" d="m312.35,89.31c0,5.96.15,8.56.88,9.29.65.65,1.7.93,4.86.94,2.15,0,3.94-.04,4.91-1.21.53-.65.93-1.66,1.06-2.43.04-.33.12-.53.37-.53.2,0,.24.16.24.61s-.29,2.88-.61,4.05c-.29.93-.41,1.09-2.55,1.09-5.84,0-8.52-.25-10.87-.25-.16,0-.85.04-1.66.04-.81.04-1.7.08-2.31.08-.45,0-.65-.08-.65-.33,0-.12.08-.24.32-.24.37,0,.85-.08,1.22-.16.81-.16,1.01-1.05,1.18-2.23.21-1.7.21-4.91.21-8.8v-7.14c.01-6.33.01-7.46-.06-8.76-.08-1.38-.41-2.03-1.74-2.31-.32-.08-1.01-.12-1.38-.12-.16,0-.32-.08-.32-.24,0-.24.2-.32.65-.32,1.82,0,4.38.13,4.58.13s3.16-.12,4.38-.12c.45,0,.65.08.65.32,0,.16-.16.24-.32.24-.28,0-.85.04-1.34.12-1.18.2-1.5.89-1.58,2.31-.08,1.3-.08,2.43-.09,8.76v7.22Z"/><path class="e" d="m343.36,69.79c9.12,0,15.93,5.77,15.92,15.22,0,9.08-6.42,16.58-16.2,16.57-11.11,0-15.73-8.65-15.72-15.95,0-6.57,4.8-15.85,16-15.84Zm.82,30.26c3.65,0,11.2-2.1,11.21-13.9,0-9.73-5.91-14.97-12.32-14.98-6.77,0-11.84,4.45-11.85,13.33,0,9.45,5.66,15.54,12.96,15.55Z"/><path class="e" d="m367.89,82.14c0-6.33,0-7.46-.07-8.76-.08-1.38-.41-2.03-1.74-2.31-.32-.08-1.01-.12-1.38-.12-.16,0-.32-.08-.32-.24,0-.24.2-.32.65-.32,1.82,0,4.26.13,4.58.13.89,0,3.25-.12,5.11-.12,5.07,0,6.89,1.71,7.54,2.32.89.85,2.03,2.68,2.02,4.83,0,5.76-4.23,9.65-9.99,9.64-.2,0-.65,0-.85-.04-.2,0-.45-.08-.45-.28,0-.33.24-.37,1.09-.37,3.94,0,7.02-2.87,7.03-6.6,0-1.34-.12-4.06-2.27-6.25-2.15-2.19-4.62-2.03-5.55-2.03-.69,0-1.38.08-1.74.24-.24.08-.32.36-.32.77l-.02,16.67c0,3.89,0,7.1.2,8.8.12,1.18.36,2.07,1.58,2.23.57.08,1.46.16,1.82.16.24,0,.32.12.32.24,0,.2-.2.32-.65.32-2.23,0-4.78-.13-4.99-.13-.12,0-2.68.12-3.89.12-.45,0-.65-.08-.65-.33,0-.12.08-.24.32-.24.37,0,.85-.08,1.22-.16.81-.16,1.01-1.05,1.18-2.23.21-1.7.21-4.91.21-8.8v-7.14Z"/><path class="e" d="m393.32,82.17c0-6.33,0-7.46-.07-8.76-.08-1.38-.41-2.03-1.74-2.31-.32-.08-1.01-.12-1.38-.12-.16,0-.32-.08-.32-.24,0-.24.2-.32.65-.32,1.82,0,4.38.13,4.58.13.29,0,8.36,0,9.29-.03.77-.04,1.42-.12,1.74-.2.2-.04.37-.2.57-.2.12,0,.16.16.16.37,0,.28-.2.77-.33,1.9-.04.41-.12,2.19-.2,2.68-.04.2-.12.45-.29.45-.24,0-.32-.2-.32-.53,0-.28-.04-.97-.24-1.46-.28-.65-.69-1.13-2.88-1.38-.69-.08-5.11-.13-5.56-.13-.16,0-.24.12-.24.4v11.2c-.01.28.03.41.23.41.53,0,5.52,0,6.45-.07.97-.08,1.54-.16,1.91-.57.28-.32.45-.52.61-.52.12,0,.2.08.2.32s-.21.93-.33,2.27c-.08.81-.16,2.31-.16,2.6,0,.32,0,.77-.28.77-.2,0-.29-.16-.29-.37,0-.4,0-.81-.16-1.34-.16-.57-.52-1.26-2.11-1.42-1.09-.12-5.11-.21-5.8-.21-.2,0-.28.12-.28.28v3.57c0,1.38-.05,6.08,0,6.93.12,2.8.72,3.33,4.7,3.33,1.05,0,2.84,0,3.89-.44,1.06-.45,1.54-1.26,1.83-2.92.08-.45.16-.61.37-.61.24,0,.24.32.24.61,0,.32-.33,3.08-.53,3.93-.28,1.05-.61,1.05-2.19,1.05-6.13,0-8.84-.25-10.02-.25-.08,0-.77.04-1.62.04-.81.04-1.74.08-2.35.08-.45,0-.65-.08-.65-.33,0-.12.08-.24.32-.24.37,0,.85-.08,1.22-.16.81-.16,1.01-1.05,1.18-2.23.21-1.7.21-4.91.21-8.8v-7.14Z"/><path class="e" d="m418.06,82.19c0-6.33,0-7.46-.07-8.76-.08-1.38-.41-2.03-1.74-2.31-.32-.08-1.01-.12-1.38-.12-.16,0-.32-.08-.32-.24,0-.24.2-.32.65-.32,1.82,0,4.38.13,4.58.13.49,0,3.04-.12,5.48-.12,4.02,0,11.44-.35,16.26,4.64,2.02,2.11,3.93,5.48,3.92,10.31,0,5.11-2.12,9.04-4.39,11.43-1.74,1.82-5.39,4.66-12.29,4.65-3.49,0-8.6-.49-9-.49-.2,0-2.76.12-3.97.12-.45,0-.65-.08-.65-.32,0-.12.08-.24.32-.24.37,0,.85-.08,1.22-.16.81-.16,1.01-1.05,1.18-2.23.21-1.7.21-4.91.21-8.8v-7.14Zm3.4,4.38c0,4.3.03,8.03.07,8.8.04,1.01.12,2.63.45,3.08.52.77,2.1,1.62,6.89,1.63,3.77,0,7.26-1.37,9.66-3.76,2.11-2.07,3.25-5.96,3.25-9.69,0-5.15-2.22-8.48-3.88-10.22-3.81-4.02-8.43-4.59-13.26-4.6-.81,0-2.31.12-2.63.28-.37.16-.49.37-.49.81-.04,1.38-.04,5.52-.05,8.64v5.03Z"/><path class="e" d="m458.26,89.36c0,3.89,0,7.1.19,8.8.12,1.18.36,2.07,1.58,2.23.57.08,1.46.16,1.83.16.24,0,.32.12.32.24,0,.2-.2.33-.65.32-2.23,0-4.79-.13-4.99-.13s-2.76.12-3.97.12c-.45,0-.65-.08-.65-.33,0-.12.08-.24.32-.24.37,0,.85-.08,1.22-.16.81-.16,1.01-1.05,1.18-2.23.21-1.7.21-4.91.21-8.8v-7.14c.01-6.33.01-7.46-.06-8.76-.08-1.38-.49-2.07-1.38-2.27-.45-.12-.97-.16-1.26-.16-.16,0-.32-.08-.32-.24,0-.24.2-.32.65-.32,1.34,0,3.89.13,4.1.13s2.76-.12,3.97-.12c.45,0,.65.08.65.32,0,.16-.16.24-.32.24-.29,0-.53.04-1.02.12-1.09.2-1.42.89-1.5,2.31-.08,1.3-.08,2.43-.09,8.76v7.14Z"/><path class="e" d="m478.55,71.5c.49-1.34.65-1.58.89-1.58s.41.2.89,1.46c.61,1.54,6.96,18.3,9.43,24.46,1.45,3.61,2.63,4.26,3.48,4.5.61.21,1.22.24,1.62.25.24,0,.41.04.41.24,0,.24-.37.33-.81.32-.61,0-3.57,0-6.37-.09-.77-.04-1.22-.04-1.22-.29,0-.16.12-.24.29-.28.24-.08.49-.45.24-1.09l-3.76-9.98c-.08-.16-.16-.24-.37-.24h-8.72c-.2,0-.33.11-.41.31l-2.44,7.18c-.37,1.01-.57,1.99-.57,2.72,0,.81.85,1.18,1.54,1.18h.41c.28,0,.41.08.41.24,0,.24-.24.32-.61.32-.97,0-2.72-.13-3.16-.13s-2.68.12-4.58.12c-.53,0-.77-.08-.77-.33,0-.16.16-.24.37-.24.29,0,.85-.04,1.18-.08,1.87-.24,2.68-1.78,3.41-3.81l9.23-25.18Zm4.2,16.23c.2,0,.2-.12.16-.28l-3.84-10.95c-.2-.61-.4-.61-.61,0l-3.58,10.95c-.08.2,0,.28.12.28h7.75Z"/><path class="d" d="m15.26,0h89.58c8.42,0,15.26,6.84,15.26,15.26v89.59c0,8.42-6.84,15.26-15.26,15.26H15.25c-8.42,0-15.25-6.83-15.25-15.25V15.26C0,6.84,6.84,0,15.26,0Z"/><path class="c" d="m101.37,23.07c-1.15,2.45-2.13,5.56-2.94,9.32-.82,3.76-1.49,7.91-2.02,12.45-.53,4.54-.94,9.26-1.23,14.16-.29,4.91-.51,9.71-.67,14.41-.16,4.7-.31,9.12-.43,13.24-.12,4.13-.27,7.66-.43,10.61v1.72c0,.82-.04,1.64-.12,2.45-.08.82-.23,1.53-.43,2.15-.21.61-.47.92-.8.92-.25,0-.45-.33-.61-.98-.16-.65-.29-1.41-.37-2.27-.08-.86-.14-1.67-.18-2.45-.04-.78-.06-1.29-.06-1.53-.16-2.94-.31-6.48-.43-10.61-.12-4.13-.27-8.54-.43-13.24-.17-4.7-.41-9.5-.74-14.41-.33-4.91-.76-9.63-1.29-14.16-.53-4.54-1.19-8.71-1.96-12.51-.78-3.8-1.74-6.89-2.88-9.26-.41-.98-.96-1.96-1.66-2.94-.7-.98-1.53-2.04-2.51-3.19-.57-.65-.8-1.06-.67-1.23.12-.16.55-.16,1.29,0,1.47.17,2.72.72,3.74,1.66,1.02.94,2.1,1.86,3.25,2.76,2.13,1.55,3.96,2.33,5.52,2.33s3.39-.78,5.52-2.33c1.14-.9,2.23-1.82,3.25-2.76,1.02-.94,2.31-1.49,3.86-1.66.74-.08,1.16-.06,1.29.06.12.12-.1.51-.67,1.17-1.96,2.29-3.35,4.33-4.17,6.13Zm-63.61,78.59c-1.02,1.63-1.28,2.58-.77,2.82.51.25,1.74-.61,3.69-2.58l38.61-40.47c.62-.66.92-1.1.92-1.35s-.31-.7-.92-1.35L40.69,18.39c-1.85-1.88-3.05-2.74-3.61-2.58-.56.16-.33,1.1.69,2.82,3.79,6.46,7.1,11.87,9.92,16.25,2.82,4.37,5.15,8.09,7,11.16,1.85,3.07,3.26,5.66,4.23,7.79.98,2.13,1.46,4.17,1.46,6.13s-.49,4-1.46,6.13c-.97,2.13-2.41,4.74-4.31,7.85-1.9,3.11-4.23,6.87-7,11.28-2.77,4.41-6.05,9.89-9.84,16.43Zm-20.4-42.2c2.16.44,4.32.94,6.48,1.5,2.16.56,4.3,1.39,6.41,2.49,2.12,1.11,4.25,2.63,6.41,4.57,2.16,1.94,4.32,4.52,6.48,7.73.99,1.33,1.4,1,1.21-1-.09-1.66-.43-3.19-1.01-4.57-.58-1.38-1.21-2.74-1.89-4.07-.67-1.33-1.26-2.66-1.75-3.99-.49-1.33-.74-2.72-.74-4.16s.25-2.85.74-4.24c.5-1.38,1.08-2.74,1.75-4.07.67-1.33,1.31-2.69,1.89-4.07.59-1.39.92-2.85,1.01-4.41.09-1.22.02-1.86-.2-1.91-.22-.05-.56.19-1.01.75-2.25,3.22-4.43,5.79-6.55,7.73-2.11,1.94-4.23,3.47-6.34,4.57-2.11,1.11-4.25,1.94-6.41,2.49-2.16.56-4.32,1.05-6.48,1.5-.81.22-1.6.44-2.36.67-.76.22-1.15.56-1.15,1,0,.33.38.61,1.15.83.77.22,1.55.44,2.36.67Z"/></g><g id="b"><path d="m485.74,74.37c0-2.59,1.98-4.47,4.68-4.47s4.68,1.88,4.68,4.47-1.98,4.42-4.68,4.42-4.68-1.93-4.68-4.42Zm8.49-.05c0-2.19-1.63-3.66-3.81-3.66s-3.81,1.47-3.81,3.66,1.63,3.71,3.86,3.71,3.76-1.58,3.76-3.71Zm-5.54-.71c0-.76-.05-1.12-.05-1.37,0-.31-.15-.36-.56-.36-.05,0-.15-.05-.15-.1,0-.1.1-.15.25-.15h.25c.1,0,.51.05.66.05.46,0,.66-.05,1.07-.05.86,0,2.13.15,2.13,1.37,0,.51-.15.92-.91,1.52l.86,1.07c.66.81.86.86.97.86s.15.05.15.1c0,.1-.05.15-.36.15-.66,0-1.02.05-1.78-.97l-.71-.97h-.91v.46c0,1.02.05,1.07.1,1.12.1.05.36.1.51.1.1,0,.15,0,.15.1s-.1.15-.2.15h-.2c-.1,0-.56-.05-.81-.05-.15,0-.66.05-.76.05h-.25c-.1,0-.2,0-.2-.1s.1-.15.2-.15q.46,0,.51-.31c0-.25.05-.61.05-1.42v-1.12Zm.92.61c.15.1.46.15.76.15.15,0,.36-.05.51-.15.25-.15.46-.41.46-.91,0-.71-.46-1.22-1.27-1.22-.05,0-.36,0-.46.1v2.03Z"/></g></svg> </div> </a> <div id="header_tools"> <div class="header_row_top"> <span class="header_sm_buttons"> <a href="https://link.worldhistory.org/facebook" rel="external" class="header_sm_link facebook"><svg role="img" viewBox="0 0 24 24" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><title>Facebook</title><path d="M24 12.073c0-6.627-5.373-12-12-12s-12 5.373-12 12c0 5.99 4.388 10.954 10.125 11.854v-8.385H7.078v-3.47h3.047V9.43c0-3.007 1.792-4.669 4.533-4.669 1.312 0 2.686.235 2.686.235v2.953H15.83c-1.491 0-1.956.925-1.956 1.874v2.25h3.328l-.532 3.47h-2.796v8.385C19.612 23.027 24 18.062 24 12.073z"/></svg></a> <a href="https://link.worldhistory.org/twitter" rel="external" class="header_sm_link twitter"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="24" height="24" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M12 0c-6.627 0-12 5.373-12 12s5.373 12 12 12 12-5.373 12-12-5.373-12-12-12zm6.066 9.645c.183 4.04-2.83 8.544-8.164 8.544-1.622 0-3.131-.476-4.402-1.291 1.524.18 3.045-.244 4.252-1.189-1.256-.023-2.317-.854-2.684-1.995.451.086.895.061 1.298-.049-1.381-.278-2.335-1.522-2.304-2.853.388.215.83.344 1.301.359-1.279-.855-1.641-2.544-.889-3.835 1.416 1.738 3.533 2.881 5.92 3.001-.419-1.796.944-3.527 2.799-3.527.825 0 1.572.349 2.096.907.654-.128 1.27-.368 1.824-.697-.215.671-.67 1.233-1.263 1.589.581-.07 1.135-.224 1.649-.453-.384.578-.87 1.084-1.433 1.489z"/></svg></a> <a href="https://link.worldhistory.org/instagram" rel="external" class="header_sm_link instagram"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="24" height="24" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M14.829 6.302c-.738-.034-.96-.04-2.829-.04s-2.09.007-2.828.04c-1.899.087-2.783.986-2.87 2.87-.033.738-.041.959-.041 2.828s.008 2.09.041 2.829c.087 1.879.967 2.783 2.87 2.87.737.033.959.041 2.828.041 1.87 0 2.091-.007 2.829-.041 1.899-.086 2.782-.988 2.87-2.87.033-.738.04-.96.04-2.829s-.007-2.09-.04-2.828c-.088-1.883-.973-2.783-2.87-2.87zm-2.829 9.293c-1.985 0-3.595-1.609-3.595-3.595 0-1.985 1.61-3.594 3.595-3.594s3.595 1.609 3.595 3.594c0 1.985-1.61 3.595-3.595 3.595zm3.737-6.491c-.464 0-.84-.376-.84-.84 0-.464.376-.84.84-.84.464 0 .84.376.84.84 0 .463-.376.84-.84.84zm-1.404 2.896c0 1.289-1.045 2.333-2.333 2.333s-2.333-1.044-2.333-2.333c0-1.289 1.045-2.333 2.333-2.333s2.333 1.044 2.333 2.333zm-2.333-12c-6.627 0-12 5.373-12 12s5.373 12 12 12 12-5.373 12-12-5.373-12-12-12zm6.958 14.886c-.115 2.545-1.532 3.955-4.071 4.072-.747.034-.986.042-2.887.042s-2.139-.008-2.886-.042c-2.544-.117-3.955-1.529-4.072-4.072-.034-.746-.042-.985-.042-2.886 0-1.901.008-2.139.042-2.886.117-2.544 1.529-3.955 4.072-4.071.747-.035.985-.043 2.886-.043s2.14.008 2.887.043c2.545.117 3.957 1.532 4.071 4.071.034.747.042.985.042 2.886 0 1.901-.008 2.14-.042 2.886z"/></svg></a> <a href="https://link.worldhistory.org/youtube" rel="external" class="header_sm_link youtube"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="24" height="24" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M12 0c-6.627 0-12 5.373-12 12s5.373 12 12 12 12-5.373 12-12-5.373-12-12-12zm4.441 16.892c-2.102.144-6.784.144-8.883 0-2.276-.156-2.541-1.27-2.558-4.892.017-3.629.285-4.736 2.558-4.892 2.099-.144 6.782-.144 8.883 0 2.277.156 2.541 1.27 2.559 4.892-.018 3.629-.285 4.736-2.559 4.892zm-6.441-7.234l4.917 2.338-4.917 2.346v-4.684z"/></svg></a> </span> <a href="/membership/?utm_source=whe&utm_medium=header-button&utm_campaign=membership" class="donate_button membership no_external" id="header_donate_button" rel="nofollow"> <span class="base">Membership</span> <span class="hover">No ads</span> </a> <div class="clr"></div> </div> <div class="header_row_bottom"> <search> <form accept-charset="utf-8" action="/search/"> <div class="search_wrapper"> <input name="q" size="" class="autocomplete_tags_readable ancient_search_btn common_search_field" type="text" value="" placeholder="Search or ask question..."> <span class="mobile_search_button hidden">❯</span> </div> </form> </search> <div class="media_search_clear"></div> <script type="text/javascript"> jsQueue(()=>{ $(".ci_type_filter_checkbox").change(function(e) { var ci_types_list = []; $(".ci_type_filter_checkbox").each(function() { if (this.checked) { ci_types_list.push(this.value); } }); var ci_types_string = ci_types_list.join(','); console.log("CI types selected: " + ci_types_string); $("#ci_types_filter").val(ci_types_string); }); }); </script> <style> .media_search_type_filters { clear: both; position: relative; margin-bottom: 1em; } .search_checkbox input[type=checkbox] { position: relative; top: -1px; } .half_column { display: inline-block; width: 300px; } </style> <div class="clr"></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="clr"></div> <nav> <div id="nav_bar"> <ul class="sf-menu" id="example"> <li class="toplevel"> <a class="first-menu-item" href="/index/">Encyclopedia</a> <ul> <li><a href="/index/">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/timeline/">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/mapselect/">Maps</a></li> <li><a href="/books/">Book Reviews</a></li> <li><a href="/measure/">Weights & Measures</a></li> <li><a href="/trans/">Translations</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toplevel"> <a href="/edu/">Education</a> <ul> <li><a href="/edu/teaching-resources/">Teaching Materials</a></li> <li><a href="/xres/">Link Database</a></li> <li><a href="/type/11/1/">Quizzes</a></li> <li><a href="/category/100/1/">Primary Sources</a></li> <li><a href="/edu/collections/">Collections</a></li> <li><a href="/edu/subscription/?utm_campaign=institutional_subscription&utm_source=whe&utm_medium=header-nav" id="institutional-sub-header-link">School Subscription</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toplevel"> <a href="/medialibrary/">Media</a> <ul> <li><a href="/medialibrary/">Media Library</a></li> <li><a href="/audio/">Audio Articles</a></li> <li><a href="https://experts.worldhistory.org">Podcast</a></li> <li><a href="https://link.worldhistory.org/youtube">Youtube Channel</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="hide-in-mobile toplevel"> <a href="/contribute/">Contribute</a> <ul> <li><a href="/contribute/">Submissions</a></li> <li><a href="/static/needed/">Needed Content</a></li> <li><a href="/static/style_guide/">Style Guide</a></li> <li><a href="/static/legal_terms/">Terms & Conditions</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.worldhistory.foundation/volunteer">Volunteer</a></li> <li><a href="/donate/?utm_source=whe&utm_medium=header-nav&utm_campaign=donate_en" rel="nofollow">Donate</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toplevel"> <a href="/shop/" title="Ancient History Shop">Shop</a> <ul> <li><a href="/books/">Books</a></li> <li><a href="https://worldhistory.store/#!/wall+prints+map+posters?q=P180-map">Map Posters</a></li> <li><a href="/shop/magazines/">Magazines</a></li> <li><a href="/shop/posters/" rel="nofollow">Wall Charts</a></li> <li><a href="https://worldhistory.store/">Clothing</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toplevel"> <a href="/static/about/">About</a> <ul> <li><a href="/static/about/">About</a></li> <li><a href="/team/">Our Team</a></li> <li><a href="/static/editorial-policy/">Editorial Policy</a></li> <li><a href="/static/reports/">Annual Reports</a></li> <li><a href="/membership/?utm_source=whe&utm_campaign=membership&utm_medium=header-nav">Membership</a></li> <li><a href="/static/contact/">Contact</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toplevel"> <a href="/login/" class="login_link">Login</a> <ul> <li><a href="/login/?ui_lang=en" title="Login" class="login_link">Login</a></li> <li><a href="/register/?ui_lang=en" title="Registration" class="login_link">Register</a></li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </nav> </header> <div id="title_bar"> <div class="box_wrapper v_spacing"> <h1 id="page_title_text" class="trans">Aegean</h1> </div> </div> <div id="page"> <div id="content_wrapper"> <div id="content" class="aegean_page">  <script> function darkMode() { let css = document.createElement("link"); css.id = 'darkCSS'; css.setAttribute("rel", "stylesheet") css.setAttribute("type", "text/css") css.setAttribute("media","screen"); css.setAttribute("href", "/template/css/exclude/dark.css?v=1738769252"); document.getElementsByTagName("head")[0].appendChild(css) document.querySelector('#header_ahe_logo').innerHTML = '<img src="/template/images/header/whe-logo-white-r.svg">'; } function lightMode() { document.getElementById('darkCSS').remove(); document.querySelector('#header_ahe_logo').innerHTML = '<img src="/template/images/header/whe-logo-r.svg">'; } if (localStorage.getItem('darkMode') == 'dark') { darkMode(); } </script>  <main class="left_3_column" id="main_content"> <nav id="toc_wrapper" style="display: none;"> <div id="toc"> <h2 class="no_toc">Contents</h2> <div id="toc_contents"></div> <p class="toc_buttons"> <a href="/interestemails/?tags=aegean+Asia_Minor+greece+Kos+Naxos+Samothrace+trade" class="topic_subscribe outline_button">Subscribe to topic</a> <a href="/interestemails/?author=JPryst" class="outline_button" rel="nofollow">Subscribe to author</a> <span class="outline_button print_button" onclick="printButtonClicked();">Print Article</span> <script> function printButtonClicked() { pageReady.then(()=>{ ga4Event('print_button','clicked',AHE.canonicalPath); window.print(); }); } </script> </p> </div> </nav> <div id="tag_definition_wrapper"> <script> jsQueue(()=>{ async_load_js('https://assets.pinterest.com/js/pinit.js') }); </script> <div class="pinterest_button"> <a href="https://www.pinterest.com/pin/create/button/" data-pin-do="buttonPin" data-pin-id="https://www.worldhistory.org/aegean/" data-pin-media="https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/images/17921.png" data-pin-url="https://www.worldhistory.org/aegean/" data-pin-description="The Aegean Sea lies between the coast of Greece and Asia Minor (modern-day Turkey). It contains over 2,000 islands which were settled by the ancient Greeks; the largest among them being Crete (Kriti) and the best known and most often photographed Santorini (Thera or Thira). Both of these islands have..." data-pin-count="beside" > </a> </div> <h2>Definition</h2> <div id="tag_definition_text"> <div class="clr"></div> <div class="ci_info"> <div class="ci_author_image"> <img loading="lazy" alt="Joshua J. Mark" src="/uploads/profile_photos/150-JPryst.JPG" width="50" height="50"> </div> <div class="ci_author trans block"> by <a href="/user/JPryst/" rel="author" title="User Page: Joshua J. Mark">Joshua J. Mark</a> <br/> published on 28 April 2011 </div> </div> <div class="pre_article_section"> <div class="translations_header"> <div class="translations_title">Available in other languages: <a href="/trans/fr/1-118/mer-egee/" class="translation_link fr " rel="alternate">French</a>, <a href="/trans/it/1-118/mar-egeo/" class="translation_link it " rel="alternate">Italian</a>, <a href="/trans/es/1-118/egeo/" class="translation_link es " rel="alternate">Spanish</a></div> </div> <div id="audio-outer-wrapper"> <iframe id="audio-frame-contents" data-src="/audioplayer/en/1-118/" height="80" width="100%" frameborder="no" scrolling="no"></iframe> </div> <script> pageReady.then(()=>{ jsQueue(()=>{ let litPlayer = $('#audio-frame-contents'); if (litPlayer) { litPlayer.attr('src',litPlayer.attr('data-src')); } }); }); </script> <style> #audio-outer-wrapper { height: 80px; width: 100%; margin: 1em 0em; } #audio-frame-contents { background-image: url("/template/images/loading-audio-3.png"); background-size: contain; background-repeat: no-repeat; max-height: 80px; } </style> <div class="pre_article_buttons no_print"> <a href="/interestemails/?tags=aegean+Asia_Minor+greece+Kos+Naxos+Samothrace+trade" class="topic_subscribe outline_button">Subscribe to topic</a> <a href="/interestemails/?author=JPryst" class="outline_button" rel="nofollow">Subscribe to author</a> <span class="outline_button print_button" onclick="printButtonClicked();">Print Article</span> <script> function printButtonClicked() { pageReady.then(()=>{ ga4Event('print_button','clicked',AHE.canonicalPath); window.print(); }); } </script> </div> </div> <div class="body"> <article> <figure class="definition_image"> <a href="/image/17921/greek-expansion-in-the-ancient-aegean/" title="Greek Expansion in the Ancient Aegean"> <picture>  <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/17921.png.webp?v=1701718563-1695830012 300w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/17921.png.webp?v=1701718563-1695830012 600w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/17921.png?v=1701718563-1695830012 300w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/17921.png?v=1701718563-1695830012 600w" type="image/jpeg"> <img src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/17921.png?v=1701718563-1695830012" width="300" height="225" alt="Greek Expansion in the Ancient Aegean (by Simeon Netchev, CC BY-NC-ND)" title="Greek Expansion in the Ancient Aegean (by Simeon Netchev, CC BY-NC-ND)" class="tag_definition_image" /> </picture> <figcaption class="image_caption"><div class="figtitle">Greek Expansion in the Ancient Aegean</div><div class="figauthor">Simeon Netchev (CC BY-NC-ND)</div></figcaption> </a> </figure> <script type="application/ld+json"> {"@context":"https://schema.org","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/17921/greek-expansion-in-the-ancient-aegean/#imageobject","@type":"ImageObject","acquireLicensePage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/17921/greek-expansion-in-the-ancient-aegean/","caption":"A map illustrating the trends and directions of the expansion of the ancient Geeks across the Aegean during the so-called Greek Dark Ages in the wake of the collapse of the Mycenaean civilization. During the 1100s BCE, fueled by a variety of factors such as population growth, political instability, as well as the Dorian invasions into northern Greece and later the Peloponnese, various Greek tribal groups embarked on waves of large-scale population movement (known as the Aeolic, Ionian, Doric, and Achaean/Arcadian migrations) across the Aegean and beyond. These new settlements became, in turn, hubs of trade, culture, and innovation, spreading the Greek language, customs, and art. Although many of the achievements of the Mycenaeans were lost or forgotten during this time, the era of migration and exploration laid the foundation for the interconnected world of the ancient Greeks, ushered in the Archaic period, the rise of the city-state or polis, and the re-establishment of an organized society.","contentUrl":"https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/images/17921.png","copyrightNotice":"Simeon Netchev - CC BY-NC-ND - This licence only allows others to download this content and share it with others as long as the author is credited, but they can't change the content in any way or use it commercially. When republishing on the web a hyperlink back to the original content source URL must be included.","creator":{"@type":"Person","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org/user/simeonnetchev/#person","name":"Simeon Netchev","url":"https://www.worldhistory.org/user/simeonnetchev/","sameAs":["https://www.linkedin.com/in/simeon-netchev/"],"image":"https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/profile_photos/150-simeonnetchev.jpg","description":"Simeon is a freelance visual designer and history teacher passionate about the human stories behind past events. He believes every image should tell a story and spark interaction, while each map leads on a journey, blending imagination with education.","jobTitle":"Graphic Designer","worksFor":"https://www.worldhistory.org#organization"},"creditText":"Simeon Netchev / World History Encyclopedia","dateModified":"2023-09-27T15:53:32+0000","datePublished":"2023-09-25T06:05:01+0000","encodingFormat":"image/png","headline":"Greek Expansion in the Ancient Aegean","height":2791,"isAccessibleForFree":true,"isFamilyFriendly":true,"isPartOf":"https://www.worldhistory.org#website","license":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0","mainEntityOfPage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/17921/greek-expansion-in-the-ancient-aegean/","publisher":"https://www.worldhistory.org#organization","representativeOfPage":true,"url":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/17921/greek-expansion-in-the-ancient-aegean/","width":3720} </script> <p>The Aegean Sea lies between the coast of <a href="/greece/">Greece</a> and <a href="/Asia_Minor/">Asia Minor</a> (modern-day <a href="/Asia_Minor/">Turkey</a>). It contains over 2,000 islands which were settled by the ancient Greeks; the largest among them being <a href="/crete/">Crete</a> (Kriti) and the best known and most often photographed Santorini (<a href="/thera/">Thera</a> or Thira). Both of these islands have strong associations with ancient history and <a href="/Greek_Mythology/">Greek mythology</a> in that Crete features significantly in the myth of <a href="/Theseus/">Theseus</a> and the <a href="/Minotaur/">Minotaur</a> while the destruction of Santorini by a volcano eruption has long been considered a probable source for <a href="/plato/">Plato</a>'s description of <a href="/atlantis/">Atlantis</a> in his dialogues of <a href="/Critias/">Critias</a> and Timaeus.</p> <h3>Name Origin</h3> <div class="big_quote">The Aegean Sea features prominently in many of the most famous <a href="/disambiguation/greek/">Greek</a> myths.</div> <p>In ancient times there were various explanations for the name 'Aegean'. It was said to have been named after the Greek town of Aegae, or after Aegea, a queen of the <a href="/amazon/">Amazons</a> who died in the sea, or Aigaion, the "sea goat", another name of Briareus, one of the <a href="/disambiguation/Archaic/">archaic</a> Hecatonchires, or, especially among the Athenians, Aegeus, the father of Theseus, who drowned himself in the sea when he thought his son had died on his famous expedition to Crete to defeat the Minotaur. A possible etymology is a derivation from the Greek word αἶγες – <em>aiges</em> = "waves" (Hesychius of <a href="/alexandria/">Alexandria</a>; metaphorical use of αἴξ (<em>aix</em>) "goat"), hence "wavy sea", cf. also αἰγιαλός (<em>aigialos</em>) "coast".</p><div class="ad_Mobile_Intext ahe-ad intext-ad-1"> <a href="/membership/?utm_source=whe&utm_medium=remove_ads_button_en&utm_campaign=membership" class="ad_membership_notice" rel="nofollow">Remove Ads</a> <div class="ad_header">Advertisement</div>  <div id='div-adcontainer-AHE_Mobile_Intext_1' class="adcontainer intext innerwrapper mobile"> </div> </div> <h3>Aegean <a href="/disambiguation/trade/">Trade</a></h3> <p>The early inhabitants of Greece, the Mycenaens, relied heavily on the Aegean for trade and, it seems, traveled as far as Spain and <a href="/egypt/">Egypt</a>. Commercial sea trading became their main source of income and, in time, they colonized the various islands of the Aegean archipelago and produced various commodities such as figs, grapes, wine, raisins, honey, wheat, assorted vegetables, and herbs. Marble, especially, became an important export in trade. This produce, along with that of the mainland, went to make the merchants of ancient Greece wealthy, but the same waters on which they relied for their wealth and livelihood became the avenue for their downfall.</p><div id="primis_intext"> <div id="3e3744ed-0893-4ec9-8757-582bfa65ad5c"></div> <div id="6b0cd791-ab2c-4669-b35a-8252ddaa7467"></div> <a href="https://link.worldhistory.org/youtube_intext" target="_blank" class="youtube_notice"> <svg role="img" viewBox="0 0 24 24" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><title>YouTube</title><path d="M23.498 6.186a3.016 3.016 0 0 0-2.122-2.136C19.505 3.545 12 3.545 12 3.545s-7.505 0-9.377.505A3.017 3.017 0 0 0 .502 6.186C0 8.07 0 12 0 12s0 3.93.502 5.814a3.016 3.016 0 0 0 2.122 2.136c1.871.505 9.376.505 9.376.505s7.505 0 9.377-.505a3.015 3.015 0 0 0 2.122-2.136C24 15.93 24 12 24 12s0-3.93-.502-5.814zM9.545 15.568V8.432L15.818 12l-6.273 3.568z"></path></svg> Follow us on YouTube!</a> </div> <script> </script> <p><figure class="image_intext_wrapper" rel="2442"> <a href="/image/2442/fisherman-fresco-akrotiri/" title="Fisherman Fresco, Akrotiri" /> <picture> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/2442.jpg.webp?v=1658314687 500w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/2442.jpg.webp?v=1658314687 1000w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/2442.jpg?v=1658314687 500w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/2442.jpg?v=1658314687 1000w" type="image/jpeg"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/2442.jpg?v=1658314687" alt="Fisherman Fresco, Akrotiri" class="in_text_image" width="285" height="500" /> </picture> <figcaption class="image_caption"><div class="figtitle">Fisherman Fresco, Akrotiri</div><div class="figauthor">Marcus Cyron (Public Domain)</div></figcaption> </a> </figure> <script type="application/ld+json"> {"@context":"https://schema.org","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/2442/fisherman-fresco-akrotiri/#imageobject","@type":"ImageObject","acquireLicensePage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/2442/fisherman-fresco-akrotiri/","caption":"The Fisherman Fresco from Akrotiri on the Aegean island of Thera (Santorini). The male may actually be a youth offering fish as part of a religious ceremony rather than a fisherman. From Room 5 of the West House, c. 17th century BCE. (National Archaeological Museum, Athens)","contentUrl":"https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/images/2442.jpg","copyrightNotice":"Marcus Cyron - Public Domain - This item is in the public domain, and can be used, copied, and modified without any restrictions.","creator":{"@type":"Person","name":"Marcus Cyron"},"creditText":"Marcus Cyron / Wikipedia","dateModified":"2025-02-25T01:56:19+0000","datePublished":"2014-03-25T09:33:07+0000","encodingFormat":"image/jpeg","headline":"Fisherman Fresco, Akrotiri","height":528,"isAccessibleForFree":true,"isBasedOn":{"@type":"CreativeWork","url":"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Akrotiri-fisherman.jpg"},"isFamilyFriendly":true,"isPartOf":"https://www.worldhistory.org#website","license":"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_domain","mainEntityOfPage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/2442/fisherman-fresco-akrotiri/","publisher":"https://www.worldhistory.org#organization","representativeOfPage":false,"url":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/2442/fisherman-fresco-akrotiri/","width":300} </script> </p> <h3><a href="/Sea_Peoples/">Sea Peoples</a></h3> <p>In about 1200 BCE the <a href="/Mycenaean_Civilization/">Mycenaean civilization</a> collapsed and, while no one cause is universally agreed upon, it is considered very likely that they succumbed to the same mysterious invaders who ravaged Egypt and <a href="/Asia_Minor/">Anatolia</a>: the Sea Peoples. Whoever the Sea Peoples were, they are documented as harrassing the Egyptians, the <a href="/hittite/">Hittites</a>, the Greeks, and the <a href="/phoenicia/">Phoenicians</a> (Canaanites) until finally settling along the coast of <a href="/canaan/">Canaan</a> and acquiring the name <a href="/Philistines/">Philistines</a>. There is no doubt among scholars, based upon primary sources, that the Sea Peoples came to Greece from the south on the Aegean Sea and ravaged the coastline, making incursions on to the mainland and seizing islands.</p><div class="ad_Mobile_Intext ahe-ad intext-ad-2"> <a href="/membership/?utm_source=whe&utm_medium=remove_ads_button_en&utm_campaign=membership" class="ad_membership_notice" rel="nofollow">Remove Ads</a> <div class="ad_header">Advertisement</div>  <div id='div-adcontainer-AHE_Mobile_Intext_2' class="adcontainer intext innerwrapper mobile"> </div> </div> <p>Shortly after their arrival, the Dorians descended from the north of Greece and the <a href="/Mycenaean_Civilization/">Mycenaean</a> <a href="/civilization/">civilization</a> was over (though some scholars have speculated that Mycenaen <a href="/disambiguation/culture/">culture</a> was kept alive through those Greeks who would eventually found <a href="/Athens/">Athens</a> while <a href="/sparta/">Sparta</a> proudly claimed Doric ancestry). Greek civilization as recognized today grew out of the aftermath of the Dorian invasion. It is interesting to note, if one believes that the Mycenaean culture survived through Athens, that the Greek colonies of Asia Minor were largely settled by Athenians. The poet <a href="/homer/">Homer</a> is said to have come from one of these Greek colonies and the famous heroes of his <a href="/iliad/">Iliad</a>, arguably the most popular and influential work of its time, are all Mycenaeans.</p> <div class="youtube-embed-wrapper"><div class="youtube-embed-container"><iframe data-src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/criZ8DDhu6g?autoplay=0&cc_lang_pref=en" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen title="The Minoans and Mycenaeans: Civilizations of the Bronze Age Aegean"></iframe></div></div> <h3>In <a href="/mythology/">Mythology</a></h3> <p>The Aegean Sea features prominently in many of the most famous Greek myths (Icarus and Daedelus, Theseus and the Minotaur, <a href="/article/425/jason--the-argonauts/">Jason and the Argonauts</a>, The <a href="/Odyssey/">Odyssey</a>, among others) and Plato made ample use of the islands in his dialogues. In his <em>Euthyphro</em>, for example, Plato purposefully has the young man who claims to know everything come from the island of <a href="/Naxos/">Naxos</a> which was known to be the most prosperous and the residents quite wealthy and condescending. According to <a href="/herodotus/">Herodotus</a>, the island of Naxos was the most prosperous in trade c. 500 BCE and was easily able to pay tribute to Athens in the form of <a href="/gold/">gold</a> rather than military aid after the island's failed attempt to leave the <a href="/Delian_League/">Delian League</a> in 476 BCE. In the Golden Age of Greece and beyond, the Aegean Sea continued to serve an important function in trade and in <a href="/war/">war</a>, helping the <a href="/disambiguation/Greek_Culture/">Greek culture</a> and civilization to flourish until the Romans, like the Sea Peoples before them, employed the waterways for <a href="/warfare/">conquest</a> and subdued Greece.</p><div class="ad_Mobile_Intext ahe-ad intext-ad-3"> <a href="/membership/?utm_source=whe&utm_medium=remove_ads_button_en&utm_campaign=membership" class="ad_membership_notice" rel="nofollow">Remove Ads</a> <div class="ad_header">Advertisement</div>  <div id='div-adcontainer-AHE_Mobile_Intext_3' class="adcontainer intext innerwrapper mobile desktop"> </div> </div></p> </article> <div id="ci_rating_wrapper"> <div class="rating_label filter_label">Did you like this definition?</div> <div id="ci_rating_buttons_wrapper"> <div class="rating_button up base" data-rating="1"></div> <div class="rating_button down base" data-rating="-1"></div> </div> </div> <div id="sections_below_links"> <p> <a href="/interestemails/?tags=aegean+Asia_Minor+greece+Kos+Naxos+Samothrace+trade" class="topic_subscribe outline_button below_article">Subscribe to topic</a> <a href="#ci_related_content_outer_wrapper" class="outline_button">Related Content</a> <a href="#books_preview" class="outline_button">Books</a> <a href="#citation_info" class="outline_button">Cite This Work</a> <a href="#ci_author_and_copyright" class="outline_button">License</a> </p> </div> <div class="editorial_review_notice"> <span class="editorial_review_header">Editorial Review</span> This human-authored article has been reviewed by our editorial team before publication to ensure accuracy, reliability and adherence to academic standards in accordance with our <a href="/static/editorial-policy/">editorial policy</a>. </div> </div> </div></div> <div class="ad_Flexi_BottomLeft ahe-ad"> <a href="/membership/?utm_source=whe&utm_medium=remove_ads_button_en&utm_campaign=membership" class="ad_membership_notice" rel="nofollow">Remove Ads</a> <div class="ad_header">Advertisement</div>  <div id="div-adcontainer-AHE_Flexi_BottomLeft" class="adcontainer worldhistory_below_content"> </div> </div> <style> .map_container.il { border: none; } .map_container h3 { text-align: center; } </style> <div id="references"> <h2>Bibliography</h2> <ul id="reference_list" class="ref_list bibliography"> <li id="bibID__84c4c05e024a37ea5dd985788373a53e"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="/books/B004ZZS4YA/" rel="sponsored">Durant, W. <i>The Life of Greece.</i> Simon & Schuster, 2011.</a></cite> </li> <li id="bibID__f6d871d5f1a190bdf73397c13a32b4a0"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="/books/B004AE34PU/" rel="sponsored">Hamilton, E. <i>The Greek Way.</i> W. W. Norton & Company, 2010.</a></cite> </li> <li id="bibID__83b55660be57da8512a82922c87ffd22"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="/books/0691097186/" rel="sponsored">Plato. <i>The Collected Dialogues of Plato.</i> Princeton University Press, 2005.</a></cite> </li> </ul> <div class="book_promo_wrapper"></div> <span class="light affiliate_notice">World History Encyclopedia is an Amazon Associate and earns a commission on qualifying book purchases.</span> <div id="books_rec"> </div> <script> jsQueue(()=>{ $("ul.bibliography").sortList(); }); </script> </div> <div class="user_short_bio_wrapper"> <a href="/interestemails/?author=JPryst" class="headline_button" rel="nofollow">Subscribe to this author</a> <h2>About the Author</h2> <div class="user_short_bio"> <div class="left_col"> </div> <div class="right_col"> <a href="/user/JPryst/" rel="nofollow" title="Joshua J. Mark"><img data-src="/uploads/profile_photos/150-JPryst.JPG?v=1459726565" width="100" height="100" alt="Joshua J. Mark" class="avatar_image" /></a> <div class="user_name"> <a href="/user/JPryst/" rel="author" title="Joshua J. Mark">Joshua J. Mark</a> </div> <div class="short_bio_text"> Joshua J. Mark is World History Encyclopedia's co-founder and Content Director. He was previously a professor at Marist College (NY) where he taught history, philosophy, literature, and writing. He has traveled extensively and lived in Greece and Germany. </div> <div class="sm_links"> <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/pub/joshua-j-mark/38/614/339" title="Joshua J. Mark" class="sm_tiny_sprite linkedin no_external"></a> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="translations_notice"> <h2 class="translations">Translations</h2> <a href="/trans/fr/1-118/mer-egee/" class="translation_link fr outline_button" rel="alternate">French</a> <a href="/trans/it/1-118/mar-egeo/" class="translation_link it outline_button" rel="alternate">Italian</a> <a href="/trans/es/1-118/egeo/" class="translation_link es outline_button" rel="alternate">Spanish</a> <p>We want people all over the world to learn about history. Help us and <a href="/trans/x/1-118/edit/" class="translation_add_button" rel="nofollow">translate this definition</a> into another language!</p> </div> <div id="ci_related_wrapper"> <div class="ci_related_content_outer_wrapper" id="ci_related_content_outer_wrapper"> <h2>Related Content</h2> <div id="ci_related_type_list"> <span class="filter_label">Filters:</span> <div rel="0" class="ci_type_0 ci_rel_type selected">All<span class="ci_rel_type_count"> </span></div> <div rel="1" class="ci_type_1 ci_rel_type ">Definitions<span class="ci_rel_type_count">14</span></div> <div rel="2" class="ci_type_2 ci_rel_type ">Articles<span class="ci_rel_type_count">34</span></div> <div rel="3" class="ci_type_3 ci_rel_type ">Images<span class="ci_rel_type_count">31</span></div> <div rel="6" class="ci_type_6 ci_rel_type ">Videos<span class="ci_rel_type_count">8</span></div> <div rel="9" class="ci_type_9 ci_rel_type ">Collections<span class="ci_rel_type_count">5</span></div> <div rel="10" class="ci_type_10 ci_rel_type ">Teaching Materials<span class="ci_rel_type_count">6</span></div> <div rel="11" class="ci_type_11 ci_rel_type ">Quizzes<span class="ci_rel_type_count">1</span></div> </div> <div id="ci_related_content"> <div class="ci_related_content_wrapper ci_two_cols three_cols"> <div class="columns"> <a href="/Kos/" class="content_item ci_related_item ci_type_1 " id="1-11657" data-score="853397" data-ci-type-id="1"> <picture> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/4945.jpg.webp?v=1731421449 360w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/720x404/4945.jpg.webp?v=1731421449 720w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/4945.jpg?v=1731421449 360w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/720x404/4945.jpg?v=1731421449 720w" type="image/jpg"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/4945.jpg?v=1731421449" width="360" height="202" alt="Kos" class="ci_image " /> </picture> <div class="ci_preview_content"> <div class="ci_header type__1"> <div class="ci_type_name"> Definition </div> <h3>Kos</h3> </div> <div class="ci_preview"> Kos (Cos) is a Greek island in the south-east Aegean, part of the... </div> </div> </a> <a href="/Samothrace/" class="content_item ci_related_item ci_type_1 " id="1-10075" data-score="632294" data-ci-type-id="1"> <picture> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/5287.jpg.webp?v=1696549383 360w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/720x404/5287.jpg.webp?v=1696549383 720w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/5287.jpg?v=1696549383 360w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/720x404/5287.jpg?v=1696549383 720w" type="image/jpg"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/5287.jpg?v=1696549383" width="360" height="202" alt="Samothrace" class="ci_image " /> </picture> <div class="ci_preview_content"> <div class="ci_header type__1"> <div class="ci_type_name"> Definition </div> <h3>Samothrace</h3> </div> <div class="ci_preview"> Samothrace (Samothrake) is a Greek island in the northern Aegean... </div> </div> </a> <a href="/Asia_Minor/" class="content_item ci_related_item ci_type_1 " id="1-228" data-score="536527" data-ci-type-id="1"> <picture> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/253.png.webp?v=1738081571 360w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/720x404/253.png.webp?v=1738081571 720w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/253.png?v=1738081571 360w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/720x404/253.png?v=1738081571 720w" type="image/png"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/253.png?v=1738081571" width="360" height="202" alt="Asia Minor" class="ci_image " /> </picture> <div class="ci_preview_content"> <div class="ci_header type__1"> <div class="ci_type_name"> Definition </div> <h3>Asia Minor</h3> </div> <div class="ci_preview"> Ancient Asia Minor is a geographic region located in the south-western... </div> </div> </a> <a href="/Naxos/" class="content_item ci_related_item ci_type_1 " id="1-11328" data-score="513144" data-ci-type-id="1"> <picture> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/1383.jpg.webp?v=1733589192 360w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/720x404/1383.jpg.webp?v=1733589192 720w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/1383.jpg?v=1733589192 360w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/720x404/1383.jpg?v=1733589192 720w" type="image/jpg"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/1383.jpg?v=1733589192" width="360" height="202" alt="Naxos" class="ci_image " /> </picture> <div class="ci_preview_content"> <div class="ci_header type__1"> <div class="ci_type_name"> Definition </div> <h3>Naxos</h3> </div> <div class="ci_preview"> Naxos, with an area of 430 km², is the largest island in the Cyclades... </div> </div> </a> <a href="/article/1412/winged-victory-the-nike-of-samothrace/" class="content_item ci_related_item ci_type_2 " id="2-1412" data-score="468920" data-ci-type-id="2"> <picture> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/5287.jpg.webp?v=1696549383 360w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/720x404/5287.jpg.webp?v=1696549383 720w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/5287.jpg?v=1696549383 360w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/720x404/5287.jpg?v=1696549383 720w" type="image/jpg"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/5287.jpg?v=1696549383" width="360" height="202" alt="Winged Victory: the Nike of Samothrace" class="ci_image " /> </picture> <div class="ci_preview_content"> <div class="ci_header type__2"> <div class="ci_type_name"> Article </div> <h3>Winged Victory: the Nike of Samothrace</h3> </div> <div class="ci_preview"> One of the most celebrated works of Hellenistic art is without... </div> </div> </a> <a href="/article/115/trade-in-ancient-greece/" class="content_item ci_related_item ci_type_2 " id="2-115" data-score="317082" data-ci-type-id="2"> <picture> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/68.png.webp?v=1739611209 360w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/720x404/68.png.webp?v=1739611209 720w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/68.png?v=1739611209 360w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/720x404/68.png?v=1739611209 720w" type="image/png"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/68.png?v=1739611209" width="360" height="202" alt="Trade in Ancient Greece" class="ci_image " /> </picture> <div class="ci_preview_content"> <div class="ci_header type__2"> <div class="ci_type_name"> Article </div> <h3>Trade in Ancient Greece</h3> </div> <div class="ci_preview"> Trade was a fundamental aspect of the ancient Greek world and following... </div> </div> </a> </div> <nav class="pagination"> <strong class="pagination_page">1</strong> <a href="#" class="pagination_page" data-page="2" rel="next ">2</a> <a href="#" class="pagination_page" data-page="3" rel="">3</a> <a href="#" class="pagination_page" data-page="4" rel="">4</a> <a href="#" class="pagination_page" data-page="5" rel="">5</a> <a href="#" class="pagination_page" data-page="6" rel="">6</a> <a href="#" class="pagination_page" data-page="7" rel="">7</a> <a href="#" class="pagination_page" data-page="8" rel="">8</a> <a href="#" class="pagination_page" data-page="9" rel="">9</a> <a href="#" class="pagination_page" data-page="10" rel="">10</a> <a href="#" data-page="2" rel="next">Next &rsaquo;</a> <a href="#" data-page="17" rel="">Last »</a> </nav> </div> </div> </div> </div> <script type="text/javascript"> var wrapper_selector_prefix = '#ci_related_wrapper '; var pag = 1; var cit = "0"; var cist = ""; function handle_related_pagination_click() { $(wrapper_selector_prefix + ".ci_related_content_wrapper .pagination a").off().one("click",function(e) { e.preventDefault(); var newpage = $(this).attr("data-page"); $(wrapper_selector_prefix + ".ci_related_content_wrapper").fadeTo(400,0.1,function() { $(wrapper_selector_prefix + ".ci_related_content_wrapper").load("/ajax/ajax-search-new.php?q=aegean+aegean+asia+minor+greece+kos+naxos+samothrace+trade&caching=1&ci_id=1-118&filter=%7B%22exclude_ci_ids%22%3A%221-118%22%7D&cit=" + cit + "&lim=6&pag=" + newpage + "&ci_subtype_ids=" + cist,function() { $(wrapper_selector_prefix + ".ci_related_content_wrapper").fadeTo(400,1); if (document.getElementById('ci_related_type_list')) { var eTop = $(wrapper_selector_prefix + '#ci_related_type_list').offset().top; } else if (document.getElementById('ci_related_content_outer_wrapper')) { var eTop = $(wrapper_selector_prefix + '#ci_related_content_outer_wrapper').offset().top; } if (eTop > 0) { $(window).scrollTop(eTop); } updateBrowserURL(cit,newpage,cist); handle_related_pagination_click(); }); }); }); } function updateBrowserURL(cit,page,cist) { let urlComponents = []; let url = ''; if (cit) { urlComponents.push('type:'+cit); } if (page) { urlComponents.push('page:'+page); } if (cist) { urlComponents.push('subtype:'+cist); } url = '#ci_related_filters=' + urlComponents.join('&'); window.location = url; } function applyBrowserURLFilters() { if (window.location.hash) { let filters = window.location.hash.match(/ci_related_filters=type:([0-9]+)&page:([0-9]+)(&subtype:([0-9]+))?/); if (filters) { let type = filters[1] ?? 0; let page = filters[2] ?? 0; let subtype = filters[4] ?? 0; if (type || page || subtype) { console.log('Applying filters!'); $(wrapper_selector_prefix + ".ci_related_content_wrapper").load("/ajax/ajax-search-new.php?q=aegean+aegean+asia+minor+greece+kos+naxos+samothrace+trade&caching=1&ci_id=1-118&filter=%7B%22exclude_ci_ids%22%3A%221-118%22%7D&cit=" + type + "&lim=6&pag=" + page + "&ci_subtype_ids=" + subtype,function() { jsQueue(()=>{ // Change UI selection $(wrapper_selector_prefix + ".ci_rel_type").removeClass("selected"); $(wrapper_selector_prefix + '.ci_type_'+type).addClass("selected"); $(wrapper_selector_prefix + ".ci_subtype_selectors .outline_button.selector").removeClass("selected"); $(wrapper_selector_prefix + ".ci_subtype_selectors .outline_button.selector[data-subtype-id=2]").addClass("selected"); }); jsQueue(()=>{ handle_related_pagination_click(); }); }); } } } } jsQueue(()=>{ applyBrowserURLFilters(); }); jsQueue(()=>{ handle_related_pagination_click(); $(wrapper_selector_prefix + ".ci_rel_type").click(function() { cit = $(this).attr('rel'); $(wrapper_selector_prefix + "#ci_related_type_current_selection").html(null); $(this).clone().appendTo("#ci_related_type_current_selection"); $(wrapper_selector_prefix + ".ci_rel_type").removeClass("selected"); $(this).addClass("selected"); $(wrapper_selector_prefix + ".ci_related_content_wrapper").fadeTo(400,0.1,function() { $(wrapper_selector_prefix + ".ci_related_content_wrapper").load("/ajax/ajax-search-new.php?q=aegean+aegean+asia+minor+greece+kos+naxos+samothrace+trade&caching=1&ci_id=1-118&filter=%7B%22exclude_ci_ids%22%3A%221-118%22%7D&cit=" + cit + "&lim=6&pag=" + pag + "&ci_subtype_ids=" + cist,function() { $(wrapper_selector_prefix + ".ci_related_content_wrapper").fadeTo(400,1); updateBrowserURL(cit,pag,cist); handle_related_pagination_click(); }); }); }); $(wrapper_selector_prefix + '.ci_subtype_selectors .outline_button.selector').click(function() { cist = $(this).attr('data-subtype-id'); $(wrapper_selector_prefix + ".ci_subtype_selectors .outline_button.selector").removeClass("selected"); $(this).addClass("selected"); $(wrapper_selector_prefix + ".ci_related_content_wrapper").fadeTo(400,0.1,function() { $(wrapper_selector_prefix + ".ci_related_content_wrapper").load("/ajax/ajax-search-new.php?q=aegean+aegean+asia+minor+greece+kos+naxos+samothrace+trade&caching=1&ci_id=1-118&filter=%7B%22exclude_ci_ids%22%3A%221-118%22%7D&cit=" + cit + "&lim=6&pag=" + pag + "&ci_subtype_ids=" + cist,function() { $(wrapper_selector_prefix + ".ci_related_content_wrapper").fadeTo(400,1); updateBrowserURL(cit,pag,cist); handle_related_pagination_click(); }); }); }); }); </script> <div class="membership-below-block-wrapper"> <div class="membership_below_notice"> <div class="membership_below_notice_inner"> <h2 class="no_toc">Free for the World, Supported by You</h2> <p class="a"> World History Encyclopedia is a non-profit organization. Please support free history education for millions of learners worldwide for only <span class="mem_monthly_price">$5</span> per month by becoming a member. Thank you! </p> <p class="b"> World History Encyclopedia is a non-profit organization. Please support free history education for millions of learners worldwide for only <span class="mem_monthly_price">$5</span> per month by becoming a member. Thank you! </p> <a href="/membership/?utm_source=whe&utm_medium=below-content-a&utm_campaign=membership" class="content_button member-button" rel="nofollow">Become a Member</a>   <a href="/donate/?utm_campaign=donation&utm_medium=below_content_a&utm_source=membership_block_en" class="content_button donate-button" rel="nofollow">Donate</a> </div> </div> <script type="text/javascript"> var membership_below_block_bg = '/template/images/membership-below-block-bg-princess.jpg'; pageReady.then(()=>{ if (AHE.ab == 'b') { $('.membership_below_notice .member-button').attr('href',$('.membership_below_notice .member-button').attr('href').replace('below-content-a','below-content-b')); $('.membership_below_notice .donate-button').attr('href',$('.membership_below_notice .donate-button').attr('href').replace('below_content_a','below_content_b')); $('.membership_below_notice p.a').hide(); $('.membership_below_notice p.b').show(); // A/B Testing Code Below // A/B Testing Code End } observedElementInView('.membership_below_notice',function() { $('.membership_below_notice').attr("style","background-image: url('"+membership_below_block_bg+"');"); }); observedElementInView('.membership_below_notice',()=>{ ga4Event('membership-below-block-viewed','version-' + AHE.ab); },0,true); $('.membership_below_notice .member-button').click(function(e) { e.preventDefault(); var targetUrl = this.href; console.log("Link clicked: " + targetUrl); window.setTimeout(function() { console.log("Google Analytics timeout!"); top.window.location.href = targetUrl; },2000); ga4Event('membership-below-block-clicked','version-' + AHE.ab,targetUrl,()=>{ top.window.location.href = targetUrl; }); }); $('.membership_below_notice .donate-button').click(function(e) { e.preventDefault(); var targetUrl = this.href; console.log("Link clicked: " + targetUrl); window.setTimeout(function() { console.log("Google Analytics timeout!"); top.window.location.href = targetUrl; },2000); ga4Event('membership-below-block-clicked','version-' + AHE.ab,targetUrl,()=>{ top.window.location.href = targetUrl; }); }); $('.membership_below_notice .mem_monthly_price').html(getMembershipPriceMonthly()); }); </script> <style> .membership_below_notice p.b { display: none; } </style> </div> <div class="xres_list_wrapper"> <a href="/xres/add/ci_id:1-118/" class="headline_button" rel="nofollow">Add External Link</a> <h2>External Links</h2> <div class="xres_wrapper list"> <div class="xres listitem"> <a href="http://www.historyofpiratespodcast.com/?p=131" title="Episode 05 â€“ Maps for The Ancient Pirates of The Aegean Sea â€“ History of Pirates Podcast" rel="external noopener" class="xres_headline"> <div class="xres_headline">Episode 05 â€“ Maps for The Ancient Pirates of The Aegean Sea â€“ History of Pirates Podcast </div> </a> <div class="xres_domain external_link"> historyofpiratespodcast.com </div> </div><div class="xres listitem"> <a href="http://www.historyofpiratespodcast.com/?p=129" title="Episode 05 â€“ Ancient Pirates of the Aegean Sea â€“ History of Pirates Podcast" rel="external noopener" class="xres_headline"> <div class="xres_headline">Episode 05 â€“ Ancient Pirates of the Aegean Sea â€“ History of Pirates Podcast </div> </a> <div class="xres_domain external_link"> historyofpiratespodcast.com </div> </div><div class="xres listitem"> <a href="http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?historyid=ac39" title="HISTORY OF AEGEAN CIVILIZATION" rel="external noopener" class="xres_headline"> <div class="xres_headline">HISTORY OF AEGEAN CIVILIZATION </div> </a> <div class="xres_domain external_link"> historyworld.net </div> </div><div class="xres listitem"> <a href="http://history-world.org/aegean_civilization.htm" title="Site Unavailable" rel="external noopener" class="xres_headline"> <div class="xres_headline">Site Unavailable </div> </a> <div class="xres_domain external_link"> history-world.org </div> </div> </div> </div> <div id="citation_info"> <h2>Cite This Work</h2> <div class="citation_apa"> <h4>APA Style</h4> <div class="citation_details citation_style"> <p> Mark, J. J. (2011, April 28). <a href="https://www.worldhistory.org/aegean/" class="no_external">Aegean</a>. <i>World History Encyclopedia</i>. Retrieved from https://www.worldhistory.org/aegean/ </p> </div> </div> <div class="citation_chicago"> <h4>Chicago Style</h4> <div class="citation_details citation_style"> <p> Mark, Joshua J.. "<a href="https://www.worldhistory.org/aegean/" class="no_external">Aegean</a>." <i>World History Encyclopedia</i>. Last modified April 28, 2011. https://www.worldhistory.org/aegean/. </p> </div> </div> <div class="citation_mla citation_style"> <h4>MLA Style</h4> <div class="citation_details"> <p> Mark, Joshua J.. "<a href="https://www.worldhistory.org/aegean/" class="no_external">Aegean</a>." <i>World History Encyclopedia</i>. World History Encyclopedia, 28 Apr 2011. Web. 25 Feb 2025. </p> </div> </div> </div> <div class="ci_author_and_copyright" id="ci_author_and_copyright"> <h2>License & Copyright</h2> <p> Submitted by <a href="/user/JPryst/" rel="author" title="User Page: Joshua J. Mark">Joshua J. Mark</a>, published on 28 April 2011. The copyright holder has published this content under the following license: <a href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/deed.en" rel="nofollow">Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike</a>. This license lets others remix, tweak, and build upon this content non-commercially, as long as they credit the author and license their new creations under the identical terms. When republishing on the web a hyperlink back to the original content source URL must be included. <span class="no_print">Please note that content linked from this page may have different licensing terms.</span></p> </div> </main> <aside class="right_1_column"> <div id="editor_tools"> </div> <div class="timeline_outer_wrapper"> <div class="timeline_wrapper"> <h2>Timeline</h2> <a href="https://www.worldhistory.org/login/" title="Add Timeline Entry" class="outline_button" rel="nofollow">Add Event</a> <a href="/ajax/ajax_print_visual_timeline.php?tag=aegean&width=950&height=600" rel="nofollow" class="thickbox outline_button visual_timeline_button" title="Visual Timeline">Visual Timeline</a> <ul id="time_list"> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_1679" title=""> <div class="date">c. 5000 BCE</div> The <a href="/Cyclades/">Cyclades</a> are first inhabited by settlers from Asia Mnior. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_1451" title=""> <div class="date">c. 4500 BCE</div> First settlement on <a href="/thera/">Thera</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_1680" title=""> <div class="date">3000 BCE - 2200 BCE</div> The first archaeological evidence of organised communities in the <a href="/Cyclades/">Cyclades</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_3923" title=""> <div class="date">3000 BCE - 2000 BCE</div> First human presence recorded on <a href="/Kos/">Kos</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_1682" title=""> <div class="date">3000 BCE - 2000 BCE</div> Distinctive minimalistic standing marble figurines are produced in the <a href="/Cyclades/">Cyclades</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_66" title=""> <div class="date">2300 BCE</div> <a href="/disambiguation/bronze/">Bronze</a> is used in the <a href="/aegean/">Aegean</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_1681" title=""> <div class="date">2200 BCE - 1700 BCE</div> Evidence of town planning and more sophisticated <a href="/disambiguation/architecture/">architecture</a> in the Cylades. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_1453" title=""> <div class="date">c. 2000 BCE</div> <a href="/thera/">Akrotiri</a> becomes an important <a href="/aegean/">Aegean</a> trading centre. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_1454" title=""> <div class="date">2000 BCE - 1650 BCE</div> <a href="/thera/">Akrotiri</a> on <a href="/thera/">Thera</a> reaches its peak of prosperity and becomes a flourishing <a href="/disambiguation/mediterranean/">Mediterranean</a> trading centre. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_73" title=""> <div class="date">2000 BCE - 1450 BCE</div> <a href="/Minoan_Civilization/">Minoan civilization</a> in <a href="/crete/">Crete</a> and the <a href="/aegean/">Aegean</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_2054" title=""> <div class="date">1900 BCE - 1100 BCE</div> <a href="/Mycenaean_Civilization/">Mycenaean civilization</a> in <a href="/greece/">Greece</a> and the <a href="/aegean/">Aegean</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_86" title=""> <div class="date">c. 1850 BCE - c. 1450 BCE</div> The <a href="/Linear_A_Script/">Linear A script</a> of the <a href="/Minoan_Civilization/">Minoan civilization</a> is in use. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_87" title=""> <div class="date">1700 BCE</div> Second <a href="/disambiguation/palace/">Palace</a> of <a href="/knossos/">Knossos</a> on <a href="/crete/">Crete</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_1683" title=""> <div class="date">1700 BCE - 1400 BCE</div> The <a href="/disambiguation/culture/">culture</a> in the <a href="/Cyclades/">Cyclades</a> is increasingly influenced by <a href="/disambiguation/Minoan/">Minoan</a> <a href="/crete/">Crete</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_1455" title=""> <div class="date">1650 BCE - 1550 BCE</div> Eruption of <a href="/thera/">Thera</a> and consequent tidal waves, destruction of <a href="/thera/">Akrotiri</a> and other <a href="/aegean/">Aegean</a> centres. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_2145" title=""> <div class="date">c. 1600 BCE</div> <a href="/Rhodes/">Rhodes</a> has significant contact with <a href="/disambiguation/Minoan/">Minoan</a> <a href="/crete/">Crete</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_3924" title=""> <div class="date">1600 BCE - 1200 BCE</div> The <a href="/Mycenaean_Civilization/">Mycenaean</a> settlement of Serayia flourishes on <a href="/Kos/">Kos</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_2146" title=""> <div class="date">c. 1400 BCE</div> <a href="/Rhodes/">Rhodes</a> has significant contact with the <a href="/Mycenaean_Civilization/">Mycenaean civilization</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_1684" title=""> <div class="date">1400 BCE - 1100 BCE</div> <a href="/disambiguation/culture/">Culture</a> in the <a href="/Cyclades/">Cyclades</a> is increasingly influenced by the <a href="/Mycenaean_Civilization/">Mycenaean civilization</a> of mainland <a href="/greece/">Greece</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_111" title=""> <div class="date">1100 BCE</div> Dorian peoples occupy <a href="/greece/">Greece</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_1685" title=""> <div class="date">c. 1100 BCE</div> Evidence of settlement destruction and abandonment across the <a href="/Cyclades/">Cyclades</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_4102" title=""> <div class="date">c. 700 BCE</div> Settlers from mainland <a href="/greece/">Greece</a>, possibly <a href="/samos/">Samos</a>, settle on <a href="/Samothrace/">Samothrace</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_1688" title=""> <div class="date">c. 700 BCE</div> <a href="/Paros/">Paros</a> begins to export its Parian marble across the <a href="/disambiguation/greek/">Greek</a> world and it is widely used in temples and <a href="/disambiguation/Sculpture/">sculpture</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_1687" title=""> <div class="date">700 BCE - 600 BCE</div> Temples are built in honour of <a href="/apollo/">Apollo</a>, <a href="/demeter/">Demeter</a> and <a href="/Dionysos/">Dionysos</a> on the island of <a href="/Naxos/">Naxos</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_1689" title=""> <div class="date">c. 499 BCE</div> <a href="/Naxos/">Naxos</a> is attacked by <a href="/disambiguation/darius/">Darius</a>' Persian forces. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_1695" title=""> <div class="date">c. 467 BCE</div> The island of <a href="/Naxos/">Naxos</a> rebels against Athenian dominance of the <a href="/Delian_League/">Delian League</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_1696" title=""> <div class="date">431 BCE - 404 BCE</div> The Cycladic <a href="/city/">city</a> states side with <a href="/Athens/">Athens</a> in the <a href="/Peloponnesian_War/">Peloponnesian war</a> against <a href="/sparta/">Sparta</a> and her allies. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_1697" title=""> <div class="date">417 BCE - 415 BCE</div> Melos, after supporting <a href="/sparta/">Sparta</a> in the <a href="/Peloponnesian_War/">Peloponnesian War</a>, is attacked by <a href="/Athens/">Athens</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_3926" title=""> <div class="date">412 BCE</div> The Spartan general Astyochus sacks <a href="/Kos/">Kos</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_1698" title=""> <div class="date">377 BCE - 355 BCE</div> The Cycladic <a href="/city/">city</a> states join <a href="/Athens/">Athens</a> in the Second Athenian League against <a href="/sparta/">Sparta</a> . </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_1699" title=""> <div class="date">363 BCE</div> A rebellion against Athenian dominance of the Second Athenian League on Keos is quashed by <a href="/Athens/">Athens</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_1700" title=""> <div class="date">166 BCE</div> <a href="/Rome/">Rome</a> gives dominion over the <a href="/Cyclades/">Cyclades</a> to <a href="/Athens/">Athens</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_1701" title=""> <div class="date">88 BCE</div> Mithridates attacks and detroys the island of <a href="/delos/">Delos</a>. </li> </ul> </div> </div>  <div id="mc_embed_signup"> <img loading="lazy" data-src="/template/images/newsletter-header-red.jpg" class="newsletter_banner" width="300" height="106" alt="Weekly Newsletter"> <form action="//ancient.us8.list-manage.com/subscribe/post?u=c3168e59d8bfba7986977db46&id=ac74a77c22" method="post" id="mc-embedded-subscribe-form" name="mc-embedded-subscribe-form" class="validate"> <div id="mc_embed_signup_scroll"> <p>History delivered to you once a week:</p> <div class="mc-field-group"> <input type="email" placeholder="Email address..." name="EMAIL" autocomplete="email" class="required email" id="mce-EMAIL" style="width:80%;" required> </div> <p>Are you a...?</p> <div class="mc-field-group input-group" style="margin-top: -10px;"> <input type="radio" value="1" name="group[5]" id="mce-group[5]-5-0" required><label for="mce-group[5]-5-0">History Enthusiast</label><br/> <input type="radio" value="2" name="group[5]" id="mce-group[5]-5-1" required><label for="mce-group[5]-5-1">Teacher</label><br/> <input type="radio" value="4" name="group[5]" id="mce-group[5]-5-2" required><label for="mce-group[5]-5-2">Student</label><br/> <input type="radio" value="8" name="group[5]" id="mce-group[5]-5-3" required><label for="mce-group[5]-5-3">Librarian</label> </div> <div id="mce-responses" class="clear"> <div class="response" id="mce-error-response" style="display:none"></div> <div class="response" id="mce-success-response" style="display:none"></div> </div>  <input type="hidden" name="tags" value="40497"> <input type="submit" value="Subscribe" name="subscribe" id="mc-embedded-subscribe" class="button content_button red" style="margin-top: 10px;"> <div style="position: absolute; left: -5000px;"><input type="text" name="b_c3168e59d8bfba7986977db46_ac74a77c22" tabindex="-1" value=""></div> <div class="clear"></div> </div> </form> </div>  </aside> <p id="footer_spacer"> </p> </div> </div> </div> <div class="ad_Flexi_MobileSticky ahe-ad">  <div id="div-adcontainer-AHE_Flexi_MobileSticky" class="adcontainer"></div> </div> <div class="worldhistory_sticky_dynamic"></div> <a href="/membership/?utm_campaign=membership&utm_source=whe&utm_medium=sidetab_heart_en" id="membership_sidebar" title="Membership" class="no_membership_only"> <img src="/template/images/membership/membership-sidetab-en.svg?v=1738769252" width="29" height="133" alt="Membership" /> </a> <footer> <div class="print_membership_notice no_membership_only print_only"> <p>World History Encyclopedia is a non-profit organization publishing free history content that has been carefully researched and reviewed. If you liked this content, please consider donating at <strong>www.worldhistory.org/donate/</strong>. To remove this message from printouts, you can become a supporting member at <strong>www.worldhistory.org/membership/</strong>. Thank you for supporting our work! </p> </div> <div id="footer_wrapper"> <div id="recommended_list"> <div class="box_wrapper"> <p> Numerous educational institutions recommend us, including <a href="https://www.conted.ox.ac.uk/about/curious-minds-explore">Oxford University</a>. Our publication has been reviewed for educational use by <a href="https://www.commonsense.org/education/website/world-history-encyclopedia">Common Sense Education</a>, <a href="https://scout.wisc.edu/report/2017/1020">Internet Scout (University of Wisconsin)</a>, <a href="https://www.merlot.org/merlot/viewCompositeReview.htm?id=1270309">Merlot (California State University)</a>, <a href="https://www.oercommons.org/courses/world-history-encyclopedia">OER Commons</a> and the <a href="https://www.slj.com/?detailStory=unbury-the-past-apps-and-websites-for-exploring-ancient-worlds-mix-it-up">School Library Journal</a>. Please note that some of these recommendations are listed under our old name, Ancient History Encyclopedia. </p> </div> </div> <div id="footer"> <div class="box_wrapper"> <div id="footer_contents"> <div class="footer_section top"> <div class="mission center"> <strong>Our Mission</strong> Our mission is to engage people with cultural heritage and to improve history education worldwide. </div> <div class="social right"> <strong>Follow Us</strong> <a href="https://link.worldhistory.org/facebook" class="footer_sm_link facebook no_external" title="Follow us on Facebook" rel="me"><svg role="img" viewBox="0 0 24 24" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><title>Facebook</title><path d="M24 12.073c0-6.627-5.373-12-12-12s-12 5.373-12 12c0 5.99 4.388 10.954 10.125 11.854v-8.385H7.078v-3.47h3.047V9.43c0-3.007 1.792-4.669 4.533-4.669 1.312 0 2.686.235 2.686.235v2.953H15.83c-1.491 0-1.956.925-1.956 1.874v2.25h3.328l-.532 3.47h-2.796v8.385C19.612 23.027 24 18.062 24 12.073z"/></svg></a> <a href="https://link.worldhistory.org/twitter" class="footer_sm_link twitter no_external" title="Follow us on Twitter" rel="me"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="24" height="24" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M12 0c-6.627 0-12 5.373-12 12s5.373 12 12 12 12-5.373 12-12-5.373-12-12-12zm6.066 9.645c.183 4.04-2.83 8.544-8.164 8.544-1.622 0-3.131-.476-4.402-1.291 1.524.18 3.045-.244 4.252-1.189-1.256-.023-2.317-.854-2.684-1.995.451.086.895.061 1.298-.049-1.381-.278-2.335-1.522-2.304-2.853.388.215.83.344 1.301.359-1.279-.855-1.641-2.544-.889-3.835 1.416 1.738 3.533 2.881 5.92 3.001-.419-1.796.944-3.527 2.799-3.527.825 0 1.572.349 2.096.907.654-.128 1.27-.368 1.824-.697-.215.671-.67 1.233-1.263 1.589.581-.07 1.135-.224 1.649-.453-.384.578-.87 1.084-1.433 1.489z"/></svg></a> <a href="https://link.worldhistory.org/pinterest" class="footer_sm_link pinterest no_external" title="Follow us on Pinterest" rel="me"><?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?> <svg enable-background="new 0 0 24 24" version="1.1" viewBox="0 0 24 24" xml:space="preserve" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"> <path d="m12 0c-6.6 0-12 5.4-12 12 0 5.1 3.2 9.4 7.6 11.2-0.1-0.9-0.2-2.4 0-3.4 0.2-0.9 1.4-6 1.4-6s-0.3-0.8-0.3-1.8c0-1.7 1-2.9 2.2-2.9 1 0 1.5 0.8 1.5 1.7 0 1-0.7 2.6-1 4-0.3 1.2 0.6 2.2 1.8 2.2 2.1 0 3.8-2.2 3.8-5.5 0-2.9-2.1-4.9-5-4.9-3.4 0-5.4 2.6-5.4 5.2 0 1 0.4 2.1 0.9 2.7 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.3-0.1 0.4-0.3 1.2-0.3 1.4-0.1 0.2-0.2 0.3-0.4 0.2-1.5-0.7-2.4-2.9-2.4-4.6 0-3.8 2.7-7.3 7.9-7.3 4.2 0 7.4 3 7.4 6.9 0 4.1-2.6 7.5-6.2 7.5-1.2 0-2.4-0.6-2.8-1.4l-0.7 2.9c-0.3 1-1 2.3-1.5 3.1 1 0.3 2.2 0.5 3.4 0.5 6.6 0 12-5.4 12-12s-5.4-12-12-12"/> </svg></a> <a href="https://link.worldhistory.org/linkedin" class="footer_sm_link instagram no_external" title="Follow us on Linkedin" rel="me"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="24" height="24" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M12 0c-6.627 0-12 5.373-12 12s5.373 12 12 12 12-5.373 12-12-5.373-12-12-12zm-2 16h-2v-6h2v6zm-1-6.891c-.607 0-1.1-.496-1.1-1.109 0-.612.492-1.109 1.1-1.109s1.1.497 1.1 1.109c0 .613-.493 1.109-1.1 1.109zm8 6.891h-1.998v-2.861c0-1.881-2.002-1.722-2.002 0v2.861h-2v-6h2v1.093c.872-1.616 4-1.736 4 1.548v3.359z"/></svg></a> <a href="https://link.worldhistory.org/instagram" class="footer_sm_link instagram no_external" title="Follow us on Instagram" rel="me"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="24" height="24" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M14.829 6.302c-.738-.034-.96-.04-2.829-.04s-2.09.007-2.828.04c-1.899.087-2.783.986-2.87 2.87-.033.738-.041.959-.041 2.828s.008 2.09.041 2.829c.087 1.879.967 2.783 2.87 2.87.737.033.959.041 2.828.041 1.87 0 2.091-.007 2.829-.041 1.899-.086 2.782-.988 2.87-2.87.033-.738.04-.96.04-2.829s-.007-2.09-.04-2.828c-.088-1.883-.973-2.783-2.87-2.87zm-2.829 9.293c-1.985 0-3.595-1.609-3.595-3.595 0-1.985 1.61-3.594 3.595-3.594s3.595 1.609 3.595 3.594c0 1.985-1.61 3.595-3.595 3.595zm3.737-6.491c-.464 0-.84-.376-.84-.84 0-.464.376-.84.84-.84.464 0 .84.376.84.84 0 .463-.376.84-.84.84zm-1.404 2.896c0 1.289-1.045 2.333-2.333 2.333s-2.333-1.044-2.333-2.333c0-1.289 1.045-2.333 2.333-2.333s2.333 1.044 2.333 2.333zm-2.333-12c-6.627 0-12 5.373-12 12s5.373 12 12 12 12-5.373 12-12-5.373-12-12-12zm6.958 14.886c-.115 2.545-1.532 3.955-4.071 4.072-.747.034-.986.042-2.887.042s-2.139-.008-2.886-.042c-2.544-.117-3.955-1.529-4.072-4.072-.034-.746-.042-.985-.042-2.886 0-1.901.008-2.139.042-2.886.117-2.544 1.529-3.955 4.072-4.071.747-.035.985-.043 2.886-.043s2.14.008 2.887.043c2.545.117 3.957 1.532 4.071 4.071.034.747.042.985.042 2.886 0 1.901-.008 2.14-.042 2.886z"/></svg></a> <a href="https://link.worldhistory.org/youtube" class="footer_sm_link youtube no_external" title="Follow us on YouTube" rel="me"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="24" height="24" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M12 0c-6.627 0-12 5.373-12 12s5.373 12 12 12 12-5.373 12-12-5.373-12-12-12zm4.441 16.892c-2.102.144-6.784.144-8.883 0-2.276-.156-2.541-1.27-2.558-4.892.017-3.629.285-4.736 2.558-4.892 2.099-.144 6.782-.144 8.883 0 2.277.156 2.541 1.27 2.559 4.892-.018 3.629-.285 4.736-2.559 4.892zm-6.441-7.234l4.917 2.338-4.917 2.346v-4.684z"/></svg></a> </div> </div> <div class="footer_section"> <div class="links"> <a href="/static/about/">About</a> <span class="bullet">•</span> <a href="/static/contact/">Contact</a> <span class="bullet">•</span> <a href="/static/advertise/">Advertise</a> <span class="bullet">•</span> <a href="/privacy/">Privacy Policy</a> <span class="bullet">•</span> <a href="/static/partners/">Partners</a> <span class="bullet">•</span> <a href="/static/supporters/">Supporters</a> <span class="bullet">•</span> <a href="/newsletter/">Newsletter</a> <span class="bullet">•</span> <a href="/config/en/">Settings</a> </div> </div> <div class="footer_section"> <div class="centered"> <p> <a href="/static/contact/">World History Foundation</a> is a 501(c)3 charity registered in the United States.<br> <a href="/static/contact/">World History Publishing</a> is a non-profit organization registered in the United Kingdom.<br> <a href="/static/contact/">World History Foundation</a> is a non-profit organization registered in Québec, Canada. </p>  <p> Some Rights Reserved (2009-2025) under Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike license unless otherwise noted. </p> <p> The World History Encyclopedia logo is a <a href="https://trademarks.ipo.gov.uk/ipo-tmcase/page/Results/1/UK00003762855">registered trademark</a>. </p> </div> </div> <div class="footer_section"> <div class="centered partners"> <strong>Featured Partner</strong> <a href="https://unesdoc.unesco.org/archives" title="UNESCO Digital Archives" rel="nofollow"><img src="/images/partners/unesco_archives_white.png" width="216" height="125" alt="UNESCO Archives" loading="lazy"></a> </div> </div> <div class="footer_section ccpa"> <div class="centered"> <div id="ccpa_message"> </div> </div> </div> <div class="footer_section exec"> <div class="centered"> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div>  </footer> <div id="float_message"></div>  <script type="text/javascript" async src="https://btloader.com/tag?o=5698917485248512&upapi=true&domain=worldhistory.org"></script> <script>!function(){"use strict";var e;e=document,function(){var t,n;function r(){var t=e.createElement("script");t.src="https://cafemedia-com.videoplayerhub.com/galleryplayer.js",e.head.appendChild(t)}function a(){var t=e.cookie.match("(^|[^;]+)\s*__adblocker\s*=\s*([^;]+)");return t&&t.pop()}function c(){clearInterval(n)}return{init:function(){var e;"true"===(t=a())?r():(e=0,n=setInterval((function(){100!==e&&"false" !== t || c(), "true" === t && (r(), c()), t = a(), e++}), 50))}}}().init()}(); </script>   <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" importance="low" fetchpriority="low" href="/template/css/exclude/deferred.css?v=1738769252" media="all"> <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" importance="low" fetchpriority="low" href="/template/css/exclude/print.css?v=1738769252" media="print"> <script> document.querySelectorAll('img, picture').forEach(function(imgItem) { imgItem.addEventListener('error',function(e) { AHE.imageErrors.push(this.src); }); }); </script>  <script src="https://analytics.ahrefs.com/analytics.js" data-key="AMsbSh4gAIGS1L4zNcUw3A" defer></script> <script>(function(){function c(){var b=a.contentDocument||a.contentWindow.document;if(b){var d=b.createElement('script');d.innerHTML="window.__CF$cv$params={r:'91827cd4ff203e62',t:'MTc0MDU5OTY3My4wMDAwMDA='};var a=document.createElement('script');a.nonce='';a.src='/cdn-cgi/challenge-platform/scripts/jsd/main.js';document.getElementsByTagName('head')[0].appendChild(a);";b.getElementsByTagName('head')[0].appendChild(d)}}if(document.body){var a=document.createElement('iframe');a.height=1;a.width=1;a.style.position='absolute';a.style.top=0;a.style.left=0;a.style.border='none';a.style.visibility='hidden';document.body.appendChild(a);if('loading'!==document.readyState)c();else if(window.addEventListener)document.addEventListener('DOMContentLoaded',c);else{var e=document.onreadystatechange||function(){};document.onreadystatechange=function(b){e(b);'loading'!==document.readyState&&(document.onreadystatechange=e,c())}}}})();</script></body> </html>

CINXE.COM

Aegean - World History Encyclopedia