The Physics Hypertextbook

<!doctype html> <html lang="en" itemscope itemtype="https://schema.org/WebPage"> <head> <meta charset="utf-8"> <title>The Physics Hypertextbook</title> <link rel="canonical" href="https://physics.info"> <link rel="stylesheet" href="https://omniscientwalnut.com/walnut.css"> <link rel="stylesheet" href="https://omniscientwalnut.com/walpaper.css" media="print"> <link rel="stylesheet" href="https://omniscientwalnut.com/physics.css"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1, viewport-fit=cover">     <link rel="author" href="https://glennelert.us"> <meta name="author" content="Glenn Elert">  <script>if (window!= top) top.location.href=location.href</script>  <script src="https://ajax.googleapis.com/ajax/libs/jquery/3.6.0/jquery.min.js"></script>  <script type="application/ld+json"> { "@context": "https://schema.org", "@type": "Organization", "name": "hypertextbook", "url": "https://hypertextbook.com", "logo": "https://omniscientwalnut.com/eglobe.png" } </script> <script type="application/ld+json"> { "@context": "https://schema.org", "@type": "WebSite", "name": "The Physics Hypertextbook", "url": "https://physics.info" } </script> <script type="application/ld+json"> { "@context": "https://schema.org", "@type": "Person", "name": "Glenn Elert", "description": "Author, illustrator, webmaster. Career science teacher. Citizen of the United States. Omniscient walnut.", "image": "https://glennelert.us/walnut.png", "url": "https://glennelert.us", "sameAs": [ "https://twitter.com/GlennElert", "https://www.youtube.com/GlennElert" ] } </script>  <meta name="apple-mobile-web-app-title" content="physics.info"> <meta name="application-name" content="physics.info"> <meta name="msapplication-config" content="https://physics.info/physics/browserconfig.xml"> <meta name="msapplication-TileColor" content="#001f3d"> <meta name="theme-color" content="#ffffff"> <link rel="manifest" href="https://physics.info/physics/site.webmanifest"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="https://physics.info/physics/apple-touch-icon.png" sizes="180x180"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="https://physics.info/physics/apple-touch-icon-152x152.png" sizes="152x152"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="https://physics.info/physics/apple-touch-icon-120x120.png" sizes="120x120"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="https://physics.info/physics/apple-touch-icon-76x76.png" sizes="76x76"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="https://physics.info/physics/apple-touch-icon-60x60.png" sizes="60x60">  <link rel="shortcut icon" href="https://physics.info/favicon.ico" sizes="64x64"> <link rel="shortcut icon" href="https://physics.info/favicon-48x48.ico" sizes="48x48"> <link rel="icon" href="https://physics.info/favicon-32x32.png" sizes="32x32" type="image/png"> <link rel="icon" href="https://physics.info/favicon-16x16.png" sizes="16x16" type="image/png"> <link rel="mask-icon" href="https://physics.info/safari-pinned-tab.svg" color="#001f3d">  <script type="text/javascript" async=true> (function() { var host = window.location.hostname; var element = document.createElement('script'); var firstScript = document.getElementsByTagName('script')[0]; var url = 'https://cmp.inmobi.com' .concat('/choice/', '2cH8w1NPvzsTT', '/', host, '/choice.js?tag_version=V3'); var uspTries = 0; var uspTriesLimit = 3; element.async = true; element.type = 'text/javascript'; element.src = url; firstScript.parentNode.insertBefore(element, firstScript); function makeStub() { var TCF_LOCATOR_NAME = '__tcfapiLocator'; var queue = []; var win = window; var cmpFrame; function addFrame() { var doc = win.document; var otherCMP = !!(win.frames[TCF_LOCATOR_NAME]); if (!otherCMP) { if (doc.body) { var iframe = doc.createElement('iframe'); iframe.style.cssText = 'display:none'; iframe.name = TCF_LOCATOR_NAME; doc.body.appendChild(iframe); } else { setTimeout(addFrame, 5); } } return !otherCMP; } function tcfAPIHandler() { var gdprApplies; var args = arguments; if (!args.length) { return queue; } else if (args[0] === 'setGdprApplies') { if ( args.length > 3 && args[2] === 2 && typeof args[3] === 'boolean' ) { gdprApplies = args[3]; if (typeof args[2] === 'function') { args[2]('set', true); } } } else if (args[0] === 'ping') { var retr = { gdprApplies: gdprApplies, cmpLoaded: false, cmpStatus: 'stub' }; if (typeof args[2] === 'function') { args[2](retr); } } else { if(args[0] === 'init' && typeof args[3] === 'object') { args[3] = Object.assign(args[3], { tag_version: 'V3' }); } queue.push(args); } } function postMessageEventHandler(event) { var msgIsString = typeof event.data === 'string'; var json = {}; try { if (msgIsString) { json = JSON.parse(event.data); } else { json = event.data; } } catch (ignore) {} var payload = json.__tcfapiCall; if (payload) { window.__tcfapi( payload.command, payload.version, function(retValue, success) { var returnMsg = { __tcfapiReturn: { returnValue: retValue, success: success, callId: payload.callId } }; if (msgIsString) { returnMsg = JSON.stringify(returnMsg); } if (event && event.source && event.source.postMessage) { event.source.postMessage(returnMsg, '*'); } }, payload.parameter ); } } while (win) { try { if (win.frames[TCF_LOCATOR_NAME]) { cmpFrame = win; break; } } catch (ignore) {} if (win === window.top) { break; } win = win.parent; } if (!cmpFrame) { addFrame(); win.__tcfapi = tcfAPIHandler; win.addEventListener('message', postMessageEventHandler, false); } }; makeStub(); var uspStubFunction = function() { var arg = arguments; if (typeof window.__uspapi !== uspStubFunction) { setTimeout(function() { if (typeof window.__uspapi !== 'undefined') { window.__uspapi.apply(window.__uspapi, arg); } }, 500); } }; var checkIfUspIsReady = function() { uspTries++; if (window.__uspapi === uspStubFunction && uspTries < uspTriesLimit) { console.warn('USP is not accessible'); } else { clearInterval(uspInterval); } }; if (typeof window.__uspapi === 'undefined') { window.__uspapi = uspStubFunction; var uspInterval = setInterval(checkIfUspIsReady, 6000); } })(); </script>   <script type='text/javascript' src='https://platform-api.sharethis.com/js/sharethis.js#property=64432e98e412510019625a9d&product=sop' async='async'></script>  <script async src="https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtag/js?id=G-K3X8V5NL6L"></script> <script> window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; function gtag(){dataLayer.push(arguments);} gtag('js', new Date()); gtag('config', 'G-K3X8V5NL6L'); </script>  <script> (function() { var cx = '010156806650563000082:WMX1678554632'; var gcse = document.createElement('script'); gcse.type = 'text/javascript'; gcse.async = true; gcse.src = (document.location.protocol == 'https:' ? 'https:' : 'http:') + '//www.google.com/cse/cse.js?cx=' + cx; var s = document.getElementsByTagName('script')[0]; s.parentNode.insertBefore(gcse, s); })(); </script>  <meta name="description" content="The Physics Hypertextbook is a reaction to three big problems with textbooks: lack of writer's voice, layouts that reduce readability, and outdated economics.">  <meta property="fb:app_id" content="650318438466819"> <meta property="og:type" content="article"> <meta property="og:site_name" content="The Physics Hypertextbook"> <meta property="og:url" content="https://physics.info"> <meta property="og:title" content="The Physics Hypertextbook"> <meta property="og:description" content="The Physics Hypertextbook is a reaction to three big problems with textbooks: lack of writer's voice, layouts that reduce readability, and outdated economics."> <meta property="og:image" content="https://physics.info/physics/og-image.jpg"> <meta property="article:author" content="https://glennelert.us">  <meta name="twitter:card" content="summary"> <meta name="twitter:site" content="@hypertextbook"> <meta name="twitter:creator" content="@glennelert"> <meta name="twitter:url" content="https://physics.info"> <meta name="twitter:title" content="The Physics Hypertextbook"> <meta name="twitter:description" content="The Physics Hypertextbook is a reaction to three big problems with textbooks: lack of writer's voice, layouts that reduce readability, and outdated economics."> <meta name="twitter:image" content="https://physics.info/physics/og-image.jpg">  <meta itemprop="name" content="The Physics Hypertextbook"> <meta itemprop="description" content="The Physics Hypertextbook is a reaction to three big problems with textbooks: lack of writer's voice, layouts that reduce readability, and outdated economics."> <meta itemprop="image" content="https://physics.info/physics/og-image.jpg">  <meta name="citation_author" content="Glenn Elert"> <meta name="citation_author_email" content="elert@hypertextbook.com"> <meta name="citation_date" content="2023"> <meta name="citation_language" content="en"> <meta name="citation_publisher" content="hypertextbook"> <meta name="citation_title" content="The Physics Hypertextbook">  </head> <body> <header> <nav><ul><li title="The Chaos Hypertextbook Mathematics in the age of the computer"><a href="https://hypertextbook.com/chaos/" target="_top">chaos</a></li><li title="E-World Articles, essays, ideas, opinions, unabridged"><a href="https://hypertextbook.com/eworld/" target="_top">eworld</a></li><li title="The Physics Factbook An encyclopedia of scientific essays"><a href="https://hypertextbook.com/facts/" target="_top">facts</a></li><li title="Get Bent Coast to coast by recumbent bicycle"><a href="https://hypertextbook.com/bent/" target="_top">get bent</a></li><li title="The Physics Hypertextbook A work in progress" class="selected"><a href="https://physics.info" target="_top">physics</a></li></ul></nav> <div class="title" title="The Physics Hypertextbook"><a href="https://physics.info" target="_top">The Physics<br>Hypertextbook</a></div><div class="subtitle" title="A work in progress"><a href="https://physics.info/about/" target="_top">Opus in profectus</a></div> <nav><ul><li>… <a href="https://physics.info/people/" target="_top" id="topic-prev" title="The previous topic">people</a></li><li class="selected"><a href="./" target="_top" title="The current topic">welcome</a></li><li><a href="https://physics.info/about/" target="_top" id="topic-next" title="The next topic">about</a> …</li></ul></nav> </header> <article id="foreheadless"> <header> <h1>Welcome</h1> <nav> <ul> <li>discuss<span class="tight">ion</span></li> <li>summary</li> <li>practice</li> <li>problems</li> <li>resources</li> </ul> </nav> <div class="add add-yes"><div class="sharethis-inline-share-buttons"></div><span class="add-goo"><a href="#search"><img src="https://omniscientwalnut.com/search.svg" alt="search icon" title="Search this site"></a></span></div><div id="search" class="overlay"><div class="popup shadow"><a class="close" href="#" title="Close this window">[close]</a><div class="gcse-searchbox-only"></div></div></div> </header> <section id="toc">  <h2>Table of Contents</h2> <script> function loadCSS(filename) { var file = document.createElement("link") file.setAttribute("rel", "stylesheet") file.setAttribute("type", "text/css") file.setAttribute("href", filename) if (typeof file !== "undefined") document.getElementsByTagName("head")[0].appendChild(file) } loadCSS("https://omniscientwalnut.com/index.css") </script> <nav style="margin:0em auto; width:28em; max-width:100%;"> <a href="#mechanics">mechanics</a>, <a href="#thermal">thermal physics</a>, <a href="#waves">waves & optics</a>, <a href="#electricity">electricity & magentism</a>, <a href="#modern">modern physics</a>, <a href="#foundations">foundations</a>, <a href="#back">back matter</a> </nav>  <nav> <ol> <li style="-webkit-column-break-before:avoid; break-before:avoid;" id="mechanics">Mechanics <ol> <li>Kinematics <ol> <li><a href="https://physics.info/motion/" target="_top">Motion</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/displacement/" target="_top">Distance and Displacement</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/velocity/" target="_top">Speed and Velocity</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/acceleration/" target="_top">Acceleration</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/motion-equations/" target="_top">Equations of Motion</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/falling/" target="_top">Free Fall</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/motion-graphs/" target="_top">Graphs of Motion</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/kinematics-calculus/" target="_top">Kinematics and Calculus</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/kinematics-2d/" target="_top">Kinematics in Two Dimensions</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/projectiles/" target="_top">Projectiles</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/parametric/" target="_top">Parametric Equations</a></li> </ol></li> <li>Dynamics I: Force <ol> <li><a href="https://physics.info/newton-first/" target="_top">Forces</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/newton-second/" target="_top">Force and Mass</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/newton-third/" target="_top">Action-Reaction</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/weight/" target="_top">Weight</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/dynamics/" target="_top">Dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/statics/" target="_top">Statics</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/friction/" target="_top">Friction</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/force-2d/" target="_top">Forces in Two Dimensions</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/centripetal/" target="_top">Centripetal Force</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/frames/" target="_top">Frames of Reference</a></li> </ol></li> <li>Energy <ol> <li><a href="https://physics.info/work/" target="_top">Work</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/energy/" target="_top">Energy</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/energy-kinetic/" target="_top">Kinetic Energy</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/energy-potential/" target="_top">Potential Energy</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/energy-conservation/" target="_top">Conservation of Energy</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/power/" target="_top">Power</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/machines/" target="_top">Simple Machines</a></li> </ol></li> <li>Dynamics II: Momentum <ol> <li><a href="https://physics.info/momentum/" target="_top">Impulse and Momentum</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/momentum-conservation/" target="_top">Conservation of Momentum</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/momentum-energy/" target="_top">Momentum and Energy</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/momentum-2d/" target="_top">Momentum in Two Dimensions</a></li> </ol></li> <li>Rotational Motion <ol> <li><a href="https://physics.info/rotational-kinematics/" target="_top">Rotational Kinematics</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/rotational-inertia/" target="_top">Rotational Inertia</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/rotational-dynamics/" target="_top">Rotational Dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/rotational-statics/" target="_top">Rotational Statics</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/rotational-momentum/" target="_top">Angular Momentum</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/rotational-energy/" target="_top">Rotational Energy</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/rolling/" target="_top">Rolling</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/rotational-2d/" target="_top">Rotation in Two Dimensions</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/coriolis/" target="_top">Coriolis Force</a></li> </ol></li> <li>Planetary Motion <ol> <li><a href="https://physics.info/geocentrism/" target="_top">Geocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/heliocentrism/" target="_top">Heliocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/gravitation/" target="_top">Universal Gravitation</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/orbital-mechanics-1/" target="_top">Orbital Mechanics I</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/gravitation-energy/" target="_top">Gravitational Potential Energy</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/orbital-mechanics-2/" target="_top">Orbital Mechanics II</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/gravitation-extended/" target="_top">Gravity of Extended Bodies</a></li> </ol></li> <li>Periodic Motion <ol> <li><a href="https://physics.info/springs/" target="_top">Springs</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/sho/" target="_top">Simple Harmonic Oscillator</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/pendulum/" target="_top">Pendulums</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/resonance/" target="_top">Resonance</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/elasticity/" target="_top">Elasticity</a></li> </ol></li> <li>Fluids <ol> <li><a href="https://physics.info/density/" target="_top">Density</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/pressure/" target="_top">Pressure</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/buoyancy/" target="_top">Buoyancy</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/flow/" target="_top">Fluid Flow</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/viscosity/" target="_top">Viscosity</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/drag/" target="_top">Aerodynamic Drag</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/turbulence/" target="_top">Flow Regimes</a></li> </ol></li> </ol></li> <li style="-webkit-column-break-before:always; break-before:column;" id="thermal">Thermal Physics <ol> <li>Heat & Temperature <ol> <li><a href="https://physics.info/temperature/" target="_top">Temperature</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/expansion/" target="_top">Thermal Expansion</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/atoms/" target="_top">The Atomic Nature of Matter</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/gas-laws/" target="_top">Gas Laws</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/kmt/" target="_top">Kinetic-Molecular Theory</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/phases/" target="_top">Phases</a></li> </ol></li> <li>Calorimetry <ol> <li><a href="https://physics.info/heat-sensible/" target="_top">Sensible Heat</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/heat-latent/" target="_top">Latent Heat</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/energy-chemical/" target="_top">Chemical Potential Energy</a></li> </ol></li> <li>Heat Transfer <ol> <li><a href="https://physics.info/conduction/" target="_top">Conduction</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/convection/" target="_top">Convection</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/radiation/" target="_top">Radiation</a></li> </ol></li> <li>Thermodynamics <ol> <li><a href="https://physics.info/thermo-first/" target="_top">Heat and Work</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/pressure-volume/" target="_top">Pressure-Volume Diagrams</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/engines/" target="_top">Engines</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/refrigerators/" target="_top">Refrigerators</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/thermo-second/" target="_top">Energy and Entropy</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/thermo-third/" target="_top">Absolute Zero</a></li> </ol></li> </ol></li> <li style="-webkit-column-break-before:avoid; break-before:avoid;" id="waves">Waves & Optics <ol> <li>Wave Phenomena <ol> <li><a href="https://physics.info/waves/" target="_top">The Nature of Waves</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/waves-periodic/" target="_top">Periodic Waves</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/interference/" target="_top">Interference and Superposition</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/interface/" target="_top">Interfaces and Barriers</a></li> </ol></li> <li>Sound <ol> <li><a href="https://physics.info/sound/" target="_top">The Nature of Sound</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/intensity/" target="_top">Intensity</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/doppler-sound/" target="_top">Doppler Effect (Sound)</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/shock/" target="_top">Shock Waves</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/interference-sound/" target="_top">Diffraction and Interference (Sound)</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/waves-standing/" target="_top">Standing Waves</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/beats/" target="_top">Beats</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/music/" target="_top">Music and Noise</a></li> </ol></li> <li>Physical Optics <ol> <li><a href="https://physics.info/light/" target="_top">The Nature of Light</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/polarization/" target="_top">Polarization</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/doppler-light/" target="_top">Doppler Effect (Light)</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/cerenkov/" target="_top">Cerenkov Radiation</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/interference-light/" target="_top">Diffraction and Interference (Light)</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/thin-films/" target="_top">Thin Film Interference</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/color/" target="_top">Color</a></li> </ol></li> <li>Geometric Optics <ol> <li><a href="https://physics.info/reflection/" target="_top">Reflection</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/refraction/" target="_top">Refraction</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/mirrors/" target="_top">Spherical Mirrors</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/lenses/" target="_top">Spherical Lenses</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/aberration/" target="_top">Aberration</a></li> </ol></li> </ol></li> <li style="-webkit-column-break-before:always; break-before:column;" id="electricity">Electricity & Magnetism <ol> <li>Electrostatics <ol> <li><a href="https://physics.info/charge/" target="_top">Electric Charge</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/coulomb/" target="_top">Coulomb's Law</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/electric-field/" target="_top">Electric Field</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/electric-potential/" target="_top">Electric Potential</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/law-gauss/" target="_top">Gauss's Law</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/conductors/" target="_top">Conductors</a></li> </ol></li> <li>Electrostatic Applications <ol> <li><a href="https://physics.info/capacitors/" target="_top">Capacitors</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/dielectrics/" target="_top">Dielectrics</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/batteries/" target="_top">Batteries</a></li> </ol></li> <li>Electric Current <ol> <li><a href="https://physics.info/electric-current/" target="_top">Electric Current</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/electric-resistance/" target="_top">Electric Resistance</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/electric-power/" target="_top">Electric Power</a></li> </ol></li> <li>DC Circuits <ol> <li><a href="https://physics.info/circuits-r/" target="_top">Resistors in Circuits</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/circuits-v/" target="_top">Batteries in Circuits</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/circuits-c/" target="_top">Capacitors in Circuits</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/kirchhoff/" target="_top">Kirchhoff's Rules</a></li> </ol></li> <li>Magnetostatics <ol> <li><a href="https://physics.info/magnetism/" target="_top">Magnetism</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/electromagnetism/" target="_top">Electromagnetism</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/law-ampere/" target="_top">Ampère's Law</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/lorentz/" target="_top">Electromagnetic Force</a></li> </ol></li> <li>Magnetodynamics <ol> <li><a href="https://physics.info/induction/" target="_top">Electromagnetic Induction</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/law-faraday/" target="_top">Faraday's Law</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/lenz/" target="_top">Lenz' Law</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/inductance/" target="_top">Inductance</a></li> </ol></li> <li>AC Circuits <ol> <li><a href="https://physics.info/circuits-rc/" target="_top">RC Circuits</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/circuits-rl/" target="_top">RL Circuits</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/circuits-rlc/" target="_top">LC Circuits</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/current-alternating/" target="_top">Alternating Current</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/impedance/" target="_top">Impedance</a></li> </ol></li> <li>Electromagnetic Waves <ol> <li><a href="https://physics.info/maxwell/" target="_top">Maxwell's Equations</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/em-waves/" target="_top">Electromagnetic Waves</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/em-spectrum/" target="_top">Electromagnetic Spectrum</a></li> </ol></li> </ol></li> <li style="-webkit-column-break-before:always; break-before:column;" id="modern">Modern Physics <ol> <li>Relativity <ol> <li><a href="https://physics.info/space-time/" target="_top">Space-Time</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/mass-energy/" target="_top">Mass-Energy</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/general-relativity/" target="_top">General Relativity</a></li> </ol></li> <li>Quanta <ol> <li><a href="https://physics.info/planck/" target="_top">Blackbody Radiation</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/photoelectric/" target="_top">Photoelectric Effect</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/x-ray/" target="_top">X-rays</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/antimatter/" target="_top">Antimatter</a></li> </ol></li> <li>Wave Mechanics <ol> <li><a href="https://physics.info/debroglie/" target="_top">Matter Waves</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/atomic-models/" target="_top">Atomic Models</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/semiconductors/" target="_top">Semiconductors</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/condensed-matter/" target="_top">Condensed Matter</a></li> </ol></li> <li>Nuclear Physics <ol> <li><a href="https://physics.info/isotopes/" target="_top">Isotopes</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/decay/" target="_top">Radioactive Decay</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/half-life/" target="_top">Half Life</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/binding/" target="_top">Binding Energy</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/fission/" target="_top">Fission</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/fusion/" target="_top">Fusion</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/nucleosynthesis/" target="_top">Nucleosynthesis</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/weapons/" target="_top">Nuclear Weapons</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/radiobiology/" target="_top">Radiobiology</a></li> </ol></li> <li>Particle Physics <ol> <li><a href="https://physics.info/standard/" target="_top">The Standard Model</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/qed/" target="_top">Quantum Electrodynamics</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/qcd/" target="_top">Quantum Chromodynamics</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/qfd/" target="_top">Quantum Flavordynamics</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/beyond/" target="_top">Beyond the Standard Model</a></li> </ol></li> </ol></li> <li style="-webkit-column-break-before:avoid; break-before:avoid;" id="foundations">Foundations <ol> <li>Units <ol> <li><a href="https://physics.info/system-international/" target="_top">International System of Units</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/system-gaussian/" target="_top">Gaussian System of Units</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/system-english/" target="_top">British-American System of Units</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/system-miscellaneous/" target="_top">Miscellaneous Units</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/time/" target="_top">Time</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/unit-conversion/" target="_top">Unit Conversion</a></li> </ol></li> <li>Measurement <ol> <li><a href="https://physics.info/significant-digits/" target="_top">Significant Digits</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/orders-magnitude/" target="_top">Order of Magnitude</a></li> </ol></li> <li>Graphs <ol> <li><a href="https://physics.info/graphs/" target="_top">Graphical Representation of Data</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/linear-regression/" target="_top">Linear Regression</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/curve-fitting/" target="_top">Curve Fitting</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/calculus/" target="_top">Calculus</a></li> </ol></li> <li>Vectors <ol> <li><a href="https://physics.info/trigonometry/" target="_top">Trigonometry</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/vector-addition/" target="_top">Vector Addition and Subtraction</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/vector-components/" target="_top">Vector Resolution and Components</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/vector-multiplication/" target="_top">Vector Multiplication</a></li> </ol></li> <li>Reference <ol> <li><a href="https://physics.info/symbols/" target="_top">Special Symbols</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/equations/" target="_top">Frequently Used Equations</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/constants/" target="_top">Physical Constants</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/astronomical/" target="_top">Astronomical Data</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/periodic-table/" target="_top">Periodic Table of the Elements</a></li> <li><a href="https://physics.info/people/" target="_top">People in Physics</a></li> </ol></li> </ol></li> <li style="-webkit-column-break-before:avoid; break-before:avoid;" id="back">Back matter <ol> <li>Preface <ol> <li><a href="https://physics.info/about/" target="_top">About this book</a></li> </ol></li> <li>Contact the author <ol> <li><a href="https://glennelert.us" rel="me" target="_blank">glennelert.us</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.behance.net/elert" rel="me" target="_blank">Behance</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.instagram.com/elert" rel="me" target="_blank">Instagram</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.twitter.com/glennelert" rel="me" target="_blank">Twitter</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.youtube.com/GlennElert" rel="me" target="_blank">YouTube</a></li> </ol></li> <li>Affiliated websites <ol> <li><a href="https://hypertextbook.com" rel="me" title="Hypertextbook" target="_blank">hypertextbook.com</a></li> <li><a href="http://midwoodscience.org" rel="me" title="Midwood High School Science Research Program" target="_blank">midwoodscience.org</a></li> </ol></li> </ol></li> </ol> </nav>  <script> $('html,body').delay(1000).animate({scrollTop: $('#forehead').offset().top },500); </script>  </section> <footer> <div class="add add-yes"><div class="sharethis-inline-share-buttons"></div><span class="add-goo"><a href="#search"><img src="https://omniscientwalnut.com/search.svg" alt="search icon" title="Search this site"></a></span></div> <nav> <ul> <li>discuss<span class="tight">ion</span></li> <li>summary</li> <li>practice</li> <li>problems</li> <li>resources</li> </ul> </nav> <h1>Welcome</h1> </footer> </article> <footer> <nav><ul><li>… <a href="https://physics.info/people/" target="_top" title="The previous topic">people</a></li><li class="selected"><a href="./" title="The current topic">welcome</a></li><li><a href="https://physics.info/about/" target="_top" title="The next topic">about</a> …</li></ul></nav> <div class="signature"><span><a href="https://hypertextbook.com" target="_top"><img src="https://omniscientwalnut.com/eglobe.svg" title="hypertextbook.com" alt="eglobe logo"></a></span><span><a href="https://physics.info" target="_top" title="Opus in profectus">The Physics Hypertextbook</a><br><a href="https://glennelert.us" target="_blank" title="Say my name. You know who I am.">©1998–2024 Glenn Elert<br>Author, Illustrator, Webmaster</a></span></div><p title="No condition is permanent">No condition is permanent.</p>  </footer> </body> </html>

CINXE.COM

The Physics Hypertextbook