CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>Babrak Karmal - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy", "wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"fcfd460d-70a8-470a-abff-b4b340e8dc56","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"Babrak_Karmal","wgTitle":"Babrak Karmal","wgCurRevisionId":1258845750,"wgRevisionId":1258845750,"wgArticleId":4463,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["CS1 Czech-language sources (cs)","CS1 Pashto-language sources (ps)","CS1 German-language sources (de)","Articles with short description","Short description is different from Wikidata","Good articles","Use dmy dates from January 2024","All articles lacking reliable references","Articles lacking reliable references from May 2022","Commons category link is on Wikidata","1929 births","1996 deaths","20th-century heads of state of Afghanistan","Afghan atheists","Presidents of Afghanistan", "Prime ministers of Afghanistan","Deputy prime ministers of Afghanistan","People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan politicians","Afghan prisoners and detainees","Prisoners and detainees of Afghanistan","Tajik politicians","Afghan emigrants","Immigrants to the Soviet Union","Collaborators with the Soviet Union","Afghan emigrants to Russia","People granted political asylum in the Soviet Union","Deaths from liver cancer in Russia","Political office-holders of the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan","1970s in Afghanistan","1980s in Afghanistan","Afghan revolutionaries"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"Babrak_Karmal","wgRelevantArticleId":4463,"wgIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRestrictionEdit":[],"wgRestrictionMove":[],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true, "wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":70000,"wgRelatedArticlesCompat":[],"wgCentralAuthMobileDomain":false,"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q63827","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready", "ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["ext.cite.ux-enhancements","ext.scribunto.logs","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns", "ext.cx.uls.quick.actions","wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.quicksurveys.init","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession","wikibase.sidebar.tracking"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.4"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/6/6a/Babrak_Karmal_%281929%E2%80%931996%29.png"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="1200"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="1526"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/6/6a/Babrak_Karmal_%281929%E2%80%931996%29.png"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="800"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="1017"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="640"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="814"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="Babrak Karmal - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babrak_Karmal"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/x-wiki" title="Edit this page" href="/w/index.php?title=Babrak_Karmal&action=edit"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babrak_Karmal"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject mw-editable page-Babrak_Karmal rootpage-Babrak_Karmal skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-menu mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-menu"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Main menu</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z"><span>Main page</span></a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia"><span>Contents</span></a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events"><span>Current events</span></a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x"><span>Random article</span></a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works"><span>About Wikipedia</span></a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia"><span>Contact us</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia"><span>Help</span></a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia"><span>Learn to edit</span></a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors"><span>Community portal</span></a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r"><span>Recent changes</span></a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia"><span>Upload file</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <span class="mw-logo-container skin-invert"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-appearance mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-appearance"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Appearance</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class=""><span>Donate</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Babrak+Karmal" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class=""><span>Create account</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Babrak+Karmal" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class=""><span>Log in</span></a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-ellipsis mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-ellipsis"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Personal tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en"><span>Donate</span></a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Babrak+Karmal" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-userAdd mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-userAdd"></span> <span>Create account</span></a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Babrak+Karmal" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-logIn mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-logIn"></span> <span>Log in</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing"><span>learn more</span></a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y"><span>Contributions</span></a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Early_life_and_career" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_life_and_career"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Early life and career</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Early_life_and_career-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Early life and career subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Early_life_and_career-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Communist_politics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Communist_politics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Communist politics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Communist_politics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Daoud_era" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Daoud_era"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>The Daoud era</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Daoud_era-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Taraki–Amin_rule" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Taraki–Amin_rule"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Taraki–Amin rule</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Taraki–Amin_rule-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Leadership" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Leadership"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Leadership</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Leadership-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Leadership subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Leadership-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Domestic_policies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Domestic_policies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Domestic policies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Domestic_policies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_"Fundamental_Principles"_and_amnesty" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_"Fundamental_Principles"_and_amnesty"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.1</span> <span>The "Fundamental Principles" and amnesty</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_"Fundamental_Principles"_and_amnesty-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dividing_power:_Khalq–Parcham" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dividing_power:_Khalq–Parcham"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.2</span> <span>Dividing power: Khalq–Parcham</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dividing_power:_Khalq–Parcham-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-PDPA_base" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#PDPA_base"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.3</span> <span>PDPA base</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-PDPA_base-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Civil_war_and_military" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Civil_war_and_military"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.4</span> <span>Civil war and military</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Civil_war_and_military-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.5</span> <span>Economy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Foreign_policy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Foreign_policy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Foreign policy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Foreign_policy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Public_image" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Public_image"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Public image</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Public_image-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fall_from_power_and_succession" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fall_from_power_and_succession"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Fall from power and succession</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fall_from_power_and_succession-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Later_life_and_death" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Later_life_and_death"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Later life and death</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Later_life_and_death-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Babrak Karmal</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 50 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-50" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">50 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%83_%D9%83%D8%B1%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%84" title="بابراك كرمال – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="بابراك كرمال" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babrak_Karmal" title="Babrak Karmal – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Babrak Karmal" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C9%99br%C9%99k_Karm%C9%99l" title="Bəbrək Karməl – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Bəbrək Karməl" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%95_%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B2" title="বাবরাক কারমাল – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="বাবরাক কারমাল" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C_%D0%91%D0%B0%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BA" title="Кармаль Бабрак – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Кармаль Бабрак" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B0%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BA_%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C" title="Бабрак Кармаль – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Бабрак Кармаль" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B0%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BA_%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BB" title="Бабрак Кармал – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Бабрак Кармал" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babrak_Karmal" title="Babrak Karmal – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Babrak Karmal" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C" title="Кармаль – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Кармаль" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babrak_Karmal" title="Babrak Karmal – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Babrak Karmal" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babrak_Karmal" title="Babrak Karmal – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Babrak Karmal" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babrak_Karmal" title="Babrak Karmal – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Babrak Karmal" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babrak_Karm%C4%81l" title="Babrak Karmāl – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Babrak Karmāl" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9C%CF%80%CE%B1%CE%BC%CF%80%CF%81%CE%AC%CE%BA_%CE%9A%CE%B1%CF%81%CE%BC%CE%AC%CE%BB" title="Μπαμπράκ Καρμάλ – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Μπαμπράκ Καρμάλ" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babrak_Karmal" title="Babrak Karmal – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Babrak Karmal" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babrak_Karmal" title="Babrak Karmal – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Babrak Karmal" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%A8%D8%B1%DA%A9_%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%85%D9%84" title="ببرک کارمل – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="ببرک کارمل" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babrak_Karmal" title="Babrak Karmal – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Babrak Karmal" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B0%94%EB%B8%8C%EB%9D%BC%ED%81%AC_%EC%B9%B4%EB%A5%B4%EB%A7%90" title="바브라크 카르말 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="바브라크 카르말" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babrak_Karmal" title="Babrak Karmal – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Babrak Karmal" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babrak_Karmal" title="Babrak Karmal – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Babrak Karmal" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babrak_Karmal" title="Babrak Karmal – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Babrak Karmal" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%91%E1%83%90%E1%83%91%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%A5_%E1%83%A5%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98" title="ბაბრაქ ქარმალი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ბაბრაქ ქარმალი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babrakas_Karmalis" title="Babrakas Karmalis – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Babrakas Karmalis" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AC%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%AC%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D_%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%BE%E0%B5%BC%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%BE%E0%B5%BD" title="ബാബ്രക് കാർമാൽ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ബാബ്രക് കാർമാൽ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B2" title="बब्रक कर्माल – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="बब्रक कर्माल" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%91%E1%83%90%E1%83%91%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%A5_%E1%83%A5%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98" title="ბაბრაქ ქარმალი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ბაბრაქ ქარმალი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%83_%D9%83%D8%B1%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%84" title="بابراك كرمال – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="بابراك كرمال" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%A8%D8%B1%DA%A9_%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%85%D9%84" title="ببرک کارمل – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="ببرک کارمل" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مازِرونی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babrak_Karmal" title="Babrak Karmal – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Babrak Karmal" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B0%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BA_%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C" title="Бабрак Кармаль – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Бабрак Кармаль" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babrak_Karmal" title="Babrak Karmal – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Babrak Karmal" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%90%E3%83%96%E3%83%A9%E3%82%AF%E3%83%BB%E3%82%AB%E3%83%BC%E3%83%AB%E3%83%9E%E3%83%AB" title="バブラク・カールマル – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="バブラク・カールマル" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babrak_Karmal" title="Babrak Karmal – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Babrak Karmal" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%A8%D8%B1%DA%A9_%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%85%D9%84" title="ببرک کارمل – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="ببرک کارمل" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%A8%D8%B1%DA%A9_%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%85%D9%84" title="ببرک کارمل – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="ببرک کارمل" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babrak_Karmal" title="Babrak Karmal – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Babrak Karmal" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babrak_Karmal" title="Babrak Karmal – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Babrak Karmal" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C,_%D0%91%D0%B0%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BA" title="Кармаль, Бабрак – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Кармаль, Бабрак" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babrak_Karmal" title="Babrak Karmal – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Babrak Karmal" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B0%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BA_%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BB" title="Бабрак Кармал – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Бабрак Кармал" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babrak_Karmal" title="Babrak Karmal – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Babrak Karmal" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babrak_Karmal" title="Babrak Karmal – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Babrak Karmal" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babrak_Karmal" title="Babrak Karmal – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Babrak Karmal" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B0%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BA_%D0%9A%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BB" title="Бабрак Кормал – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Бабрак Кормал" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babrak_Karmal" title="Babrak Karmal – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Babrak Karmal" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B0%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BA_%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C" title="Бабрак Кармаль – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Бабрак Кармаль" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%A8%D8%B1%DA%A9_%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%85%D9%84" title="ببرک کارمل – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="ببرک کارمل" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B7%B4%E5%B8%83%E6%8B%89%E5%85%8B%C2%B7%E5%8D%A1%E5%B0%94%E8%BF%88%E5%8B%92" title="巴布拉克·卡尔迈勒 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="巴布拉克·卡尔迈勒" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B7%B4%E5%B8%83%E6%8B%89%E5%85%8B%C2%B7%E5%8D%A1%E5%B0%94%E8%BF%88%E5%8B%92" title="巴布拉克·卡尔迈勒 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="巴布拉克·卡尔迈勒" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q63827#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Babrak_Karmal" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Babrak_Karmal" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">English</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Babrak_Karmal"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-edit" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Babrak_Karmal&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Babrak_Karmal&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Babrak_Karmal"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Babrak_Karmal&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Babrak_Karmal&action=history"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Babrak_Karmal" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j"><span>What links here</span></a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Babrak_Karmal" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k"><span>Related changes</span></a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u"><span>Upload file</span></a></li><li id="t-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages" title="A list of all special pages [q]" accesskey="q"><span>Special pages</span></a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Babrak_Karmal&oldid=1258845750" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page"><span>Permanent link</span></a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Babrak_Karmal&action=info" title="More information about this page"><span>Page information</span></a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=Babrak_Karmal&id=1258845750&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page"><span>Cite this page</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FBabrak_Karmal"><span>Get shortened URL</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FBabrak_Karmal"><span>Download QR code</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=Babrak_Karmal&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file"><span>Download as PDF</span></a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Babrak_Karmal&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p"><span>Printable version</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-commons mw-list-item"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Babrak_Karmal" hreflang="en"><span>Wikimedia Commons</span></a></li><li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q63827" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g"><span>Wikidata item</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> <div id="mw-indicator-good-star" class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Good_articles*" title="This is a good article. Click here for more information."><img alt="This is a good article. Click here for more information." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/19px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/29px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/39px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">General Secretary of the People's Democratic Party</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Mohammed Hussein" redirects here. For the Muslim cleric, see <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Ahmad_Hussein" title="Muhammad Ahmad Hussein">Muhammad Ahmad Hussein</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size: 100%;"><div class="fn" style="font-size:125%;">Babrak Karmal</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-size:125%; font-weight:bold;"><div class="nickname" lang="ps"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style><span class="nobold">بَبرَک کارمَل</span></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Babrak_Karmal_(1929%E2%80%931996).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/6a/Babrak_Karmal_%281929%E2%80%931996%29.png/220px-Babrak_Karmal_%281929%E2%80%931996%29.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="280" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/6/6a/Babrak_Karmal_%281929%E2%80%931996%29.png 1.5x" data-file-width="280" data-file-height="356" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption" style="line-height:normal;padding-top:0.2em;">Karmal in 1983</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;"><a href="/wiki/General_Secretary_of_the_People%27s_Democratic_Party_of_Afghanistan" class="mw-redirect" title="General Secretary of the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan">General Secretary of the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none"><span class="nowrap"><b>In office</b></span><br />27 December 1979 – 4 May 1986</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><span class="nowrap">Preceded by</span></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Hafizullah_Amin" title="Hafizullah Amin">Hafizullah Amin</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><span class="nowrap">Succeeded by</span></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Najibullah" title="Mohammad Najibullah">Mohammad Najibullah</a></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;">4th <a href="/wiki/President_of_Afghanistan" title="President of Afghanistan">President of Afghanistan</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none"><span class="nowrap"><b>In office</b></span><br />27 December 1979 – 14 April 1980</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Vice_President_of_Afghanistan" title="Vice President of Afghanistan">Vice President</a></span></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Assadullah_Sarwari" title="Assadullah Sarwari">Assadullah Sarwari</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><span class="nowrap">Preceded by</span></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Hafizullah_Amin" title="Hafizullah Amin">Hafizullah Amin</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><span class="nowrap">Succeeded by</span></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Najibullah" title="Mohammad Najibullah">Mohammad Najibullah</a> (1987)</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Afghanistan#Democratic_Republic" title="Prime Minister of Afghanistan">Chairman</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_Council_(Afghanistan)" title="Revolutionary Council (Afghanistan)">Revolutionary Council</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none"><span class="nowrap"><b>In office</b></span><br />27 December 1979 – 24 November 1986</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><span class="nowrap">Preceded by</span></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Hafizullah_Amin" title="Hafizullah Amin">Hafizullah Amin</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><span class="nowrap">Succeeded by</span></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Haji_Mohammad_Chamkani" title="Haji Mohammad Chamkani">Haji Mohammad Chamkani</a></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Afghanistan#Democratic_Republic" title="Prime Minister of Afghanistan">Chairman</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Ministers_(Afghanistan)" title="Council of Ministers (Afghanistan)">Council of Ministers</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none"><span class="nowrap"><b>In office</b></span><br />27 December 1979 – 11 June 1981</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><span class="nowrap">Preceded by</span></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Hafizullah_Amin" title="Hafizullah Amin">Hafizullah Amin</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><span class="nowrap">Succeeded by</span></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Sultan_Ali_Keshtmand" title="Sultan Ali Keshtmand">Sultan Ali Keshtmand</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender">Personal details</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data"><div style="display:inline" class="nickname">Sultan Husseini</div><br /><span style="display:none">(<span class="bday">1929-01-06</span>)</span>6 January 1929<br />Kamari, <a href="/wiki/Kabul_Province" title="Kabul Province">Kabul Province</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Afghanistan" title="Kingdom of Afghanistan">Kingdom of Afghanistan</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">3 December 1996<span style="display:none">(1996-12-03)</span> (aged 67)<br />Moscow, Russia</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Resting place</th><td class="infobox-data label"><a href="/wiki/Hairatan" title="Hairatan">Hairatan</a>, Afghanistan</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Political party</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Democratic_Party_of_Afghanistan" title="People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan">People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Alma_mater" title="Alma mater">Alma mater</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Kabul_University" title="Kabul University">Kabul University</a><br />Nejat School</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Occupation</th><td class="infobox-data">Politician</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Profession</th><td class="infobox-data">Economist<br /><a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a> translator</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender">Military service</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Branch/service</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Royal_Afghan_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal Afghan Army">Royal Afghan Army</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Years of service</th><td class="infobox-data">1957–1959</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below" style="border-top: 1px solid right;"><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Babrak Karmal</b> (<a href="/wiki/Dari" title="Dari">Dari</a>/<a href="/wiki/Pashto" title="Pashto">Pashto</a>: <span class="Nastaliq" dir="rtl" title="Nastaliq" style="font-family: 'Jameel Noori Nastaleeq', 'Urdu Typesetting', 'Noto Nastaliq Urdu', 'Noto Nastaliq Urdu Draft', 'Hussaini Nastaleeq', 'AlQalam Taj Nastaleeq', IranNastaliq, 'Awami Nastaliq', 'Awami Nastaliq Beta3', 'Awami Nastaliq Beta2', 'Awami Nastaliq Beta1', 'Nafees Nastaleeq', 'Nafees Nastaleeq v1.01', 'Pak Nastaleeq', 'PDMS_Jauhar', 'Alvi Lahori Nastaleeq'; font-size: 110%; font-style: normal;">ببرک کارمل</span>; born <b>Sultan Hussein</b>; 6 January 1929 – 1 or 3 December 1996) was an Afghan communist revolutionary and politician who was the leader of Afghanistan, serving in the post of <a href="/wiki/General_Secretary_of_the_Communist_Party" title="General Secretary of the Communist Party">general secretary</a> of the <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Democratic_Party_of_Afghanistan" title="People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan">People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan</a> from 1979 to 1986. </p><p>Born in <a href="/wiki/Kabul_Province" title="Kabul Province">Kabul Province</a> into a <a href="/wiki/Tajiks" title="Tajiks">Tajik</a> family,<sup id="cite_ref-cdlib_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cdlib-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Karmal attended <a href="/wiki/Kabul_University" title="Kabul University">Kabul University</a> and developed openly <a href="/wiki/Leftist" class="mw-redirect" title="Leftist">leftist</a> views there, having been introduced to <a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a> by <a href="/wiki/Mir_Akbar_Khyber" title="Mir Akbar Khyber">Mir Akbar Khyber</a> during his imprisonment for activities deemed too radical by the government. He became a founding member of the <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Democratic_Party_of_Afghanistan" title="People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan">People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan</a> (PDPA) and eventually became the leader of the <a href="/wiki/Parcham" title="Parcham">Parcham</a> faction when the PDPA split in 1967, with their ideological nemesis being the <a href="/wiki/Khalq" title="Khalq">Khalq</a> faction. Karmal was elected to the Lower House after the <a href="/wiki/1965_Afghan_parliamentary_election" title="1965 Afghan parliamentary election">1965 parliamentary election</a>, serving in parliament until losing his seat in the <a href="/wiki/1969_Afghan_parliamentary_election" title="1969 Afghan parliamentary election">1969 parliamentary election</a>. </p><p>Under Karmal's leadership, the Parchamite PDPA participated in <a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Daoud_Khan" title="Mohammad Daoud Khan">Mohammad Daoud Khan</a>'s rise to power <a href="/wiki/1973_Afghan_coup" class="mw-redirect" title="1973 Afghan coup">in 1973</a>, and his subsequent regime. While relations were good at the beginning, Daoud began a major purge of leftist influence in the mid-1970s. This in turn led to the reformation of the PDPA in 1977, and Karmal played a role in the 1978 <a href="/wiki/Saur_Revolution" title="Saur Revolution">Saur Revolution</a> when the PDPA took power. Karmal was appointed Deputy Chairman of the <a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_Council_(Afghanistan)" title="Revolutionary Council (Afghanistan)">Revolutionary Council</a>, synonymous with vice head of state, in the communist government. The Parchamite faction found itself under significant pressure by the Khalqists soon after taking power. In June 1978, a <a href="/wiki/Central_Committee_of_the_People%27s_Democratic_Party_of_Afghanistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Central Committee of the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan">PDPA Central Committee</a> meeting voted in favor of giving the Khalqist faction exclusive control over PDPA policy. This decision was followed by a failed Parchamite coup, after which <a href="/wiki/Hafizullah_Amin" title="Hafizullah Amin">Hafizullah Amin</a>, a Khalqist, initiated a purge against the Parchamites. Karmal survived this purge but was exiled to <a href="/wiki/Prague" title="Prague">Prague</a> and eventually dismissed from his post. Instead of returning to Kabul, he feared for his life and lived with his family in the forests protected by the Czechoslovak secret police <a href="/wiki/StB" title="StB">StB</a>. The Afghan secret police <a href="/wiki/KHAD" title="KHAD">KHAD</a> had allegedly sent members to Czechoslovakia to assassinate Karmal.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In late 1979 he was brought to Moscow by the <a href="/wiki/KGB" title="KGB">KGB</a> and eventually, in December 1979, the Soviet Union intervened in Afghanistan (with the consent of Amin's government) to stabilize the country. The Soviet troops staged a <a href="/wiki/Operation_Storm-333" class="mw-redirect" title="Operation Storm-333">coup</a> and assassinated Amin, replacing him with Karmal. </p><p>Karmal was promoted to Chairman of the Revolutionary Council and <a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Afghanistan" title="Prime Minister of Afghanistan">Chairman</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Ministers_(Afghanistan)" title="Council of Ministers (Afghanistan)">Council of Ministers</a> on 27 December 1979. He remained in the latter office until 1981, when he was succeeded by <a href="/wiki/Sultan_Ali_Keshtmand" title="Sultan Ali Keshtmand">Sultan Ali Keshtmand</a>. Throughout his term, Karmal worked to establish a support base for the PDPA by introducing several reforms. Among these were the "Fundamental Principles of the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan", introducing a general amnesty for those people imprisoned during <a href="/wiki/Nur_Mohammad_Taraki" class="mw-redirect" title="Nur Mohammad Taraki">Nur Mohammad Taraki</a>'s and Amin's rule. He also replaced the red Khalqist flag with a more traditional one. These policies failed to increase the PDPA's legitimacy in the eyes of the Afghan people and the <a href="/wiki/Afghan_mujahidin" class="mw-redirect" title="Afghan mujahidin">Afghan mujahidin</a> rebels, and he was widely seen as a Soviet puppet amongst the populace.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These policy failures, and the stalemate that ensued after the Soviet intervention, led the Soviet leadership to become highly critical of Karmal's leadership. Under <a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev" title="Mikhail Gorbachev">Mikhail Gorbachev</a>, the Soviet Union deposed Karmal in 1986 and replaced him with <a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Najibullah" title="Mohammad Najibullah">Mohammad Najibullah</a>. Following his loss of power, he was again exiled, this time to Moscow. It was <a href="/wiki/Anahita_Ratebzad" title="Anahita Ratebzad">Anahita Ratebzad</a> who persuaded Najibullah to allow Babrak Karmal to return to Afghanistan in 1991, where Karmal became an associate of <a href="/wiki/Abdul_Rashid_Dostum" title="Abdul Rashid Dostum">Abdul Rashid Dostum</a> and possibly helped remove the Najibullah government from power in 1992. He eventually left Afghanistan again for Moscow. Not long after, in 1996, Karmal died from <a href="/wiki/Liver_cancer" title="Liver cancer">liver cancer</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_life_and_career">Early life and career</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Babrak_Karmal&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Early life and career"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Karmal was born Sultan Hussein<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> on 6 January 1929<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnold1983[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidcd85ioPsz6cCpgPA19_19]_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnold1983[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidcd85ioPsz6cCpgPA19_19]-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in Kamari, a village close to <a href="/wiki/Kabul" title="Kabul">Kabul</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEH._KakarM._Kakar1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidQyTmFj5tUGsCpgPA65_65]_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEH._KakarM._Kakar1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidQyTmFj5tUGsCpgPA65_65]-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was the son of Muhammad Hussein, a <i>dagar jenral</i> (<b><a href="/wiki/Lieutenant_general" title="Lieutenant general">lieutenant general</a>, three-star rank</b>)<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in the <a href="/wiki/Afghan_National_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="Afghan National Army">Afghan Army</a> and former governor of the province of <a href="/wiki/Paktia" class="mw-redirect" title="Paktia">Paktia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Herat" title="Herat">Herat</a> provinces, and was the first of six siblings. His family was one of the wealthier families in Kabul.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnold1983[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidcd85ioPsz6cCpgPA19_19]_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnold1983[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidcd85ioPsz6cCpgPA19_19]-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His ethnic background was publicly disputed, with some sources claiming he was <a href="/wiki/Pashtuns" title="Pashtuns">Pashtun</a> and that he was <a href="/wiki/Tajik_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Tajik people">Tajik.</a><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Throughout his tenure in the Afghan Parliament, Karmal strategically sowed confusion by alternately identifying himself as Pashtun and Tajik, demonstrating a deliberate avoidance of strict ethnic categorization. Karmal's ethnicity was a subject of persistent dispute, with conflicting claims made by Pashtun sympathizers and affiliates asserting that he belonged to the <i>Mullahkhel</i> Kakar tribe of Khost and Paktia as a Pashtun, while Tajik sympathizers and affiliates insisted that he was a Tajik with roots originating from Kashmir. It is important to note that during and after the Cold War, many English language sources tended to categorize him as a Tajik, often with the intention of discrediting him and providing a rationale for the Russians' decision to oust him from power for not being Pashtun. </p><p>He attended Nejat High School, a German-speaking school,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnold1983[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidcd85ioPsz6cCpgPA19_19]_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnold1983[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidcd85ioPsz6cCpgPA19_19]-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and graduated from it in 1948, and applied to enter the Faculty of Law and Political Science of <a href="/wiki/Kabul_University" title="Kabul University">Kabul University</a>. Karmal's application was initially denied admission to Kabul University because of his student political activist and his openly leftist views. He was always a charismatic speaker and became involved in the student union and the <a href="/wiki/Weekh_Zalmian" class="mw-redirect" title="Weekh Zalmian">Wikh-i-Zalmayan</a> (Awakened Youth Movement), a progressive and leftist organization.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClements2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidbv4hzxpo424CpgPA141_141]_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClements2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidbv4hzxpo424CpgPA141_141]-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He studied at the College of Law and Political Science at Kabul University<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEH._KakarM._Kakar1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidQyTmFj5tUGsCpgPA65_65]_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEH._KakarM._Kakar1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidQyTmFj5tUGsCpgPA65_65]-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> from 1951 to 1953. In 1953 Karmal was arrested because of his student union activities, but was released three years later in 1956 in an amnesty by <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Daoud_Khan" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammad Daoud Khan">Muhammad Daoud Khan</a>. Shortly after, in 1957, Karmal found work as an English and German translator, before quitting and leaving for military training. Karmal graduated from the College of Law and Political Science in 1960, and in 1961, he found work as an employee in the Compilation and Translation Department of the <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Education_(Afghanistan)" title="Ministry of Education (Afghanistan)">Ministry of Education</a>. From 1961 to 1963 he worked in the Ministry of Planning.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClements2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidbv4hzxpo424CpgPA141_141]_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClements2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidbv4hzxpo424CpgPA141_141]-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When his mother died, Karmal left with his maternal aunt to live somewhere else. His father disowned him because of his leftist views. Karmal was involved in much <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/debauchery" class="extiw" title="wikt:debauchery">debauchery</a>, which was controversial in the mostly conservative Afghan society.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEH._KakarM._Kakar1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidQyTmFj5tUGsCpgPA64_64]_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEH._KakarM._Kakar1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidQyTmFj5tUGsCpgPA64_64]-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Communist_politics">Communist politics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Babrak_Karmal&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Communist politics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Imprisoned from 1953 to 1956, Karmal befriended fellow inmate <a href="/wiki/Mir_Akbar_Khyber" title="Mir Akbar Khyber">Mir Akbar Khyber</a>, who introduced Karmal to <a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMisdaq2006[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidZvm9dxavH-ICpgPA94_94]_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMisdaq2006[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidZvm9dxavH-ICpgPA94_94]-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Karmal changed his name from Sultan Hussein to Babrak Karmal, which means "Comrade of the Workers'" in <a href="/wiki/Pashtun_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Pashtun language">Pashto</a>, to disassociate himself from his <a href="/wiki/Bourgeois" class="mw-redirect" title="Bourgeois">bourgeois</a> background. When he was released from prison, he continued his activities in the student union, and began to promote Marxism.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERasanayagam2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid5L8CnWkACQkCpgPA47_47]_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERasanayagam2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid5L8CnWkACQkCpgPA47_47]-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Karmal spent the rest of the 1950s and the early 1960s becoming involved with Marxist organizations, of which there were at least four in Afghanistan at the time; two of the four were established by Karmal.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERasanayagam2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid5L8CnWkACQkCpgPA47_47–48]_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERasanayagam2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid5L8CnWkACQkCpgPA47_47–48]-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When the <a href="/wiki/1964_Constitution_of_Afghanistan" title="1964 Constitution of Afghanistan">1964 Afghan Provisional Constitution</a>, which legalised the establishment of new political entities, was introduced several prominent Marxists agreed to establish a communist political party. The <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Democratic_Party_of_Afghanistan" title="People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan">People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan</a> (PDPA, the Communist Party) was established in January 1965 in <a href="/wiki/Nur_Muhammad_Taraki" title="Nur Muhammad Taraki">Nur Muhammad Taraki</a>'s home.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERasanayagam2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid5L8CnWkACQkCpgPA48_48]_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERasanayagam2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid5L8CnWkACQkCpgPA48_48]-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Factionalism within the PDPA quickly became a problem; the party split into the <a href="/wiki/Khalq" title="Khalq">Khalq</a> led by Taraki alongside <a href="/wiki/Hafizullah_Amin" title="Hafizullah Amin">Hafizullah Amin</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Parcham" title="Parcham">Parcham</a> led by Karmal.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERasanayagam2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid5L8CnWkACQkCpgPA49_49]_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERasanayagam2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid5L8CnWkACQkCpgPA49_49]-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1246091330">.mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:22em;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.2em;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;border-collapse:collapse;display:table}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:table!important;float:right!important;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em!important}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-subgroup{width:100%;margin:0;border-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-left{float:left;clear:left;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-none{float:none;clear:both;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-outer-title{padding:0 0.4em 0.2em;font-size:125%;line-height:1.2em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-image{padding:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-caption,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle-with-top-image,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-caption{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle{padding:0.4em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.2em 0.8em;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-image{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-heading{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content{padding:0 0.5em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content-with-subgroup{padding:0.1em 0.4em 0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile vcard plainlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><div class="sidebar-pretitle" style="margin: -0.2em 0; font-size:69%; font-weight:normal;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_Afghanistan" title="Category:History of Afghanistan">a series</a> on the</div></th> </tr><tr> <th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style=""><a href="/wiki/History_of_Afghanistan" title="History of Afghanistan">History of <span class="fn org label">Afghanistan</span></a></th> </tr><tr><td style="padding-bottom: 0.4em; border-bottom: 1px solid #ccc;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Shuja_Shah_Durrani_of_Afghanistan_in_1839.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Shuja_Shah_Durrani_of_Afghanistan_in_1839.jpg/200px-Shuja_Shah_Durrani_of_Afghanistan_in_1839.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Shuja_Shah_Durrani_of_Afghanistan_in_1839.jpg/300px-Shuja_Shah_Durrani_of_Afghanistan_in_1839.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Shuja_Shah_Durrani_of_Afghanistan_in_1839.jpg/400px-Shuja_Shah_Durrani_of_Afghanistan_in_1839.jpg 2x" data-file-width="968" data-file-height="712" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above"> <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Afghan_history" title="Timeline of Afghan history">Timeline</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_history_of_Afghanistan" title="Ancient history of Afghanistan">Ancient</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_civilisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Indus Valley civilisation">Indus Valley civilisation</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 2200–1800 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Bactria%E2%80%93Margiana_Archaeological_Complex" title="Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex">Oxus civilization</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 2100–1800 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Gandhara_kingdom" title="Gandhara kingdom">Gandhara kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1500–535 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Medes" title="Medes">Median Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 728–550 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 550–330 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)" title="Macedonia (ancient kingdom)">Macedonian Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 330–312 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 312–150 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Maurya_Empire" title="Maurya Empire">Maurya Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 305–180 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Greco-Bactrian_kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Greco-Bactrian kingdom">Greco-Bactrian kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 256–125 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 247 BC–224 AD</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Indo-Greek_kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-Greek kingdom">Indo-Greek kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 180–90 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Indo-Scythians" title="Indo-Scythians">Indo-Scythian kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 155–80? BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kushan_Empire" title="Kushan Empire">Kushan Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 135 BC – 248 AD</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Indo-Parthian_kingdom" title="Indo-Parthian kingdom">Indo-Parthian kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 20 BC – 50? AD</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 230–651</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kidarites" title="Kidarites">Kidarite kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 320–465</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Rob" title="Kingdom of Rob">Rob</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Alchon_Huns" title="Alchon Huns">Alchon Huns</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 380–560</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Hephthalite_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Hephthalite Empire">Hephthalite Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 410–557</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Nezak_Huns" title="Nezak Huns">Nezak Huns</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 484–711</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Medieval</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Turk_Shahis" title="Turk Shahis">Kabul Shahi</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 565–879</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Chaghaniyan" title="Principality of Chaghaniyan">Principality of Chaghaniyan</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 7th–8th centuries</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun Caliphate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 652–661</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang China</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 660–669</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Empire" title="Tibetan Empire">Tibetan Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 660–842</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyads</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 661–750</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Zunbils" title="Zunbils">Zunbils</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 680–870</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Lawik_dynasty" title="Lawik dynasty">Lawik</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">750-977</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasids</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 750–821</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Tahirid_dynasty" title="Tahirid dynasty">Tahirids</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 821–873</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Saffarid_dynasty" title="Saffarid dynasty">Saffarids</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 863–900</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Samanid_Empire" title="Samanid Empire">Samanids</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 875–999</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Ghaznavids" title="Ghaznavids">Ghaznavids</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 963–1187</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Ghurid_dynasty" title="Ghurid dynasty">Ghurids</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> before 879–1215</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Seljuk_Empire" title="Seljuk Empire">Seljuks</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1037–1194</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Khwarazmian_Empire" title="Khwarazmian Empire">Khwarezmids</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1215–1231</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_the_Khwarazmian_Empire" title="Mongol invasion of the Khwarazmian Empire">Mongol Invasion</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1219–1226</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Chagatai_Khanate" title="Chagatai Khanate">Chagatai Khanate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1226–1245</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Qarlughids" title="Qarlughids">Qarlughids</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1224–1266</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Ilkhanate" title="Ilkhanate">Ilkhanate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1256–1335</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kart_dynasty" title="Kart dynasty">Kartids</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1245–1381</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Timurid_Empire" title="Timurid Empire">Timurids</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1370–1507</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Arghun_dynasty" title="Arghun dynasty">Arghuns</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1520–1591</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Modern</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughals</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1501–1738</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Safavid_Iran" title="Safavid Iran">Safavids</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1510–1709</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kunduz_Khanate" title="Kunduz Khanate">Kunduz Khanate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> ?–1859</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Hotak_dynasty" title="Hotak dynasty">Hotak dynasty</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1709–1738</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Sadozai_Sultanate_of_Herat" title="Sadozai Sultanate of Herat">Sadozai Sultanate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1716–1732</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Afsharid_Iran" title="Afsharid Iran">Afsharid Iran</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1738–1747</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Durrani_Empire" title="Durrani Empire">Durrani Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1747–1823</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Maimana_Khanate" title="Maimana Khanate">Maimana Khanate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1747–1892</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Herat_(1793%E2%80%931863)" title="Herat (1793–1863)">Herat</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1793–1863</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Qandahar" class="mw-redirect" title="Principality of Qandahar">Principality of Qandahar</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">1818–1855</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_Afghanistan" title="Emirate of Afghanistan">Emirate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1823–1926</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_Afghanistan_(1929)" title="Emirate of Afghanistan (1929)">Saqqawist Emirate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1929</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Afghanistan" title="Kingdom of Afghanistan">Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1926–1973</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/1973_Afghan_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1973 Afghan coup d'état">Daoud coup</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1973</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Afghanistan_(1973%E2%80%931978)" title="Republic of Afghanistan (1973–1978)">Republic</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1973–1978</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Saur_Revolution" title="Saur Revolution">Saur Revolution</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1978</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_Afghanistan" title="Democratic Republic of Afghanistan">Democratic Republic</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1978–1992</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/1990_Afghan_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat_attempt" class="mw-redirect" title="1990 Afghan coup d'état attempt">Tanai coup attempt</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1990</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Islamic_State_of_Afghanistan" title="Islamic State of Afghanistan">Islamic State</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1992–1996</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Emirate_of_Afghanistan_(1996%E2%80%932001)" title="Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan (1996–2001)">Islamic Emirate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1996–2001</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/United_States_invasion_of_Afghanistan" title="United States invasion of Afghanistan">US invasion</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 2001</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Islamic_State_of_Afghanistan" title="Islamic State of Afghanistan">Islamic State</a> (reinstated)</td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 2001</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Afghan_Interim_Administration" title="Afghan Interim Administration">Interim</a>/<a href="/wiki/Transitional_Islamic_State_of_Afghanistan" title="Transitional Islamic State of Afghanistan">Transitional Administration</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 2001–2004</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Republic_of_Afghanistan" title="Islamic Republic of Afghanistan">Islamic Republic</a> (<a href="/wiki/Politics_of_the_Islamic_Republic_of_Afghanistan" title="Politics of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan">politics</a>)</td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 2004–2021</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Islamic Emirate</a> (reinstated)</td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> <span style="font-size:85%;">since</span> 2021</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Related historical regions</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arachosia" title="Arachosia">Arachosia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aria_(region)" title="Aria (region)">Aria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ariana" title="Ariana">Ariana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bactria" title="Bactria">Bactria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gandhara" title="Gandhara">Gandhara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Iran" title="Greater Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kabulistan" title="Kabulistan">Kabulistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kafiristan" title="Kafiristan">Kafiristan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Khorasan" title="Greater Khorasan">Khorasan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kushanshahr" title="Kushanshahr">Kushanshahr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paropamisadae" title="Paropamisadae">Paropamisadae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sistan" title="Sistan">Sistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zabulistan" title="Zabulistan">Zabulistan</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Related topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Political_history_of_Afghanistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Political history of Afghanistan">Political history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_violence_in_Afghanistan" title="Political violence in Afghanistan">Political violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Afghanistan" title="Culture of Afghanistan">Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_Afghanistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Economic history of Afghanistan">Economic history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Name_of_Afghanistan" title="Name of Afghanistan">Name</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afghan_(ethnonym)" title="Afghan (ethnonym)">Afghan (ethnonym)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_years_in_Afghanistan" title="List of years in Afghanistan">List of years</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_heads_of_state_of_Afghanistan" title="List of heads of state of Afghanistan">List of heads of state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wars_in_Afghanistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Wars in Afghanistan">Wars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_wars_involving_Afghanistan" title="List of wars involving Afghanistan">List of wars</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Hinduism_in_Afghanistan" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Hinduism in Afghanistan">Hinduism history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_and_Buddhist_heritage_of_Afghanistan" title="Hindu and Buddhist heritage of Afghanistan">Hindu and Buddhist heritage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Afghanistan" title="History of the Jews in Afghanistan">Jewish history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquests_of_Afghanistan" title="Muslim conquests of Afghanistan">Muslim conquests</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="font-weight:bold;"> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_Afghanistan" title="Category:History of Afghanistan">Category</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_the_Taliban.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_Taliban.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_the_Taliban.svg/48px-Flag_of_the_Taliban.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_the_Taliban.svg/64px-Flag_of_the_Taliban.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="500" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Afghanistan" title="Portal:Afghanistan">Afghanistan portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_Afghanistan" title="Template:History of Afghanistan"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_Afghanistan" title="Template talk:History of Afghanistan"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_Afghanistan" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of Afghanistan"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>During the <a href="/wiki/1965_Afghan_parliamentary_election" title="1965 Afghan parliamentary election">1965 parliamentary election</a> Karmal was one of four PDPA members elected to the lower house of parliament; the three others were <a href="/wiki/Anahita_Ratebzad" title="Anahita Ratebzad">Anahita Ratebzad</a> (whom he would later have an affair with according to <a href="/wiki/Vasili_Mitrokhin" title="Vasili Mitrokhin">Vasili Mitrokhin</a><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>), <a href="/wiki/Nur_Ahmed_Nur" title="Nur Ahmed Nur">Nur Ahmed Nur</a> and Fezanul Haq Fezan. No Khalqists were elected; however, Amin was 50 votes short of being elected. The Parchamite victory may be explained by the simple fact that Karmal could contribute financially to the PDPA electoral campaign.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnold1983[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidcd85ioPsz6cCpgPA32_32]_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnold1983[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidcd85ioPsz6cCpgPA32_32]-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Karmal became a leading figure within the student movement in the 1960s, electing <a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Hashim_Maiwandwal" title="Mohammad Hashim Maiwandwal">Mohammad Hashim Maiwandwal</a> as Prime Minister after a student demonstration (called for by Karmal) concluded with three deaths under the former leadership.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnold1983[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidcd85ioPsz6cCpgPA33_33–34]_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnold1983[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidcd85ioPsz6cCpgPA33_33–34]-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1966 inside parliament, Karmal was physically assaulted by an Islamist MP, <a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Nabi_Mohammadi" title="Mohammad Nabi Mohammadi">Mohammad Nabi Mohammadi</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1967, the PDPA unofficially split into two formal parties, one Khalqist and one Parchamist. The dissolution of the PDPA was initiated by the closing down of the Khalqist newspaper, <i>Khalq</i>. Karmal criticised the <i>Khalq</i> for being too <a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">communist</a>, and believed that its leadership should have hidden its Marxist orientation instead of promoting it.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnold1983[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidcd85ioPsz6cCpgPA34_34]_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnold1983[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidcd85ioPsz6cCpgPA34_34]-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to the official version of events, the majority of the <a href="/wiki/Central_Committee_of_the_People%27s_Democratic_Party_of_Afghanistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Central Committee of the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan">PDPA Central Committee</a> rejected Karmal's criticism. The vote was a close one, and it is reported that Taraki expanded the Central Committee to win the vote; this plan resulted in eight of the new members becoming politically unaligned with and one switching to the Parchamite side. Karmal and half the PDPA Central Committee left the PDPA to establish a Parchamite-led PDPA.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnold1983[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidcd85ioPsz6cCpgPA35_35]_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnold1983[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidcd85ioPsz6cCpgPA35_35]-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Officially the split was caused by ideological differences, but the party may have divided between the different leadership styles and plans of Taraki versus Karmal. Taraki wanted to model the party after <a href="/wiki/Leninism" title="Leninism">Leninist norms</a> while Karmal wanted to establish a democratic front. Other differences were socioeconomic. The majority of Khalqists came from rural areas; hence they were poorer, and were of Pashtun origin. The Parchamites were urban, richer, and spoke <a href="/wiki/Dari_(Persian_dialect)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dari (Persian dialect)">Dari</a> more often than not. The Khalqists accused the Parchamites of having a connection with the monarchy, and because of it, referred to the Parchamite PDPA as the "Royal Communist Party".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGladstone2001[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidaH_KCWVB6W0CpgPA113_113]_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGladstone2001[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidaH_KCWVB6W0CpgPA113_113]-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Both Karmal and Amin retained their seats in the lower house of parliament in the <a href="/wiki/1969_Afghan_parliamentary_election" title="1969 Afghan parliamentary election">1969 parliamentary election</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGladstone2001[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidaH_KCWVB6W0CpgPA114_114]_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGladstone2001[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidaH_KCWVB6W0CpgPA114_114]-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Daoud_era">The Daoud era</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Babrak_Karmal&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: The Daoud era"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Saur_Revolution" title="Saur Revolution">Saur Revolution</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Mohammed_Daoud_Khan" class="mw-redirect" title="Mohammed Daoud Khan">Mohammed Daoud Khan</a>, in collaboration with the Parchamite PDPA and radical military officers, <a href="/wiki/1973_Afghan_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1973 Afghan coup d'état">overthrew the monarchy</a> and instituted the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Afghanistan_(1973%E2%80%941978)" class="mw-redirect" title="Republic of Afghanistan (1973—1978)">Republic of Afghanistan</a> in 1973.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETomsen2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidzz9_Ve29eL0CpgPA105_105]_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETomsen2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidzz9_Ve29eL0CpgPA105_105]-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After Daoud's seizure of power, an American embassy cable stated that the new government had established a Soviet-style Central Committee, in which Karmal and <a href="/wiki/Mir_Akbar_Khyber" title="Mir Akbar Khyber">Mir Akbar Khyber</a> were given leading positions. Most ministries were given to Parchamites; <a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Hasan_Sharq" title="Mohammad Hasan Sharq">Hassan Sharq</a> became <a href="/wiki/Deputy_Prime_Minister_of_Afghanistan" title="Deputy Prime Minister of Afghanistan">Deputy Prime Minister</a>, Major Faiz Mohammad became <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_the_Interior_(Afghanistan)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ministry of the Interior (Afghanistan)">Minister of Internal Affairs</a> and Niamatullah Pazhwak became <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Education_(Afghanistan)" title="Ministry of Education (Afghanistan)">Minister of Education</a>. The Parchamites took control over the ministries of finance, agriculture, communications and border affairs. The new government quickly suppressed the opposition, and secured their power base.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETomsen2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidzz9_Ve29eL0CpgPA107_107]_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETomsen2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidzz9_Ve29eL0CpgPA107_107]-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At first, the National Front government between Daoud and the Parchamites seemed to work. By 1975, Daoud had strengthened his position by enhancing the executive, legislative and judicial powers of the Presidency. To the dismay of the Parchamites, all parties other than the <a href="/wiki/National_Revolutionary_Party_(Afghanistan)" class="mw-redirect" title="National Revolutionary Party (Afghanistan)">National Revolutionary Party</a> (NRP, established by Daoud) were made illegal.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETomsen2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidzz9_Ve29eL0CpgPA107_107]_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETomsen2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidzz9_Ve29eL0CpgPA107_107]-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Shortly after the ban on opposition to the NRP, Daoud began a massive purge of Parchamites in government. Mohammad lost his position as interior minister, <a href="/wiki/Abdul_Qadir_(Afghan_communist)" title="Abdul Qadir (Afghan communist)">Abdul Qadir</a> was demoted, and Karmal was put under government surveillance.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETomsen2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidzz9_Ve29eL0CpgPA107_107]_26-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETomsen2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidzz9_Ve29eL0CpgPA107_107]-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To mitigate Daoud's suddenly anti-communist directives, the Soviet Union reestablished the PDPA; Taraki was elected its General Secretary and Karmal, Second Secretary. While the <a href="/wiki/Saur_Revolution" title="Saur Revolution">Saur Revolution</a> (literally the April Revolution) was planned for August, the assassination of Khyber led to a chain of events which ended with the communists seizing power.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETomsen2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidzz9_Ve29eL0CpgPA110_110–111]_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETomsen2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidzz9_Ve29eL0CpgPA110_110–111]-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Karmal, when taking power in 1979, accused Amin of ordering the assassination of Khyber.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETomsen2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidzz9_Ve29eL0CpgPA110_110–111]_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETomsen2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidzz9_Ve29eL0CpgPA110_110–111]-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Taraki–Amin_rule"><span id="Taraki.E2.80.93Amin_rule"></span>Taraki–Amin rule</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Babrak_Karmal&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Taraki–Amin rule"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Taraki was appointed Chairman of the Presidium of the <a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_Council_(Afghanistan)" title="Revolutionary Council (Afghanistan)">Revolutionary Council</a> and <a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Afghanistan" title="Prime Minister of Afghanistan">Chairman</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Ministers_(Afghanistan)" title="Council of Ministers (Afghanistan)">Council of Ministers</a>, retaining his post as PDPA general secretary. Taraki initially formed a government which consisted of both Khalqists and Parchamites;<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGladstone2001[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidaH_KCWVB6W0CpgPA117_117]_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGladstone2001[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidaH_KCWVB6W0CpgPA117_117]-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Karmal became Deputy Chairman of the Revolutionary Council,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrecherWilkenfeld1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidGjY7aV_6FPwCpgPA356_356]_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrecherWilkenfeld1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidGjY7aV_6FPwCpgPA356_356]-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while Amin became <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Foreign_Affairs_(Afghanistan)" title="Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Afghanistan)">Minister of Foreign Affairs</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGladstone2001[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidaH_KCWVB6W0CpgPA117_117]_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGladstone2001[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidaH_KCWVB6W0CpgPA117_117]-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Deputy_Prime_Minister_of_Afghanistan" title="Deputy Prime Minister of Afghanistan">Deputy Chairman of the Council of Ministers</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAsthanaNirmal2009[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8EqWnqdsgZMCpgPA219_219]_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAsthanaNirmal2009[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8EqWnqdsgZMCpgPA219_219]-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Aslam_Watanjar" title="Mohammad Aslam Watanjar">Mohammad Aslam Watanjar</a> became Deputy Chairman of the Council of Ministers. The two Parchamites Abdul Qadir and <a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Rafi" class="mw-redirect" title="Mohammad Rafi">Mohammad Rafi</a>, became <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Defence_(Afghanistan)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ministry of Defence (Afghanistan)">Minister of Defence</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Public_Works_(Afghanistan)" title="Ministry of Public Works (Afghanistan)">Minister of Public Works</a>, respectively.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERasanayagam2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid5L8CnWkACQkCpgPA70_70]_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERasanayagam2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid5L8CnWkACQkCpgPA70_70]-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The appointment of Amin, Karmal and Watanjar led to splits within the Council of Ministers: the Khalqists answered to Amin; Karmal led the civilian Parchamites; and the military officers (who were Parchamites) were answerable to Watanjar (a Khalqist).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERasanayagam2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid5L8CnWkACQkCpgPA70_70–71]_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERasanayagam2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid5L8CnWkACQkCpgPA70_70–71]-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first conflict arose when the Khalqists wanted to give PDPA Central Committee membership to military officers who had participated in the <a href="/wiki/Saur_Revolution" title="Saur Revolution">Saur Revolution</a>; Karmal opposed such a move but was overruled. A PDPA Politburo meeting voted in favour of giving Central Committee membership to the officers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERasanayagam2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid5L8CnWkACQkCpgPA71_71]_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERasanayagam2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid5L8CnWkACQkCpgPA71_71]-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 27 June, three months after the <a href="/wiki/Saur_Revolution" title="Saur Revolution">Saur Revolution</a>, Amin outmaneuvered the Parchamites at a Central Committee meeting,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERasanayagam2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid5L8CnWkACQkCpgPA72_72–73]_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERasanayagam2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid5L8CnWkACQkCpgPA72_72–73]-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> giving the Khalqists exclusive right over formulating and deciding policy.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWestad200573_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWestad200573-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A purge against the Parchamites was initiated by Amin and supported by Taraki on 1 July 1979. Karmal, fearing for his safety, went into hiding in one of his Soviet friends' homes. Karmal tried to contact <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Puzanov" title="Alexander Puzanov">Alexander Puzanov</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_ambassador_to_Afghanistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet ambassador to Afghanistan">Soviet ambassador to Afghanistan</a>, to talk about the situation. Puzanov refused, and revealed Karmal's location to Amin. The Soviets probably saved Karmal's life by sending him to the <a href="/wiki/Socialist_Republic_of_Czechoslovakia" class="mw-redirect" title="Socialist Republic of Czechoslovakia">Socialist Republic of Czechoslovakia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERasanayagam2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidQhFZHRpQdu4CpgPT296_296]_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERasanayagam2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidQhFZHRpQdu4CpgPT296_296]-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In exile, Karmal established a network with the remaining Parchamites in government. A coup to overthrow Amin was planned for 4 September 1979. Its leading members in Afghanistan were Qadir and the Army Chief of Staff General Shahpur Ahmedzai. The coup was planned for the Festival of Eid, in anticipation of relaxed military vigilance. The conspiracy failed when the Afghan ambassador to India told the Afghan leadership about the plan. Another purge was initiated, and Parchamite ambassadors were recalled. Few returned to Afghanistan; Karmal and <a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Najibullah" title="Mohammad Najibullah">Mohammad Najibullah</a> stayed in their respective countries.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWestad200573_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWestad200573-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Soviets decided that Amin should be removed to make way for a Karmal-Taraki coalition government. However Amin managed to order the arrest and later the murder of Taraki. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>One of the dirty faces who for years under the false revolutionary mask and false slogans wanted to seduce the youth was Babrak Karmal, a product of tyrannical and despotic rule of <a href="/wiki/Mohammed_Daoud_Khan" class="mw-redirect" title="Mohammed Daoud Khan">Daoud</a>, the unprecedented hangman of history.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Excerpt from the <i><a href="/wiki/New_Kabul_Times" class="mw-redirect" title="New Kabul Times">New Kabul Times</a></i>, October 19, 1978, demonstrating the bitter break between the Khalq rulers and Karmal after the revolution<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <p>Amin was informed of the Soviet decision to <a href="/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Afghan_War" title="Soviet–Afghan War">intervene in Afghanistan</a> and was initially supportive,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGarthoff1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidmGG-x_tuNUcCpgPA1017_1017]_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGarthoff1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidmGG-x_tuNUcCpgPA1017_1017]-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but was <a href="/wiki/Operation_Storm-333" class="mw-redirect" title="Operation Storm-333">assassinated</a>. Under the command of the Soviets, Karmal ascended to power.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBraithwaite201199_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBraithwaite201199-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 27 December 1979, Karmal's pre-recorded speech to the Afghan people was broadcast via <a href="/wiki/Radio_Kabul" class="mw-redirect" title="Radio Kabul">Radio Kabul</a> from <a href="/wiki/Tashkent" title="Tashkent">Tashkent</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Uzbek_SSR" class="mw-redirect" title="Uzbek SSR">Uzbek SSR</a> (the radio <a href="/wiki/Wavelength" title="Wavelength">wavelength</a> was changed to that of Kabul), saying: "Today the torture machine of Amin has been smashed, his accomplices – the primitive executioners, usurpers and murderers of tens of thousand of our fellow countrymen – fathers, mothers, sisters, brothers, sons and daughters, children and old people ..."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBraithwaite2011103_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBraithwaite2011103-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Karmal was not in Kabul when the speech was broadcast; he was in <a href="/wiki/Bagram" title="Bagram">Bagram</a>, protected by the <a href="/wiki/KGB" title="KGB">KGB</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBraithwaite2011103_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBraithwaite2011103-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>That evening <a href="/wiki/Yuri_Andropov" title="Yuri Andropov">Yuri Andropov</a>, the <a href="/wiki/List_of_chairmen_of_the_KGB" title="List of chairmen of the KGB">KGB Chairman</a>, congratulated Karmal on his rise to the Chairmanship of the Presidium of the <a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_Council_(Afghanistan)" title="Revolutionary Council (Afghanistan)">Revolutionary Council</a>, some time before Karmal received an official appointment.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBraithwaite2011103_41-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBraithwaite2011103-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Karmal returned to Kabul on 28 December. He travelled alongside a Soviet military column. For the next few days Karmal lived in a villa on the outskirts of Kabul under the protection of the KGB. On 1 January 1980 <a href="/wiki/Leonid_Brezhnev" title="Leonid Brezhnev">Leonid Brezhnev</a>, the <a href="/wiki/General_Secretary_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">General Secretary</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Central_Committee_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Alexei_Kosygin" title="Alexei Kosygin">Alexei Kosygin</a>, the Soviet <a href="/wiki/Premier_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Premier of the Soviet Union">Chairman</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Ministers_(Soviet_Union)" class="mw-redirect" title="Council of Ministers (Soviet Union)">Council of Ministers</a>, congratulated Karmal on his "election" as leader.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBraithwaite2011103–104_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBraithwaite2011103–104-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Leadership">Leadership</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Babrak_Karmal&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Leadership"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Domestic_policies">Domestic policies</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Babrak_Karmal&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Domestic policies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Karmal's ascension was quickly troubled as he was effectively installed by the invading Soviet Union, delegitimizing him. Unrest in the country quickly escalated, and in Kabul two major uprisings, on <a href="/wiki/3_Hoot_uprising" title="3 Hoot uprising">3 Hoot (22 February)</a> and the months long <a href="/wiki/1980_student_protests_in_Kabul" title="1980 student protests in Kabul">students' protests</a> were early signs of trouble. Karmal would also arrest Major Saddiq Alamyar in 1980, the commander of the 444th Commando Battalion, who committed the <a href="/wiki/Kerala_massacre" title="Kerala massacre">Kerala massacre</a> while Afghanistan was still under the leadership of the <a href="/wiki/Khalq" title="Khalq">Khalq</a>. Other perpetrators were also arrested, such as other commandos and soldiers in the 11th Division of the Afghan Army. Alamyar remained in jail for a decade, even after Karmal was removed from his post as president.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="The_"Fundamental_Principles"_and_amnesty"><span id="The_.22Fundamental_Principles.22_and_amnesty"></span>The "Fundamental Principles" and amnesty</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Babrak_Karmal&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: The "Fundamental Principles" and amnesty"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>When he came to power, Karmal promised an end to executions, the establishment of democratic institutions and free elections, the creation of a constitution, and legalization of alternative political parties. Prisoners incarcerated under the two previous governments would be freed in a general <a href="/wiki/Amnesty" title="Amnesty">amnesty</a> (which occurred on 6 January). He promised the creation of a coalition government which would not espouse <a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">socialism</a>. At the same time, he told the Afghan people that he had negotiated with the Soviet Union to give economic, military and political assistance. The mistrust most Afghans felt towards the government was a problem for Karmal. Many still remembered he had said he would protect private capital in 1978—a promise later proven to be a lie.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEH._KakarM._Kakar1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidQyTmFj5tUGsCpgPA71_71–72]_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEH._KakarM._Kakar1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidQyTmFj5tUGsCpgPA71_71–72]-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:308px;max-width:308px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader" style="text-align:center">Flag change under Karmal</div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:152px;max-width:152px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_Afghanistan_(1978%E2%80%931980).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281978%E2%80%931980%29.svg/150px-Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281978%E2%80%931980%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="75" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281978%E2%80%931980%29.svg/225px-Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281978%E2%80%931980%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281978%E2%80%931980%29.svg/300px-Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281978%E2%80%931980%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="500" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Flag in use from 1978 to 1980</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:152px;max-width:152px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_Afghanistan_(1980%E2%80%931987).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281980%E2%80%931987%29.svg/150px-Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281980%E2%80%931987%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="75" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281980%E2%80%931987%29.svg/225px-Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281980%E2%80%931987%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281980%E2%80%931987%29.svg/300px-Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281980%E2%80%931987%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Flag in use from 1980 to 1987</div></div></div></div></div> <p>Karmal's three most important promises were the general amnesty of prisoners, the promulgation of the Fundamental Principles of the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan and the adoption of a new flag containing the traditional black, red and green (the flag of Taraki and Amin was red). His government granted concessions to religious leaders and the restoration of confiscated property. Some property, which was confiscated during earlier land reforms, was also partially restored. All these measures, with the exception of the general amnesty of prisoners, were introduced gradually. Of 2,700 prisoners, 2,600 were released from prison; 600 of these were Parchamites. The general amnesty was greatly publicized by the government. While the event was hailed with enthusiasm by some, many others greeted the event with disdain, since their loved ones or associates had died during earlier purges. Amin had planned to introduce a general amnesty on 1 January 1980, to coincide with the PDPA's sixteenth anniversary.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEH._KakarM._Kakar1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidQyTmFj5tUGsCpgPA72_72]_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEH._KakarM._Kakar1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidQyTmFj5tUGsCpgPA72_72]-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Work on the Fundamental Principles had started under Amin: it guaranteed democratic rights such as <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_speech" title="Freedom of speech">freedom of speech</a>, the right to security and life, the right to peaceful association, the right to demonstrate and the right that "no one would be accused of crime but in accord with the provisions of law" and that the accused had the right to a <a href="/wiki/Fair_trial" class="mw-redirect" title="Fair trial">fair trial</a>. The Fundamental Principles envisaged a democratic state led by the PDPA, the only party then permitted by law. The Revolutionary Council, the organ of supreme power, would convene twice every year. The Revolutionary Council in turn elected a Presidium which would take decisions on behalf of the Revolutionary Council when it was not in session. The Presidium consisted mostly of <a href="/wiki/Politburo_of_the_People%27s_Democratic_Party_of_Afghanistan" title="Politburo of the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan">PDPA Politburo</a> members. The state would safeguard three kinds of property: state, cooperative and private property. The Fundamental Principles said that the state had the right to change the Afghan economy from an economy where man was exploited to an economy where man was free. Another clause stated that the state had the right to take "families, both parents and children, under its supervision."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEH._KakarM._Kakar1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidQyTmFj5tUGsCpgPA73_73]_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEH._KakarM._Kakar1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidQyTmFj5tUGsCpgPA73_73]-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While it looked democratic at the outset, the Fundamental Principles was based on contradictions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEH._KakarM._Kakar1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidQyTmFj5tUGsCpgPA73_73]_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEH._KakarM._Kakar1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidQyTmFj5tUGsCpgPA73_73]-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Fundamental Principles led to the establishment of two important state organs: the Special Revolutionary Court, a specialized court for crimes against <a href="/wiki/National_security" title="National security">national security</a> and territorial integrity, and the Institute for Legal and Scientific Research and Legislative Affairs, the supreme legislative organ of state, This body could amend and draft laws, and introduce regulations and decrees on behalf of the government. The introduction of more Soviet-style institutions led the Afghan people to distrust the communist government even more.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYassari2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidCMGfLzYWeW4CpgPA13_13]_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYassari2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidCMGfLzYWeW4CpgPA13_13]-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Fundamental Principles constitution came into power on 22 April 1980. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Dividing_power:_Khalq–Parcham"><span id="Dividing_power:_Khalq.E2.80.93Parcham"></span>Dividing power: Khalq–Parcham</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Babrak_Karmal&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Dividing power: Khalq–Parcham"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>With Karmal's ascension to power, Parchamites began to "settle old scores".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBraithwaite2011104_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBraithwaite2011104-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/NKVD_troika" title="NKVD troika">Revolutionary Troikas</a> were created to arrest, sentence and execute people. Amin's guard were the first victims of the terror which ensued. Those commanders who had stayed loyal to Amin were arrested, filling the prisons. The Soviets protested, and Karmal replied, "As long as you keep my hands bound and do not let me deal with the Khalq faction there will be no unity in the PDPA and the government cannot become strong ... They tortured and killed us. They still hate us! They are the enemies of the party ..."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBraithwaite2011104_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBraithwaite2011104-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Amin's daughter, along with her baby, was imprisoned for twelve years, until <a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Najibullah" title="Mohammad Najibullah">Mohammad Najibullah</a>, then leader of the PDPA, released her.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBraithwaite2011104_49-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBraithwaite2011104-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When Karmal took power, leading posts in the Party and Government bureaucracy were taken over by Parchamites. The Khalq faction was removed from power, and only <a href="/wiki/Technocrat" class="mw-redirect" title="Technocrat">technocrats</a>, <a href="/wiki/Opportunism" title="Opportunism">opportunists</a> and individuals which the Soviets trusted would be appointed to the higher echelons of government. Khalqists remained in control of the <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_the_Interior_(Afghanistan)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ministry of the Interior (Afghanistan)">Ministry of Interior</a>, but Parchamites were given control over <a href="/wiki/KHAD" title="KHAD">KHAD</a> and the secret police. The Parchamites and the Khalqists controlled an equal share of the military. Two out of Karmal's three Council of Ministers deputy chairmen were Khalqists. Khalqists controlled the <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Communications_(Afghanistan)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ministry of Communications (Afghanistan)">Ministry of Communications</a> and the interior ministry. Parchamites, on the other hand, controlled the <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Foreign_Affairs_(Afghanistan)" title="Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Afghanistan)">Ministry of Foreign Affairs</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Defence_(Afghanistan)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ministry of Defence (Afghanistan)">Ministry of Defence</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnold1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidTmMJnaMVN6oCpgPA44_44]_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnold1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidTmMJnaMVN6oCpgPA44_44]-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition to the changes in government, the Parchamites held clear majority in the <a href="/wiki/Central_Committee_of_the_People%27s_Democratic_Party_of_Afghanistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Central Committee of the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan">PDPA Central Committee</a>. Only one Khalqi, Saleh Mohammad Zeary, was a member of the PDPA Secretariat during Karmal's rule.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnold1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidTmMJnaMVN6oCpgPA45_45]_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnold1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidTmMJnaMVN6oCpgPA45_45]-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Over 14 and 15 March 1982 the PDPA held a party <i>conference</i> at the Kabul Polytechnic Institute instead of a party <i>congress</i>, since a party congress would have given the Khalq faction a majority and could have led to a Khalqist takeover of the PDPA. The rules of holding a party conference were different, and the Parchamites had a three-fifths majority. This infuriated several Khalqists; the threat of expulsion did not lessen their anger.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnold1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidTmMJnaMVN6oCpgPA48_48]_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnold1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidTmMJnaMVN6oCpgPA48_48]-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The conference was not successful, but it was portrayed as such by the official media. The conference broke up after one and a half days of a 3-day long program, because of the inter-party struggle for power between the Khalqists and the Parchamites. A "program of action" was introduced, and party rules were given minor changes. As an explanation of the low party membership, the official media also made it seem hard to become a member of the party.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnold1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidTmMJnaMVN6oCpgPA49_49]_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnold1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidTmMJnaMVN6oCpgPA49_49]-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="PDPA_base">PDPA base</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Babrak_Karmal&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: PDPA base"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable collapsible collapsed" width="60%" style="float:right; margin:0 15px;"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="9">Karmal cabinet (1979–1981)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdamec2011Iii,_Iiii_&_lv_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdamec2011Iii,_Iiii_&_lv-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th></tr> <tr> <th>Office </th> <th>Incumbent </th> <th>Took office </th> <th>Left office </th></tr> <tr> <td>Deputy Chairman of the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Ministers_(Afghanistan)" title="Council of Ministers (Afghanistan)">Council of Ministers</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Assadullah_Sarwari" title="Assadullah Sarwari">Assadullah Sarwari</a> </td> <td>28 December 1979 </td> <td>11 June 1981 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ministry_of_Planning_(Afghanistan)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ministry of Planning (Afghanistan) (page does not exist)">Minister of Planning</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Sultan_Ali_Keshtmand" title="Sultan Ali Keshtmand">Sultan Ali Keshtmand</a> </td> <td>28 December 1979 </td> <td>11 June 1981 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Minister_of_Defence_(Afghanistan)" class="mw-redirect" title="Minister of Defence (Afghanistan)">Minister of National Defence</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Rafie" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammad Rafie">Muhammad Rafie</a> </td> <td>28 December 1979 </td> <td>11 June 1981 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_the_Interior_(Afghanistan)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ministry of the Interior (Afghanistan)">Minister of Interior</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Sayed_Mohammad_Gulabzoy" title="Sayed Mohammad Gulabzoy">Sayed Mohammad Gulabzoy</a> </td> <td>28 December 1979 </td> <td>11 June 1981 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Foreign_Affairs_(Afghanistan)" title="Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Afghanistan)">Minister of Foreign Affairs</a> </td> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shah_Muhammad_Dost&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Shah Muhammad Dost (page does not exist)">Shah Muhammad Dost</a> </td> <td>28 December 1979 </td> <td>11 June 1981 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Education_(Afghanistan)" title="Ministry of Education (Afghanistan)">Minister of Education</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Anahita_Ratebzad" title="Anahita Ratebzad">Anahita Ratebzad</a> </td> <td>28 December 1979 </td> <td>11 June 1981 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Finance_(Afghanistan)" title="Ministry of Finance (Afghanistan)">Minister of Finance</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Abdul_Wakil" class="mw-redirect" title="Abdul Wakil">Abdul Wakil</a> </td> <td>28 December 1979 </td> <td>11 June 1981 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ministry_of_Transport_(Afghanistan)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ministry of Transport (Afghanistan) (page does not exist)">Minister of Transport</a> </td> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sherjan_Mazduryar&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sherjan Mazduryar (page does not exist)">Sherjan Mazduryar</a> </td> <td>28 December 1979 </td> <td>11 June 1981 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ministry_of_Border_and_Tribes_(Afghanistan)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ministry of Border and Tribes (Afghanistan) (page does not exist)">Minister of Border and Tribes</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Faiz_Muhammad" title="Faiz Muhammad">Faiz Muhammad</a> </td> <td>28 December 1979 </td> <td>14 September 1980 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ministry_of_Trade_(Afghanistan)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ministry of Trade (Afghanistan) (page does not exist)">Minister of Trade</a> </td> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=Muhammad_Khan_Jalalar&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Muhammad Khan Jalalar (page does not exist)">Muhammad Khan Jalalar</a> </td> <td>28 December 1979 </td> <td>11 June 1981 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Communications_(Afghanistan)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ministry of Communications (Afghanistan)">Minister of Communications</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Aslam_Watanjar" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammad Aslam Watanjar">Muhammad Aslam Watanjar</a> </td> <td>10 January 1980 </td> <td>11 June 1981 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ministry_of_Mines,_Industries&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ministry of Mines, Industries (page does not exist)">Minister of Mines, Industries</a> </td> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=Muhammad_Isma%27il_Danesh&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Muhammad Isma'il Danesh (page does not exist)">Muhammad Isma'il Danesh</a> </td> <td>10 January 1980 </td> <td>11 June 1981 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ministry_of_Water,_Power_(Afghanistan)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ministry of Water, Power (Afghanistan) (page does not exist)">Minister of Water, Power</a> </td> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=Raz_Muhammad_Paktin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Raz Muhammad Paktin (page does not exist)">Raz Muhammad Paktin</a> </td> <td>10 January 1980 </td> <td>11 June 1981 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Higher_Education_(Afghanistan)" title="Ministry of Higher Education (Afghanistan)">Minister of Higher Education</a> </td> <td>Guldad </td> <td>10 January 1980 </td> <td>11 June 1981 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ministry_of_Health_(Afghanistan)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ministry of Health (Afghanistan) (page does not exist)">Minister of Health</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Nazar_Muhammad" class="mw-redirect" title="Nazar Muhammad">Nazar Muhammad</a> </td> <td>10 January 1980 </td> <td>11 June 1981 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ministry_of_Agriculture_(Afghanistan)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ministry of Agriculture (Afghanistan) (page does not exist)">Minister of Agriculture, Land Reform</a> </td> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fazl_Rahim_Mohmand&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Fazl Rahim Mohmand (page does not exist)">Fazl Rahim Mohmand</a> </td> <td>10 January 1980 </td> <td>11 June 1981 </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>When Karmal took power, he began expanding the support base of the PDPA. Karmal tried to persuade certain groups, which had been referred to <a href="/wiki/Class_enemy" class="mw-redirect" title="Class enemy">class enemies</a> of the revolution during Taraki and Amin's rule, to support the PDPA.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnold1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidTmMJnaMVN6oCpgPA45_45–46]_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnold1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidTmMJnaMVN6oCpgPA45_45–46]-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Karmal appointed several non-communists to top positions. Between March and May 1980, 78 out of the 191 people appointed to government posts were not members of the PDPA. Karmal reintroduced the old Afghan custom of having an Islamic invocation every time the government issued a proclamation. In his first live speech to the Afghan people, Karmal called for the establishment of the <a href="/wiki/National_Front_(Afghanistan)" title="National Front (Afghanistan)">National Fatherland Front</a> (NFF); the NFF's founding congress was held in June 1981. Unfortunately for Karmal, his policies did not lead to a notable increase in support for his regime, and it did not help Karmal that most Afghans saw the Soviet intervention as an invasion.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnold1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidTmMJnaMVN6oCpgPA46_46]_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnold1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidTmMJnaMVN6oCpgPA46_46]-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By 1981, the government gave up on political solutions to the conflict. At the fifth PDPA Central Committee plenum in June, Karmal resigned from his Council of Ministers chairmanship and was replaced by <a href="/wiki/Sultan_Ali_Keshtmand" title="Sultan Ali Keshtmand">Sultan Ali Keshtmand</a>, while <a href="/wiki/Nur_Ahmad_Nur" class="mw-redirect" title="Nur Ahmad Nur">Nur Ahmad Nur</a> was given a bigger role in the Revolutionary Council. This was seen as "base broadening".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnold1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidTmMJnaMVN6oCpgPA48_48]_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnold1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidTmMJnaMVN6oCpgPA48_48]-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The previous weight given to non-PDPA members in top positions ceased to be an important matter in the media by June 1981. This was significant, considering that up to five members of the Revolutionary Council were non-PDPA members. By the end of 1981, the previous contenders, who had been heavily presented in the media, were all gone; two were given ambassadorships, two ceased to be active in politics, and one continued as an advisor to the government. The other three changed sides, and began to work for the opposition.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnold1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidTmMJnaMVN6oCpgPA48_48]_52-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnold1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidTmMJnaMVN6oCpgPA48_48]-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The national policy of reconciliation continued: in January 1984 the land reform introduced by Taraki and Amin was drastically modified, the limits of landholdings were increased to win the support of middle class peasants, the literacy programme was continued, and concessions to women were made. In 1985 the <a href="/wiki/Loya_Jirga" class="mw-redirect" title="Loya Jirga">Loya Jirga</a> was reconvened. The 1985 Loya Jirga was followed by a tribal jirga in September. In 1986 <a href="/wiki/Abdul_Rahim_Hatef" class="mw-redirect" title="Abdul Rahim Hatef">Abdul Rahim Hatef</a>, a non-PDPA member, was elected to the NFF chairmanship. During the 1985–86 elections it was said that 60 percent of the elected officials were non-PDPA members. By the end of Karmal's rule, several non-PDPA members had high-level government positions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStaff_writers2002[httpsbooksgooglecombookside5Az1lGCJwQCpgPA64_64]_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStaff_writers2002[httpsbooksgooglecombookside5Az1lGCJwQCpgPA64_64]-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Civil_war_and_military">Civil war and military</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Babrak_Karmal&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Civil war and military"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Afghan_War" title="Soviet–Afghan War">Soviet–Afghan War</a></div> <table class="wikitable" width="60%" style="float:right; margin:0 15px;"> <caption>Troop levels </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Soldiers</th> <th>As of </th></tr> <tr> <td>25,000 </td> <td>1980<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnold1983[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidcd85ioPsz6cCpgPA111_111]_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnold1983[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidcd85ioPsz6cCpgPA111_111]-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>25–30,000 </td> <td>1981<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsarchiveorgdetailsbub_gb_RUSNyMH1aFQCpagen203_180]_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsarchiveorgdetailsbub_gb_RUSNyMH1aFQCpagen203_180]-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>25–30,000 </td> <td>1982<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsarchiveorgdetailsbub_gb_RUSNyMH1aFQCpagen203_180]_59-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsarchiveorgdetailsbub_gb_RUSNyMH1aFQCpagen203_180]-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>40,000 </td> <td>1983<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsarchiveorgdetailsbub_gb_RUSNyMH1aFQCpagen204_181]_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsarchiveorgdetailsbub_gb_RUSNyMH1aFQCpagen204_181]-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>40,000 </td> <td>1984<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBonosky2001[httpsarchiveorgdetailsafghanistanwashi00bonopage261_261]_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBonosky2001[httpsarchiveorgdetailsafghanistanwashi00bonopage261_261]-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>35–40,000 </td> <td>1985<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeviteJentelesonBerman1992[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidtA8jTFUFuzQCpgPA80_80]_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeviteJentelesonBerman1992[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidtA8jTFUFuzQCpgPA80_80]-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In March 1979, the military budget was 6.4 million US$, which was 8.3 percent of the government budget, but only 2.2 of <a href="/wiki/Gross_national_product" class="mw-redirect" title="Gross national product">gross national product</a>. After the Soviet intervention, the defence budget increased to 208 million US$ in 1980, and 325 million US$ by 1981. In 1982 it was reported that the government spent around 22 percent of total expenditure.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsarchiveorgdetailsbub_gb_RUSNyMH1aFQCpagen211_186]_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsarchiveorgdetailsbub_gb_RUSNyMH1aFQCpagen211_186]-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When the political solution failed (<a href="#PDPA_base">see "PDPA base" section</a>), the Afghan government and the Soviet military decided to solve the conflict militarily. The change from a political to a military solution did not come suddenly. It began in January 1981, as Karmal doubled wages for military personnel, issued several promotions, and decorated one general and thirteen colonels. The draft age was lowered, the obligatory length of arms duty was extended and the age for reservists was increased to thirty-five years of age. In June 1981, <a href="/wiki/Assadullah_Sarwari" title="Assadullah Sarwari">Assadullah Sarwari</a> lost his seat in the PDPA Politburo, replaced by <a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Aslam_Watanjar" title="Mohammad Aslam Watanjar">Mohammad Aslam Watanjar</a>, a former tank commander and <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Communications_(Afghanistan)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ministry of Communications (Afghanistan)">Minister of Communications</a>, <a href="/wiki/Major_General" class="mw-redirect" title="Major General">Major General</a> <a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Rafi_(politician)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mohammad Rafi (politician)">Mohammad Rafi</a> was made <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Defence_(Afghanistan)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ministry of Defence (Afghanistan)">Minister of Defence</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Najibullah" title="Mohammad Najibullah">Mohammad Najibullah</a> appointed <a href="/wiki/KHAD" title="KHAD">KHAD</a> Chairman.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnold1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidTmMJnaMVN6oCpgPA47_47]_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnold1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidTmMJnaMVN6oCpgPA47_47]-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>These measures were introduced due to the collapse of the army during the Soviet intervention. Before the intervention the army could field 100,000 troops, after the intervention only 25,000. Desertions were pandemic, and the recruitment campaigns for young people often drove them to the opposition.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnold1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidTmMJnaMVN6oCpgPA47_47]_64-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnold1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidTmMJnaMVN6oCpgPA47_47]-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To better organize the military, seven military zones were established, each with its own Defence Council. The Defence Councils were established at the national, provincial and district level to empower the local PDPA.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnold1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidTmMJnaMVN6oCpgPA48_48]_52-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnold1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidTmMJnaMVN6oCpgPA48_48]-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is estimated that the Afghan government spent as much as 40 percent of government revenue on defense.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStaff_writers2002[httpsbooksgooglecombookside5Az1lGCJwQCpgPA86_86]_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStaff_writers2002[httpsbooksgooglecombookside5Az1lGCJwQCpgPA86_86]-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Karmal refused to recognize the rebels as genuine, saying in an interview: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The people of Afghanistan do not recognise [the rebels] who include a number of hired people of the reactionary circles of Pakistan, Chinese chauvinists, imperialist America and Britain, and the reactionaries of Arab countries and the Zionists, who pretend to be the representatives of Afghanistan.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Economy">Economy</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Babrak_Karmal&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Economy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable" width="60%" style="float:right; margin:0 15px;"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2" width="30%">Indicators </th> <th width="1%">1980 </th> <th width="1%">1981 </th> <th width="1%">1982 </th> <th width="1%">1986 </th></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="3"><b>Expenditure</b> </th> <td>Total (millions of <a href="/wiki/Afghan_afghani" title="Afghan afghani">afghanis</a>) </td> <td>31,692 </td> <td>40,751 </td> <td>42,112 </td> <td>88,700 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Ordinary (in percent) </td> <td>62 </td> <td>66 </td> <td>69 </td> <td>74 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Development (in percent) </td> <td>38 </td> <td>34 </td> <td>31 </td> <td>26 </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="5"><b>Sources of Finances</b> </th> <td>Domestic revenue: excluding gas (in percent) </td> <td>50 </td> <td>40 </td> <td>37 </td> <td>31 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Sales of natural gas (in percent) </td> <td>33 </td> <td>34 </td> <td>34 </td> <td>17 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Foreign aid (in percent) </td> <td>28 </td> <td>26 </td> <td>28 </td> <td>29 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Rentier income (in percent) </td> <td>61 </td> <td>59 </td> <td>62 </td> <td>48 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Domestic borrowing (in percent) </td> <td>−11 </td> <td>1 </td> <td>0 </td> <td>23 </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>During the civil war and the ensuing <a href="/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Afghan_War" title="Soviet–Afghan War">Soviet–Afghan War</a>, most of the country's infrastructure was destroyed. Normal patterns of economic activity were disrupted.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Gross_national_product" class="mw-redirect" title="Gross national product">Gross national product</a> (GNP) fell substantially during Karmal's rule because of the conflict; trade and transport was disrupted with loss of labor and capital. In 1981 the Afghan GDP stood at 154.3 billion <a href="/wiki/Afghan_afghani" title="Afghan afghani">Afghan afghanis</a>, a drop from 159.7 billion in 1978. <a href="/wiki/GNP_per_capita" class="mw-redirect" title="GNP per capita">GNP per capita</a> decreased from 7,370 in 1978 to 6,852 in 1981. The dominant form of economic activity was in the <a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Afghanistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Agriculture in Afghanistan">agricultural sector</a>. Agriculture accounted for 63 percent of gross domestic product (GDP) in 1981; 56 percent of the labor force was working in agriculture in 1982. Industry accounted for 21 percent of GDP in 1982, and employed 10 percent of the labor force. All industrial enterprises were government-owned. The service sector, the smallest of the three, accounted for 10 percent of GDP in 1981, and employed an estimated one-third of the labour force. The <a href="/wiki/Balance_of_payments" title="Balance of payments">balance of payments</a>, which had grown in the pre-communist administration of <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Daoud_Khan" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammad Daoud Khan">Muhammad Daoud Khan</a>, decreased, turning negative by 1982 at 70.3 million $US. The only economic activity which grew substantially during Karmal's rule was export and import.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Foreign_policy">Foreign policy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Babrak_Karmal&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Foreign policy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Karmal observed in early 1983 that without Soviet intervention, "It is unknown what the destiny of the Afghan Revolution would be ... We are realists and we clearly realize that in store for us yet lie trials and deprivations, losses and difficulties."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECollins1986[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid1TDa1YNhSjgCpgPA306_306]_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECollins1986[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid1TDa1YNhSjgCpgPA306_306]-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Two weeks before this statement <a href="/wiki/Sultan_Ali_Keshtmand" title="Sultan Ali Keshtmand">Sultan Ali Keshtmand</a>, the Chairman of the Council of Ministers, lamented the fact that half the schools and three-quarters of communications had been destroyed since 1979.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECollins1986[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid1TDa1YNhSjgCpgPA306_306]_69-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECollins1986[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid1TDa1YNhSjgCpgPA306_306]-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Soviet Union rejected several Western-made peace plans, such as the Carrington Plan, since they did not take into consideration the PDPA government. Most Western peace plans had been made in collaboration with the Afghan opposition forces. At the <a href="/wiki/26th_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="26th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">26th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union</a> (CPSU) <a href="/wiki/Leonid_Brezhnev" title="Leonid Brezhnev">Leonid Brezhnev</a>, the <a href="/wiki/General_Secretary_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">General Secretary</a> of the CPSU <a href="/wiki/Central_Committee_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Central Committee</a>, stated;<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECollins1986[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid1TDa1YNhSjgCpgPA313_313–314]_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECollins1986[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid1TDa1YNhSjgCpgPA313_313–314]-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>We do not object to the questions connected with Afghanistan being discussed in conjunction with the question of security in the <a href="/wiki/Persian_Gulf" title="Persian Gulf">Persian Gulf</a>. Naturally here on only the international aspects of the Afghan problem can be discussed, not internal Afghan affairs. The sovereignty of Afghanistan must be fully protected, as must its nonaligned status.</p></blockquote> <p>The stance of the Pakistani government was clear, demanding complete Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan and the establishment of a non-PDPA government. Karmal, summarizing his discussions with Iran and Pakistan, said "Iran and Pakistan have so far not opted for concrete and constructive positions."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECollins1986[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid1TDa1YNhSjgCpgPA314_314]_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECollins1986[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid1TDa1YNhSjgCpgPA314_314]-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During Karmal's rule <a href="/wiki/Afghanistan%E2%80%93Pakistan_relations" title="Afghanistan–Pakistan relations">Afghan–Pakistani relations</a> remained hostile; the Soviet intervention in Afghanistan was the catalyst for the hostile relationship. The increasing numbers of <a href="/wiki/Afghans_in_Pakistan" title="Afghans in Pakistan">Afghan refugees in Pakistan</a> challenged the PDPA's legitimacy to rule.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEQassem2009[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidt_Qn9PZMU4wCpgPA87_87–88]_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQassem2009[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidt_Qn9PZMU4wCpgPA87_87–88]-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Soviet Union threatened in 1985 that it would support the <a href="/wiki/Baloch_nationalism" title="Baloch nationalism">Baloch separatist movement</a> in Pakistan if the Pakistani government continued to aid the <a href="/wiki/Afghan_mujahideen" title="Afghan mujahideen">Afghan mujahideen</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHilali2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidnhqRa0glD9oCpgPA50_50]_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHilali2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidnhqRa0glD9oCpgPA50_50]-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Karmal, problematically for the Soviets, did not want a Soviet withdrawal, and he hampered attempts to improve relations with Pakistan since the Pakistani government had refused to recognise the PDPA government.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEQassem2009[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidt_Qn9PZMU4wCpgPA78_78]_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQassem2009[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidt_Qn9PZMU4wCpgPA78_78]-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Public_image">Public image</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Babrak_Karmal&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Public image"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Because Karmal was put into power without a formal ceremony as in Afghan tradition, he was seen as an illegitimate leader in many eyes of his people. A poor performance in foreign interviews also did not help his public image where he was noted to speak like an "exhibitionist" rather than a statesman.<sup id="cite_ref-cdlib_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cdlib-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Karmal was widely viewed as a <a href="/wiki/Puppet" title="Puppet">puppet</a> leader of the Soviet Union by Afghans and the Western press.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Despite his position, Karmal was apparently not permitted to make key decisions as he was following advice from Soviet advisers. The Soviet control of the Afghan state was apparently so much that Karmal himself admitted to a friend of his unfree life, telling him: “The Soviet comrades love me boundlessly, and for the sake of my personal safety, they don’t obey even my own orders.”<sup id="cite_ref-cdlib_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cdlib-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The hands, feet and tongue of the poor Sultan had been tied, and he had no right to speak [without permission] with his personal friends.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Zia Majid, a personal friend of Babrak Karmal<sup id="cite_ref-cdlib_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cdlib-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fall_from_power_and_succession">Fall from power and succession</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Babrak_Karmal&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Fall from power and succession"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev" title="Mikhail Gorbachev">Mikhail Gorbachev</a>, then <a href="/wiki/General_Secretary_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">General Secretary</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Central_Committee_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union</a>, said, "The main reason that there has been no national consolidation so far is that Comrade Karmal is hoping to continue sitting in Kabul with our help."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEH._KakarM._Kakar1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidQyTmFj5tUGsCpgPA74_74]_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEH._KakarM._Kakar1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidQyTmFj5tUGsCpgPA74_74]-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Karmal's position became less secure when the Soviet leadership began blaming him for the failures in Afghanistan. Gorbachev, worried over the situation, told the Soviet Politburo "If we don't change approaches [to evacuate Afghanistan], we will be fighting there for another 20 or 30 years."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEH._KakarM._Kakar1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidQyTmFj5tUGsCpgPA75_75]_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEH._KakarM._Kakar1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidQyTmFj5tUGsCpgPA75_75]-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is not clear when the Soviet leadership began to campaign for Karmal's dismissal, but <a href="/wiki/Andrei_Gromyko" title="Andrei Gromyko">Andrei Gromyko</a> discussed the possibility of Karmal's resignation with <a href="/wiki/Javier_P%C3%A9rez_de_Cu%C3%A9llar" title="Javier Pérez de Cuéllar">Javier Pérez de Cuéllar</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Secretary-General_of_the_United_Nations" title="Secretary-General of the United Nations">Secretary-General of the United Nations</a> in 1982. While it was Gorbachev who would dismiss Karmal, there may have been a consensus within the Soviet leadership in 1983 that Karmal should resign. Gorbachev's own plan was to replace Karmal with <a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Najibullah" title="Mohammad Najibullah">Mohammad Najibullah</a>, who had joined the PDPA at its creation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKalinovsky2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidrf1Yg2SGLQgCpgPA95_95]_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKalinovsky2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidrf1Yg2SGLQgCpgPA95_95]-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Najibullah was thought highly of by <a href="/wiki/Yuri_Andropov" title="Yuri Andropov">Yuri Andropov</a>, <a href="/wiki/Boris_Ponomarev" title="Boris Ponomarev">Boris Ponomarev</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dmitriy_Ustinov" class="mw-redirect" title="Dmitriy Ustinov">Dmitriy Ustinov</a>, and negotiations for his succession may have started in 1983. Najibullah was not the Soviet leadership's only choice for Karmal's succession; a <a href="/wiki/Glavnoye_Razvedyvatel%27noye_Upravleniye" class="mw-redirect" title="Glavnoye Razvedyvatel'noye Upravleniye">GRU</a> report noted that the majority of the PDPA leadership would support <a href="/wiki/Assadullah_Sarwari" title="Assadullah Sarwari">Assadullah Sarwari</a>'s ascension to leadership. According to the GRU, Sarwari was a better candidate as he could balance between the Pashtuns, Tajiks and Uzbeks; Najibullah was a Pashtun nationalist. Another viable candidate was <a href="/wiki/Abdul_Qadir_(Afghan_communist)" title="Abdul Qadir (Afghan communist)">Abdul Qadir</a>, who had been a participant in the <a href="/wiki/Saur_Revolution" title="Saur Revolution">Saur Revolution</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKalinovsky2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidrf1Yg2SGLQgCpgPA96_96]_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKalinovsky2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidrf1Yg2SGLQgCpgPA96_96]-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Najibullah was appointed to the PDPA Secretariat in November 1985. During Karmal's March 1986 visit to the Soviet Union, the Soviets tried to persuade Karmal that he was too ill to govern, and that he should resign.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKalinovsky2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidrf1Yg2SGLQgCpgPA96_96–97]_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKalinovsky2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidrf1Yg2SGLQgCpgPA96_96–97]-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This backfired, as a Soviet doctor attending to Karmal told him he was in good health. Karmal asked to return home to Kabul, and said that he understood and would listen to the Soviet recommendations. Before leaving, Karmal promised he would step down as PDPA General Secretary. The Soviets did not trust him and sent <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Kryuchkov" title="Vladimir Kryuchkov">Vladimir Kryuchkov</a>, the head of intelligence (<a href="/wiki/First_Chief_Directorate" title="First Chief Directorate">FCD</a>) in the <a href="/wiki/KGB" title="KGB">KGB</a>, into Afghanistan. At a meeting in Kabul, Karmal confessed his undying love for the Soviet Union, comparing his ardor to his Muslim faith. Kryuchkov, concluding that he could not persuade Karmal to resign, left the meeting. After Kryuchkov left the room, the Afghan defence minister and the state security minister visited Karmal's office, telling him that he had to resign from one of his posts. Understanding that his Soviet support had been eliminated, Karmal resigned from the office of the General Secretary at the 18th PDPA Central Committee plenum. He was succeeded in his post by Najibullah.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKalinovsky2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidrf1Yg2SGLQgCpgPA97_97]_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKalinovsky2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidrf1Yg2SGLQgCpgPA97_97]-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Karmal still had support within the party, and used his base to curb Najibullah's powers. He began spreading rumors that he would be reappointed General Secretary. Najibullah's power base was in the <a href="/wiki/KHAD" title="KHAD">KHAD</a>, the Afghan equivalent to the KGB, and not the party.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKalinovsky2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidrf1Yg2SGLQgCpgPA97_97]_82-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKalinovsky2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidrf1Yg2SGLQgCpgPA97_97]-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Considering the fact that the Soviet Union had supported Karmal for over six years, the Soviet leadership wanted to ease him out of power gradually. <a href="/wiki/Yuli_Vorontsov" title="Yuli Vorontsov">Yuli Vorontsov</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_ambassador_to_Afghanistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet ambassador to Afghanistan">Soviet ambassador to Afghanistan</a>, told Najibullah to begin undermining Karmal's power slowly. Najibullah complained to the Soviet leadership that Karmal used most of his spare time looking for errors and "speaking against the <a href="/wiki/National_Reconciliation_(Afghanistan)" title="National Reconciliation (Afghanistan)">National Reconciliation</a> programme".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKalinovsky2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidrf1Yg2SGLQgCpgPA98_98]_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKalinovsky2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidrf1Yg2SGLQgCpgPA98_98]-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At a meeting of the Soviet Politburo on 13 November 1986 it was decided that Najibullah should remove Karmal; this motion was supported by Gromyko, Vorontsov, <a href="/wiki/Eduard_Shevardnadze" title="Eduard Shevardnadze">Eduard Shevardnadze</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anatoly_Dobrynin" title="Anatoly Dobrynin">Anatoly Dobrynin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Viktor_Chebrikov" title="Viktor Chebrikov">Viktor Chebrikov</a>. A PDPA meeting in November relieved Karmal of his Revolutionary Council chairmanship, and exiled him to Moscow where he was given a state-owned apartment and a <a href="/wiki/Dacha" title="Dacha">dacha</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKalinovsky2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidrf1Yg2SGLQgCpgPA98_98]_83-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKalinovsky2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidrf1Yg2SGLQgCpgPA98_98]-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Karmal was succeeded as Revolutionary Council chairman by <a href="/wiki/Haji_Mohammad_Tsamkani" class="mw-redirect" title="Haji Mohammad Tsamkani">Haji Mohammad Tsamkani</a>, who was not a member of the PDPA.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994b[httpsbooksgooglecombooksida0Mp1AHpp0gCpgPA152_152]_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994b[httpsbooksgooglecombooksida0Mp1AHpp0gCpgPA152_152]-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Later_life_and_death">Later life and death</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Babrak_Karmal&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Later life and death"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Many years after the end of his leadership, he denounced the <a href="/wiki/Saur_Revolution" title="Saur Revolution">Saur Revolution</a> of 1978 in which he took part, taking aim at the Khalq governments of Taraki and Amin. He told a Soviet reporter: </p> <blockquote><p>It was the greatest crime against the people of Afghanistan. Parcham's leaders were against armed actions because the country was not ready for a revolution... I knew that people would not support us if we decided to keep power without such support.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Karmal was invited back to Kabul by Najibullah, and "for equally obscure reasons Karmal accepted",<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESteele2011[httpsarchiveorgdetailsghostsofafghanis0000steepage146_146]_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteele2011[httpsarchiveorgdetailsghostsofafghanis0000steepage146_146]-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> returning on 20 June 1991 (this could have been on the recommendation of <a href="/wiki/Anahita_Ratebzad" title="Anahita Ratebzad">Anahita Ratebzad</a> who was very close to Karmal and also respected by Najibullah). If Najibullah's plan was to strengthen his position within the <a href="/wiki/Watan_Party_of_Afghanistan" title="Watan Party of Afghanistan">Watan Party</a> (the renamed PDPA) by appeasing the pro-Karmal Parchamites, he failed – Karmal's apartment became a center for opposition to Najibullah's government. When Najibullah was toppled in 1992, Karmal became the most powerful politician in Kabul through leadership of the Parcham. However, his negotiations with the rebels collapsed quickly, and on 16 April 1992 the rebels, led by <a href="/wiki/Gulbuddin_Hekmatyar" title="Gulbuddin Hekmatyar">Gulbuddin Hekmatyar</a>, took Kabul.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClements2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidbv4hzxpo424CpgPA26_26_(xxvi)]_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClements2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidbv4hzxpo424CpgPA26_26_(xxvi)]-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the fall of Najibullah's government, Karmal was based in <a href="/wiki/Hairatan" title="Hairatan">Hairatan</a>. There, it is alleged, Karmal used most of his time either trying to establish a new party, or advising people to join the secular <a href="/wiki/National_Islamic_Movement_of_Afghanistan" title="National Islamic Movement of Afghanistan">National Islamic Movement</a> (<i>Junbish-i-Milli</i>). <a href="/wiki/Abdul_Rashid_Dostum" title="Abdul Rashid Dostum">Abdul Rashid Dostum</a>, the leader of Junbish-i-Milli, was a supporter of Karmal during his rule. It is unknown how much control Karmal had over Dostum, but there is little evidence that Karmal was in any commanding position. Karmal's influence over Dostum appeared indirect – some of his former associates supported Dostum. Those who spoke with Karmal during this period noted his lack of interest in politics.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGiustozzi2009[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidZRScVHx4hvsCpgPA182_182]_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiustozzi2009[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidZRScVHx4hvsCpgPA182_182]-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In June 1992 it was reported that he had died in a plane crash along with Dostum, although these reports later proved to be false.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In early December 1996, Karmal died in Moscow's <a href="/wiki/Central_Clinical_Hospital" class="mw-redirect" title="Central Clinical Hospital">Central Clinical Hospital</a> from <a href="/wiki/Hepatocellular_carcinoma" title="Hepatocellular carcinoma">liver cancer</a>. The date of his death was reported by some sources as 1 December<sup id="cite_ref-NYTimesObit_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NYTimesObit-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and by others as 3 December.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Taliban" title="Taliban">Taliban</a> summed up his rule as follows: </p> <blockquote><p>[he] committed all kinds of crimes during his illegitimate rule ... God inflicted on him various kinds of hardship and pain. Eventually he died of cancer in a hospital belonging to his paymasters, the Russians.<sup id="cite_ref-NYTimesObit_90-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NYTimesObit-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Babrak_Karmal&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">His birthname has also been recorded as Sultan Hashem by certain historians.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnold1983[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidcd85ioPsz6cCpgPA19_19]_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnold1983[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidcd85ioPsz6cCpgPA19_19]-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Babrak_Karmal&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-cdlib-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-cdlib_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-cdlib_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-cdlib_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-cdlib_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpressebooks/view?docId=ft7b69p12h;chunk.id=0;doc.view=print">"Afghanistan"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210813153023/https://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpressebooks/view?docId=ft7b69p12h;chunk.id=0;doc.view=print">Archived</a> from the original on 13 August 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 August</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Afghanistan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpublishing.cdlib.org%2Fucpressebooks%2Fview%3FdocId%3Dft7b69p12h%3Bchunk.id%3D0%3Bdoc.view%3Dprint&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABabrak+Karmal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBezhanKubalek2019" class="citation news cs1">Bezhan, Frud; Kubalek, Petr (9 December 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.rferl.org/a/that-time-an-afghan-president-(to-be)-was-secretly-hiding-in-a-czechoslovak-forest/30250494.html">"The Afghan President (To Be) Who Lived A Secret Life In A Czechoslovak Forest"</a>. <i>Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200628211357/https://www.rferl.org/a/that-time-an-afghan-president-(to-be)-was-secretly-hiding-in-a-czechoslovak-forest/30250494.html">Archived</a> from the original on 28 June 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 June</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Radio+Free+Europe%2FRadio+Liberty&rft.atitle=The+Afghan+President+%28To+Be%29+Who+Lived+A+Secret+Life+In+A+Czechoslovak+Forest&rft.date=2019-12-09&rft.aulast=Bezhan&rft.aufirst=Frud&rft.au=Kubalek%2C+Petr&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.rferl.org%2Fa%2Fthat-time-an-afghan-president-%28to-be%29-was-secretly-hiding-in-a-czechoslovak-forest%2F30250494.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABabrak+Karmal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/special-report/story/19840731-babrak-karmal-government-succeeds-in-attempts-to-convince-afghans-to-accept-the-soviets-803187-1984-07-31">"Babrak Karmal Government succeeds in attempts to convince Afghans to accept the Soviets"</a>. 31 July 1984. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210804181618/https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/special-report/story/19840731-babrak-karmal-government-succeeds-in-attempts-to-convince-afghans-to-accept-the-soviets-803187-1984-07-31">Archived</a> from the original on 4 August 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 August</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Babrak+Karmal+Government+succeeds+in+attempts+to+convince+Afghans+to+accept+the+Soviets&rft.date=1984-07-31&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.indiatoday.in%2Fmagazine%2Fspecial-report%2Fstory%2F19840731-babrak-karmal-government-succeeds-in-attempts-to-convince-afghans-to-accept-the-soviets-803187-1984-07-31&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABabrak+Karmal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnold1983[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidcd85ioPsz6cCpgPA19_19]-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnold1983[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidcd85ioPsz6cCpgPA19_19]_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnold1983[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidcd85ioPsz6cCpgPA19_19]_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnold1983[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidcd85ioPsz6cCpgPA19_19]_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnold1983[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidcd85ioPsz6cCpgPA19_19]_4-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFArnold1983">Arnold 1983</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cd85ioPsz6cC&pg=PA19">19</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEH._KakarM._Kakar1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidQyTmFj5tUGsCpgPA65_65]-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEH._KakarM._Kakar1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidQyTmFj5tUGsCpgPA65_65]_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEH._KakarM._Kakar1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidQyTmFj5tUGsCpgPA65_65]_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFH._KakarM._Kakar1997">H. Kakar & M. Kakar 1997</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QyTmFj5tUGsC&pg=PA65">65</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.facebook.com/afghanha.se/photos/a.153465441356802/5180734068629889/?type=3">"Dagar Jenral Muhamaad Hussain Khan"</a>. <i>Facebook Site of Afghans in Sweden</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Facebook+Site+of+Afghans+in+Sweden&rft.atitle=Dagar+Jenral+Muhamaad+Hussain+Khan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.facebook.com%2Fafghanha.se%2Fphotos%2Fa.153465441356802%2F5180734068629889%2F%3Ftype%3D3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABabrak+Karmal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFM.Baryalay2023" class="citation cs2">M.Baryalay (20 July 2023), <a class="external text" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Lieutenant_general,_three-star_rank,_Muhamad_Hussian_Khan.jpg"><i>English: An honorary collage and recipient of the medal-e-Stor, dagar jenral (lieutenant general, three-star rank) Muhammad Hussain Khan, son of Hashem Khan, father to Babrak Karmal and Mahmood Baryalay</i></a><span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 July</span> 2023</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=English%3A+An+honorary+collage+and+recipient+of+the+medal-e-Stor%2C+dagar+jenral+%28lieutenant+general%2C+three-star+rank%29+Muhammad+Hussain+Khan%2C+son+of+Hashem+Khan%2C+father+to+Babrak+Karmal+and+Mahmood+Baryalay&rft.date=2023-07-20&rft.au=M.Baryalay&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcommons.wikimedia.org%2Fwiki%2FFile%3ALieutenant_general%2C_three-star_rank%2C_Muhamad_Hussian_Khan.jpg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABabrak+Karmal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSiasang" class="citation web cs1">Siasang, Saboor. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.esalat.org/images/Saboor-Siasang_13-01-2018.htm">"Newsweek Magazine -June11, 1984; Babrak Karmal and Ahmad Shah Masood"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Newsweek+Magazine+-June11%2C+1984%3B+Babrak+Karmal+and+Ahmad+Shah+Masood&rft.aulast=Siasang&rft.aufirst=Saboor&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.esalat.org%2Fimages%2FSaboor-Siasang_13-01-2018.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABabrak+Karmal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEClements2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidbv4hzxpo424CpgPA141_141]-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClements2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidbv4hzxpo424CpgPA141_141]_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClements2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidbv4hzxpo424CpgPA141_141]_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFClements2003">Clements 2003</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bv4hzxpo424C&pg=PA141">141</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEH._KakarM._Kakar1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidQyTmFj5tUGsCpgPA64_64]-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEH._KakarM._Kakar1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidQyTmFj5tUGsCpgPA64_64]_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFH._KakarM._Kakar1997">H. Kakar & M. Kakar 1997</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QyTmFj5tUGsC&pg=PA64">64</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMisdaq2006[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidZvm9dxavH-ICpgPA94_94]-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMisdaq2006[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidZvm9dxavH-ICpgPA94_94]_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMisdaq2006">Misdaq 2006</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Zvm9dxavH-IC&pg=PA94">94</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERasanayagam2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid5L8CnWkACQkCpgPA47_47]-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERasanayagam2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid5L8CnWkACQkCpgPA47_47]_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRasanayagam2005">Rasanayagam 2005</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5L8CnWkACQkC&pg=PA47">47</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERasanayagam2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid5L8CnWkACQkCpgPA47_47–48]-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERasanayagam2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid5L8CnWkACQkCpgPA47_47–48]_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRasanayagam2005">Rasanayagam 2005</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5L8CnWkACQkC&pg=PA47">47–48</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERasanayagam2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid5L8CnWkACQkCpgPA48_48]-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERasanayagam2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid5L8CnWkACQkCpgPA48_48]_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRasanayagam2005">Rasanayagam 2005</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5L8CnWkACQkC&pg=PA48">48</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERasanayagam2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid5L8CnWkACQkCpgPA49_49]-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERasanayagam2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid5L8CnWkACQkCpgPA49_49]_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRasanayagam2005">Rasanayagam 2005</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5L8CnWkACQkC&pg=PA49">49</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMitrokhin2002" class="citation web cs1">Mitrokhin, Vasili (July 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wilsoncenter.org/sites/default/files/media/documents/publication/WP40-english.pdf">"The KGB in Afghanistan"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars</i>. p. 132<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 February</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Woodrow+Wilson+International+Center+for+Scholars&rft.atitle=The+KGB+in+Afghanistan&rft.pages=132&rft.date=2002-07&rft.aulast=Mitrokhin&rft.aufirst=Vasili&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wilsoncenter.org%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Fmedia%2Fdocuments%2Fpublication%2FWP40-english.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABabrak+Karmal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnold1983[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidcd85ioPsz6cCpgPA32_32]-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnold1983[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidcd85ioPsz6cCpgPA32_32]_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFArnold1983">Arnold 1983</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cd85ioPsz6cC&pg=PA32">32</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnold1983[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidcd85ioPsz6cCpgPA33_33–34]-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnold1983[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidcd85ioPsz6cCpgPA33_33–34]_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFArnold1983">Arnold 1983</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cd85ioPsz6cC&pg=PA33">33–34</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpressebooks/view?docId=ft7b69p12h&chunk.id=s1.4.4&toc.id=ch04&toc.depth=100&brand=ucpress;query=The%20Quiet%20Revolution&anchor.id=d0e2209">"Afghanistan"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210804215315/https://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpressebooks/view?docId=ft7b69p12h&chunk.id=s1.4.4&toc.id=ch04&toc.depth=100&brand=ucpress;query=The%20Quiet%20Revolution&anchor.id=d0e2209">Archived</a> from the original on 4 August 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 August</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Afghanistan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpublishing.cdlib.org%2Fucpressebooks%2Fview%3FdocId%3Dft7b69p12h%26chunk.id%3Ds1.4.4%26toc.id%3Dch04%26toc.depth%3D100%26brand%3Ducpress%3Bquery%3DThe%2520Quiet%2520Revolution%26anchor.id%3Dd0e2209&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABabrak+Karmal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnold1983[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidcd85ioPsz6cCpgPA34_34]-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnold1983[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidcd85ioPsz6cCpgPA34_34]_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFArnold1983">Arnold 1983</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cd85ioPsz6cC&pg=PA34">34</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnold1983[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidcd85ioPsz6cCpgPA35_35]-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnold1983[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidcd85ioPsz6cCpgPA35_35]_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFArnold1983">Arnold 1983</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cd85ioPsz6cC&pg=PA35">35</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGladstone2001[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidaH_KCWVB6W0CpgPA113_113]-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGladstone2001[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidaH_KCWVB6W0CpgPA113_113]_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGladstone2001">Gladstone 2001</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=aH_KCWVB6W0C&pg=PA113">113</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGladstone2001[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidaH_KCWVB6W0CpgPA114_114]-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGladstone2001[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidaH_KCWVB6W0CpgPA114_114]_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGladstone2001">Gladstone 2001</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=aH_KCWVB6W0C&pg=PA114">114</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETomsen2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidzz9_Ve29eL0CpgPA105_105]-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETomsen2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidzz9_Ve29eL0CpgPA105_105]_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTomsen2011">Tomsen 2011</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zz9_Ve29eL0C&pg=PA105">105</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETomsen2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidzz9_Ve29eL0CpgPA107_107]-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETomsen2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidzz9_Ve29eL0CpgPA107_107]_26-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETomsen2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidzz9_Ve29eL0CpgPA107_107]_26-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETomsen2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidzz9_Ve29eL0CpgPA107_107]_26-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTomsen2011">Tomsen 2011</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zz9_Ve29eL0C&pg=PA107">107</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETomsen2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidzz9_Ve29eL0CpgPA110_110–111]-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETomsen2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidzz9_Ve29eL0CpgPA110_110–111]_27-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETomsen2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidzz9_Ve29eL0CpgPA110_110–111]_27-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTomsen2011">Tomsen 2011</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zz9_Ve29eL0C&pg=PA110">110–111</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGladstone2001[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidaH_KCWVB6W0CpgPA117_117]-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGladstone2001[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidaH_KCWVB6W0CpgPA117_117]_28-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGladstone2001[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidaH_KCWVB6W0CpgPA117_117]_28-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGladstone2001">Gladstone 2001</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=aH_KCWVB6W0C&pg=PA117">117</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrecherWilkenfeld1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidGjY7aV_6FPwCpgPA356_356]-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrecherWilkenfeld1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidGjY7aV_6FPwCpgPA356_356]_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrecherWilkenfeld1997">Brecher & Wilkenfeld 1997</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GjY7aV_6FPwC&pg=PA356">356</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAsthanaNirmal2009[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8EqWnqdsgZMCpgPA219_219]-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAsthanaNirmal2009[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8EqWnqdsgZMCpgPA219_219]_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAsthanaNirmal2009">Asthana & Nirmal 2009</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8EqWnqdsgZMC&pg=PA219">219</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERasanayagam2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid5L8CnWkACQkCpgPA70_70]-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERasanayagam2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid5L8CnWkACQkCpgPA70_70]_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRasanayagam2005">Rasanayagam 2005</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5L8CnWkACQkC&pg=PA70">70</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERasanayagam2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid5L8CnWkACQkCpgPA70_70–71]-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERasanayagam2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid5L8CnWkACQkCpgPA70_70–71]_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRasanayagam2005">Rasanayagam 2005</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5L8CnWkACQkC&pg=PA70">70–71</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERasanayagam2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid5L8CnWkACQkCpgPA71_71]-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERasanayagam2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid5L8CnWkACQkCpgPA71_71]_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRasanayagam2005">Rasanayagam 2005</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5L8CnWkACQkC&pg=PA71">71</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERasanayagam2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid5L8CnWkACQkCpgPA72_72–73]-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERasanayagam2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid5L8CnWkACQkCpgPA72_72–73]_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRasanayagam2005">Rasanayagam 2005</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5L8CnWkACQkC&pg=PA72">72–73</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWestad200573-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWestad200573_35-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWestad200573_35-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWestad2005">Westad 2005</a>, p. 73.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERasanayagam2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidQhFZHRpQdu4CpgPT296_296]-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERasanayagam2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidQhFZHRpQdu4CpgPT296_296]_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRasanayagam2005">Rasanayagam 2005</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QhFZHRpQdu4C&pg=PT296">296</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKubátová" class="citation news cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Kubátová, Kubátová. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.irozhlas.cz/zpravy-svet/babrak-karmal-afghanistan-prezident-velvyslanec-cssr-stb_1911101337_eku">"Z lovecké chaty do lázní. Archivy odkryly misi StB, která v Krušných horách ukrývala afghánského prezidenta"</a>. <i>iROZHLAS</i> (in Czech). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191110184128/https://www.irozhlas.cz/zpravy-svet/babrak-karmal-afghanistan-prezident-velvyslanec-cssr-stb_1911101337_eku">Archived</a> from the original on 10 November 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 November</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=iROZHLAS&rft.atitle=Z+loveck%C3%A9+chaty+do+l%C3%A1zn%C3%AD.+Archivy+odkryly+misi+StB%2C+kter%C3%A1+v+Kru%C5%A1n%C3%BDch+hor%C3%A1ch+ukr%C3%BDvala+afgh%C3%A1nsk%C3%A9ho+prezidenta&rft.aulast=Kub%C3%A1tov%C3%A1&rft.aufirst=Kub%C3%A1tov%C3%A1&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.irozhlas.cz%2Fzpravy-svet%2Fbabrak-karmal-afghanistan-prezident-velvyslanec-cssr-stb_1911101337_eku&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABabrak+Karmal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://digitalcommons.unomaha.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1106&context=afghanuno">"The Kabul Times"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160326124615/http://digitalcommons.unomaha.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1106&context=afghanuno">Archived</a> from the original on 26 March 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 August</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Kabul+Times&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdigitalcommons.unomaha.edu%2Fcgi%2Fviewcontent.cgi%3Farticle%3D1106%26context%3Dafghanuno&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABabrak+Karmal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGarthoff1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidmGG-x_tuNUcCpgPA1017_1017]-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGarthoff1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidmGG-x_tuNUcCpgPA1017_1017]_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGarthoff1994">Garthoff 1994</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mGG-x_tuNUcC&pg=PA1017">1017</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBraithwaite201199-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBraithwaite201199_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBraithwaite2011">Braithwaite 2011</a>, p. 99.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBraithwaite2011103-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBraithwaite2011103_41-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBraithwaite2011103_41-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBraithwaite2011103_41-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBraithwaite2011">Braithwaite 2011</a>, p. 103.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBraithwaite2011103–104-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBraithwaite2011103–104_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBraithwaite2011">Braithwaite 2011</a>, pp. 103–104.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/head-afghan-commando-unit-detained-over-1-000-killings-n455586">"Head of Afghan Commando Unit Detained Over 1,000 Killings"</a>. <i>NBC News</i>. 2 November 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 September</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=NBC+News&rft.atitle=Head+of+Afghan+Commando+Unit+Detained+Over+1%2C000+Killings&rft.date=2015-11-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nbcnews.com%2Fnews%2Fworld%2Fhead-afghan-commando-unit-detained-over-1-000-killings-n455586&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABabrak+Karmal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.afghanistan-analysts.org/en/reports/rights-freedom/a-36-year-wait-for-justice-dutch-arrest-suspected-afghan-war-criminal/">"A 36-Year Wait for Justice? Dutch arrest suspected Afghan war criminal"</a>. <i>Afghanistan Analysts Network - English</i> (in Pashto). 1 November 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 September</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Afghanistan+Analysts+Network+-+English&rft.atitle=A+36-Year+Wait+for+Justice%3F+Dutch+arrest+suspected+Afghan+war+criminal&rft.date=2015-11-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.afghanistan-analysts.org%2Fen%2Freports%2Frights-freedom%2Fa-36-year-wait-for-justice-dutch-arrest-suspected-afghan-war-criminal%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABabrak+Karmal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEH._KakarM._Kakar1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidQyTmFj5tUGsCpgPA71_71–72]-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEH._KakarM._Kakar1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidQyTmFj5tUGsCpgPA71_71–72]_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFH._KakarM._Kakar1997">H. Kakar & M. Kakar 1997</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QyTmFj5tUGsC&pg=PA71">71–72</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEH._KakarM._Kakar1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidQyTmFj5tUGsCpgPA72_72]-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEH._KakarM._Kakar1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidQyTmFj5tUGsCpgPA72_72]_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFH._KakarM._Kakar1997">H. Kakar & M. Kakar 1997</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QyTmFj5tUGsC&pg=PA72">72</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEH._KakarM._Kakar1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidQyTmFj5tUGsCpgPA73_73]-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEH._KakarM._Kakar1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidQyTmFj5tUGsCpgPA73_73]_47-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEH._KakarM._Kakar1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidQyTmFj5tUGsCpgPA73_73]_47-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFH._KakarM._Kakar1997">H. Kakar & M. Kakar 1997</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QyTmFj5tUGsC&pg=PA73">73</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYassari2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidCMGfLzYWeW4CpgPA13_13]-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYassari2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidCMGfLzYWeW4CpgPA13_13]_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFYassari2005">Yassari 2005</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CMGfLzYWeW4C&pg=PA13">13</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBraithwaite2011104-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBraithwaite2011104_49-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBraithwaite2011104_49-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBraithwaite2011104_49-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBraithwaite2011">Braithwaite 2011</a>, p. 104.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnold1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidTmMJnaMVN6oCpgPA44_44]-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnold1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidTmMJnaMVN6oCpgPA44_44]_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFArnold1994">Arnold 1994</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TmMJnaMVN6oC&pg=PA44">44</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnold1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidTmMJnaMVN6oCpgPA45_45]-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnold1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidTmMJnaMVN6oCpgPA45_45]_51-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFArnold1994">Arnold 1994</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TmMJnaMVN6oC&pg=PA45">45</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnold1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidTmMJnaMVN6oCpgPA48_48]-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnold1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidTmMJnaMVN6oCpgPA48_48]_52-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnold1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidTmMJnaMVN6oCpgPA48_48]_52-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnold1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidTmMJnaMVN6oCpgPA48_48]_52-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnold1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidTmMJnaMVN6oCpgPA48_48]_52-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFArnold1994">Arnold 1994</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TmMJnaMVN6oC&pg=PA48">48</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnold1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidTmMJnaMVN6oCpgPA49_49]-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnold1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidTmMJnaMVN6oCpgPA49_49]_53-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFArnold1994">Arnold 1994</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TmMJnaMVN6oC&pg=PA49">49</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdamec2011Iii,_Iiii_&_lv-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdamec2011Iii,_Iiii_&_lv_54-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAdamec2011">Adamec 2011</a>, pp. Iii, Iiii & lv.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnold1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidTmMJnaMVN6oCpgPA45_45–46]-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnold1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidTmMJnaMVN6oCpgPA45_45–46]_55-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFArnold1994">Arnold 1994</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TmMJnaMVN6oC&pg=PA45">45–46</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnold1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidTmMJnaMVN6oCpgPA46_46]-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnold1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidTmMJnaMVN6oCpgPA46_46]_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFArnold1994">Arnold 1994</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TmMJnaMVN6oC&pg=PA46">46</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStaff_writers2002[httpsbooksgooglecombookside5Az1lGCJwQCpgPA64_64]-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStaff_writers2002[httpsbooksgooglecombookside5Az1lGCJwQCpgPA64_64]_57-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStaff_writers2002">Staff writers 2002</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=e5Az1lGCJwQC&pg=PA64">64</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnold1983[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidcd85ioPsz6cCpgPA111_111]-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnold1983[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidcd85ioPsz6cCpgPA111_111]_58-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFArnold1983">Arnold 1983</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cd85ioPsz6cC&pg=PA111">111</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsarchiveorgdetailsbub_gb_RUSNyMH1aFQCpagen203_180]-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsarchiveorgdetailsbub_gb_RUSNyMH1aFQCpagen203_180]_59-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsarchiveorgdetailsbub_gb_RUSNyMH1aFQCpagen203_180]_59-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAmtstutz1994a">Amtstutz 1994a</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_RUSNyMH1aFQC/page/n203">180</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsarchiveorgdetailsbub_gb_RUSNyMH1aFQCpagen204_181]-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsarchiveorgdetailsbub_gb_RUSNyMH1aFQCpagen204_181]_60-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAmtstutz1994a">Amtstutz 1994a</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_RUSNyMH1aFQC/page/n204">181</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBonosky2001[httpsarchiveorgdetailsafghanistanwashi00bonopage261_261]-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBonosky2001[httpsarchiveorgdetailsafghanistanwashi00bonopage261_261]_61-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBonosky2001">Bonosky 2001</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/afghanistanwashi00bono/page/261">261</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELeviteJentelesonBerman1992[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidtA8jTFUFuzQCpgPA80_80]-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeviteJentelesonBerman1992[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidtA8jTFUFuzQCpgPA80_80]_62-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLeviteJentelesonBerman1992">Levite, Jenteleson & Berman 1992</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tA8jTFUFuzQC&pg=PA80">80</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsarchiveorgdetailsbub_gb_RUSNyMH1aFQCpagen211_186]-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsarchiveorgdetailsbub_gb_RUSNyMH1aFQCpagen211_186]_63-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAmtstutz1994a">Amtstutz 1994a</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_RUSNyMH1aFQC/page/n211">186</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnold1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidTmMJnaMVN6oCpgPA47_47]-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnold1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidTmMJnaMVN6oCpgPA47_47]_64-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnold1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidTmMJnaMVN6oCpgPA47_47]_64-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFArnold1994">Arnold 1994</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TmMJnaMVN6oC&pg=PA47">47</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStaff_writers2002[httpsbooksgooglecombookside5Az1lGCJwQCpgPA86_86]-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStaff_writers2002[httpsbooksgooglecombookside5Az1lGCJwQCpgPA86_86]_65-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStaff_writers2002">Staff writers 2002</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=e5Az1lGCJwQC&pg=PA86">86</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/interview/story/19800515-india-has-always-been-a-good-friend-of-afghanistan-babrak-karmal-806665-2014-01-28">"India has always been a good friend of Afghanistan: Babrak Karmal"</a>. 28 January 2014. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210804174137/https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/interview/story/19800515-india-has-always-been-a-good-friend-of-afghanistan-babrak-karmal-806665-2014-01-28">Archived</a> from the original on 4 August 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 August</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=India+has+always+been+a+good+friend+of+Afghanistan%3A+Babrak+Karmal&rft.date=2014-01-28&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.indiatoday.in%2Fmagazine%2Finterview%2Fstory%2F19800515-india-has-always-been-a-good-friend-of-afghanistan-babrak-karmal-806665-2014-01-28&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABabrak+Karmal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120205010307/http://www.afghanistans.com/information/Economy/default.htm">"Economy"</a>. Afghanistan.com. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.afghanistans.com/Information/Economy/default.htm">the original</a> on 5 February 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 February</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Economy&rft.pub=Afghanistan.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.afghanistans.com%2FInformation%2FEconomy%2Fdefault.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABabrak+Karmal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20011106230711/http://www.gl.iit.edu/govdocs/afghanistan/country.html">"Country Profile: Afghanistan"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Illinois_Institute_of_Technology" title="Illinois Institute of Technology">Illinois Institute of Technology</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gl.iit.edu/govdocs/afghanistan/country.html">the original</a> on 6 November 2001<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 February</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Country+Profile%3A+Afghanistan&rft.pub=Illinois+Institute+of+Technology&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gl.iit.edu%2Fgovdocs%2Fafghanistan%2Fcountry.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABabrak+Karmal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECollins1986[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid1TDa1YNhSjgCpgPA306_306]-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECollins1986[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid1TDa1YNhSjgCpgPA306_306]_69-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECollins1986[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid1TDa1YNhSjgCpgPA306_306]_69-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCollins1986">Collins 1986</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1TDa1YNhSjgC&pg=PA306">306</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECollins1986[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid1TDa1YNhSjgCpgPA313_313–314]-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECollins1986[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid1TDa1YNhSjgCpgPA313_313–314]_70-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCollins1986">Collins 1986</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1TDa1YNhSjgC&pg=PA313">313–314</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECollins1986[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid1TDa1YNhSjgCpgPA314_314]-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECollins1986[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid1TDa1YNhSjgCpgPA314_314]_71-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCollins1986">Collins 1986</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1TDa1YNhSjgC&pg=PA314">314</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEQassem2009[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidt_Qn9PZMU4wCpgPA87_87–88]-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEQassem2009[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidt_Qn9PZMU4wCpgPA87_87–88]_72-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFQassem2009">Qassem 2009</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=t_Qn9PZMU4wC&pg=PA87">87–88</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHilali2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidnhqRa0glD9oCpgPA50_50]-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHilali2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidnhqRa0glD9oCpgPA50_50]_73-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHilali2005">Hilali 2005</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nhqRa0glD9oC&pg=PA50">50</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEQassem2009[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidt_Qn9PZMU4wCpgPA78_78]-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEQassem2009[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidt_Qn9PZMU4wCpgPA78_78]_74-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFQassem2009">Qassem 2009</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=t_Qn9PZMU4wC&pg=PA78">78</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://parlinfo.aph.gov.au/parlInfo/search/display/display.w3p;query=Id%3A%22hansard80%2Fhansardr80%2F1980-02-19%2F0067%22;src1=sm1">Parlinfo - Afghanistan-Invasion By Soviet Union</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBorer2013" class="citation book cs1">Borer, Douglas A. (February 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Z54rBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA174"><i>Superpowers Defeated: Vietnam and Afghanistan Compared</i></a>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781136316579" title="Special:BookSources/9781136316579"><bdi>9781136316579</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210804203551/https://books.google.com/books?id=Z54rBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA174">Archived</a> from the original on 4 August 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 August</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Superpowers+Defeated%3A+Vietnam+and+Afghanistan+Compared&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013-02&rft.isbn=9781136316579&rft.aulast=Borer&rft.aufirst=Douglas+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZ54rBgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA174&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABabrak+Karmal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEH._KakarM._Kakar1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidQyTmFj5tUGsCpgPA74_74]-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEH._KakarM._Kakar1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidQyTmFj5tUGsCpgPA74_74]_77-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFH._KakarM._Kakar1997">H. Kakar & M. Kakar 1997</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QyTmFj5tUGsC&pg=PA74">74</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEH._KakarM._Kakar1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidQyTmFj5tUGsCpgPA75_75]-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEH._KakarM._Kakar1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidQyTmFj5tUGsCpgPA75_75]_78-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFH._KakarM._Kakar1997">H. Kakar & M. Kakar 1997</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QyTmFj5tUGsC&pg=PA75">75</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKalinovsky2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidrf1Yg2SGLQgCpgPA95_95]-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKalinovsky2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidrf1Yg2SGLQgCpgPA95_95]_79-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKalinovsky2011">Kalinovsky 2011</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rf1Yg2SGLQgC&pg=PA95">95</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKalinovsky2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidrf1Yg2SGLQgCpgPA96_96]-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKalinovsky2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidrf1Yg2SGLQgCpgPA96_96]_80-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKalinovsky2011">Kalinovsky 2011</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rf1Yg2SGLQgC&pg=PA96">96</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKalinovsky2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidrf1Yg2SGLQgCpgPA96_96–97]-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKalinovsky2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidrf1Yg2SGLQgCpgPA96_96–97]_81-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKalinovsky2011">Kalinovsky 2011</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rf1Yg2SGLQgC&pg=PA96">96–97</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKalinovsky2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidrf1Yg2SGLQgCpgPA97_97]-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKalinovsky2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidrf1Yg2SGLQgCpgPA97_97]_82-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKalinovsky2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidrf1Yg2SGLQgCpgPA97_97]_82-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKalinovsky2011">Kalinovsky 2011</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rf1Yg2SGLQgC&pg=PA97">97</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKalinovsky2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidrf1Yg2SGLQgCpgPA98_98]-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKalinovsky2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidrf1Yg2SGLQgCpgPA98_98]_83-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKalinovsky2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidrf1Yg2SGLQgCpgPA98_98]_83-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKalinovsky2011">Kalinovsky 2011</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rf1Yg2SGLQgC&pg=PA98">98</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994b[httpsbooksgooglecombooksida0Mp1AHpp0gCpgPA152_152]-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994b[httpsbooksgooglecombooksida0Mp1AHpp0gCpgPA152_152]_84-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAmtstutz1994b">Amtstutz 1994b</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=a0Mp1AHpp0gC&pg=PA152">152</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Ghosts of Afghanistan: Hard Truths and Foreign Myths</i> by Jonathan Steele</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESteele2011[httpsarchiveorgdetailsghostsofafghanis0000steepage146_146]-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESteele2011[httpsarchiveorgdetailsghostsofafghanis0000steepage146_146]_86-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSteele2011">Steele 2011</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ghostsofafghanis0000stee/page/146">146</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEClements2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidbv4hzxpo424CpgPA26_26_(xxvi)]-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClements2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidbv4hzxpo424CpgPA26_26_(xxvi)]_87-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFClements2003">Clements 2003</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bv4hzxpo424C&pg=PA26">26 (xxvi)</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiustozzi2009[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidZRScVHx4hvsCpgPA182_182]-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGiustozzi2009[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidZRScVHx4hvsCpgPA182_182]_88-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGiustozzi2009">Giustozzi 2009</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZRScVHx4hvsC&pg=PA182">182</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.latimes.com/archives">"Archives"</a>. <i>Los Angeles Times</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211030002815/https://www.latimes.com/archives">Archived</a> from the original on 30 October 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 October</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Los+Angeles+Times&rft.atitle=Archives&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.latimes.com%2Farchives&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABabrak+Karmal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NYTimesObit-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-NYTimesObit_90-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NYTimesObit_90-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPace,_Eric1996" class="citation web cs1">Pace, Eric (6 December 1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1996/12/06/world/babrak-karmal-afghanistan-s-ex-president-dies-at-67.html">"Babrak Karmal, Afghanistan's Ex-President, Dies at 67"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130523085513/http://www.nytimes.com/1996/12/06/world/babrak-karmal-afghanistan-s-ex-president-dies-at-67.html">Archived</a> from the original on 23 May 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 January</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Babrak+Karmal%2C+Afghanistan%27s+Ex-President%2C+Dies+at+67&rft.date=1996-12-06&rft.au=Pace%2C+Eric&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1996%2F12%2F06%2Fworld%2Fbabrak-karmal-afghanistan-s-ex-president-dies-at-67.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABabrak+Karmal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.spiegel.de/spiegel/print/d-9133712.html">"Gestorben: Babrak Karmal"</a> [Died: Babrak Karmal]. <i><a href="/wiki/Der_Spiegel" title="Der Spiegel">Der Spiegel</a></i> (in German). 9 December 1996. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110217014219/http://www.spiegel.de/spiegel/print/d-9133712.html">Archived</a> from the original on 17 February 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 February</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Der+Spiegel&rft.atitle=Gestorben%3A+Babrak+Karmal&rft.date=1996-12-09&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.spiegel.de%2Fspiegel%2Fprint%2Fd-9133712.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABabrak+Karmal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/312510/Babrak-Karmal">"Babrak Karmal"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120320052949/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/312510/Babrak-Karmal">Archived</a> from the original on 20 March 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 February</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.atitle=Babrak+Karmal&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2FEBchecked%2Ftopic%2F312510%2FBabrak-Karmal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABabrak+Karmal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhitaker,_Raymond1996" class="citation web cs1">Whitaker, Raymond (6 December 1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/obituary-babrak-karmal-1313192.html">"Obituary: Babrak Karmal"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Independent" title="The Independent">The Independent</a></i>. Independent Print Limited. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201117000507/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/obituary-babrak-karmal-1313192.html">Archived</a> from the original on 17 November 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 February</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Independent&rft.atitle=Obituary%3A+Babrak+Karmal&rft.date=1996-12-06&rft.au=Whitaker%2C+Raymond&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.independent.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fpeople%2Fobituary-babrak-karmal-1313192.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABabrak+Karmal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Babrak_Karmal&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdamec2011" class="citation book cs1">Adamec, Ludwig (2011). <i>Historical Dictionary of Afghanistan</i>. <a href="/wiki/Rowman_%26_Littlefield" title="Rowman & Littlefield">Scarecrow Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8108-7815-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8108-7815-0"><bdi>978-0-8108-7815-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historical+Dictionary+of+Afghanistan&rft.pub=Scarecrow+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-8108-7815-0&rft.au=Adamec%2C+Ludwig&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABabrak+Karmal" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAmtstutz1994a" class="citation book cs1">Amtstutz, J. Bruce (1994a). <i>Afghanistan: The First Five Years of Soviet Occupation</i>. Dliane Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0788111112" title="Special:BookSources/978-0788111112"><bdi>978-0788111112</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Afghanistan%3A+The+First+Five+Years+of+Soviet+Occupation&rft.pub=Dliane+Publishing&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0788111112&rft.aulast=Amtstutz&rft.aufirst=J.+Bruce&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABabrak+Karmal" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAmtstutz1994b" class="citation book cs1">Amtstutz, J. Bruce (1994b). <i>Afghanistan: Past and Present</i>. Disne Publishing.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Afghanistan%3A+Past+and+Present&rft.pub=Disne+Publishing&rft.date=1994&rft.aulast=Amtstutz&rft.aufirst=J.+Bruce&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABabrak+Karmal" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Reliable_sources" title="Wikipedia:Reliable sources"><span title="The material near this tag may rely on an unreliable source. This doesn't appear to exist, definitely not as a work by Amtstutz. Where it does exist it has an isbn that is for "Afghanistan: The First Five Years of Soviet Occupation', but none of the page nbers line up for that work. (May 2022)">unreliable source?</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArnold1983" class="citation book cs1">Arnold, Anthony (1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/afghanistanstwop00anth_0"><i>Afghanistan's Two-party Communism: Parcham and Khalq</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Hoover_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Hoover Press">Hoover Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8179-7792-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8179-7792-4"><bdi>978-0-8179-7792-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Afghanistan%27s+Two-party+Communism%3A+Parcham+and+Khalq&rft.pub=Hoover+Press&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=978-0-8179-7792-4&rft.au=Arnold%2C+Anthony&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fafghanistanstwop00anth_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABabrak+Karmal" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArnold1994" class="citation book cs1">Arnold, Anthony (1994). "Chapter 1: The Ephemeral Elite: The Failure of Socialist Afghanistan". In Weiner, Myron; Banuazizi, Ali (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/politicsofsocial00myro"><i>The Politics of Social Transformation in Afghanistan, Iran, and Pakistan</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Syracuse_University_Press" title="Syracuse University Press">Syracuse University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8156-2608-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8156-2608-4"><bdi>978-0-8156-2608-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+1%3A+The+Ephemeral+Elite%3A+The+Failure+of+Socialist+Afghanistan&rft.btitle=The+Politics+of+Social+Transformation+in+Afghanistan%2C+Iran%2C+and+Pakistan&rft.pub=Syracuse+University+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-8156-2608-4&rft.au=Arnold%2C+Anthony&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpoliticsofsocial00myro&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABabrak+Karmal" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAsthanaNirmal2009" class="citation book cs1">Asthana, N.C.; Nirmal, A. (2009). <i>Urban Terrorism: Myths and Realities</i>. Pointer Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-7132-598-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-7132-598-6"><bdi>978-81-7132-598-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Urban+Terrorism%3A+Myths+and+Realities&rft.pub=Pointer+Publishers&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-81-7132-598-6&rft.au=Asthana%2C+N.C.&rft.au=Nirmal%2C+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABabrak+Karmal" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBonosky2001" class="citation book cs1">Bonosky, Phillip (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/afghanistanwashi00bono"><i>Afghanistan–Washington's Secret War</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Publishers" title="International Publishers">International Publishers</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7178-0732-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7178-0732-1"><bdi>978-0-7178-0732-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Afghanistan%E2%80%93Washington%27s+Secret+War&rft.pub=International+Publishers&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-7178-0732-1&rft.au=Bonosky%2C+Phillip&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fafghanistanwashi00bono&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABabrak+Karmal" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrecherWilkenfeld1997" class="citation book cs1">Brecher, Michael; Wilkenfeld, Jonathan (1997). <i>A Study of Crisis</i>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Michigan_Press" title="University of Michigan Press">University of Michigan Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-472-10806-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-472-10806-0"><bdi>978-0-472-10806-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Study+of+Crisis&rft.pub=University+of+Michigan+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-472-10806-0&rft.au=Brecher%2C+Michael&rft.au=Wilkenfeld%2C+Jonathan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABabrak+Karmal" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBraithwaite2011" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Rodric_Braithwaite" title="Rodric Braithwaite">Braithwaite, Rodric</a> (2011). <i>Afgantsy: The Russians in Afghanistan, 1979–1989</i>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-983265-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-983265-1"><bdi>978-0-19-983265-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Afgantsy%3A+The+Russians+in+Afghanistan%2C+1979%E2%80%931989&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-19-983265-1&rft.au=Braithwaite%2C+Rodric&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABabrak+Karmal" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClements2003" class="citation book cs1">Clements, Frank (2003). <i>Conflict in Afghanistan: a Historical Encyclopedia</i>. <a href="/wiki/ABC-CLIO" class="mw-redirect" title="ABC-CLIO">ABC-CLIO</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85109-402-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85109-402-8"><bdi>978-1-85109-402-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Conflict+in+Afghanistan%3A+a+Historical+Encyclopedia&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-1-85109-402-8&rft.au=Clements%2C+Frank&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABabrak+Karmal" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCollins1986" class="citation book cs1">Collins, Joseph (1986). "Chapter 18: The Soviet – Afghan War: The First Four Years". In Leird, Robbin; Hoffmann, Erik (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sovietforeignpol0000lair"><i>Soviet foreign policy in a Changing World</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Transaction_Publishers" title="Transaction Publishers">Transaction Publishers</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-202-24166-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-202-24166-1"><bdi>978-0-202-24166-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+18%3A+The+Soviet+%E2%80%93+Afghan+War%3A+The+First+Four+Years&rft.btitle=Soviet+foreign+policy+in+a+Changing+World&rft.pub=Transaction+Publishers&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-0-202-24166-1&rft.aulast=Collins&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsovietforeignpol0000lair&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABabrak+Karmal" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGarthoff1994" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Garthoff" class="mw-redirect" title="Raymond Garthoff">Garthoff, Raymond</a> (1994). <i>Détente and Confrontation: American–Soviet relations from Nixon to Reagan</i>. <a href="/wiki/Brookings_Institution_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Brookings Institution Press">Brookings Institution Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8157-3041-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8157-3041-5"><bdi>978-0-8157-3041-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=D%C3%A9tente+and+Confrontation%3A+American%E2%80%93Soviet+relations+from+Nixon+to+Reagan&rft.pub=Brookings+Institution+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-8157-3041-5&rft.au=Garthoff%2C+Raymond&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABabrak+Karmal" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGladstone2001" class="citation book cs1">Gladstone, Cary (2001). "Afghanistan: a Country Study (edited by Blood, Baxter, Dupree, Gouttierre & Newell)". <i>Afghanistan Revisited</i>. <a href="/wiki/Nova_Publishers" class="mw-redirect" title="Nova Publishers">Nova Publishers</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1590334218" title="Special:BookSources/978-1590334218"><bdi>978-1590334218</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Afghanistan%3A+a+Country+Study+%28edited+by+Blood%2C+Baxter%2C+Dupree%2C+Gouttierre+%26+Newell%29&rft.btitle=Afghanistan+Revisited&rft.pub=Nova+Publishers&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-1590334218&rft.au=Gladstone%2C+Cary&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABabrak+Karmal" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGiustozzi2009" class="citation book cs1">Giustozzi, Antonio (2009). <i>Empires of Mud: War and Warlords of Afghanistan</i>. <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University_Press" title="Columbia University Press">Columbia University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-231-70080-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-231-70080-1"><bdi>978-0-231-70080-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Empires+of+Mud%3A+War+and+Warlords+of+Afghanistan&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-231-70080-1&rft.au=Giustozzi%2C+Antonio&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABabrak+Karmal" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHilali2005" class="citation book cs1">Hilali, A. Z. (2005). <i>US–Pakistan relationship: Soviet invasion of Afghanistan</i>. <a href="/wiki/Ashgate_Publishing" title="Ashgate Publishing">Ashgate Publishing</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-4220-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-4220-6"><bdi>978-0-7546-4220-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=US%E2%80%93Pakistan+relationship%3A+Soviet+invasion+of+Afghanistan&rft.pub=Ashgate+Publishing&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-7546-4220-6&rft.au=Hilali%2C+A.+Z.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABabrak+Karmal" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeviteJentelesonBerman1992" class="citation book cs1">Levite, Ariel; Jenteleson, Bruce; Berman, Larry (1992). <i>Foreign Military Intervention: The Dynamics of Protracted Conflict</i>. <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University_Press" title="Columbia University Press">Columbia University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-231-07295-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-231-07295-3"><bdi>978-0-231-07295-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Foreign+Military+Intervention%3A+The+Dynamics+of+Protracted+Conflict&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-231-07295-3&rft.au=Levite%2C+Ariel&rft.au=Jenteleson%2C+Bruce&rft.au=Berman%2C+Larry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABabrak+Karmal" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFH._KakarM._Kakar1997" class="citation book cs1">Kakar, Hassan; Kakar, Mohammed (1997). <i>Afghanistan: The Soviet Invasion and the Afghan Response, 1979–1982</i>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_California_Press" title="University of California Press">University of California Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-20893-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-20893-3"><bdi>978-0-520-20893-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Afghanistan%3A+The+Soviet+Invasion+and+the+Afghan+Response%2C+1979%E2%80%931982&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-520-20893-3&rft.au=Kakar%2C+Hassan&rft.au=Kakar%2C+Mohammed&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABabrak+Karmal" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKalinovsky2011" class="citation book cs1">Kalinovsky, Artemy (2011). <i>A Long Goodbye: The Soviet Withdrawal from Afghanistan</i>. <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-05866-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-05866-8"><bdi>978-0-674-05866-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Long+Goodbye%3A+The+Soviet+Withdrawal+from+Afghanistan&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-674-05866-8&rft.au=Kalinovsky%2C+Artemy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABabrak+Karmal" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKamali1985" class="citation book cs1">Kamali, Mohammad Hashim (1985). <i>Law in Afghanistan: a Study of the Constitutions, Matrimonial law and the Judiciary</i>. <a href="/wiki/Brill_Publishers" title="Brill Publishers">Brill Publishers</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-07128-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-07128-5"><bdi>978-90-04-07128-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Law+in+Afghanistan%3A+a+Study+of+the+Constitutions%2C+Matrimonial+law+and+the+Judiciary&rft.pub=Brill+Publishers&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=978-90-04-07128-5&rft.au=Kamali%2C+Mohammad+Hashim&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABabrak+Karmal" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKanet1987" class="citation book cs1">Kanet, Roger (1987). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sovietunionparty0000worl"><i>The Soviet Union, Eastern Europe, and the Third World</i></a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-34459-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-34459-3"><bdi>978-0-521-34459-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Soviet+Union%2C+Eastern+Europe%2C+and+the+Third+World&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-0-521-34459-3&rft.au=Kanet%2C+Roger&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsovietunionparty0000worl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABabrak+Karmal" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMale1982" class="citation book cs1">Male, Beverley (1982). <i>Revolutionary Afghanistan: A Reappraisal</i>. <a href="/wiki/Taylor_%26_Francis" title="Taylor & Francis">Taylor & Francis</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7099-1716-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7099-1716-8"><bdi>978-0-7099-1716-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Revolutionary+Afghanistan%3A+A+Reappraisal&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=978-0-7099-1716-8&rft.au=Male%2C+Beverley&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABabrak+Karmal" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMisdaq2006" class="citation book cs1">Misdaq, Nabi (2006). <i>Afghanistan: Political Frailty and External Interference</i>. <a href="/wiki/Taylor_%26_Francis" title="Taylor & Francis">Taylor & Francis</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0415702058" title="Special:BookSources/978-0415702058"><bdi>978-0415702058</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Afghanistan%3A+Political+Frailty+and+External+Interference&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0415702058&rft.au=Misdaq%2C+Nabi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABabrak+Karmal" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTomsen2011" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Peter_Tomsen" title="Peter Tomsen">Tomsen, Peter</a> (2011). <i>The Wars of Afghanistan: Messianic Terrorism, Tribal Conflicts, and the Failures of Great Powers</i>. <a href="/wiki/PublicAffairs" title="PublicAffairs">PublicAffairs</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58648-763-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-58648-763-8"><bdi>978-1-58648-763-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Wars+of+Afghanistan%3A+Messianic+Terrorism%2C+Tribal+Conflicts%2C+and+the+Failures+of+Great+Powers&rft.pub=PublicAffairs&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-58648-763-8&rft.au=Tomsen%2C+Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABabrak+Karmal" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFQassem2009" class="citation book cs1">Qassem, Ahmad (2009). <i>Afghanistan's Political Stability: a Dream Unrealised</i>. <a href="/wiki/Ashgate_Publishing" title="Ashgate Publishing">Ashgate Publishing</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-7940-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-7940-0"><bdi>978-0-7546-7940-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Afghanistan%27s+Political+Stability%3A+a+Dream+Unrealised&rft.pub=Ashgate+Publishing&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-7546-7940-0&rft.au=Qassem%2C+Ahmad&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABabrak+Karmal" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRasanayagam2005" class="citation book cs1">Rasanayagam, Angelo (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/afghanistan00ange"><i>Afghanistan: A Modern History</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/I.B.Tauris" class="mw-redirect" title="I.B.Tauris">I.B.Tauris</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1850438571" title="Special:BookSources/978-1850438571"><bdi>978-1850438571</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Afghanistan%3A+A+Modern+History&rft.pub=I.B.Tauris&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1850438571&rft.au=Rasanayagam%2C+Angelo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fafghanistan00ange&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABabrak+Karmal" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRubin2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Barnett_Rubin" title="Barnett Rubin">Rubin, Barnett</a> (2002). <i>The Fragmentation of Afghanistan: State Formation and Collapse in the International System</i> (2nd ed.). <a href="/wiki/Yale_University_Press" title="Yale University Press">Yale University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-09519-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-09519-7"><bdi>978-0-300-09519-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Fragmentation+of+Afghanistan%3A+State+Formation+and+Collapse+in+the+International+System&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-300-09519-7&rft.au=Rubin%2C+Barnett&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABabrak+Karmal" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStaff_writers2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Staff_writer" title="Staff writer">Staff writers</a> (2002). <i>Regional Surveys of the World: Far East and Australasia 2003</i>. <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85743-133-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85743-133-9"><bdi>978-1-85743-133-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Regional+Surveys+of+the+World%3A+Far+East+and+Australasia+2003&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-1-85743-133-9&rft.au=Staff+writers&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABabrak+Karmal" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSteele2011" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Steele_(journalist)" title="Jonathan Steele (journalist)">Steele, Jonathan</a> (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ghostsofafghanis0000stee"><i>Ghosts of Afghanistan: Hard Truths and Foreign Myths</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Counterpoint_(publisher)" title="Counterpoint (publisher)">Counterpoint Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58243-787-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-58243-787-3"><bdi>978-1-58243-787-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ghosts+of+Afghanistan%3A+Hard+Truths+and+Foreign+Myths&rft.pub=Counterpoint+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-58243-787-3&rft.au=Steele%2C+Jonathan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fghostsofafghanis0000stee&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABabrak+Karmal" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWahabYoungerman2007" class="citation book cs1">Wahab, Shaista; Youngerman, Barry (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/briefhistoryofaf0000waha"><i>A Brief History of Afghanistan</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Infobase_Publishing" class="mw-redirect" title="Infobase Publishing">Infobase Publishing</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8160-5761-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8160-5761-0"><bdi>978-0-8160-5761-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Brief+History+of+Afghanistan&rft.pub=Infobase+Publishing&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-8160-5761-0&rft.au=Wahab%2C+Shaista&rft.au=Youngerman%2C+Barry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbriefhistoryofaf0000waha&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABabrak+Karmal" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWestad2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Odd_Arne_Westad" title="Odd Arne Westad">Westad, Odd Arne</a> (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5L8CnWkACQkC"><i>Afghanistan: A Modern History</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85043-857-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85043-857-1"><bdi>978-1-85043-857-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Afghanistan%3A+A+Modern+History&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1-85043-857-1&rft.aulast=Westad&rft.aufirst=Odd+Arne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5L8CnWkACQkC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABabrak+Karmal" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYassari2005" class="citation book cs1">Yassari, Nadjma (2005). <i>The Sharīʻa in the Constitutions of Afghanistan, Iran, and Egypt: Implications for Private Law</i>. Mohr Siebeck. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-16-148787-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-16-148787-3"><bdi>978-3-16-148787-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Shar%C4%AB%CA%BBa+in+the+Constitutions+of+Afghanistan%2C+Iran%2C+and+Egypt%3A+Implications+for+Private+Law&rft.pub=Mohr+Siebeck&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-3-16-148787-3&rft.au=Yassari%2C+Nadjma&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABabrak+Karmal" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Babrak_Karmal&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Babrak_Karmal" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Babrak Karmal">Babrak Karmal</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.afghanland.com/history/karmal.html">Biography of President Babrak Karmal</a></li></ul> <table class="wikitable succession-box noprint" style="margin:0.5em auto; font-size:small;clear:both;"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="3" style="border-top: 5px solid #ccccff;">Political offices </th></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:30%;" rowspan="2">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Hafizullah_Amin" title="Hafizullah Amin">Hafizullah Amin</a></div> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"><b> <a href="/wiki/List_of_heads_of_state_of_Afghanistan" title="List of heads of state of Afghanistan">Chairman</a> of the Presidium of the <a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_Council_(Afghanistan)" title="Revolutionary Council (Afghanistan)">Revolutionary Council</a> </b><br />27 December 1979 – 24 November 1986 </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Haji_Mohammad_Tsamkani" class="mw-redirect" title="Haji Mohammad Tsamkani">Haji Mohammad Tsamkani</a></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"><b> <a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Afghanistan" title="Prime Minister of Afghanistan">Chairman</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Ministers_(Afghanistan)" title="Council of Ministers (Afghanistan)">Council of Ministers</a> </b><br />27 December 1979 – 11 June 1981 </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Sultan_Ali_Keshtmand" title="Sultan Ali Keshtmand">Sultan Ali Keshtmand</a></div> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="3" style="border-top: 5px solid #FFBF00;">Party political offices </th></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:30%;" rowspan="1">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Hafizullah_Amin" title="Hafizullah Amin">Hafizullah Amin</a></div> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"><b> General Secretary of the <a href="/wiki/Central_Committee_of_the_People%27s_Democratic_Party_of_Afghanistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Central Committee of the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan">Central Committee</a> of the <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Democratic_Party_of_Afghanistan" title="People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan">People's Democratic Party</a> </b><br />27 December 1979 – 4 May 1986 </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Najibullah" title="Mohammad Najibullah">Mohammad Najibullah</a></div> </td></tr> </tbody></table> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Heads_of_state_of_Afghanistan_(since_1973)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Heads_of_state_of_Afghanistan" title="Template:Heads of state of Afghanistan"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Heads_of_state_of_Afghanistan" title="Template talk:Heads of state of Afghanistan"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Heads_of_state_of_Afghanistan" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Heads of state of Afghanistan"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Heads_of_state_of_Afghanistan_(since_1973)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_heads_of_state_of_Afghanistan#Non-monarchs" title="List of heads of state of Afghanistan">Heads of state of Afghanistan</a> (<a href="/wiki/1973_Afghan_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1973 Afghan coup d'état">since 1973</a>)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281974%E2%80%931978%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281974%E2%80%931978%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281974%E2%80%931978%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281974%E2%80%931978%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281974%E2%80%931978%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281974%E2%80%931978%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Afghanistan_(1973%E2%80%931978)" title="Republic of Afghanistan (1973–1978)">Daoud Republic</a> <span style="font-size:85%;"><span class="nobold">(<a href="/wiki/President_of_Afghanistan" title="President of Afghanistan">President</a>)</span></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Daoud_Khan" title="Mohammad Daoud Khan">Mohammad Daoud Khan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281980%E2%80%931987%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281980%E2%80%931987%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281980%E2%80%931987%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281980%E2%80%931987%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281980%E2%80%931987%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281980%E2%80%931987%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_Afghanistan" title="Democratic Republic of Afghanistan">Democratic Republic</a> <span style="font-size:85%;"><span class="nobold">(<a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_Council_(Afghanistan)" title="Revolutionary Council (Afghanistan)">Chairman</a>)</span></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nur_Muhammad_Taraki" title="Nur Muhammad Taraki">Nur Muhammad Taraki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hafizullah_Amin" title="Hafizullah Amin">Hafizullah Amin</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Babrak Karmal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haji_Mohammad_Chamkani" title="Haji Mohammad Chamkani">Haji Mohammad Chamkani</a>*</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Najibullah" title="Mohammad Najibullah">Mohammad Najibullah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdul_Rahim_Hatif" title="Abdul Rahim Hatif">Abdul Rahim Hatif</a>*</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281992%E2%80%932001%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281992%E2%80%932001%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281992%E2%80%932001%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281992%E2%80%932001%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281992%E2%80%932001%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281992%E2%80%932001%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="300" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Islamic_State_of_Afghanistan" title="Islamic State of Afghanistan">Islamic State</a> <span style="font-size:85%;"><span class="nobold">(President)</span></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sibghatullah_Mojaddedi" title="Sibghatullah Mojaddedi">Sibghatullah Mojaddedi</a>*</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burhanuddin_Rabbani" title="Burhanuddin Rabbani">Burhanuddin Rabbani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamid_Karzai" title="Hamid Karzai">Hamid Karzai</a>*</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_the_Taliban.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Taliban.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_the_Taliban.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Taliban.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_the_Taliban.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Taliban.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="500" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Islamic_Emirate_of_Afghanistan_(1996%E2%80%932001)" title="Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan (1996–2001)">Islamic Emirate</a> <span style="font-size:85%;"><span class="nobold">(<a href="/wiki/Supreme_Leader_of_Afghanistan" title="Supreme Leader of Afghanistan">Supreme Leader</a>)</span></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mullah_Omar" title="Mullah Omar">Mullah Omar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Flag_of_Afghanistan_%282004%E2%80%932021%2C_variant%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Afghanistan_%282004%E2%80%932021%2C_variant%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Flag_of_Afghanistan_%282004%E2%80%932021%2C_variant%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Afghanistan_%282004%E2%80%932021%2C_variant%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Flag_of_Afghanistan_%282004%E2%80%932021%2C_variant%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Afghanistan_%282004%E2%80%932021%2C_variant%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Transitional_Islamic_State_of_Afghanistan" title="Transitional Islamic State of Afghanistan">Transitional Islamic State</a> <span style="font-size:85%;"><span class="nobold">(President)</span></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hamid_Karzai" title="Hamid Karzai">Hamid Karzai</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Flag_of_Afghanistan_%282013%E2%80%932021%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Afghanistan_%282013%E2%80%932021%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Flag_of_Afghanistan_%282013%E2%80%932021%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Afghanistan_%282013%E2%80%932021%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Flag_of_Afghanistan_%282013%E2%80%932021%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Afghanistan_%282013%E2%80%932021%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Islamic_Republic_of_Afghanistan" title="Islamic Republic of Afghanistan">Islamic Republic</a> <span style="font-size:85%;"><span class="nobold">(President)</span></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hamid_Karzai" title="Hamid Karzai">Hamid Karzai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashraf_Ghani" title="Ashraf Ghani">Ashraf Ghani</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_the_Taliban.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Taliban.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_the_Taliban.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Taliban.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_the_Taliban.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Taliban.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="500" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Islamic Emirate</a> <span style="font-size:85%;"><span class="nobold">(Supreme Leader)</span></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hibatullah_Akhundzada" title="Hibatullah Akhundzada">Hibatullah Akhundzada</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li>* Acting</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Prime_ministers_of_Afghanistan" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Prime_ministers_of_Afghanistan" title="Template:Prime ministers of Afghanistan"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Prime_ministers_of_Afghanistan" title="Template talk:Prime ministers of Afghanistan"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Prime_ministers_of_Afghanistan" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Prime ministers of Afghanistan"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Prime_ministers_of_Afghanistan" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Afghanistan" title="Prime Minister of Afghanistan">Prime ministers of Afghanistan</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281931%E2%80%931973%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281931%E2%80%931973%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281931%E2%80%931973%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281931%E2%80%931973%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281931%E2%80%931973%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281931%E2%80%931973%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Afghanistan" title="Kingdom of Afghanistan">Kingdom</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shir_Ahmad" title="Shir Ahmad">Shir Ahmad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shir_Giyan" title="Shir Giyan">Shir Giyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Hashim_Khan" title="Mohammad Hashim Khan">Mohammad Hashim Khan</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Amanat_Lewana" title="Amanat Lewana">Amanat Lewana</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shah_Mahmud_Khan" title="Shah Mahmud Khan">Shah Mahmud Khan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Daoud_Khan" title="Mohammad Daoud Khan">Mohammad Daoud Khan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Yusuf_(politician)" title="Mohammad Yusuf (politician)">Mohammad Yusuf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Hashim_Maiwandwal" title="Mohammad Hashim Maiwandwal">Mohammad Hashim Maiwandwal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdullah_Yaqta" title="Abdullah Yaqta">Abdullah Yaqta</a>*</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Nur_Ahmad_Etemadi" title="Mohammad Nur Ahmad Etemadi">Mohammad Nur Ahmad Etemadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdul_Zahir_(politician)" title="Abdul Zahir (politician)">Abdul Zahir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Musa_Shafiq" title="Mohammad Musa Shafiq">Mohammad Musa Shafiq</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281980%E2%80%931987%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281980%E2%80%931987%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281980%E2%80%931987%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281980%E2%80%931987%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281980%E2%80%931987%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281980%E2%80%931987%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_Afghanistan" title="Democratic Republic of Afghanistan">Democratic Republic</a> <span style="font-size:85%;"><span class="nobold">(<a href="/wiki/Council_of_Ministers_(Afghanistan)" title="Council of Ministers (Afghanistan)">Chairman</a>)</span></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nur_Muhammad_Taraki" title="Nur Muhammad Taraki">Nur Muhammad Taraki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hafizullah_Amin" title="Hafizullah Amin">Hafizullah Amin</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Babrak Karmal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sultan_Ali_Keshtmand" title="Sultan Ali Keshtmand">Sultan Ali Keshtmand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Hasan_Sharq" title="Mohammad Hasan Sharq">Mohammad Hasan Sharq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sultan_Ali_Keshtmand" title="Sultan Ali Keshtmand">Sultan Ali Keshtmand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fazal_Haq_Khaliqyar" title="Fazal Haq Khaliqyar">Fazal Haq Khaliqyar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281992%E2%80%932001%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281992%E2%80%932001%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281992%E2%80%932001%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281992%E2%80%932001%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281992%E2%80%932001%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281992%E2%80%932001%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="300" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Islamic_State_of_Afghanistan" title="Islamic State of Afghanistan">Islamic State</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abdul_Sabur_Farid_Kohistani" title="Abdul Sabur Farid Kohistani">Abdul Sabur Farid Kohistani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulbuddin_Hekmatyar" title="Gulbuddin Hekmatyar">Gulbuddin Hekmatyar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arsala_Rahmani_Daulat" title="Arsala Rahmani Daulat">Arsala Rahmani Daulat</a>*</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmad_Shah_Ahmadzai" title="Ahmad Shah Ahmadzai">Ahmad Shah Ahmadzai</a>*</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulbuddin_Hekmatyar" title="Gulbuddin Hekmatyar">Gulbuddin Hekmatyar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdul_Rahim_Ghafoorzai" title="Abdul Rahim Ghafoorzai">Abdul Rahim Ghafoorzai</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_the_Taliban.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Taliban.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_the_Taliban.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Taliban.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_the_Taliban.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Taliban.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="500" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Islamic_Emirate_of_Afghanistan_(1996%E2%80%932001)" title="Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan (1996–2001)">Islamic Emirate</a> <span style="font-size:85%;"><span class="nobold">(1996–2001)</span></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Rabbani" title="Mohammad Rabbani">Mohammad Rabbani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdul_Kabir" title="Abdul Kabir">Abdul Kabir</a>*</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_the_Taliban.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Taliban.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_the_Taliban.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Taliban.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_the_Taliban.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Taliban.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="500" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Islamic Emirate</a> <span style="font-size:85%;"><span class="nobold">(since 2021)</span></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hasan_Akhund" title="Hasan Akhund">Hasan Akhund</a>*</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdul_Kabir" title="Abdul Kabir">Abdul Kabir</a>*</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li>* Acting</li> <li><i>Italics</i> indicates a <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Province,_Afghanistan" title="Eastern Province, Afghanistan">localized</a> <a href="/wiki/Afghan_tribal_revolts_of_1944%E2%80%931947" title="Afghan tribal revolts of 1944–1947">rebel</a> prime minister</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239334494">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Democratic_Republic_of_Afghanistan" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="background:#DA121A; color:#FCDD09;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:DRA_topics" title="Template:DRA topics"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:#FCDD09">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:DRA_topics" title="Template talk:DRA topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:#FCDD09">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:DRA_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:DRA topics"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:#FCDD09">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Democratic_Republic_of_Afghanistan" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_Afghanistan" title="Democratic Republic of Afghanistan"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:#FCDD09">Democratic Republic of Afghanistan</span></a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#DA121A; color:#FCDD09;;width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_Afghanistan" title="History of Afghanistan">Timeline</a></b></li> <li>1978: <a href="/wiki/Saur_Revolution" title="Saur Revolution">Saur Revolution</a></li> <li>1979: <a href="/wiki/1979_Herat_uprising" title="1979 Herat uprising">Herat uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Afghan_War" title="Soviet–Afghan War">Soviet control and deployment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Storm-333" class="mw-redirect" title="Operation Storm-333">Assassination of Amin</a></li> <li>1981: <a href="/wiki/Pakistan_International_Airlines_Flight_326" title="Pakistan International Airlines Flight 326">PIA hijacking</a></li> <li>1982: <a href="/wiki/1982_Salang_Tunnel_fire" title="1982 Salang Tunnel fire">Salang Tunnel fire</a></li> <li>1983–84: <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Urgun" title="Siege of Urgun">Siege of Urgun</a></li> <li>1985: <a href="/wiki/1985_Bakhtar_Afghan_Airlines_Antonov_An-26_shootdown" title="1985 Bakhtar Afghan Airlines Antonov An-26 shootdown">Afghan Airlines shootdown</a></li> <li>1986: <a href="/wiki/Battles_of_Zhawar" title="Battles of Zhawar">Battles of Zhawar</a></li> <li>1987: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Arghandab_(1987)" title="Battle of Arghandab (1987)">Battle of Arghandab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Reconciliation_(Afghanistan)" title="National Reconciliation (Afghanistan)">National Reconciliation</a></li> <li>1988: <a href="/wiki/Battle_for_Hill_3234" title="Battle for Hill 3234">Battle for Hill 3234</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1988_Afghan_parliamentary_election" title="1988 Afghan parliamentary election">Parliamentary election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geneva_Accords_(1988)" title="Geneva Accords (1988)">Geneva Accords</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Arrow" title="Operation Arrow">Operation Arrow</a></li> <li>1989: <a href="/wiki/Soviet_withdrawal_from_Afghanistan" title="Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan">Soviet withdrawal</a></li> <li>1990–1992: <a href="/wiki/Afghan_Civil_War_(1989%E2%80%931992)" title="Afghan Civil War (1989–1992)">Civil War: 1989–1992</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Khost" title="Siege of Khost">Siege of Khost</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="2" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_the_Taliban.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_Taliban.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_the_Taliban.svg/48px-Flag_of_the_Taliban.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_the_Taliban.svg/64px-Flag_of_the_Taliban.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="500" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Afghanistan" title="Portal:Afghanistan">Afghanistan portal</a></span></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Symbol-hammer-and-sickle.svg/28px-Symbol-hammer-and-sickle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Symbol-hammer-and-sickle.svg/42px-Symbol-hammer-and-sickle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Symbol-hammer-and-sickle.svg/56px-Symbol-hammer-and-sickle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Communism" title="Portal:Communism">Communism portal</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#DA121A; color:#FCDD09;;width:1%">Politics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Ministers_(Afghanistan)" title="Council of Ministers (Afghanistan)">Council of Ministers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Committee_of_the_People%27s_Democratic_Party_of_Afghanistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Central Committee of the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan">Central Committee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Youth_Organisation_of_Afghanistan" title="Democratic Youth Organisation of Afghanistan">Democratic Youth Organisation</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constitutions_of_Communist_Afghanistan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Constitutions of Communist Afghanistan (page does not exist)">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Government_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_Afghanistan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Government of the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan (page does not exist)">Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Front_(Afghanistan)" title="National Front (Afghanistan)">National Front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Democratic_Party_of_Afghanistan" title="People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan">People's Democratic Party</a> <ul><li>Factions: <a href="/wiki/Parcham" title="Parcham">Parcham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guruh-i_Kar" title="Guruh-i Kar">Kar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khalq" title="Khalq">Khalq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Settam-e-Melli" title="Settam-e-Melli">Settam-e-Melli</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politburo_of_the_People%27s_Democratic_Party_of_Afghanistan" title="Politburo of the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan">Politburo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_heads_of_state_of_Afghanistan#Non-monarchs" title="List of heads of state of Afghanistan">Heads of state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Afghanistan" title="Prime Minister of Afghanistan">Heads of government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_Council_(Afghanistan)" title="Revolutionary Council (Afghanistan)">Revolutionary Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Women%27s_Organisation_of_Afghanistan" title="Democratic Women's Organisation of Afghanistan">Democratic Women's Organisation of Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afghan_Women%27s_Council" title="Afghan Women's Council">Women's Council</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="background:#DA121A; color:#FCDD09;"><div> <ul><li><b><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Afghanistan" title="Category:Afghanistan"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:#FCDD09">Category</span></a></b></li> <li><b><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="WikiProject"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Afghanistan" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Afghanistan"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:#FCDD09">WikiProject</span></a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Soviet–Afghan_War" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Soviet%E2%80%93Afghan_War" title="Template:Soviet–Afghan War"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Soviet%E2%80%93Afghan_War" title="Template talk:Soviet–Afghan War"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Soviet%E2%80%93Afghan_War" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Soviet–Afghan War"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Soviet–Afghan_War" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Afghan_War" title="Soviet–Afghan War">Soviet–Afghan War</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li>Part of the <a href="/wiki/Afghan_conflict" title="Afghan conflict">Afghan conflict</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Belligerents</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Alliance</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_Afghanistan" title="Democratic Republic of Afghanistan">Democratic Republic of Afghanistan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Mujahideen</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_Unity_of_Afghanistan_Mujahideen" title="Islamic Unity of Afghanistan Mujahideen">Islamic Unity of Afghanistan Mujahideen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jamiat-e_Islami" class="mw-redirect" title="Jamiat-e Islami">Jamiat-e Islami</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shura-e_Nazar" title="Shura-e Nazar">Shura-e Nazar</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hezb-e_Islami_Gulbuddin" title="Hezb-e Islami Gulbuddin">Hezb-e Islami Gulbuddin</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maktab_al-Khidamat" title="Maktab al-Khidamat">Maktab al-Khidamat</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hezb-e_Islami_Khalis" class="mw-redirect" title="Hezb-e Islami Khalis">Hezb-e Islami Khalis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unity_Party_of_Afghanistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Unity Party of Afghanistan">Hezb-e Wahdat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_Dawah_Organisation_of_Afghanistan" title="Islamic Dawah Organisation of Afghanistan">Ittehad i-Islami</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Leaders</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Alliance</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Leonid_Brezhnev" title="Leonid Brezhnev">Leonid Brezhnev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuri_Andropov" title="Yuri Andropov">Yuri Andropov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konstantin_Chernenko" title="Konstantin Chernenko">Konstantin Chernenko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev" title="Mikhail Gorbachev">Mikhail Gorbachev</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Babrak Karmal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Najibullah" title="Mohammad Najibullah">Mohammad Najibullah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdul_Rashid_Dostum" title="Abdul Rashid Dostum">Abdul Rashid Dostum</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Mujahideen</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ahmad_Shah_Massoud" title="Ahmad Shah Massoud">Ahmad Shah Massoud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdul_Ali_Mazari" title="Abdul Ali Mazari">Abdul Ali Mazari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdullah_Yusuf_Azzam" title="Abdullah Yusuf Azzam">Abdullah Yusuf Azzam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulbuddin_Hekmatyar" title="Gulbuddin Hekmatyar">Gulbuddin Hekmatyar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdul_Haq_(Afghan_leader)" title="Abdul Haq (Afghan leader)">Abdul Haq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdul_Rahim_Wardak" title="Abdul Rahim Wardak">Abdul Rahim Wardak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burhanuddin_Rabbani" title="Burhanuddin Rabbani">Burhanuddin Rabbani</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Events by year</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1979_in_Afghanistan" title="1979 in Afghanistan">1979</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1980_in_Afghanistan" title="1980 in Afghanistan">1980</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1981_in_Afghanistan" title="1981 in Afghanistan">1981</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1982_in_Afghanistan" title="1982 in Afghanistan">1982</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1983_in_Afghanistan" title="1983 in Afghanistan">1983</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1984_in_Afghanistan" title="1984 in Afghanistan">1984</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1985_in_Afghanistan" title="1985 in Afghanistan">1985</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1986_in_Afghanistan" title="1986 in Afghanistan">1986</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1987_in_Afghanistan" title="1987 in Afghanistan">1987</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1988_in_Afghanistan" title="1988 in Afghanistan">1988</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1989_in_Afghanistan" title="1989 in Afghanistan">1989</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Military operations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Storm-333" class="mw-redirect" title="Operation Storm-333">Operation Storm-333</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Khost" title="Siege of Khost">Siege of Khost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panjshir_offensives" class="mw-redirect" title="Panjshir offensives">Panjshir offensives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Urgun" title="Siege of Urgun">Siege of Urgun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Maravar_Pass" title="Battle of Maravar Pass">Battle of Maravar Pass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Badaber_uprising" title="Badaber uprising">Badaber uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battles_of_Zhawar" title="Battles of Zhawar">Battles of Zhawar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Jaji" title="Battle of Jaji">Battle of Jaji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Arghandab_(1987)" title="Battle of Arghandab (1987)">Battle of Arghandab (1987)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Magistral" title="Operation Magistral">Operation Magistral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_for_Hill_3234" title="Battle for Hill 3234">Battle for Hill 3234</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Arrow" title="Operation Arrow">Operation Arrow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_withdrawal_from_Afghanistan" title="Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan">Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Civilian protests</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/3_Hoot_uprising" title="3 Hoot uprising">3 Hoot uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1980_student_protests_in_Kabul" title="1980 student protests in Kabul">Kabul students' uprising</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Soviet_aircraft_losses_during_the_Soviet%E2%80%93Afghan_War" title="List of Soviet aircraft losses during the Soviet–Afghan War">Soviet aircraft losses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Afghan_War_in_popular_culture" title="Soviet–Afghan War in popular culture">War in popular culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_equipment_used_by_Mujahideen_during_Soviet-Afghan_War" class="mw-redirect" title="List of military equipment used by Mujahideen during Soviet-Afghan War">Military equipment used by Mujahideen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afghanistan_War_Memorial,_Kyiv" title="Afghanistan War Memorial, Kyiv">Afghanistan War Memorial, Kyiv</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Films about war</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_Soviet%E2%80%93Afghan_War_films" title="List of Soviet–Afghan War films">List of films</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_9th_Company" title="The 9th Company">The 9th Company</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Afghan_Breakdown" title="Afghan Breakdown">Afghan Breakdown</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Afghantsi" title="Afghantsi">Afghantsi</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/All_Costs_Paid" title="All Costs Paid">All Costs Paid</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Beast_(1988_film)" title="The Beast (1988 film)">The Beast</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cargo_200_(film)" title="Cargo 200 (film)">Cargo 200</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Charlie_Wilson%27s_War_(film)" title="Charlie Wilson's War (film)">Charlie Wilson's War</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Kite_Runner_(film)" title="The Kite Runner (film)">The Kite Runner</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Living_Daylights" title="The Living Daylights">The Living Daylights</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Magic_Mountain_(2015_film)" title="The Magic Mountain (2015 film)">The Magic Mountain</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Peshavar_Waltz" title="Peshavar Waltz">Peshavar Waltz</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rambo_III" title="Rambo III">Rambo III</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pictures_from_Afghanistan" title="Pictures from Afghanistan">Pictures from Afghanistan (documentary)</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bitter_Lake_(film)" title="Bitter Lake (film)">Bitter Lake (documentary)</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_the_Taliban.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_Taliban.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_the_Taliban.svg/48px-Flag_of_the_Taliban.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_the_Taliban.svg/64px-Flag_of_the_Taliban.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="500" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Afghanistan" title="Portal:Afghanistan">Afghanistan portal</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Soviet%E2%80%93Afghan_War" title="Category:Soviet–Afghan War">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Soviet%E2%80%93Afghan_War" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Soviet–Afghan War">Multimedia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q63827#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q63827#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q63827#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://isni.org/isni/0000000374422364">ISNI</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/45229108">VIAF</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/98035/">FAST</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJfxdgm8P9yDdTRkwTkRrq">WorldCat</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/12419222X">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n82115754">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb120555095">France</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb120555095">BnF data</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/pnd12419222X.html?language=en">Deutsche Biographie</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/105632473">IdRef</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Babrak_Karmal&oldid=1258845750">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Babrak_Karmal&oldid=1258845750</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1929_births" title="Category:1929 births">1929 births</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1996_deaths" title="Category:1996 deaths">1996 deaths</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:20th-century_heads_of_state_of_Afghanistan" title="Category:20th-century heads of state of Afghanistan">20th-century heads of state of Afghanistan</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Afghan_atheists" title="Category:Afghan atheists">Afghan atheists</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Presidents_of_Afghanistan" title="Category:Presidents of Afghanistan">Presidents of Afghanistan</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Prime_ministers_of_Afghanistan" title="Category:Prime ministers of Afghanistan">Prime ministers of Afghanistan</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Deputy_prime_ministers_of_Afghanistan" title="Category:Deputy prime ministers of Afghanistan">Deputy prime ministers of Afghanistan</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:People%27s_Democratic_Party_of_Afghanistan_politicians" title="Category:People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan politicians">People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan politicians</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Afghan_prisoners_and_detainees" title="Category:Afghan prisoners and detainees">Afghan prisoners and detainees</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Prisoners_and_detainees_of_Afghanistan" title="Category:Prisoners and detainees of Afghanistan">Prisoners and detainees of Afghanistan</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Tajik_politicians" title="Category:Tajik politicians">Tajik politicians</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Afghan_emigrants" title="Category:Afghan emigrants">Afghan emigrants</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Immigrants_to_the_Soviet_Union" title="Category:Immigrants to the Soviet Union">Immigrants to the Soviet Union</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Collaborators_with_the_Soviet_Union" title="Category:Collaborators with the Soviet Union">Collaborators with the Soviet Union</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Afghan_emigrants_to_Russia" title="Category:Afghan emigrants to Russia">Afghan emigrants to Russia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:People_granted_political_asylum_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Category:People granted political asylum in the Soviet Union">People granted political asylum in the Soviet Union</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Deaths_from_liver_cancer_in_Russia" title="Category:Deaths from liver cancer in Russia">Deaths from liver cancer in Russia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Political_office-holders_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_Afghanistan" title="Category:Political office-holders of the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan">Political office-holders of the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1970s_in_Afghanistan" title="Category:1970s in Afghanistan">1970s in Afghanistan</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1980s_in_Afghanistan" title="Category:1980s in Afghanistan">1980s in Afghanistan</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Afghan_revolutionaries" title="Category:Afghan revolutionaries">Afghan revolutionaries</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_Czech-language_sources_(cs)" title="Category:CS1 Czech-language sources (cs)">CS1 Czech-language sources (cs)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_Pashto-language_sources_(ps)" title="Category:CS1 Pashto-language sources (ps)">CS1 Pashto-language sources (ps)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_German-language_sources_(de)" title="Category:CS1 German-language sources (de)">CS1 German-language sources (de)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Good_articles" title="Category:Good articles">Good articles</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_dmy_dates_from_January_2024" title="Category:Use dmy dates from January 2024">Use dmy dates from January 2024</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_lacking_reliable_references" title="Category:All articles lacking reliable references">All articles lacking reliable references</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_lacking_reliable_references_from_May_2022" title="Category:Articles lacking reliable references from May 2022">Articles lacking reliable references from May 2022</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Commons_category_link_is_on_Wikidata" title="Category:Commons category link is on Wikidata">Commons category link is on Wikidata</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 21 November 2024, at 23:24<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Babrak_Karmal&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" loading="lazy"></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="88" height="31" loading="lazy"></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-68775984f6-864ss","wgBackendResponseTime":145,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"1.567","walltime":"1.950","ppvisitednodes":{"value":21811,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":313699,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":27842,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":18,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":10,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":287771,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 1695.750 1 -total"," 21.78% 369.327 1 Template:Infobox_officeholder"," 16.19% 274.476 92 Template:Sfn"," 13.96% 236.711 2 Template:Reflist"," 9.40% 159.463 17 Template:Cite_web"," 9.21% 156.176 17 Template:Infobox_officeholder/office"," 8.24% 139.747 32 Template:Cite_book"," 7.99% 135.437 1 Template:History_of_Afghanistan"," 7.77% 131.750 1 Template:Sidebar_with_collapsible_groups"," 7.70% 130.570 6 Template:Navbox"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"0.851","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":12584187,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"anchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFAdamec2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAmtstutz1994a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAmtstutz1994b\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFArnold1983\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFArnold1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAsthanaNirmal2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBezhanKubalek2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBonosky2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBorer2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBraithwaite2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrecherWilkenfeld1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFClements2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCollins1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGarthoff1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGiustozzi2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGladstone2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFH._KakarM._Kakar1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHilali2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKalinovsky2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKamali1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKanet1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKubátová\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLeviteJentelesonBerman1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFM.Baryalay2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMale1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMisdaq2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMitrokhin2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPace,_Eric1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFQassem2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRasanayagam2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRubin2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSiasang\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStaff_writers2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSteele2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTomsen2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWahabYoungerman2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWestad2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWhitaker,_Raymond1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYassari2005\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Birth date\"] = 1,\n [\"Blockquote\"] = 4,\n [\"Citation\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 32,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 17,\n [\"Commons category\"] = 1,\n [\"DEFAULTSORT:Karmal, Babrak\"] = 1,\n [\"DRA topics\"] = 1,\n [\"Death date and age\"] = 1,\n [\"Further\"] = 2,\n [\"Good article\"] = 1,\n [\"Heads of state of Afghanistan\"] = 1,\n [\"History of Afghanistan\"] = 1,\n [\"Infobox officeholder\"] = 1,\n [\"Multiple image\"] = 1,\n [\"Nobold\"] = 1,\n [\"Nq\"] = 1,\n [\"Prime ministers of Afghanistan\"] = 1,\n [\"Redirect\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 1,\n [\"Refend\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 2,\n [\"S-aft\"] = 3,\n [\"S-bef\"] = 2,\n [\"S-end\"] = 1,\n [\"S-off\"] = 1,\n [\"S-ppo\"] = 1,\n [\"S-start\"] = 1,\n [\"S-ttl\"] = 3,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 92,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Soviet-Afghan War\"] = 1,\n [\"Unreliable source?\"] = 1,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\ntable#1 {\n}\ntable#1 {\n}\n"},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-6b7f745dd4-hchbj","timestamp":"20241125133712","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Babrak Karmal","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Babrak_Karmal","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q63827","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q63827","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2001-10-18T14:24:28Z","dateModified":"2024-11-21T23:24:15Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/en\/6\/6a\/Babrak_Karmal_%281929%E2%80%931996%29.png","headline":"3rd General Secretary of the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (1929\u20131996)"}</script> </body> </html>