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href="#Works"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Works</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Works-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Works subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Works-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Commentaries_on_Aristotle" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Commentaries_on_Aristotle"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Commentaries on Aristotle</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Commentaries_on_Aristotle-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Stand-alone_philosophical_works" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Stand-alone_philosophical_works"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Stand-alone philosophical works</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Stand-alone_philosophical_works-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Islamic_theology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Islamic_theology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Islamic theology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Islamic_theology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medicine" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medicine"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Medicine</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medicine-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Jurisprudence_and_law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jurisprudence_and_law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Jurisprudence and law</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jurisprudence_and_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Philosophical_ideas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philosophical_ideas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Philosophical ideas</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Philosophical_ideas-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Philosophical ideas subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Philosophical_ideas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Aristotelianism_in_the_Islamic_philosophical_tradition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aristotelianism_in_the_Islamic_philosophical_tradition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Aristotelianism in the Islamic philosophical tradition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aristotelianism_in_the_Islamic_philosophical_tradition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Relation_between_religion_and_philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Relation_between_religion_and_philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Relation between religion and philosophy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Relation_between_religion_and_philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nature_of_God" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nature_of_God"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Nature of God</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nature_of_God-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Existence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Existence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3.1</span> <span>Existence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Existence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-God's_attributes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#God's_attributes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3.2</span> <span>God's attributes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-God's_attributes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pre-eternity_of_the_world" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pre-eternity_of_the_world"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Pre-eternity of the world</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pre-eternity_of_the_world-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Politics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Politics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5</span> <span>Politics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Politics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Diversity_of_Islamic_law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Diversity_of_Islamic_law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.6</span> <span>Diversity of Islamic law</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Diversity_of_Islamic_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Natural_philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Natural_philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Natural philosophy</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Natural_philosophy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Natural philosophy subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Natural_philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Astronomy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Astronomy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Astronomy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Astronomy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Physics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Physics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Physics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Physics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Psychology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Psychology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Psychology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Psychology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medicine_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medicine_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Medicine</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medicine_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Legacy</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Legacy subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-In_Jewish_tradition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_Jewish_tradition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>In Jewish tradition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_Jewish_tradition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_Latin_tradition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_Latin_tradition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>In Latin tradition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_Latin_tradition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_Islamic_tradition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_Islamic_tradition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>In Islamic tradition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_Islamic_tradition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cultural_references" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cultural_references"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Cultural references</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cultural_references-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Works_cited" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Works_cited"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Works cited</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Works_cited-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-External_links-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle External links subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Works_of_Averroes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Works_of_Averroes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Works of Averroes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Works_of_Averroes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Information_about_Averroes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Information_about_Averroes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2</span> <span>Information about Averroes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Information_about_Averroes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Averroes</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 108 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-108" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">108 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Averroes" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Averroes" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%86_%D8%B1%D8%B4%D8%AF" title="ابن رشد – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="ابن رشد" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hyw mw-list-item"><a href="https://hyw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BB%D5%BA%D5%B6_%D5%8C%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B7%D5%BF" title="Իպն Ռուշտ – Western Armenian" lang="hyw" hreflang="hyw" data-title="Իպն Ռուշտ" data-language-autonym="Արեւմտահայերէն" data-language-local-name="Western Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Արեւմտահայերէն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Averroes" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0bn_R%C3%BC%C5%9Fd" title="İbn Rüşd – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="İbn Rüşd" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%86_%D8%B1%D8%B4%D8%AF" title="ابن رشد – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="ابن رشد" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ban mw-list-item"><a href="https://ban.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibnu_Rusyd" title="Ibnu Rusyd – Balinese" lang="ban" hreflang="ban" data-title="Ibnu Rusyd" data-language-autonym="Basa Bali" data-language-local-name="Balinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Basa Bali</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%87_%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%A6" title="ইবনে রুশদ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ইবনে রুশদ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_Rushd" title="Ibn Rushd – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Ibn Rushd" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%B1%D0%BD_%D0%A0%D3%A9%D1%88%D0%B4" title="Ибн Рөшд – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Ибн Рөшд" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%8D%D1%81" title="Авероэс – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Авероэс" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B5%D1%81" title="Авероес – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Авероес" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn-Ru%C5%A1d" title="Ibn-Rušd – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Ibn-Rušd" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Averroes" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Averrois" title="Averrois – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Averrois" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%B1%D0%BD_%D0%A0%D1%83%D1%88%D0%B4" title="Ибн Рушд – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Ибн Рушд" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Averroes" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Averroes" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Averro%C3%ABs" title="Averroës – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Averroës" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D9%86_%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B4%D8%AF" title="بن روشد – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="بن روشد" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>الدارجة</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Averroes" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Averroes" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CE%B2%CE%B5%CF%81%CF%81%CF%8C%CE%B7%CF%82" title="Αβερρόης – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Αβερρόης" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Averroes" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_Ru%C5%9Dd" title="Ibn Ruŝd – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Ibn Ruŝd" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Averroes" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="Extremaduran" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Estremeñu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Averroes" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%86_%D8%B1%D8%B4%D8%AF" title="ابن رشد – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="ابن رشد" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Averro%C3%A8s" title="Averroès – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Averroès" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Averroes" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Averroes" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9D%B4%EB%B8%90_%EB%A3%A8%EC%8B%9C%EB%93%9C" title="이븐 루시드 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="이븐 루시드" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_Rushd" title="Ibn Rushd – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Ibn Rushd" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hausa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BB%D5%A2%D5%B6_%D5%8C%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B7%D5%A4" title="Իբն Ռուշդ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Իբն Ռուշդ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A6" title="इब्न रश्द – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="इब्न रश्द" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_Ru%C5%A1d" title="Ibn Rušd – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Ibn Rušd" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibnu_Rusyd" title="Ibnu Rusyd – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Ibnu Rusyd" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Averroes" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Averr%C3%B3es" title="Averróes – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Averróes" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Averro%C3%A8" title="Averroè – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Averroè" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%91%D7%9F_%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%A9%D7%93" title="אבן רושד – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אבן רושד" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibnu_Rusyd" title="Ibnu Rusyd – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Ibnu Rusyd" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%85%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%8A%E0%B2%AF%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%9C%E0%B3%8D" title="ಅವಿರೊಯಿಜ್ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಅವಿರೊಯಿಜ್" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%98%E1%83%91%E1%83%9C_%E1%83%A0%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A8%E1%83%93%E1%83%98" title="იბნ რუშდი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="იბნ რუშდი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ks mw-list-item"><a href="https://ks.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%86_%D8%B1%D8%B4%D8%AF" title="ابن رشد – Kashmiri" lang="ks" hreflang="ks" data-title="ابن رشد" data-language-autonym="कॉशुर / کٲشُر" data-language-local-name="Kashmiri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>कॉशुर / کٲشُر</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%B1%D0%BD_%D0%A0%D1%83%D1%88%D0%B4" title="Ибн Рушд – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Ибн Рушд" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%8Ebn%C3%AE_Ru%C5%9Fd" title="Îbnî Ruşd – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Îbnî Ruşd" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%8D%D1%81" title="Аверроэс – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Аверроэс" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Averro%C3%ABs" title="Averroës – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Averroës" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_Ru%C5%A1ds" title="Ibn Rušds – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Ibn Rušds" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Averojus" title="Averojus – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Averojus" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Averro%C3%ABs" title="Averroës – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Averroës" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B5%D1%81" title="Авероес – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Авероес" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_Rushd" title="Ibn Rushd – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Ibn Rushd" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%87%E0%B4%AC%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%81_%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%B7%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A6%E0%B5%8D" title="ഇബ്നു റുഷ്ദ് – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ഇബ്നു റുഷ്ദ്" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%98%E1%83%91%E1%83%9C_%E1%83%A0%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A8%E1%83%93%E1%83%98" title="იბნ რუშდი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="იბნ რუშდი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%86_%D8%B1%D8%B4%D8%AF" title="ابن رشد – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="ابن رشد" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibnu_Rusyd" title="Ibnu Rusyd – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Ibnu Rusyd" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Averr%C3%B3is" title="Averróis – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Averróis" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Mirandés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Averroes" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A4%E3%83%96%E3%83%B3%E3%83%BB%E3%83%AB%E3%82%B7%E3%83%A5%E3%83%89" title="イブン・ルシュド – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="イブン・ルシュド" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Averro%C3%ABs" title="Averroës – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Averroës" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Averro%C3%A8s" title="Averroès – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Averroès" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_Rushd" title="Ibn Rushd – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Ibn Rushd" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%87%E0%A8%AC%E0%A8%A8_%E0%A8%B0%E0%A9%81%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BC%E0%A8%A6" title="ਇਬਨ ਰੁਸ਼ਦ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਇਬਨ ਰੁਸ਼ਦ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%86_%D8%B1%D8%B4%D8%AF" title="ابن رشد – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="ابن رشد" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%86_%D8%B1%D8%B4%D8%AF" title="ابن رشد – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="ابن رشد" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avero%C3%A9" title="Averoé – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Averoé" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Piemontèis</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Awerroes" title="Awerroes – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Awerroes" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Averr%C3%B3is" title="Averróis – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Averróis" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Averroes" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%B1%D0%BD_%D0%A0%D1%83%D1%88%D0%B4" title="Ибн Рушд – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Ибн Рушд" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D" title="आवेरोस् – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="आवेरोस्" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>संस्कृतम्</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-skr mw-list-item"><a href="https://skr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%86_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B1%D8%B4%D8%AF" title="ابن الرشد – Saraiki" lang="skr" hreflang="skr" data-title="ابن الرشد" data-language-autonym="سرائیکی" data-language-local-name="Saraiki" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سرائیکی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Averroes" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_Ryshd" title="Ibn Ryshd – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Ibn Ryshd" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Averro%C3%A8" title="Averroè – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Averroè" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Averroes" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%86_%D8%B1%D8%B4%D8%AF" title="ابن رشد – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="ابن رشد" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_Ru%C5%A1d" title="Ibn Rušd – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Ibn Rušd" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_Ru%C5%A1d" title="Ibn Rušd – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Ibn Rušd" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A6%DB%8C%D8%A8%D9%86_%DA%95%D9%88%D8%B4%D8%AF" title="ئیبن ڕوشد – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ئیبن ڕوشد" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%B1%D0%BD_%D0%A0%D1%83%D1%88%D0%B4" title="Ибн Рушд – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Ибн Рушд" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_Ru%C5%A1d" title="Ibn Rušd – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Ibn Rušd" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibnu_Rusyd" title="Ibnu Rusyd – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Ibnu Rusyd" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Averro%C3%ABs" title="Averroës – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Averroës" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Averro%C3%ABs" title="Averroës – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Averroës" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Averroes" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%87%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%81_%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B7%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%81" title="இப்னு றுஷ்து – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="இப்னு றுஷ்து" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-shi mw-list-item"><a href="https://shi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bnu_Rucd" title="Bnu Rucd – Tachelhit" lang="shi" hreflang="shi" data-title="Bnu Rucd" data-language-autonym="Taclḥit" data-language-local-name="Tachelhit" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Taclḥit</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Averro%C3%A8s" title="Averroès – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Averroès" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Taqbaylit</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D3%98%D0%B1%D2%AF_%D0%92%D3%99%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B4_%D0%B1%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B5_%D0%A0%D3%A9%D1%88%D0%B4" title="Әбү Вәлид бине Рөшд – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Әбү Вәлид бине Рөшд" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%99%E0%B9%8C_%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B8%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%94%E0%B9%8C" title="อิบน์ รุชด์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="อิบน์ รุชด์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%B1%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D0%A0%D1%83%D1%88%D0%B4" title="Ибни Рушд – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Ибни Рушд" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0bn_R%C3%BC%C5%9Fd" title="İbn Rüşd – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="İbn Rüşd" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B5%D1%81" title="Аверроес – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Аверроес" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%86_%D8%B1%D8%B4%D8%AF" title="ابن رشد – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="ابن رشد" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Averroes" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Averowesse" title="Averowesse – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="Averowesse" data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="Walloon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Walon</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Averroes" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BC%8A%E6%9C%AC%C2%B7%E9%B2%81%E4%B8%96%E5%BE%B7" title="伊本·鲁世德 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="伊本·鲁世德" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%99%D7%91%D7%9F_%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%A9%D7%93" title="איבן רושד – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="איבן רושד" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BC%8A%E6%9C%AC%E9%AD%AF%E4%B8%96%E5%BE%B7" title="伊本魯世德 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="伊本魯世德" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0bn_Ru%C5%9Fd" title="İbn Ruşd – Dimli" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="İbn Ruşd" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Dimli" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Zazaki</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BC%8A%E6%9C%AC%C2%B7%E9%AD%AF%E4%B8%96%E5%BE%B7" title="伊本·魯世德 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="伊本·魯世德" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-btm mw-list-item"><a href="https://btm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibnu_Rusyd" title="Ibnu Rusyd – Batak Mandailing" lang="btm" hreflang="btm" data-title="Ibnu Rusyd" data-language-autonym="Batak Mandailing" data-language-local-name="Batak Mandailing" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Batak Mandailing</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zgh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zgh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E2%B5%89%E2%B4%B1%E2%B5%8F_%E2%B5%94%E2%B5%93%E2%B5%9B%E2%B4%B7" title="ⵉⴱⵏ ⵔⵓⵛⴷ – Standard Moroccan Tamazight" lang="zgh" hreflang="zgh" data-title="ⵉⴱⵏ ⵔⵓⵛⴷ" data-language-autonym="ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ" data-language-local-name="Standard Moroccan Tamazight" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q39837#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div 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Click here for more information." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/19px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/29px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/39px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Arab-Andalusian Muslim writer and philosopher (1126–1198)</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"The Commentator" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Commentator_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Commentator (disambiguation)">Commentator (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox biography vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:125%;"><div class="fn">Averroes<br /><span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">Ibn Rushd</i></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-size:125%;"><span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">ابن رشد</span></span></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Andrea_di_bonaiuto,_apotesosi_di_san_tommaso_d%27aquino,_11_averro%C3%A8.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Andrea_di_bonaiuto%2C_apotesosi_di_san_tommaso_d%27aquino%2C_11_averro%C3%A8.jpg/220px-Andrea_di_bonaiuto%2C_apotesosi_di_san_tommaso_d%27aquino%2C_11_averro%C3%A8.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="237" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Andrea_di_bonaiuto%2C_apotesosi_di_san_tommaso_d%27aquino%2C_11_averro%C3%A8.jpg/330px-Andrea_di_bonaiuto%2C_apotesosi_di_san_tommaso_d%27aquino%2C_11_averro%C3%A8.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Andrea_di_bonaiuto%2C_apotesosi_di_san_tommaso_d%27aquino%2C_11_averro%C3%A8.jpg/440px-Andrea_di_bonaiuto%2C_apotesosi_di_san_tommaso_d%27aquino%2C_11_averro%C3%A8.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1408" data-file-height="1516" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">Detail of Averroes in a 14th-century painting by <a href="/wiki/Andrea_di_Bonaiuto" class="mw-redirect" title="Andrea di Bonaiuto">Andrea di Bonaiuto</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data"><span style="display:none">(<span class="bday">1126-04-14</span>)</span>14 April 1126<br /><div style="display:inline" class="birthplace"><a href="/wiki/C%C3%B3rdoba,_Spain" title="Córdoba, Spain">Qurṭubah</a>, <a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">Al-Andalus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Almoravid_dynasty" title="Almoravid dynasty">Almoravid Empire</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">11 December 1198<span style="display:none">(1198-12-11)</span> (aged 72)<br /><div style="display:inline" class="deathplace"><a href="/wiki/Marrakesh" title="Marrakesh">Marrakesh</a>, <a href="/wiki/Almohad_Caliphate" title="Almohad Caliphate">Almohad Caliphate</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Other names</th><td class="infobox-data nickname"><span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">Abū al-Walīd Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad ibn Rushd</i></span><br />The Commentator<br /><span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">Ibn Rushd al-Hafid</i></span> (The Grandson)</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Era</th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a>, <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Islamic Golden Age</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Region</th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic philosophy</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/List_of_schools_of_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="List of schools of philosophy">School</a></th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Main interests</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_theology" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic theology">Islamic theology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Islamic_jurisprudence" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic jurisprudence">Islamic jurisprudence</a>, <a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">medicine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">astronomy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">linguistics</a></td></tr><tr class="note"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Notable ideas</div></th><td class="infobox-data">Relation between Islam and philosophy, non-contradiction of reason and revelation, <a href="/wiki/Unity_of_the_intellect" class="mw-redirect" title="Unity of the intellect">unity of the intellect</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Ibn Rushd</b> (<a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>: <span lang="ar" dir="rtl"><span style="font-size:120%">ابن رشد</span></span>; <a href="/wiki/Arabic_name" title="Arabic name">full name</a> in Arabic: <span lang="ar" dir="rtl">أبو الوليد محمد بن أحمد بن رشد</span>, <small>romanized: </small><span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">Abū al-Walīd Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad ibn Rushd</i></span>; 14 April 1126 – 11 December 1198), often <a href="/wiki/Latinization_of_names" class="mw-redirect" title="Latinization of names">Latinized</a> as <b>Averroes</b> (<span style="font-size:85%;">English:</span> <span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'v' in 'vie'">v</span><span title="/ɛr/: 'err' in 'merry'">ɛr</span><span title="/oʊ/: 'o' in 'code'">oʊ</span><span title="/iː/: 'ee' in 'fleece'">iː</span><span title="'z' in 'zoom'">z</span></span>/</a></span></span>), was an <a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">Andalusian</a><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Polymath" title="Polymath">polymath</a> and <a href="/wiki/Faq%C4%ABh" title="Faqīh">jurist</a> who wrote about many subjects, including <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">theology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">medicine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">astronomy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">mathematics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Islamic_jurisprudence" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic jurisprudence">Islamic jurisprudence</a> and <a href="/wiki/Islamic_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic law">law</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">linguistics</a>. The author of more than 100 books and treatises,<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> his philosophical works include numerous commentaries on <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, for which he was known in the <a href="/wiki/Western_world" title="Western world">Western world</a> as <i>The Commentator</i> and <i>Father of Rationalism</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Gill_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gill-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Averroes was a strong proponent of <a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</a>; he attempted to restore what he considered the original teachings of Aristotle and opposed the <a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonist</a> tendencies of earlier <a href="/wiki/Muslims" title="Muslims">Muslim</a> thinkers, such as <a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">Al-Farabi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a>. He also defended the pursuit of philosophy against criticism by <a href="/wiki/Ashari" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashari">Ashari</a> theologians such as <a href="/wiki/Al-Ghazali" title="Al-Ghazali">Al-Ghazali</a>. Averroes argued that philosophy was permissible in Islam and even compulsory among certain elites. He also argued scriptural text should be interpreted allegorically if it appeared to contradict conclusions reached by reason and philosophy. In Islamic jurisprudence, he wrote the <i>Bidāyat al-Mujtahid</i> on the differences between <a href="/wiki/Madhhab" title="Madhhab">Islamic schools of law</a> and the principles that caused their differences. In medicine, he proposed a new theory of <a href="/wiki/Stroke" title="Stroke">stroke</a>, described the signs and symptoms of <a href="/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease" title="Parkinson's disease">Parkinson's disease</a> for the first time, and might have been the first to identify the <a href="/wiki/Retina" title="Retina">retina</a> as the part of the eye responsible for sensing light. His medical book <i>Al-Kulliyat fi al-Tibb</i>, translated into Latin and known as the <i><a href="/wiki/Colliget" title="Colliget">Colliget</a></i>, became a textbook in Europe for centuries. </p><p>His legacy in the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_world" title="Muslim world">Islamic world</a> was modest for geographical and intellectual reasons. In the West, Averroes was known for his extensive commentaries on Aristotle, many of which were translated into Latin and Hebrew. The translations of his work reawakened western European interest in Aristotle and Greek thinkers, an area of study that had been widely abandoned after the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Fall of the Roman Empire">fall of the Western Roman Empire</a>. His thoughts generated controversies in Latin <a href="/wiki/Christendom" title="Christendom">Christendom</a> and triggered a philosophical movement called <a href="/wiki/Averroism" title="Averroism">Averroism</a> based on his writings. His <a href="/wiki/Unity_of_the_intellect" class="mw-redirect" title="Unity of the intellect">unity of the intellect</a> thesis, proposing that all humans share the same intellect, became one of the best-known and most controversial Averroist doctrines in the West. His works were condemned by the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic Church</a> in 1270 and 1277. Although weakened by condemnations and sustained critique from <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a>, Latin Averroism continued to attract followers up to the sixteenth century. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Name">Name</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Averroes&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Name"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Latinization_of_names" class="mw-redirect" title="Latinization of names">Latinization of names</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Statue_of_Averroes_in_C%C3%B3rdoba,_Spain.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Statue_of_Averroes_in_C%C3%B3rdoba%2C_Spain.jpg/220px-Statue_of_Averroes_in_C%C3%B3rdoba%2C_Spain.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Statue_of_Averroes_in_C%C3%B3rdoba%2C_Spain.jpg/330px-Statue_of_Averroes_in_C%C3%B3rdoba%2C_Spain.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Statue_of_Averroes_in_C%C3%B3rdoba%2C_Spain.jpg/440px-Statue_of_Averroes_in_C%C3%B3rdoba%2C_Spain.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2448" data-file-height="3264" /></a><figcaption>Statue of Averroes in <a href="/wiki/C%C3%B3rdoba,_Andalusia" class="mw-redirect" title="Córdoba, Andalusia">Córdoba</a>, Spain</figcaption></figure> <p>Ibn Rushd's full, transliterated Arabic name is "Abū l-Walīd Muḥammad ibn ʾAḥmad Ibn Rushd".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnaldez1986909_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnaldez1986909-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERosenthal2017_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERosenthal2017-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sometimes, the nickname <i>al-Hafid</i> ("The Grandson") is appended to his name, to distinguish him from his grandfather, a famous judge and jurist.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIskandar20081115–1116_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIskandar20081115–1116-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "Averroes" is the <a href="/wiki/Medieval_Latin" title="Medieval Latin">Medieval Latin</a> form of "Ibn Rushd"; it was derived from the Spanish pronunciation of the original Arabic name, wherein "Ibn" becomes "Aben" or "Aven".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERenan18827_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERenan18827-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other forms of the name in European languages include "Ibin-Ros-din", "Filius Rosadis", "Ibn-Rusid", "Ben-Raxid", "Ibn-Ruschod", "Den-Resched", "Aben-Rassad", "Aben-Rasd", "Aben-Rust", "Avenrosdy", "Avenryz", "Adveroys", "Benroist", "Avenroyth" and "Averroysta".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERenan18827_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERenan18827-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Biography">Biography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Averroes&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Biography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_life_and_education">Early life and education</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Averroes&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Early life and education"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Little is known about Averroes's early life.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Muhammad ibn Ahmad ibn Muhammad ibn Rushd was born on 14 April 1126 (520 <a href="/wiki/Islamic_calendar" title="Islamic calendar">AH</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnaldez1986909_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnaldez1986909-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) in <a href="/wiki/C%C3%B3rdoba,_Spain" title="Córdoba, Spain">Córdoba</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHillierBiography_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHillierBiography-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His family was well known in the city for their public service, especially in the legal and religious fields.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHillierBiography_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHillierBiography-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was probably of <a href="/wiki/Mulad%C3%AD" title="Muladí">Muladí</a> and <a href="/wiki/Berbers" title="Berbers">Berber</a> ancestry.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:0_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His grandfather <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Rushd_al-Jadd" title="Ibn Rushd al-Jadd">Abu al-Walid Muhammad</a> (d. 1126) was the chief judge (<i><a href="/wiki/Qadi" title="Qadi">qadi</a></i>) of Córdoba and the imam of the <a href="/wiki/Great_Mosque_of_C%C3%B3rdoba" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Mosque of Córdoba">Great Mosque of Córdoba</a> under the <a href="/wiki/Almoravid" class="mw-redirect" title="Almoravid">Almoravids</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnaldez1986909_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnaldez1986909-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHillierBiography_11-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHillierBiography-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His father Abu al-Qasim Ahmad was not as celebrated as his grandfather, but was also chief judge until the Almoravids were replaced by the <a href="/wiki/Almohad" class="mw-redirect" title="Almohad">Almohads</a> in 1146.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHillierBiography_11-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHillierBiography-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to his traditional biographers, Averroes's education was "excellent",<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnaldez1986909_5-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnaldez1986909-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> beginning with studies in <a href="/wiki/Hadith" title="Hadith">hadith</a> (traditions of the Islamic prophet <a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a>), <i>fiqh</i> (<a href="/wiki/Islamic_jurisprudence" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic jurisprudence">jurisprudence</a>), medicine and theology. He learned <a href="/wiki/Maliki_jurisprudence" class="mw-redirect" title="Maliki jurisprudence">Maliki jurisprudence</a> under al-Hafiz Abu Muhammad ibn Rizq and hadith with Ibn Bashkuwal, a student of his grandfather.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnaldez1986909_5-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnaldez1986909-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWohlman200916_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWohlman200916-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His father also taught him about jurisprudence, including on <a href="/wiki/Imam_Malik" class="mw-redirect" title="Imam Malik">Imam Malik</a>'s <i>magnum opus</i> the <i><a href="/wiki/Muwatta_Imam_Malik" class="mw-redirect" title="Muwatta Imam Malik">Muwatta</a></i>, which Averroes went on to memorize.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDutton1994190_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDutton1994190-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIskandar20081116_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIskandar20081116-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He studied medicine under Abu Jafar Jarim al-Tajail, who probably taught him philosophy too.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnaldez1986910_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnaldez1986910-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He also knew the works of the philosopher <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Bajjah" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn Bajjah">Ibn Bajjah</a> (also known as Avempace), and might have known him personally or been tutored by him.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHillierBiography_11-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHillierBiography-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWohlman200916_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWohlman200916-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He joined a regular meeting of philosophers, physicians and poets in <a href="/wiki/Seville" title="Seville">Seville</a> which was attended by philosophers <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Tufayl" title="Ibn Tufayl">Ibn Tufayl</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Zuhr" title="Ibn Zuhr">Ibn Zuhr</a> as well as the future caliph <a href="/wiki/Abu_Yusuf_Yaqub_al-Mansur" class="mw-redirect" title="Abu Yusuf Yaqub al-Mansur">Abu Yusuf Yaqub</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIskandar20081116_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIskandar20081116-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He also studied the <i><a href="/wiki/Kalam" title="Kalam">kalam</a></i> theology of the <a href="/wiki/Ashari" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashari">Ashari</a> school, which he criticized later in life.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnaldez1986910_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnaldez1986910-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His 13th-century biographer <a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Abbar" title="Ibn al-Abbar">Ibn al-Abbar</a> said he was more interested in the study of law and <a href="/wiki/Principles_of_Islamic_jurisprudence" title="Principles of Islamic jurisprudence">its principles</a> (<i>usul</i>) than that of hadith and he was especially competent in the field of <i><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_Islam#K" title="Glossary of Islam">khilaf</a></i> (disputes and controversies in the Islamic jurisprudence).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnaldez1986910_17-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnaldez1986910-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ibn al-Abbar also mentioned his interests in "the sciences of the ancients", probably in reference to Greek philosophy and sciences.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnaldez1986910_17-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnaldez1986910-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Career">Career</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Averroes&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Career"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Almohad_Expansion.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Map of North Africa and Spain, with several shades to mark territories" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Almohad_Expansion.png/310px-Almohad_Expansion.png" decoding="async" width="310" height="186" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Almohad_Expansion.png/465px-Almohad_Expansion.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Almohad_Expansion.png/620px-Almohad_Expansion.png 2x" data-file-width="678" data-file-height="407" /></a><figcaption>Averroes served various official positions in the <a href="/wiki/Almohad_Caliphate" title="Almohad Caliphate">Almohad Caliphate</a>, whose territories are depicted in this map.</figcaption></figure> <p>By 1153 Averroes was in <a href="/wiki/Marrakesh" title="Marrakesh">Marrakesh</a>, the capital of the Almohad Caliphate (now in Morocco), to perform astronomical observations and to support the Almohad project of building new colleges.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIskandar20081116_16-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIskandar20081116-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnaldez1986910_17-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnaldez1986910-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was hoping to find physical laws of astronomical movements instead of only the mathematical laws known at the time but this research was unsuccessful.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnaldez1986910_17-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnaldez1986910-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During his stay in Marrakesh, he likely met ibn Tufayl, a renowned philosopher and the author of <i><a href="/wiki/Hayy_ibn_Yaqdhan" title="Hayy ibn Yaqdhan">Hayy ibn Yaqdhan</a></i> who was also the court physician in Marrakesh.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWohlman200916_14-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWohlman200916-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnaldez1986910_17-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnaldez1986910-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Averroes and ibn Tufayl became friends despite the differences in their philosophies.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWohlman200916_14-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWohlman200916-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry20011_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFakhry20011-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1169, ibn Tufayl introduced Averroes to the Almohad caliph <a href="/wiki/Abu_Yaqub_Yusuf" title="Abu Yaqub Yusuf">Abu Yaqub Yusuf</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnaldez1986910_17-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnaldez1986910-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry20012_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFakhry20012-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a famous account reported by historian <a href="/wiki/%27Abd_al-Wahid_al-Marrakushi" title="'Abd al-Wahid al-Marrakushi">'Abd al-Wahid al-Marrakushi</a>, the caliph asked Averroes whether the heavens had existed since eternity or had a beginning.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnaldez1986910_17-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnaldez1986910-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry20012_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFakhry20012-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Knowing this question was controversial and worried a wrong answer could put him in danger, Averroes did not answer.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry20012_19-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFakhry20012-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The caliph then elaborated the views of Plato, Aristotle and Muslim philosophers on the topic and discussed them with Ibn Tufayl.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnaldez1986910_17-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnaldez1986910-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry20012_19-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFakhry20012-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This display of knowledge put Averroes at ease; Averroes then explained his views on the subject, which impressed the caliph.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnaldez1986910_17-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnaldez1986910-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Averroes was similarly impressed by Abu Yaqub and later said the caliph had "a profuseness of learning I did not suspect".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry20012_19-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFakhry20012-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After their introduction, Averroes remained in Abu Yaqub's favor until the caliph died in 1184.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnaldez1986910_17-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnaldez1986910-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When the caliph complained to Ibn Tufayl about the difficulty of understanding Aristotle's work, Ibn Tufayl recommended to the caliph that Averroes work on explaining it.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnaldez1986910_17-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnaldez1986910-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry20012_19-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFakhry20012-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was the beginning of Averroes's massive commentaries on Aristotle;<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry20012_19-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFakhry20012-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> his first works on the subject were written in 1169.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry20012_19-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFakhry20012-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the same year, Averroes was appointed <i>qadi</i> (judge) in Seville.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnaldez1986910_17-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnaldez1986910-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDutton1994196_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDutton1994196-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1171 he became <i>qadi</i> in his hometown of Córdoba.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDutton1994190_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDutton1994190-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnaldez1986910_17-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnaldez1986910-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As <i>qadi</i> he would decide cases and give <i><a href="/wiki/Fatwa" title="Fatwa">fatwa</a></i>s (legal opinions) based on <a href="/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia">religious law</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDutton1994196_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDutton1994196-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The writing rate increased during this time despite other obligations and his travels within the Almohad empire.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnaldez1986910_17-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnaldez1986910-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He also took the opportunity from his travels to conduct astronomical research.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIskandar20081116_16-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIskandar20081116-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many of his works produced between 1169 and 1179 were dated in Seville rather than Córdoba.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnaldez1986910_17-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnaldez1986910-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1179 he was again appointed <i>qadi</i> in Seville.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDutton1994190_15-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDutton1994190-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1182, he succeeded his friend Ibn Tufayl as court physician. Later the same year, he was appointed chief <a href="/wiki/Qadi" title="Qadi">qadi</a> of <a href="/wiki/C%C3%B3rdoba,_Spain" title="Córdoba, Spain">Córdoba</a>, then controlled by the <a href="/wiki/Taifa_of_Seville" title="Taifa of Seville">Taifa of Seville</a>, a prestigious office that his grandfather had once held.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnaldez1986910_17-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnaldez1986910-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDutton1994196_20-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDutton1994196-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1184 Caliph Abu Yaqub died and was succeeded by Abu Yusuf Yaqub.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnaldez1986910_17-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnaldez1986910-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Initially, Averroes remained in royal favour, but in 1195, his fortune reversed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnaldez1986910_17-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnaldez1986910-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry20012_19-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFakhry20012-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Various charges were made against him, and a tribunal in Córdoba tried him.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnaldez1986910_17-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnaldez1986910-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry20012_19-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFakhry20012-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The tribunal condemned his teachings, ordered the burning of his works and banished Averroes to nearby <a href="/wiki/Lucena,_C%C3%B3rdoba" title="Lucena, Córdoba">Lucena</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnaldez1986910_17-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnaldez1986910-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Early biographers' reasons for this fall from grace include a possible insult to the caliph in his writings<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry20012_19-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFakhry20012-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but modern scholars attribute it to political reasons. The <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclopaedia_of_Islam" title="Encyclopaedia of Islam">Encyclopaedia of Islam</a></i> said the caliph distanced himself from Averroes to gain support from more orthodox <i>ulema</i>, who opposed Averroes and whose support al-Mansur needed for his war against Christian kingdoms.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnaldez1986910_17-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnaldez1986910-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historian of Islamic philosophy <a href="/wiki/Majid_Fakhry" title="Majid Fakhry">Majid Fakhry</a> also wrote that public pressure from traditional Maliki jurists who were opposed to Averroes played a role.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry20012_19-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFakhry20012-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After a few years, Averroes returned to court in Marrakesh and was again in the caliph's favor.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnaldez1986910_17-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnaldez1986910-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He died shortly afterwards, on 11 December 1198 (9 Safar 595 in the Islamic calendar).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnaldez1986910_17-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnaldez1986910-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was initially buried in <a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North Africa</a>. His body was later moved to Córdoba for another funeral, at which future Sufi mystic and philosopher <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Arabi" title="Ibn Arabi">ibn Arabi</a> (1165–1240) was present.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnaldez1986910_17-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnaldez1986910-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Works">Works</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Averroes&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Works"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_works_by_Averroes" title="List of works by Averroes">List of works by Averroes</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:AverroesAndPorphyry.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Drawing of two man sitting in a debate" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/AverroesAndPorphyry.JPG/220px-AverroesAndPorphyry.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/AverroesAndPorphyry.JPG/330px-AverroesAndPorphyry.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/AverroesAndPorphyry.JPG/440px-AverroesAndPorphyry.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2003" data-file-height="1297" /></a><figcaption>Imaginary debate between Averroes and third-century philosopher <a href="/wiki/Porphyry_(philosopher)" title="Porphyry (philosopher)">Porphyry</a>. Monfredo de Monte Imperiali <i>Liber de herbis</i>, 14th century</figcaption></figure> <p>Averroes was a prolific writer and his works, according to Fakhry, "covered a greater variety of subjects" than those of any of his predecessors in the East, including philosophy, medicine, jurisprudence or legal theory, and linguistics.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry20013_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFakhry20013-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most of his writings were commentaries on or paraphrasings of the works of Aristotle that—especially the long ones—often contain his original thoughts.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylor2005181_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor2005181-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to French author <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Renan" title="Ernest Renan">Ernest Renan</a>, Averroes wrote at least 67 original works, including 28 works on philosophy, 20 on medicine, 8 on law, 5 on theology, and 4 on grammar, in addition to his commentaries on most of Aristotle's works and his commentary on <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/The_Republic_(Plato)" class="mw-redirect" title="The Republic (Plato)">The Republic</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAhmad1994_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAhmad1994-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many of Averroes's works in Arabic did not survive, but their translations into <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a> or Latin did.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdamson2016180–181_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdamson2016180–181-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, of his long commentaries on Aristotle, only "a tiny handful of Arabic manuscript remains".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdamson2016180_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdamson2016180-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Commentaries_on_Aristotle">Commentaries on Aristotle</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Averroes&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Commentaries on Aristotle"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Arabic_aristotle.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Drawing of a mean teaching another man, with Arabic script under the drawing" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Arabic_aristotle.jpg/220px-Arabic_aristotle.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="323" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Arabic_aristotle.jpg/330px-Arabic_aristotle.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Arabic_aristotle.jpg/440px-Arabic_aristotle.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1064" data-file-height="1563" /></a><figcaption>An Arabic illustration of Aristotle teaching a student, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1220. Aristotle's works are the subject of extensive commentaries by Averroes.</figcaption></figure> <p>Averroes wrote commentaries on nearly all of Aristotle's surviving works.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry20013_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFakhry20013-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The only exception is <i><a href="/wiki/Politics_(Aristotle)" title="Politics (Aristotle)">Politics</a></i>, which he did not have access to, so he wrote commentaries on Plato's <a href="/wiki/Republic_(Plato)" title="Republic (Plato)"><i>Republic</i></a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry20013_21-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFakhry20013-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He classified his commentaries into three categories that modern scholars have named <i>short</i>, <i>middle</i> and <i>long</i> commentaries.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdamson2016180_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdamson2016180-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most of the short commentaries (<i>jami</i>) were written early in his career and contain summaries of Aristotlean doctrines.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylor2005181_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor2005181-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The middle commentaries (<i>talkhis</i>) contain paraphrases that clarify and simplify Aristotle's original text.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylor2005181_22-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor2005181-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The middle commentaries were probably written in response to his patron caliph Abu Yaqub Yusuf's complaints about the difficulty of understanding Aristotle's original texts and to help others in a similar position.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylor2005181_22-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor2005181-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdamson2016180_25-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdamson2016180-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The long commentaries (<i>tafsir</i> or <i>sharh</i>), or line-by-line commentaries, include the complete text of the original works with a detailed analysis of each line.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcGinnisReisman2007295_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcGinnisReisman2007295-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The long commentaries are very detailed and contain a high degree of original thought,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylor2005181_22-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor2005181-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and were unlikely to be intended for a general audience.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdamson2016180_25-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdamson2016180-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Only five of Aristotle's works had all three types of commentaries: <i><a href="/wiki/Physics_(Aristotle)" title="Physics (Aristotle)">Physics</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics_(Aristotle)" title="Metaphysics (Aristotle)">Metaphysics</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/On_the_Soul" title="On the Soul">On the Soul</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/On_the_Heavens" title="On the Heavens">On the Heavens</a></i>, and <i><a href="/wiki/Posterior_Analytics" title="Posterior Analytics">Posterior Analytics</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry20013_21-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFakhry20013-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Stand-alone_philosophical_works">Stand-alone philosophical works</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Averroes&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Stand-alone philosophical works"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Averroes also wrote stand-alone philosophical treatises, including <i>On the Intellect</i>, <i>On the Syllogism</i>, <i>On Conjunction with the Active Intellect</i>, <i>On Time</i>, <i>On the Heavenly Sphere</i> and <i>On the Motion of the Sphere</i>. He also wrote several <a href="/wiki/Polemic" title="Polemic">polemics</a>: <i>Essay on <a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">al-Farabi</a>'s Approach to Logic, as Compared to that of Aristotle</i>, <i>Metaphysical Questions Dealt with in the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Healing" class="mw-redirect" title="Book of Healing">Book of Healing</a> by <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Sina" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn Sina">Ibn Sina</a></i>, and <i>Rebuttal of Ibn Sina's Classification of Existing Entities</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry20013_21-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFakhry20013-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Islamic_theology">Islamic theology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Averroes&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Islamic theology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Scholarly sources, including Fakhry and the <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclopaedia_of_Islam" title="Encyclopaedia of Islam">Encyclopaedia of Islam</a></i>, have named three works Averroes's critical writings in this area. <i><a href="/wiki/On_the_Harmony_of_Religions_and_Philosophy" title="On the Harmony of Religions and Philosophy">Fasl al-Maqal</a></i> ("The Decisive Treatise") is an 1178 treatise that argues for the compatibility of Islam and philosophy.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnaldez1986911–912_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnaldez1986911–912-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Al-Kashf 'an Manahij al-Adillah</i> ("Exposition of the Methods of Proof"), written in 1179, criticizes the theologies of the <a href="/wiki/Ash%27arism" title="Ash'arism">Ash'arites</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnaldez1986913–914_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnaldez1986913–914-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and lays out Averroes's argument for proving the existence of God, as well as his thoughts on God's attributes and actions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnaldez1986914_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnaldez1986914-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The 1180 <i><a href="/wiki/The_Incoherence_of_the_Incoherence" title="The Incoherence of the Incoherence">Tahafut at-Tahafut</a></i> ("Incoherence of the Incoherence") is a rebuttal of <a href="/wiki/Al-Ghazali" title="Al-Ghazali">al-Ghazali</a>'s (d. 1111) landmark criticism of philosophy <i><a href="/wiki/The_Incoherence_of_the_Philosophers" title="The Incoherence of the Philosophers">The Incoherence of the Philosophers</a></i>. It combines ideas in his commentaries and stand-alone works and uses them to respond to al-Ghazali.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnaldez1986915_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnaldez1986915-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The work also criticizes Avicenna and his <a href="/wiki/Platonism_in_Islamic_philosophy" title="Platonism in Islamic philosophy">neoplatonist tendencies</a>, sometimes agreeing with al-Ghazali's critique against him.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnaldez1986915_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnaldez1986915-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Medicine">Medicine</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Averroes&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Medicine"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Avenzohar,_%22Colliget_Averroys_...%22,_1530_Wellcome_L0026358.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A title page of a Latin book "Colliget Aver."" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Avenzohar%2C_%22Colliget_Averroys_...%22%2C_1530_Wellcome_L0026358.jpg/220px-Avenzohar%2C_%22Colliget_Averroys_...%22%2C_1530_Wellcome_L0026358.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="335" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Avenzohar%2C_%22Colliget_Averroys_...%22%2C_1530_Wellcome_L0026358.jpg/330px-Avenzohar%2C_%22Colliget_Averroys_...%22%2C_1530_Wellcome_L0026358.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Avenzohar%2C_%22Colliget_Averroys_...%22%2C_1530_Wellcome_L0026358.jpg/440px-Avenzohar%2C_%22Colliget_Averroys_...%22%2C_1530_Wellcome_L0026358.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1147" data-file-height="1744" /></a><figcaption>Title page from a Latin edition of <i>Colliget</i>, Averroes's main work in medicine</figcaption></figure> <p>Averroes, who served as the royal physician at the Almohad court, wrote a number of medical treatises. The most famous was <i>al-Kulliyat fi al-Tibb</i> ("The General Principles of Medicine", Latinized in the west as the <i>Colliget</i>), written around 1162, before his appointment at court.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry2001124_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFakhry2001124-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The title of this book is the opposite of <i>al-Juz'iyyat fi al-Tibb</i> ("The Specificities of Medicine"), written by his friend Ibn Zuhr, and the two collaborated intending that their works complement each other.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnaldez200028–29_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnaldez200028–29-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Latin translation of the <i>Colliget</i> became a medical textbook in Europe for centuries.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry2001124_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFakhry2001124-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His other surviving titles include <i>On Treacle</i>, <i>The Differences in Temperament</i>, and <i>Medicinal Herbs</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnaldez200028_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnaldez200028-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He also wrote summaries of the works of Greek physician <a href="/wiki/Galen" title="Galen">Galen</a> (died <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 210) and a commentary on <a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a>'s <i>Urjuzah fi al-Tibb</i> ("Poem on Medicine").<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry2001124_31-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFakhry2001124-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Jurisprudence_and_law">Jurisprudence and law</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Averroes&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Jurisprudence and law"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Averroes served multiple tenures as judge and produced multiple works in the fields of Islamic jurisprudence or legal theory. The only book that survives today is <i>Bidāyat al-Mujtahid wa Nihāyat al-Muqtaṣid</i> ("Primer of the Discretionary Scholar").<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry2001xvi_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFakhry2001xvi-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this work he explains the differences of opinion (<i><a href="/wiki/Ikhtilaf" title="Ikhtilaf">ikhtilaf</a></i>) between the Sunni <i><a href="/wiki/Madhhab" title="Madhhab">madhhabs</a></i> (schools of Islamic jurisprudence) both in practice and in their underlying juristic principles, as well as the reason why they are inevitable.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDutton1994188_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDutton1994188-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite his status as a <a href="/wiki/Maliki" class="mw-redirect" title="Maliki">Maliki</a> judge, the book also discusses the opinion of other schools, including liberal and conservative ones.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry2001xvi_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFakhry2001xvi-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other than this surviving text, bibliographical information shows he wrote a summary of Al-Ghazali's <i><a href="/wiki/On_Legal_Theory_of_Muslim_Jurisprudence" title="On Legal Theory of Muslim Jurisprudence">On Legal Theory of Muslim Jurisprudence</a></i> (<i>Al-Mustasfa</i>) and tracts on <a href="/wiki/Qurban_(Islamic_ritual_sacrifice)" title="Qurban (Islamic ritual sacrifice)">sacrifices</a> and land tax.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry2001115_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFakhry2001115-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Philosophical_ideas">Philosophical ideas</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Averroes&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Philosophical ideas"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Aristotelianism_in_the_Islamic_philosophical_tradition">Aristotelianism in the Islamic philosophical tradition</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Averroes&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Aristotelianism in the Islamic philosophical tradition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In his philosophical writings, Averroes attempted to return to <a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</a>, which according to him had been distorted by the <a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonist</a> tendencies of Muslim philosophers such as <a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">Al-Farabi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry20015_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFakhry20015-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeaman200227_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeaman200227-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He rejected al-Farabi's attempt to merge the ideas of Plato and Aristotle, pointing out the differences between the two, such as Aristotle's rejection of Plato's <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_forms" title="Theory of forms">theory of ideas</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry20016_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFakhry20016-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He also criticized Al-Farabi's works on logic for misinterpreting its Aristotelian source.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry20016–7_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFakhry20016–7-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He wrote an extensive critique of Avicenna, who was the standard-bearer of Islamic Neoplatonism in the Middle Ages.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry20017_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFakhry20017-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He argued that Avicenna's theory of <a href="/wiki/Emanationism" title="Emanationism">emanation</a> had many fallacies and was not found in the works of Aristotle.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry20017_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFakhry20017-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Averroes disagreed with Avicenna's view that existence is merely an <a href="/wiki/Accident_(philosophy)" title="Accident (philosophy)">accident</a> added to essence, arguing the reverse; something exists <i>per se</i> and essence can only be found by subsequent abstraction.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry20018–9_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFakhry20018–9-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He also rejected Avicenna's modality and <a href="/wiki/Proof_of_the_Truthful" title="Proof of the Truthful">Avicenna's argument</a> to prove the existence of God as the Necessary Existent.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry20019_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFakhry20019-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Averroes felt strongly about the incorporation of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Greek thought</a> into the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_world" title="Muslim world">Muslim world</a>, and wrote that "if before us someone has inquired into [wisdom], it behooves us to seek help from what he has said. It is irrelevant whether he belongs to our community or to another".<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Relation_between_religion_and_philosophy">Relation between religion and philosophy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Averroes&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Relation between religion and philosophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Platonism_in_Islamic_philosophy" title="Platonism in Islamic philosophy">Platonism in Islamic philosophy</a> and <a href="/wiki/The_Incoherence_of_the_Philosophers" title="The Incoherence of the Philosophers">The Incoherence of the Philosophers</a></div> <p>During Averroes's lifetime, philosophy came under attack from the <a href="/wiki/Sunni_Islam" title="Sunni Islam">Sunni tradition</a>, especially from theological schools like the <a href="/wiki/Hanbali_school" title="Hanbali school">Hanbali school</a> and the Ashʾarites.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHillierPhilosophy_and_Religion_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHillierPhilosophy_and_Religion-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In particular, the Ashʾari scholar al-Ghazali (1058–1111) wrote <i>The Incoherence of the Philosophers</i>, a scathing and influential critique of the Neoplatonic philosophical tradition in the Islamic world and against the works of Avicenna in particular.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHillierparagraph_2_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHillierparagraph_2-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Among others, Al-Ghazali charged philosophers with non-belief in Islam and sought to disprove the teaching of the philosophers using logical arguments.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHillierPhilosophy_and_Religion_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHillierPhilosophy_and_Religion-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeaman200255_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeaman200255-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <i>Decisive Treatise</i>, Averroes argues that philosophy—which for him represented conclusions reached using reason and careful method—cannot contradict revelations in Islam because they are just two different methods of reaching the truth, and "truth cannot contradict truth".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuessoum2011xx_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuessoum2011xx-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdamson2016184_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdamson2016184-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When conclusions reached by philosophy appear to contradict the text of the revelation, then according to Averroes, revelation must be subjected to interpretation or allegorical understanding to remove the contradiction.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHillierPhilosophy_and_Religion_45-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHillierPhilosophy_and_Religion-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuessoum2011xx_48-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuessoum2011xx-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This interpretation must be done by those "rooted in knowledge"—a phrase taken from surah <a href="/wiki/Al_Imran" title="Al Imran">Āl Imrān 3</a>:7 of the <a href="/wiki/Quran" title="Quran">Quran</a>, which for Averroes refers to philosophers who during his lifetime had access to the "highest methods of knowledge".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuessoum2011xx_48-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuessoum2011xx-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdamson2016184_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdamson2016184-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He also argues that the Quran calls for Muslims to study philosophy because the study and reflection of nature would increase a person's knowledge of "the Artisan" (God).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuessoum2011xxii_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuessoum2011xxii-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He quotes Quranic passages calling Muslims to reflect on nature. He uses them to render a fatwa that philosophy is allowed for Muslims and is probably an obligation, at least among those who have the talent for it.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdamson2016182_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdamson2016182-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Averroes also distinguishes between three modes of discourse: the <a href="/wiki/Rhetoric" title="Rhetoric">rhetorical</a> (based on persuasion) accessible to the common masses; the <a href="/wiki/Dialectic" title="Dialectic">dialectical</a> (based on debate) and often employed by theologians and the <a href="/wiki/Ulama" title="Ulama">ulama</a> (religious scholars); and the demonstrative (based on logical deduction).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHillierPhilosophy_and_Religion_45-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHillierPhilosophy_and_Religion-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuessoum2011xxii_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuessoum2011xxii-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Averroes, the Quran uses the rhetorical method of inviting people to the truth, which allows it to reach the common masses with its persuasiveness,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdamson2016183_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdamson2016183-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> whereas philosophy uses the demonstrative methods that were only available to the learned but provided the best possible understanding and knowledge.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdamson2016183_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdamson2016183-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Averroes also tries to deflect Al-Ghazali's criticisms of philosophy by saying that many of them apply only to the philosophy of Avicenna and not to that of Aristotle, which Averroes argues to be the true philosophy from which Avicenna has deviated.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdamson2016181_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdamson2016181-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nature_of_God">Nature of God</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Averroes&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Nature of God"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Existence">Existence</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Averroes&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Existence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Averroes lays out his views on the existence and nature of God in the treatise <i>The Exposition of the Methods of Proof</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHillierExistence_and_Attributes_of_God_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHillierExistence_and_Attributes_of_God-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry200174_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFakhry200174-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He examines and critiques the doctrines of four sects of Islam: the <a href="/wiki/Asharites" class="mw-redirect" title="Asharites">Asharites</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Mutazilites" class="mw-redirect" title="Mutazilites">Mutazilites</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Sufis" class="mw-redirect" title="Sufis">Sufis</a> and those he calls the "literalists" (<i>al-hashwiyah</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry200174_55-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFakhry200174-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Among other things, he examines their proofs of God's existence and critiques each one.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHillierExistence_and_Attributes_of_God_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHillierExistence_and_Attributes_of_God-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Averroes argues that there are two arguments for God's existence that he deems logically sound and in accordance to the Quran; the arguments from "providence" and "from invention".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHillierExistence_and_Attributes_of_God_54-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHillierExistence_and_Attributes_of_God-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The providence argument considers that the world and the universe seem <a href="/wiki/Fine-tuned_universe" title="Fine-tuned universe">finely tuned to support human life</a>. Averroes cited the sun, the moon, the rivers, the seas and the location of humans on the earth.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHillierExistence_and_Attributes_of_God_54-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHillierExistence_and_Attributes_of_God-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry200177_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFakhry200177-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to him, this suggests a creator who created them for the welfare of mankind.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHillierExistence_and_Attributes_of_God_54-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHillierExistence_and_Attributes_of_God-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry200177_56-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFakhry200177-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The argument from invention contends that worldly entities such as animals and plants appear to have been invented. Therefore, Averroes argues that a designer was behind the creation and that is God.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHillierExistence_and_Attributes_of_God_54-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHillierExistence_and_Attributes_of_God-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Averroes's two arguments are <a href="/wiki/Teleological_argument" title="Teleological argument">teleological</a> in nature and not <a href="/wiki/Cosmological_argument" title="Cosmological argument">cosmological</a> like the arguments of <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> and most contemporaneous Muslim kalam theologians.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry200177–78_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFakhry200177–78-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="God's_attributes"><span id="God.27s_attributes"></span>God's attributes</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Averroes&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: God's attributes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Averroes upholds the doctrine of divine unity (<i><a href="/wiki/Tawhid" title="Tawhid">tawhid</a></i>) and argues that God has seven <a href="/wiki/God#Specific_attributes" title="God">divine attributes</a>: knowledge, life, power, will, hearing, vision and speech. He devotes the most attention to the attribute of knowledge and argues that divine knowledge differs from human knowledge because God knows the universe because God is its cause while humans only know the universe through its effects.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHillierExistence_and_Attributes_of_God_54-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHillierExistence_and_Attributes_of_God-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Averroes argues that the attribute of life can be inferred because it is the precondition of knowledge and also because God willed objects into being.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry200179_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFakhry200179-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Power can be inferred by God's ability to bring creations into existence. Averroes also argues that knowledge and power inevitably give rise to speech. Regarding vision and speech, he says that because God created the world, he necessarily knows every part of it in the same way an artist understands his or her work intimately. Because two elements of the world are the visual and the auditory, God must necessarily possess vision and speech.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHillierExistence_and_Attributes_of_God_54-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHillierExistence_and_Attributes_of_God-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Omnipotence_paradox" title="Omnipotence paradox">omnipotence paradox</a> was first addressed by Averroes<sup id="cite_ref-TT_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TT-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and only later by <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-TA_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TA-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pre-eternity_of_the_world">Pre-eternity of the world</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Averroes&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Pre-eternity of the world"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Eternity_of_the_world" title="Eternity of the world">Eternity of the world</a></div> <p>In the centuries preceding Averroes, there had been a debate between Muslim thinkers questioning whether the world was created at a specific moment in time or whether it has <a href="/wiki/Eternity_of_the_world" title="Eternity of the world">always existed</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry200114_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFakhry200114-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Neo-Platonic philosophers such as Al-Farabi and Avicenna argued the world has always existed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry200118_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFakhry200118-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This view was criticized by the <a href="/wiki/Kalam" title="Kalam">mutakallimin</a> (philosophers and theologians) of the Ashʾari tradition; in particular, al-Ghazali wrote an extensive refutation of the pre-eternity doctrine in his <i>The Incoherence of the Philosophers</i> and accused the Neoplatonists of unbelief (<i><a href="/wiki/Kufr" class="mw-redirect" title="Kufr">kufr</a></i>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry200118_62-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFakhry200118-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Averroes responded to Al-Ghazali in his <i>Incoherence of the Incoherence</i>. He argued first that the differences between the two positions were not vast enough to warrant the charge of unbelief.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry200118_62-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFakhry200118-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He also said the pre-eternity doctrine did not necessarily contradict the Quran and cited verses that mention pre-existing "throne" and "water" in passages related to creation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry200119_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFakhry200119-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHillierOrigin_of_the_World_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHillierOrigin_of_the_World-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Averroes argued that a careful reading of the Quran implied only the "form" of the universe was created in time but that its existence has been eternal.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry200119_63-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFakhry200119-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Averroes further criticized the mutakallimin for using their interpretations of scripture to answer questions that should have been left to philosophers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry200119–20_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFakhry200119–20-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Politics">Politics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Averroes&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Politics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Averroes states his political philosophy in his commentary of Plato's <i>Republic</i>. He combines his ideas with Plato's and with Islamic tradition; he considers the ideal state to be one based on the Islamic law (<i><a href="/wiki/Shariah" class="mw-redirect" title="Shariah">shariah</a></i>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERosenthal2017Contents_And_Significance_Of_Works_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERosenthal2017Contents_And_Significance_Of_Works-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His interpretation of Plato's <a href="/wiki/Philosopher-king" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosopher-king">philosopher-king</a> followed that of Al-Farabi, which equates the philosopher-king with the <a href="/wiki/Imam" title="Imam">imam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Caliph" class="mw-redirect" title="Caliph">caliph</a> and lawgiver of the state.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERosenthal2017Contents_And_Significance_Of_Works_66-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERosenthal2017Contents_And_Significance_Of_Works-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry2001111_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFakhry2001111-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Averroes's description of the characteristics of a philosopher-king are similar to those given by Al-Farabi; they include love of knowledge, good memory, love of learning, love of truth, dislike for sensual pleasures, dislike for amassing wealth, magnanimity, courage, steadfastness, eloquence and the ability to "light quickly on the <a href="/wiki/Middle_term" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle term">middle term</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry2001111_67-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFakhry2001111-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Averroes writes that if philosophers cannot rule—as was the case in the <a href="/wiki/Almoravid_dynasty" title="Almoravid dynasty">Almoravid</a> and <a href="/wiki/Almohad_Caliphate" title="Almohad Caliphate">Almohad</a> empires around his lifetime—philosophers must still try to influence the rulers towards implementing the ideal state.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERosenthal2017Contents_And_Significance_Of_Works_66-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERosenthal2017Contents_And_Significance_Of_Works-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to Averroes, there are two methods of teaching virtue to citizens; persuasion and coercion.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry2001106_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFakhry2001106-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Persuasion is the more natural method consisting of rhetorical, dialectical and demonstrative methods; sometimes, however, coercion is necessary for those not amenable to persuasion, e.g. enemies of the state.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry2001106_68-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFakhry2001106-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Therefore, he justifies war as a last resort, which he also supports using Quranic arguments.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry2001106_68-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFakhry2001106-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Consequently, he argues that a ruler should have both wisdom and courage, which are needed for governance and defense of the state.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry2001107_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFakhry2001107-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Like Plato, Averroes calls for women to share with men in the administration of the state, including participating as soldiers, philosophers and rulers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry2001110_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFakhry2001110-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He regrets that contemporaneous Muslim societies limited the public role of women; he says this limitation is harmful to the state's well-being.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERosenthal2017Contents_And_Significance_Of_Works_66-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERosenthal2017Contents_And_Significance_Of_Works-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Averroes also accepted Plato's ideas of the deterioration of the ideal state. He cites examples from Islamic history when the <a href="/wiki/Rashidun_caliphate" class="mw-redirect" title="Rashidun caliphate">Rashidun caliphate</a>—which in Sunni tradition represented the ideal state led by "rightly guided caliphs"—became a dynastic state under <a href="/wiki/Mu%27awiya_I" title="Mu'awiya I">Muawiyah</a>, founder of the <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_dynasty" title="Umayyad dynasty">Umayyad dynasty</a>. He also says the Almoravid and the Almohad empires started as ideal, shariah-based states but then deteriorated into <a href="/wiki/Timocracy" title="Timocracy">timocracy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oligarchy" title="Oligarchy">oligarchy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">democracy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tyranny" class="mw-redirect" title="Tyranny">tyranny</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERosenthal2017Contents_And_Significance_Of_Works_66-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERosenthal2017Contents_And_Significance_Of_Works-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry2001112–114_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFakhry2001112–114-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Diversity_of_Islamic_law">Diversity of Islamic law</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Averroes&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Diversity of Islamic law"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In his tenure as judge and jurist, Averroes for the most part ruled and gave fatwas according to the <a href="/wiki/Maliki_school" title="Maliki school">Maliki school</a> of Islamic law which was dominant in Al-Andalus and the western Islamic world during his time.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDutton1994195–196_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDutton1994195–196-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, he frequently acted as "his own man", including sometimes rejecting the "consensus of the people of <a href="/wiki/Medina" title="Medina">Medina</a>" argument that is one of the traditional Maliki position.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDutton1994195_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDutton1994195-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <i>Bidāyat al-Mujtahid</i>, one of his major contributions to the field of Islamic law, he not only describes the differences between various school of Islamic laws but also tries to theoretically explain the reasons for the difference and why they are inevitable.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDutton1994191–192_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDutton1994191–192-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Even though all the schools of Islamic law are ultimately rooted in the Quran and hadith, there are "causes that necessitate differences" (<i>al-asbab al-lati awjabat al-ikhtilaf</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDutton1994192_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDutton1994192-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIbn_Rushd201711_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIbn_Rushd201711-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They include differences in interpreting scripture in a general or specific sense,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDutton1994204_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDutton1994204-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in interpreting scriptural commands as obligatory or merely recommended, or prohibitions as discouragement or total prohibition,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDutton1994199_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDutton1994199-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as well as ambiguities in the meaning of words or expressions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDutton1994204–205_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDutton1994204–205-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Averroes also writes that the application of <i><a href="/wiki/Qiyas" title="Qiyas">qiyas</a></i> (reasoning by analogy) could give rise to different legal opinion because jurists might disagree on the applicability of certain analogies<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDutton1994201–202_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDutton1994201–202-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and different analogies might contradict each other.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDutton1994205_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDutton1994205-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry2001116_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFakhry2001116-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Natural_philosophy">Natural philosophy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Averroes&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Natural philosophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Astronomy">Astronomy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Averroes&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Astronomy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As did <a href="/wiki/Avempace" title="Avempace">Avempace</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Tufail" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn Tufail">Ibn Tufail</a>, Averroes criticizes the <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Ptolemaic system">Ptolemaic system</a> using philosophical arguments and rejects the use of <a href="/wiki/Orbital_eccentricity" title="Orbital eccentricity">eccentrics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Epicycles" class="mw-redirect" title="Epicycles">epicycles</a> to explain the apparent motions of the Moon, the Sun and the planets. He argued that those objects move uniformly in a strictly circular motion around the Earth, following Aristotelian principles.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEForcada2007554–555_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEForcada2007554–555-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He postulates that there are three type of planetary motions; those that can be seen with the naked eye, those that requires instruments to observe and those that can only be known by philosophical reasoning.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIskandar20081116_16-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIskandar20081116-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Averroes argues that the occasional opaque colors of the Moon are caused by variations in its thickness; the thicker parts receive more light from the Sun—and therefore emit more light—than the thinner parts.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAriew2011193_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAriew2011193-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This explanation was used up to the seventeenth century by the European <a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholastics</a> to account for <a href="/wiki/Galileo" class="mw-redirect" title="Galileo">Galileo</a>'s observations of <a href="/wiki/List_of_lunar_features" title="List of lunar features">spots</a> on the Moon's surface, until the Scholastics such as Antoine Goudin in 1668 conceded that the observation was more likely caused by <a href="/wiki/List_of_mountains_on_the_Moon" title="List of mountains on the Moon">mountains</a> on the Moon.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAriew2011194–195_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAriew2011194–195-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He and Ibn Bajja observed <a href="/wiki/Sunspot" title="Sunspot">sunspots</a>, which they thought were <a href="/wiki/Transit_of_Venus" title="Transit of Venus">transits of Venus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Transit_of_Mercury" title="Transit of Mercury">Mercury</a> between the Sun and the Earth.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVernetSamsó1996264_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVernetSamsó1996264-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1153 he conducted astronomical observations in Marrakesh, where he observed the star <a href="/wiki/Canopus" title="Canopus">Canopus</a> (Arabic: <i>Suhayl</i>) which was invisible in the latitude of his native Spain. He used this observation to support <a href="/wiki/Spherical_Earth#Aristotle" title="Spherical Earth">Aristotle's argument</a> for the <a href="/wiki/Spherical_Earth" title="Spherical Earth">spherical Earth</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVernetSamsó1996264_86-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVernetSamsó1996264-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Averroes was aware that Arabic and Andalusian astronomers of his time focused on "mathematical" astronomy, which enabled accurate predictions through calculations but did not provide a detailed physical explanation of how the universe worked.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVernetSamsó1996266_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVernetSamsó1996266-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to him, "the astronomy of our time offers no truth, but only agrees with the calculations and not with what exists."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAgutterWheatley200844_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAgutterWheatley200844-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He attempted to reform astronomy to be reconciled with physics, especially the physics of Aristotle. His long commentary of Aristotle's <i>Metaphysics</i> describes the principles of his attempted reform, but later in his life he declared that his attempts had failed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnaldez1986910_17-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnaldez1986910-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEForcada2007554–555_83-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEForcada2007554–555-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He confessed that he had not enough time or knowledge to reconcile the observed planetary motions with Aristotelian principles.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEForcada2007554–555_83-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEForcada2007554–555-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, he did not know the works of <a href="/wiki/Eudoxus_of_Cnidus" title="Eudoxus of Cnidus">Eudoxus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Callippus" title="Callippus">Callippus</a>, and so he missed the context of some of Aristotle's astronomical works.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEForcada2007554–555_83-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEForcada2007554–555-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, his works influenced astronomer <a href="/wiki/Nur_ad-Din_al-Bitruji" title="Nur ad-Din al-Bitruji">Nur ad-Din al-Bitruji</a> (d. 1204) who adopted most of his reform principles and did succeed in proposing an early astronomical system based on Aristotelian physics.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVernetSamsó1996266–267_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVernetSamsó1996266–267-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Physics">Physics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Averroes&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Physics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In physics, Averroes did not adopt the <a href="/wiki/Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning">inductive</a> method that was being developed by <a href="/wiki/Al-Biruni" title="Al-Biruni">Al-Biruni</a> in the Islamic world and is closer to today's physics.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuessoum2011xxii_50-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuessoum2011xxii-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rather, he was—in the words of historian of science Ruth Glasner—an "exegetical" scientist who produced new theses about nature through discussions of previous texts, especially the writings of Aristotle.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGlasner20094_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGlasner20094-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> because of this approach, he was often depicted as an unimaginative follower of Aristotle, but Glasner argues that Averroes's work introduced highly original theories of physics, especially his elaboration of Aristotle's <i><a href="/wiki/Minima_naturalia" title="Minima naturalia">minima naturalia</a></i> and on motion as <i>forma fluens</i>, which were taken up in the west and are important to the overall development of physics.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGlasner20091–2_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGlasner20091–2-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Psychology">Psychology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Averroes&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Psychology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bnf_lat16151_f22.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Page from a book in Latin with dense text" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Bnf_lat16151_f22.jpg/220px-Bnf_lat16151_f22.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="254" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Bnf_lat16151_f22.jpg/330px-Bnf_lat16151_f22.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Bnf_lat16151_f22.jpg/440px-Bnf_lat16151_f22.jpg 2x" data-file-width="519" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption><i>The Long Commentary on Aristotle's </i><a href="/wiki/On_the_Soul" title="On the Soul">On the Soul</a>, French Manuscript, third quarter of the 13th century</figcaption></figure> <p>Averroes expounds his thoughts on psychology in his three commentaries on Aristotle's <i><a href="/wiki/On_the_Soul" title="On the Soul">On the Soul</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdamson2016188_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdamson2016188-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Averroes is interested in explaining the human intellect using philosophical methods and by interpreting Aristotle's ideas.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdamson2016188_92-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdamson2016188-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His position on the topic changed throughout his career as his thoughts developed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdamson2016188_92-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdamson2016188-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In his short commentary, the first of the three works, Averroes follows <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Bajja" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn Bajja">Ibn Bajja</a>'s theory that something called the "<a href="/wiki/Passive_intellect" title="Passive intellect">material intellect</a>" stores specific images that a person encounters.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdamson2016189–190_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdamson2016189–190-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These images serve as basis for the "unification" by the universal "<a href="/wiki/Agent_intellect" class="mw-redirect" title="Agent intellect">agent intellect</a>", which, once it happens, allow a person to gain universal knowledge about that concept.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdamson2016190_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdamson2016190-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In his middle commentary, Averroes moves towards the ideas of Al-Farabi and Avicenna, saying the agent intellect gives humans the power of universal understanding, which is the material intellect.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdamson2016190_94-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdamson2016190-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Once the person has sufficient empirical encounters with a certain concept, the power activates and gives the person universal knowledge<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdamson2016190_94-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdamson2016190-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (see also <a href="/wiki/Logical_induction" class="mw-redirect" title="Logical induction">logical induction</a>). </p><p>In his last commentary—called the <i>Long Commentary</i>—he proposes another theory, which becomes known as the theory of "the <a href="/wiki/Unity_of_the_intellect" class="mw-redirect" title="Unity of the intellect">unity of the intellect</a>". In it, Averroes argues that there is only one material intellect, which is the same for all humans and is unmixed with human body.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdamson2016191_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdamson2016191-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To explain how different individuals can have different thoughts, he uses a concept he calls <i>fikr</i>—known as <i>cogitatio</i> in Latin—a process that happens in human brains and contains not universal knowledge but "active consideration of particular things" the person has encountered.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdamson2016191_95-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdamson2016191-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This theory attracted controversy when Averroes's works entered Christian Europe; in 1229 <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a> wrote a detailed critique titled <i>On the Unity of the Intellect against the Averroists</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdamson2016188_92-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdamson2016188-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHasse2014Averroes'_Unicity_Thesis_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHasse2014Averroes'_Unicity_Thesis-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Medicine_2">Medicine</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Averroes&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Medicine"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Galenosgruppe_(Wiener_Dioskurides).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Galenosgruppe_%28Wiener_Dioskurides%29.jpg/220px-Galenosgruppe_%28Wiener_Dioskurides%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="262" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Galenosgruppe_%28Wiener_Dioskurides%29.jpg/330px-Galenosgruppe_%28Wiener_Dioskurides%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Galenosgruppe_%28Wiener_Dioskurides%29.jpg/440px-Galenosgruppe_%28Wiener_Dioskurides%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3834" data-file-height="4558" /></a><figcaption>6th-century Byzantine depiction of Galen (top centre) among other noted physicians</figcaption></figure> <p>While his works in medicine indicate an in-depth theoretical knowledge in medicine of his time, he likely had limited expertise as a practitioner, and declared in one of his works that he had not "practiced much apart from myself, my relatives or my friends."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChandelier2018163_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChandelier2018163-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnaldez200027–28_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnaldez200027–28-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He did serve as a royal physician, but his qualification and education was mostly theoretical.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnaldez200027–28_98-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnaldez200027–28-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For the most part, Averroes's medical work <i>Al-Kulliyat fi al-Tibb</i> follows the medical doctrine of Galen, an influential Greek physician and author from the second century, which was based on <a href="/wiki/Humorism" title="Humorism">the four humors</a>—blood, yellow bile, black bile, and phlegm, whose balance is necessary for the health of the human body.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBelenBolay2009378_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBelenBolay2009378-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Averroes's original contributions include his observations on the retina: he might have been the first to recognize that <a href="/wiki/Retina" title="Retina">retina</a> was the part of the eye responsible for sensing light, rather than the <a href="/wiki/Lens_(anatomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lens (anatomy)">lens</a> as was commonly thought.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBelenBolay2009378_99-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBelenBolay2009378-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Modern scholars dispute whether this is what he meant it his <i>Kulliyat</i>, but Averroes also stated a similar observation in his commentary to Aristotle's <i><a href="/wiki/Sense_and_Sensibilia_(Aristotle)" title="Sense and Sensibilia (Aristotle)">Sense and Sensibilia</a></i>: "the innermost of the coats of the eye [the retina] must necessarily receive the light from the humors of the eye [the lens], just like the humors receive the light from air."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBelenBolay2009378–379_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBelenBolay2009378–379-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another of his departure from Galen and the medical theories of the time is his description of <a href="/wiki/Stroke" title="Stroke">stroke</a> as produced by the brain and caused by an obstruction of the arteries from the heart to the brain.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBelenBolay2009379_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBelenBolay2009379-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This explanation is closer to the modern understanding of the disease compared to that of Galen, which attributes it to the obstruction between heart and the periphery.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBelenBolay2009379_101-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBelenBolay2009379-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was also the first to describe the signs and symptoms of <a href="/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease" title="Parkinson's disease">Parkinson's disease</a> in his <i>Kulliyat</i>, although he did not give the disease a name.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBelenBolay2009379–380_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBelenBolay2009379–380-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legacy">Legacy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Averroes&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Legacy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Averroism" title="Averroism">Averroism</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_Jewish_tradition">In Jewish tradition</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Averroes&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: In Jewish tradition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a> (d. 1204) was among early Jewish scholars who received Averroes's works enthusiastically, saying he "received lately everything Averroes had written on the works of Aristotle" and that Averroes "was extremely right".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry2001132_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFakhry2001132-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thirteenth-century Jewish writers, including <a href="/wiki/Samuel_ibn_Tibbon" title="Samuel ibn Tibbon">Samuel ibn Tibbon</a> in his work <i>Opinion of the Philosophers</i>, <a href="/wiki/Judah_ben_Solomon_ha-Kohen" title="Judah ben Solomon ha-Kohen">Judah ben Solomon ha-Kohen</a> in his <i>Search for Wisdom</i> and <a href="/wiki/Shem-Tov_ibn_Falaquera" title="Shem-Tov ibn Falaquera">Shem-Tov ibn Falaquera</a>, relied heavily on Averroes's texts.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry2001132_103-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFakhry2001132-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1232, <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Ibn_Kaspi" title="Joseph Ibn Kaspi">Joseph Ibn Kaspi</a> translated Averroes's commentaries on Aristotle's <i><a href="/wiki/Organon" title="Organon">Organon</a></i>; this was the first Jewish translation of a complete work. In 1260 <a href="/wiki/Moses_ibn_Tibbon" title="Moses ibn Tibbon">Moses ibn Tibbon</a> published the translation of almost all of Averroes's commentaries and some of his medical works.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry2001132_103-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFakhry2001132-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jewish Averroism peaked in the fourteenth century;<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry2001133_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFakhry2001133-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jewish writers of this time who translated or were influenced by Averroes include <a href="/wiki/Kalonymus_ben_Kalonymus" title="Kalonymus ben Kalonymus">Kalonymus ben Kalonymus</a> of <a href="/wiki/Arles" title="Arles">Arles</a>, France, <a href="/wiki/Todros_Todrosi" title="Todros Todrosi">Todros Todrosi</a> of Arles, <a href="/wiki/Elia_del_Medigo" title="Elia del Medigo">Elia del Medigo</a> of Candia and <a href="/wiki/Gersonides" title="Gersonides">Gersonides</a> of <a href="/wiki/Languedoc" title="Languedoc">Languedoc</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry2001132–133_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFakhry2001132–133-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_Latin_tradition">In Latin tradition</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Averroes&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: In Latin tradition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Averroes's main influence on the <a href="/wiki/Western_culture" title="Western culture">Christian West</a> was through his extensive commentaries on Aristotle.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry2001131_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFakhry2001131-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the fall of the <a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Roman Empire</a>, western Europe fell into a cultural decline that resulted in the loss of nearly all of the intellectual legacy of the Classical Greek scholars, including Aristotle.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry2001129_107-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFakhry2001129-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Averroes's commentaries, which were translated into Latin and entered western Europe in the thirteenth century, provided an expert account of Aristotle's legacy and made them available again.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry2001133_104-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFakhry2001133-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdamson2016181–182_108-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdamson2016181–182-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The influence of his commentaries led to Averroes being referred to simply as "The Commentator" rather than by name in Latin Christian writings.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdamson2016180_25-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdamson2016180-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He has been sometimes described as the "father of free thought and unbelief"<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and "father of rationalism".<sup id="cite_ref-Gill_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gill-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Michael_Scot" title="Michael Scot">Michael Scot</a> (1175 – <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1232) was the first Latin translator of Averroes who translated the long commentaries of <i><a href="/wiki/Physics_(Aristotle)" title="Physics (Aristotle)">Physics</a></i>, <i>Metaphysics</i>, <i>On the Soul</i> and <i>On the Heavens</i>, as well as multiple middle and short commentaries, starting in 1217 in <a href="/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</a> and <a href="/wiki/Toledo,_Spain" title="Toledo, Spain">Toledo</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry2001133–134_111-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFakhry2001133–134-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following this, European authors such as <a href="/wiki/Hermannus_Alemannus" title="Hermannus Alemannus">Hermannus Alemannus</a>, William de Luna and <a href="/wiki/Armengaud_of_Montpellier" class="mw-redirect" title="Armengaud of Montpellier">Armengaud of Montpellier</a> translated Averroes's other works, sometimes with help from Jewish authors.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry2001134_112-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFakhry2001134-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Soon after, Averroes's works propagated among Christian scholars in the <a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">scholastic</a> tradition.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry2001134_112-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFakhry2001134-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His writing attracted a strong circle of followers known as the <a href="/wiki/Latin_Averroism" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin Averroism">Latin Averroists</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry2001134_112-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFakhry2001134-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Paris and <a href="/wiki/Padua" title="Padua">Padua</a> were major centers of Latin Averroism, and its prominent thirteenth-century leaders included <a href="/wiki/Siger_of_Brabant" title="Siger of Brabant">Siger of Brabant</a> and <a href="/wiki/Boethius_of_Dacia" class="mw-redirect" title="Boethius of Dacia">Boethius of Dacia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry2001134_112-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFakhry2001134-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Authorities of the Roman Catholic Church reacted against the spread of Averroism. In 1270, the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Archdiocese_of_Paris" title="Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Paris">Bishop of Paris</a> <a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Tempier" title="Étienne Tempier">Étienne Tempier</a> issued <a href="/wiki/Condemnations_of_1270" class="mw-redirect" title="Condemnations of 1270">a condemnation</a> against 15 doctrines—many of which were Aristotelian or Averroist—that he said were in conflict with the doctrines of the church. In 1277, at the request of <a href="/wiki/Pope_John_XXI" title="Pope John XXI">Pope John XXI</a>, Tempier issued another condemnation, this time targeting 219 theses drawn from many sources, mainly the teachings of Aristotle and Averroes.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry2001134–135_113-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFakhry2001134–135-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Benozzo_Gozzoli_004a.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Drawing of a man (Thomas Aquinas) sitting with another man (Averroes) lying on his feet" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Benozzo_Gozzoli_004a.jpg/220px-Benozzo_Gozzoli_004a.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="242" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Benozzo_Gozzoli_004a.jpg/330px-Benozzo_Gozzoli_004a.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Benozzo_Gozzoli_004a.jpg/440px-Benozzo_Gozzoli_004a.jpg 2x" data-file-width="727" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption>The <i>Triumph of Saint Thomas Aquinas over Averroes</i> by Benozzo Gozzoli, depicting <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a> (top center), a major Averroes critic, "triumphing" over Averroes (bottom), depicted at the feet of Aquinas</figcaption></figure> <p>Averroes received a mixed reception from other Catholic thinkers; <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a>, a leading Catholic thinker of the thirteenth century, relied extensively on Averroes's interpretation of Aristotle but disagreed with him on many points.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdamson2016180_25-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdamson2016180-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry2001138_114-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFakhry2001138-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, he wrote a detailed attack on Averroes's theory that all humans share the same intellect.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdamson2016192_115-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdamson2016192-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He also opposed Averroes on the eternity of the universe and <a href="/wiki/Divine_providence" title="Divine providence">divine providence</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry2001140_116-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFakhry2001140-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Ramon_Llull" title="Ramon Llull">Ramon Llull</a> opposed Averroism and established a distinction between a religion that could be tolerated—Islam—and a philosophy that should be opposed—Averroism, especially in its Latin version.<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Catholic Church's condemnations of 1270 and 1277, and the detailed critique by Aquinas weakened the spread of Averroism in Latin <a href="/wiki/Christendom" title="Christendom">Christendom</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry2001135_118-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFakhry2001135-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> though it maintained a following until the sixteenth century, when European thought began to diverge from Aristotelianism.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry2001133_104-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFakhry2001133-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Leading Averroists in the following centuries included <a href="/wiki/John_of_Jandun" title="John of Jandun">John of Jandun</a> and <a href="/wiki/Marsilius_of_Padua" title="Marsilius of Padua">Marsilius of Padua</a> (fourteenth century), <a href="/wiki/Gaetano_da_Thiene_(philosopher)" title="Gaetano da Thiene (philosopher)">Gaetano da Thiene</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pietro_Pomponazzi" title="Pietro Pomponazzi">Pietro Pomponazzi</a> (fifteenth century), and <a href="/wiki/Agostino_Nifo" title="Agostino Nifo">Agostino Nifo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Marcantonio_Zimara" title="Marcantonio Zimara">Marcantonio Zimara</a> (sixteenth century).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry2001137–138_119-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFakhry2001137–138-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_Islamic_tradition">In Islamic tradition</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Averroes&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: In Islamic tradition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Averroes had no major influence on Islamic philosophic thought until modern times.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeaman200228_120-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeaman200228-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Part of the reason was geography; Averroes lived in Spain, the extreme west of the Islamic civilization far from the centers of Islamic intellectual traditions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdamson2016181_53-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdamson2016181-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also, his philosophy may not have appealed to Islamic scholars of his time.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdamson2016181_53-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdamson2016181-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His focus on Aristotle's works was outdated in the twelfth-century Muslim world, which had already scrutinized Aristotle since the ninth century and by now was engaging deeply with newer schools of thought, especially that of <a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdamson2016181_53-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdamson2016181-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the nineteenth century, Muslim thinkers began to engage with the works of Averroes again.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeaman200228_120-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeaman200228-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By this time, there was a cultural renaissance called <i><a href="/wiki/Al-Nahda" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Nahda">Al-Nahda</a></i> ("reawakening") in the Arabic-speaking world and the works of Averroes were seen as inspiration to modernize the Muslim intellectual tradition.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeaman200228_120-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeaman200228-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cultural_references">Cultural references</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Averroes&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Cultural references"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Averroes_closeup.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Drawing of a man looking over the shoulder of a man writing in front of him" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Averroes_closeup.jpg/250px-Averroes_closeup.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="280" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Averroes_closeup.jpg/375px-Averroes_closeup.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/66/Averroes_closeup.jpg 2x" data-file-width="434" data-file-height="486" /></a><figcaption>Averroes, detail of the fresco <i><a href="/wiki/The_School_of_Athens" title="The School of Athens">The School of Athens</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Raphael" title="Raphael">Raphael</a></figcaption></figure> <p>References to Averroes appear in the popular culture of both the western and Muslim world. The poem <i><a href="/wiki/The_Divine_Comedy" class="mw-redirect" title="The Divine Comedy">The Divine Comedy</a></i> by the Italian writer <a href="/wiki/Dante_Alighieri" title="Dante Alighieri">Dante Alighieri</a>, completed in 1320, depicts Averroes, "who made the Great Commentary", along with other non-Christian Greek and Muslim thinkers, in <a href="/wiki/The_first_circle_of_hell" class="mw-redirect" title="The first circle of hell">the first circle of hell</a> around <a href="/wiki/Saladin" title="Saladin">Saladin</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry2001138_114-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFakhry2001138-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESonneborn200694_121-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESonneborn200694-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The prologue of <i><a href="/wiki/The_Canterbury_Tales" title="The Canterbury Tales">The Canterbury Tales</a></i> (1387) by <a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Chaucer" title="Geoffrey Chaucer">Geoffrey Chaucer</a> lists Averroes among other medical authorities known in Europe at the time.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESonneborn200694_121-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESonneborn200694-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Averroes is depicted in <a href="/wiki/Raphael" title="Raphael">Raphael</a>'s 1501 fresco <i><a href="/wiki/The_School_of_Athens" title="The School of Athens">The School of Athens</a></i> that decorates the <a href="/wiki/Apostolic_Palace" title="Apostolic Palace">Apostolic Palace</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Vatican_City" title="Vatican City">Vatican</a>, which features seminal figures of philosophy. In the painting, Averroes wears a green robe and a turban, and peers out from behind <a href="/wiki/Pythagoras" title="Pythagoras">Pythagoras</a>, who is shown writing a book.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESonneborn200695_122-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESonneborn200695-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Averroes is referenced briefly in <a href="/wiki/Victor_Hugo" title="Victor Hugo">Victor Hugo</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/The_Hunchback_of_Notre-Dame" title="The Hunchback of Notre-Dame">The Hunchback of Notre-Dame</a></i> (written 1831, but set in the Paris of 1482). The novel's villain, the Priest Claude Frollo, extols Averroes' talents as an alchemist in his obsessive quest to find the <a href="/wiki/Philosophers_Stone" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophers Stone">Philosophers Stone</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A 1947 short story by <a href="/wiki/Jorge_Luis_Borges" title="Jorge Luis Borges">Jorge Luis Borges</a>, "<a href="/wiki/Averroes%27s_Search" title="Averroes's Search">Averroes's Search</a>" (<a href="/wiki/Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a>: <i lang="es">La Busca de Averroes</i>), features his attempts to understand <a href="/wiki/Poetics_(Aristotle)" title="Poetics (Aristotle)">Aristotle's <i>Poetics</i></a> within a culture that lacks a tradition of live theatrical performance.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBen-Menahem201728_124-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBen-Menahem201728-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the afterwords of the story, Borges comments, "I felt that [the story] mocked me, foiled me, thwarted me. I felt that Averroës, trying to imagine what a play is without ever having suspected what a theater is, was no more absurd than I, trying to imagine Averroës yet with no more material than a few snatches from Renan, <a href="/wiki/Edward_William_Lane" title="Edward William Lane">Lane</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Miguel_As%C3%ADn_Palacios" title="Miguel Asín Palacios">Asín Palacios</a>."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBen-Menahem201729_125-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBen-Menahem201729-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Averroes is also the hero of the 1997 Egyptian movie <i><a href="/wiki/Destiny_(1997_film)" title="Destiny (1997 film)">Destiny</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Youssef_Chahine" title="Youssef Chahine">Youssef Chahine</a>, made partly in commemoration of the 800th anniversary of his death.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESonneborn200695_122-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESonneborn200695-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuessoum2011xiv_126-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuessoum2011xiv-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The plant genus <i><a href="/wiki/Averrhoa" title="Averrhoa">Averrhoa</a></i> (whose members include the <a href="/wiki/Starfruit" class="mw-redirect" title="Starfruit">starfruit</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Averrhoa_bilimbi" title="Averrhoa bilimbi">bilimbi</a><sup id="cite_ref-Quattrocchi1999_127-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Quattrocchi1999-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>), the <a href="/wiki/Lunar_crater" class="mw-redirect" title="Lunar crater">lunar crater</a> <a href="/wiki/Ibn-Rushd_(crater)" title="Ibn-Rushd (crater)">ibn Rushd</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the <a href="/wiki/Asteroid" title="Asteroid">asteroid</a> <a href="/wiki/8318_Averroes" title="8318 Averroes">8318 Averroes</a> are named after him.<sup id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Mael Malihabadi's 1957 Urdu historical fiction novel <i>Falsafi ibn-e Rushd</i> revolves around his life.<sup id="cite_ref-130" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Averroes&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFTamer2011" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Tamer, Georges (1 February 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-3/averroism-COM_24253?s.num=0&s.f.s2_parent=s.f.book.encyclopaedia-of-islam-3&s.q=averroes">"Averroism"</a>. <i>Encyclopaedia of Islam</i>. Vol. 3. <q>Averroism is a philosophical movement named after the sixth/twelfth-century Andalusian philosopher Ibn Rushd (Averroes, d. 595/1198), which began in the thirteenth century among masters of arts at the University of Paris and continued through the seventeenth century.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Averroism&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+of+Islam&rft.date=2011-02-01&rft.aulast=Tamer&rft.aufirst=Georges&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Freferenceworks.brillonline.com%2Fentries%2Fencyclopaedia-of-islam-3%2Faverroism-COM_24253%3Fs.num%3D0%26s.f.s2_parent%3Ds.f.book.encyclopaedia-of-islam-3%26s.q%3Daverroes&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAverroes" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCampo2009" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Campo, Juan Eduardo (2009). 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 April</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Telegraph&rft.atitle=On+this+day+in+1198%3A+the+Islamic+philosopher+Averro%C3%ABs+dies+in+Marrakech&rft.date=2017-12-10&rft.issn=0307-1235&rft.aulast=Selwood&rft.aufirst=Dominic&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.telegraph.co.uk%2Fnews%2F2017%2F12%2F10%2Fday-1198-islamic-philosopher-averroes-dies-marrakech%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAverroes" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHillierBiography-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHillierBiography_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHillierBiography_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHillierBiography_11-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHillierBiography_11-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHillierBiography_11-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHillier">Hillier</a>, Biography.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCruz_Hernández" class="citation web cs1">Cruz Hernández, Miguel. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dbe.rah.es/biografias/7043/averroes">"Averroes"</a>. <i>Real Academia de la Historia</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Real+Academia+de+la+Historia&rft.atitle=Averroes&rft.aulast=Cruz+Hern%C3%A1ndez&rft.aufirst=Miguel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdbe.rah.es%2Fbiografias%2F7043%2Faverroes&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAverroes" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGea2020" class="citation journal cs1">Gea, Joaquim (1 July 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.elsevier.es/en-revista-open-respiratory-archives-11-articulo-averroes-rationalism-systematization-in-medicine-S2659663620300436">"Averroes, Rationalism and Systematization in Medicine"</a>. <i>Open Respiratory Archives</i>. <b>2</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">102–</span>103. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.opresp.2020.06.002">10.1016/j.opresp.2020.06.002</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10230%2F48975">10230/48975</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2659-6636">2659-6636</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Open+Respiratory+Archives&rft.atitle=Averroes%2C+Rationalism+and+Systematization+in+Medicine&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E102-%3C%2Fspan%3E103&rft.date=2020-07-01&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10230%2F48975&rft.issn=2659-6636&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.opresp.2020.06.002&rft.aulast=Gea&rft.aufirst=Joaquim&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.elsevier.es%2Fen-revista-open-respiratory-archives-11-articulo-averroes-rationalism-systematization-in-medicine-S2659663620300436&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAverroes" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWohlman200916-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWohlman200916_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWohlman200916_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWohlman200916_14-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWohlman200916_14-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWohlman2009">Wohlman 2009</a>, p. 16.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDutton1994190-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDutton1994190_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDutton1994190_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDutton1994190_15-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDutton1994">Dutton 1994</a>, p. 190.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEIskandar20081116-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIskandar20081116_16-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIskandar20081116_16-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIskandar20081116_16-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIskandar20081116_16-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIskandar20081116_16-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFIskandar2008">Iskandar 2008</a>, p. 1116.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnaldez1986910-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnaldez1986910_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnaldez1986910_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnaldez1986910_17-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnaldez1986910_17-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnaldez1986910_17-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnaldez1986910_17-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnaldez1986910_17-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnaldez1986910_17-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnaldez1986910_17-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnaldez1986910_17-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnaldez1986910_17-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnaldez1986910_17-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnaldez1986910_17-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnaldez1986910_17-13"><sup><i><b>n</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnaldez1986910_17-14"><sup><i><b>o</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnaldez1986910_17-15"><sup><i><b>p</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnaldez1986910_17-16"><sup><i><b>q</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnaldez1986910_17-17"><sup><i><b>r</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnaldez1986910_17-18"><sup><i><b>s</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnaldez1986910_17-19"><sup><i><b>t</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnaldez1986910_17-20"><sup><i><b>u</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnaldez1986910_17-21"><sup><i><b>v</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnaldez1986910_17-22"><sup><i><b>w</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnaldez1986910_17-23"><sup><i><b>x</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnaldez1986910_17-24"><sup><i><b>y</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnaldez1986910_17-25"><sup><i><b>z</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnaldez1986910_17-26"><sup><i><b>aa</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFArnaldez1986">Arnaldez 1986</a>, p. 910.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFakhry20011-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry20011_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFakhry2001">Fakhry 2001</a>, p. 1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFakhry20012-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry20012_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry20012_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry20012_19-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry20012_19-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry20012_19-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry20012_19-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry20012_19-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry20012_19-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry20012_19-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry20012_19-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry20012_19-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry20012_19-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFakhry2001">Fakhry 2001</a>, p. 2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDutton1994196-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDutton1994196_20-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDutton1994196_20-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDutton1994196_20-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDutton1994">Dutton 1994</a>, p. 196.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFakhry20013-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry20013_21-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry20013_21-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry20013_21-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry20013_21-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry20013_21-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFakhry2001">Fakhry 2001</a>, p. 3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor2005181-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylor2005181_22-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylor2005181_22-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylor2005181_22-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylor2005181_22-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylor2005181_22-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTaylor2005">Taylor 2005</a>, p. 181.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAhmad1994-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAhmad1994_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAhmad1994">Ahmad 1994</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdamson2016180–181-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdamson2016180–181_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAdamson2016">Adamson 2016</a>, pp. 180–181.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdamson2016180-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdamson2016180_25-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdamson2016180_25-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdamson2016180_25-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdamson2016180_25-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdamson2016180_25-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdamson2016180_25-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAdamson2016">Adamson 2016</a>, p. 180.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcGinnisReisman2007295-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcGinnisReisman2007295_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMcGinnisReisman2007">McGinnis & Reisman 2007</a>, p. 295.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnaldez1986911–912-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnaldez1986911–912_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFArnaldez1986">Arnaldez 1986</a>, pp. 911–912.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnaldez1986913–914-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnaldez1986913–914_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFArnaldez1986">Arnaldez 1986</a>, pp. 913–914.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnaldez1986914-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnaldez1986914_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFArnaldez1986">Arnaldez 1986</a>, p. 914.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnaldez1986915-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnaldez1986915_30-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnaldez1986915_30-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFArnaldez1986">Arnaldez 1986</a>, p. 915.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFakhry2001124-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry2001124_31-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry2001124_31-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry2001124_31-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFakhry2001">Fakhry 2001</a>, p. 124.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnaldez200028–29-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnaldez200028–29_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFArnaldez2000">Arnaldez 2000</a>, pp. 28–29.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnaldez200028-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnaldez200028_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFArnaldez2000">Arnaldez 2000</a>, p. 28.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFakhry2001xvi-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry2001xvi_34-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry2001xvi_34-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFakhry2001">Fakhry 2001</a>, p. xvi.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDutton1994188-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDutton1994188_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDutton1994">Dutton 1994</a>, p. 188.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFakhry2001115-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry2001115_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFakhry2001">Fakhry 2001</a>, p. 115.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFakhry20015-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry20015_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFakhry2001">Fakhry 2001</a>, p. 5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELeaman200227-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeaman200227_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLeaman2002">Leaman 2002</a>, p. 27.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFakhry20016-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry20016_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFakhry2001">Fakhry 2001</a>, p. 6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFakhry20016–7-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry20016–7_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFakhry2001">Fakhry 2001</a>, pp. 6–7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFakhry20017-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry20017_41-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry20017_41-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFakhry2001">Fakhry 2001</a>, p. 7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFakhry20018–9-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry20018–9_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFakhry2001">Fakhry 2001</a>, pp. 8–9.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFakhry20019-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry20019_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFakhry2001">Fakhry 2001</a>, p. 9.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVirani2011" class="citation journal cs1">Virani, Shafique N. (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/36996009">"Taqiyya and Identity in a South Asian Community"</a>. <i>The Journal of Asian Studies</i>. <b>70</b> (1): 99–139 [131–132. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0021911810002974">10.1017/S0021911810002974</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0021-9118">0021-9118</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143431047">143431047</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Asian+Studies&rft.atitle=Taqiyya+and+Identity+in+a+South+Asian+Community&rft.volume=70&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=99-139+131-132&rft.date=2011&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143431047%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0021-9118&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0021911810002974&rft.aulast=Virani&rft.aufirst=Shafique+N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F36996009&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAverroes" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHillierPhilosophy_and_Religion-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHillierPhilosophy_and_Religion_45-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHillierPhilosophy_and_Religion_45-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHillierPhilosophy_and_Religion_45-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHillierPhilosophy_and_Religion_45-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHillier">Hillier</a>, Philosophy and Religion.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHillierparagraph_2-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHillierparagraph_2_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHillier">Hillier</a>, paragraph 2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELeaman200255-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeaman200255_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLeaman2002">Leaman 2002</a>, p. 55.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuessoum2011xx-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuessoum2011xx_48-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuessoum2011xx_48-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuessoum2011xx_48-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGuessoum2011">Guessoum 2011</a>, p. xx.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdamson2016184-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdamson2016184_49-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdamson2016184_49-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAdamson2016">Adamson 2016</a>, p. 184.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuessoum2011xxii-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuessoum2011xxii_50-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuessoum2011xxii_50-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuessoum2011xxii_50-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGuessoum2011">Guessoum 2011</a>, p. xxii.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdamson2016182-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdamson2016182_51-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAdamson2016">Adamson 2016</a>, p. 182.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdamson2016183-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdamson2016183_52-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdamson2016183_52-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAdamson2016">Adamson 2016</a>, p. 183.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdamson2016181-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdamson2016181_53-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdamson2016181_53-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdamson2016181_53-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdamson2016181_53-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAdamson2016">Adamson 2016</a>, p. 181.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHillierExistence_and_Attributes_of_God-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHillierExistence_and_Attributes_of_God_54-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHillierExistence_and_Attributes_of_God_54-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHillierExistence_and_Attributes_of_God_54-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHillierExistence_and_Attributes_of_God_54-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHillierExistence_and_Attributes_of_God_54-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHillierExistence_and_Attributes_of_God_54-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHillierExistence_and_Attributes_of_God_54-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHillierExistence_and_Attributes_of_God_54-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHillier">Hillier</a>, Existence and Attributes of God.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFakhry200174-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry200174_55-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry200174_55-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFakhry2001">Fakhry 2001</a>, p. 74.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFakhry200177-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry200177_56-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry200177_56-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFakhry2001">Fakhry 2001</a>, p. 77.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFakhry200177–78-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry200177–78_57-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFakhry2001">Fakhry 2001</a>, pp. 77–78.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFakhry200179-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry200179_58-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFakhry2001">Fakhry 2001</a>, p. 79.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-TT-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-TT_59-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Averroës, <i>Tahafut al-Tahafut (The Incoherence of the Incoherence)</i> trans. Simon Van Den Bergh, Luzac & Company 1969, sections 529–536</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-TA-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-TA_60-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas, Thomas</a> <a href="/wiki/Summa_Theologica" title="Summa Theologica">Summa Theologica</a> Book 1 Question 25 article 3</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFakhry200114-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry200114_61-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFakhry2001">Fakhry 2001</a>, p. 14.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFakhry200118-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry200118_62-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry200118_62-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry200118_62-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFakhry2001">Fakhry 2001</a>, p. 18.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFakhry200119-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry200119_63-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry200119_63-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFakhry2001">Fakhry 2001</a>, p. 19.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHillierOrigin_of_the_World-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHillierOrigin_of_the_World_64-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHillier">Hillier</a>, Origin of the World.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFakhry200119–20-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry200119–20_65-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFakhry2001">Fakhry 2001</a>, pp. 19–20.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERosenthal2017Contents_And_Significance_Of_Works-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERosenthal2017Contents_And_Significance_Of_Works_66-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERosenthal2017Contents_And_Significance_Of_Works_66-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERosenthal2017Contents_And_Significance_Of_Works_66-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERosenthal2017Contents_And_Significance_Of_Works_66-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERosenthal2017Contents_And_Significance_Of_Works_66-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRosenthal2017">Rosenthal 2017</a>, Contents And Significance Of Works.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFakhry2001111-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry2001111_67-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFakhry2001111_67-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a 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CRC Press. p. 241. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0849326738" title="Special:BookSources/978-0849326738"><bdi>978-0849326738</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=CRC+World+Dictionary+of+Plant+Names%3A+Common+Names%2C+Scientific+Names%2C+Eponyms%2C+Synonyms%2C+and+Etymology&rft.pages=241&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0849326738&rft.aulast=Quattrocchi&rft.aufirst=Umberto&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DA68qyOyhOdkC%26pg%3DPA241&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAverroes" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/Feature/2636">"Averroes"</a>. <i>Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature</i>. USGS Astrogeology Research Program.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Averroes&rft.btitle=Gazetteer+of+Planetary+Nomenclature&rft.pub=USGS+Astrogeology+Research+Program&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplanetarynames.wr.usgs.gov%2FFeature%2F2636&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAverroes" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.minorplanetcenter.net/db_search/show_object?object_id=8318">"8318 Averroes (1306 T-2)"</a>. <i>Minor Planet Center</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 September</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Minor+Planet+Center&rft.atitle=8318+Averroes+%281306+T-2%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.minorplanetcenter.net%2Fdb_search%2Fshow_object%3Fobject_id%3D8318&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAverroes" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.rekhta.org/ebooks/detail/falsafi-ibn-e-rushd-mael-malihabadi-ebooks">"Falsafi Ibn-e-Rushd by mael malihabadi"</a>. <i>Rekhta</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 August</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Rekhta&rft.atitle=Falsafi+Ibn-e-Rushd+by+mael+malihabadi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.rekhta.org%2Febooks%2Fdetail%2Ffalsafi-ibn-e-rushd-mael-malihabadi-ebooks&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAverroes" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Works_cited">Works cited</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Averroes&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Works cited"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 40em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdamson2016" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Peter_Adamson_(academic)" class="mw-redirect" title="Peter Adamson (academic)">Adamson, Peter</a> (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KEpRDAAAQBAJ"><i>Philosophy in the Islamic World: A History of Philosophy Without Any Gaps</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0199577491" title="Special:BookSources/978-0199577491"><bdi>978-0199577491</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Philosophy+in+the+Islamic+World%3A+A+History+of+Philosophy+Without+Any+Gaps&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0199577491&rft.aulast=Adamson&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKEpRDAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAverroes" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAgutterWheatley2008" class="citation book cs1">Agutter, Paul S.; Wheatley, Denys N. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Gm4bqeBMR8cC&q=Averroes+kinetic+force&pg=PA45"><i>Thinking about Life: The history and philosophy of biology and other sciences</i></a>. Springer Science & Business Media. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1402088667" title="Special:BookSources/978-1402088667"><bdi>978-1402088667</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Thinking+about+Life%3A+The+history+and+philosophy+of+biology+and+other+sciences&rft.pub=Springer+Science+%26+Business+Media&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1402088667&rft.aulast=Agutter&rft.aufirst=Paul+S.&rft.au=Wheatley%2C+Denys+N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGm4bqeBMR8cC%26q%3DAverroes%2Bkinetic%2Bforce%26pg%3DPA45&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAverroes" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAhmad1994" class="citation journal cs1">Ahmad, Jamil (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.monthly-renaissance.com/issue/content.aspx?id=744">"Averroes"</a>. <i>Renaissance</i>. <b>4</b> (9). <a href="/wiki/Lahore" title="Lahore">Lahore</a>: Al-Mawrid. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1605-0045">1605-0045</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 October</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Renaissance&rft.atitle=Averroes&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=9&rft.date=1994&rft.issn=1605-0045&rft.aulast=Ahmad&rft.aufirst=Jamil&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.monthly-renaissance.com%2Fissue%2Fcontent.aspx%3Fid%3D744&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAverroes" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAriew2011" class="citation book cs1">Ariew, Roger (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OFD0lVQ4RIQC"><i>Descartes Among the Scholastics</i></a>. Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9004207240" title="Special:BookSources/978-9004207240"><bdi>978-9004207240</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Descartes+Among+the+Scholastics&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-9004207240&rft.aulast=Ariew&rft.aufirst=Roger&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOFD0lVQ4RIQC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAverroes" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArnaldez1986" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol"><a href="/wiki/Roger_Arnaldez" title="Roger Arnaldez">Arnaldez, Roger</a> (1986). "Ibn Rushd". In B. Lewis; V.L. Menage; Ch. Pellat; J. Schacht (eds.). <i><a href="/wiki/The_Encyclopaedia_of_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="The Encyclopaedia of Islam">The Encyclopaedia of Islam</a></i>. Vol. III: H-Iram. <a href="/wiki/Leiden" title="Leiden">Leiden</a> and <a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a>: <a href="/wiki/Brill_Publishers" title="Brill Publishers">Brill</a> and Luzac & co. pp. <span class="nowrap">909–</span>920. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F1573-3912_islam_COM_0340">10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0340</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9004081185" title="Special:BookSources/978-9004081185"><bdi>978-9004081185</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ibn+Rushd&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopaedia+of+Islam&rft.place=Leiden+and+London&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E909-%3C%2Fspan%3E920&rft.pub=Brill+and+Luzac+%26+co.&rft.date=1986&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F1573-3912_islam_COM_0340&rft.isbn=978-9004081185&rft.aulast=Arnaldez&rft.aufirst=Roger&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAverroes" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArnaldez2000" class="citation book cs1">Arnaldez, Roger (2000) [1998]. <i>Averroes: A Rationalist in Islam</i>. Translated by David Streight. University of Notre Dame Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0268020086" title="Special:BookSources/0268020086"><bdi>0268020086</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Averroes%3A+A+Rationalist+in+Islam&rft.pub=University+of+Notre+Dame+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0268020086&rft.aulast=Arnaldez&rft.aufirst=Roger&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAverroes" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBen-Menahem2017" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Ben-Menahem, Yemima (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=oSeMDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA28">"Borges on Replication and Concept Formation"</a>. In Ayelet Shavit; Aaron M. Ellison (eds.). <i>Stepping in the Same River Twice: Replication in Biological Research</i>. Yale University Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">23–</span>36. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0300228038" title="Special:BookSources/978-0300228038"><bdi>978-0300228038</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Borges+on+Replication+and+Concept+Formation&rft.btitle=Stepping+in+the+Same+River+Twice%3A+Replication+in+Biological+Research&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E23-%3C%2Fspan%3E36&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0300228038&rft.aulast=Ben-Menahem&rft.aufirst=Yemima&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DoSeMDgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA28&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAverroes" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChandelier2018" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Chandelier, Joël (2018). "Averroes on Medicine". In Peter Adamson; Matteo Di Giovanni (eds.). <i>Interpreting Averroes</i>. Cambridge University Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">158–</span>176. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2F9781316335543.010">10.1017/9781316335543.010</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1316335543" title="Special:BookSources/978-1316335543"><bdi>978-1316335543</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Averroes+on+Medicine&rft.btitle=Interpreting+Averroes&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E158-%3C%2Fspan%3E176&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2F9781316335543.010&rft.isbn=978-1316335543&rft.aulast=Chandelier&rft.aufirst=Jo%C3%ABl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAverroes" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBelenBolay2009" class="citation journal cs1">Belen, Deniz; Bolay, Hayrunnisa (2009). "Averroës in The school of Athens: a Renaissance man and his contribution to Western thought and neuroscience". <i><a href="/wiki/Neurosurgery_(journal)" title="Neurosurgery (journal)">Neurosurgery</a></i>. <b>64</b> (2). <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>: <span class="nowrap">374–</span>381. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1227%2F01.NEU.0000338262.42326.A1">10.1227/01.NEU.0000338262.42326.A1</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1524-4040">1524-4040</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19190465">19190465</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Neurosurgery&rft.atitle=Averro%C3%ABs+in+The+school+of+Athens%3A+a+Renaissance+man+and+his+contribution+to+Western+thought+and+neuroscience&rft.volume=64&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E374-%3C%2Fspan%3E381&rft.date=2009&rft.issn=1524-4040&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19190465&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1227%2F01.NEU.0000338262.42326.A1&rft.aulast=Belen&rft.aufirst=Deniz&rft.au=Bolay%2C+Hayrunnisa&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAverroes" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDutton1994" class="citation journal cs1">Dutton, Yasin (1994). "The Introduction to Ibn Rushd's "Bidāyat al-Mujtahid"<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>". <i>Islamic Law and Society</i>. <b>1</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">188–</span>205. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3399333">10.2307/3399333</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3399333">3399333</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Islamic+Law+and+Society&rft.atitle=The+Introduction+to+Ibn+Rushd%27s+%22Bid%C4%81yat+al-Mujtahid%22&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E188-%3C%2Fspan%3E205&rft.date=1994&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3399333&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3399333%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Dutton&rft.aufirst=Yasin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAverroes" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFakhry2001" class="citation cs2">Fakhry, Majid (2001), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=88bWAAAAMAAJ"><i>Averroes (Ibn Rushd) His Life, Works and Influence</i></a>, <a href="/wiki/Oneworld_Publications" title="Oneworld Publications">Oneworld Publications</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1851682690" title="Special:BookSources/978-1851682690"><bdi>978-1851682690</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Averroes+%28Ibn+Rushd%29+His+Life%2C+Works+and+Influence&rft.pub=Oneworld+Publications&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-1851682690&rft.aulast=Fakhry&rft.aufirst=Majid&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D88bWAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAverroes" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFForcada2007" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Forcada, Miquel (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://islamsci.mcgill.ca/RASI/BEA/Ibn_Rushd_BEA.htm">"Ibn Rushd: Abū al-Walīd Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad ibn Muḥammad ibn Rushd al-Ḥafīd"</a>. 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Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0199567737" title="Special:BookSources/978-0199567737"><bdi>978-0199567737</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Averroes%27+Physics%3A+A+Turning+Point+in+Medieval+Natural+Philosophy&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0199567737&rft.aulast=Glasner&rft.aufirst=Ruth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcxsUDAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAverroes" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGuessoum2011" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Nidhal_Guessoum" title="Nidhal Guessoum">Guessoum, Nidhal</a> (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ebcjQwAACAAJ"><i>Islam's Quantum Question: Reconciling Muslim Tradition and Modern Science</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/I.B._Tauris" title="I.B. 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In Helaine Selin (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclopaedia_of_the_History_of_Science,_Technology,_and_Medicine_in_Non-Western_Cultures" title="Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures">Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York</a>: <a href="/wiki/Springer_Science%2BBusiness_Media" title="Springer Science+Business Media">Springer</a>. pp. <span class="nowrap">1115–</span>1117. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4020-4425-0_9240">10.1007/978-1-4020-4425-0_9240</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1402045592" title="Special:BookSources/978-1402045592"><bdi>978-1402045592</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ibn+Rushd+%28Averro%C3%ABs%29&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+of+the+History+of+Science%2C+Technology%2C+and+Medicine+in+Non-Western+Cultures&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1115-%3C%2Fspan%3E1117&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-1-4020-4425-0_9240&rft.isbn=978-1402045592&rft.aulast=Iskandar&rft.aufirst=Albert+Z.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAverroes" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeaman2002" class="citation cs2">Leaman, Olivier (2002), <i>An Introduction to Classical Islamic Philosophy</i> (2nd ed.), <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521797573" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521797573"><bdi>978-0521797573</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+Classical+Islamic+Philosophy&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0521797573&rft.aulast=Leaman&rft.aufirst=Olivier&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAverroes" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcGinnisReisman2007" class="citation book cs1">McGinnis, Jon; Reisman, David C. 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Hackett Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1603843928" title="Special:BookSources/978-1603843928"><bdi>978-1603843928</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Classical+Arabic+Philosophy%3A+An+Anthology+of+Sources&rft.pub=Hackett+Publishing&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1603843928&rft.aulast=McGinnis&rft.aufirst=Jon&rft.au=Reisman%2C+David+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DV9ITPVoGjsoC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAverroes" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRenan1882" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Renan" title="Ernest Renan">Renan, Ernest</a> (1882). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/averrosetlaver00rena"><i>Averroès et l'Averroïsme: Essai Historique</i></a> (in French). <a href="/wiki/Calmann-L%C3%A9vy" title="Calmann-Lévy">Calmann-Lévy</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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The Rosen Publishing Group. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1404205147" title="Special:BookSources/978-1404205147"><bdi>978-1404205147</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Averroes+%28Ibn+Rushd%29%3A+Muslim+Scholar%2C+Philosopher%2C+and+Physician+of+the+Twelfth+Century&rft.pub=The+Rosen+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-1404205147&rft.aulast=Sonneborn&rft.aufirst=Liz&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DiIjayOIulPcC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAverroes" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaylor2005" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Taylor, Richard C. 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Cambridge University Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">180–</span>200. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521520690" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521520690"><bdi>978-0521520690</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Averroes%3A+religious+dialectic+and+Aristotelian+philosophical+thought&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Companion+to+Arabic+Philosophy&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E180-%3C%2Fspan%3E200&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0521520690&rft.aulast=Taylor&rft.aufirst=Richard+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dxowm255qOzQC%26pg%3DPA180&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAverroes" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVernetSamsó1996" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Juan_Vernet" title="Juan Vernet">Vernet, Juan</a>; Samsó, Julio (1996). "The development of Arabic science in Andalusia". In <a href="/wiki/Roshdi_Rashed" title="Roshdi Rashed">Roshdi Rashed</a> (ed.). <i>Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science</i>. 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Encyclopædia Britannica, inc.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Averro%C3%ABs&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.pub=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica%2C+inc.&rft.date=2017-12-26&rft.aulast=Rosenthal&rft.aufirst=Erwin+I.J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fbiography%2FAverroes&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAverroes" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Averroes&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid 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//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/76px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has original works by or about:<br /><b style="text-align: center;"><i><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Author:Abul_Walid_Muhammad_ibn_Ahmad_ibn_Rushd" class="extiw" title="s:Author:Abul Walid Muhammad ibn Ahmad ibn Rushd">Averroes</a></i></b></div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikiquote-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/51px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/68px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <i><b><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Averroes" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/Averroes">Averroes</a></b></i>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Averroes" class="extiw" title="commons:Averroes"><span style="font-style:italic; font-weight:bold;">Averroes</span></a>.</div></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Works_of_Averroes">Works of Averroes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Averroes&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Works of Averroes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dare.uni-koeln.de/">DARE</a>, the Digital Averroes Research Environment, an ongoing effort to collect digital images of all Averroes manuscripts and full texts of all three language-traditions.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ir/index.html">Averroes</a>, Islamic Philosophy Online (links to works by and about Averroes in several languages)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://oll.libertyfund.org/titles/rushd-the-philosophy-and-theology-of-averroes"><i>The Philosophy and Theology of Averroes: Tractata translated from the Arabic</i></a>, trans. Mohammad Jamil-ur-Rehman, 1921</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ir/tt/index.html">The Incoherence of the Incoherence</a> translation by Simon van den Bergh. [<i>N.B. </i>: Because these refutations consist mainly of commentary on statements by <a href="/wiki/Al-Ghazali" title="Al-Ghazali">al-Ghazali</a> which are quoted verbatim, this work contains a translation of most of the Tahafut.] There is also an Italian translation by <a href="/wiki/Massimo_Campanini" title="Massimo Campanini">Massimo Campanini</a>, Averroè, <i>L'incoerenza dell'incoerenza dei filosofi</i>, Turin, Utet, 1997.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://capricorn.bc.edu/siepm/books.html#12">[1]</a> <a href="/wiki/SIEPM" class="mw-redirect" title="SIEPM">SIEPM virtual library</a>, including scanned copies (PDF) of the Editio Juntina of Averroes's works in Latin (Venice 1550–1562)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIbn_Rushd2017" class="citation book cs1">Ibn Rushd (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9LpsDwAAQBAJ"><i>Bidayat al-Mujtahid wa Nihayat al-Muqtasid</i></a>. Dar Al Kotob Al Ilmiyah. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2745134127" title="Special:BookSources/978-2745134127"><bdi>978-2745134127</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bidayat+al-Mujtahid+wa+Nihayat+al-Muqtasid&rft.pub=Dar+Al+Kotob+Al+Ilmiyah&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-2745134127&rft.au=Ibn+Rushd&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9LpsDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAverroes" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Information_about_Averroes">Information about Averroes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Averroes&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Information about Averroes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFouad_Ben_Ahmed_&_Robert_Pasnau" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Fouad Ben Ahmed & Robert Pasnau. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ibn-rushd/">"Ibn Rushd [Averroes]"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Edward_N._Zalta" title="Edward N. Zalta">Zalta, Edward N.</a> (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ibn+Rushd+%5BAverroes%5D&rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.au=Fouad+Ben+Ahmed+%26+Robert+Pasnau&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fibn-rushd%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAverroes" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFH._C._Hillier" class="citation web cs1">H. C. Hillier. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.iep.utm.edu/ibnrushd/">"Ibn Rushd (Averroes)"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Ibn+Rushd+%28Averroes%29&rft.au=H.+C.+Hillier&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.iep.utm.edu%2Fibnrushd%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAverroes" class="Z3988"></span> on the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dare.uni-koeln.de/works-inventory/">Bibliography</a>, a comprehensive overview of the extant bibliography</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071230142029/http://www.thomasinst.uni-koeln.de/averroes/">Averroes Database</a>, including a full bibliography of his works</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.npr.org/2019/10/09/768651310/the-commentator">Podcast on Averroes</a>, at <a href="/wiki/National_Public_Radio" class="mw-redirect" title="National Public Radio">NPR</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Throughline" title="Throughline">Throughline</a></i></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output 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abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Medieval_Philosophy" title="Template:Medieval Philosophy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Medieval_Philosophy" title="Template talk:Medieval Philosophy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Medieval_Philosophy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Medieval Philosophy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Medieval_philosophers201" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval philosophers</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.2em;text-align:center;">Early</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Church Fathers</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine of Hippo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boethius" title="Boethius">Boethius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cassiodorus" title="Cassiodorus">Cassiodorus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudo-Dionysius_the_Areopagite" title="Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite">Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isidore_of_Seville" title="Isidore of Seville">Isidore of Seville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Scotus_Eriugena" title="John Scotus Eriugena">John Scotus Eriugena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcuin" title="Alcuin">Alcuin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.2em;text-align:center;">11–12th<br />century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anselm_of_Canterbury" title="Anselm of Canterbury">Anselm of Canterbury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Abelard" title="Peter Abelard">Peter Abelard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anselm_of_Laon" title="Anselm of Laon">Anselm of Laon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugh_of_Saint_Victor" title="Hugh of Saint Victor">Hugh of Saint Victor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_of_Saint_Victor" title="Richard of Saint Victor">Richard of Saint Victor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roscellinus" title="Roscellinus">Roscelin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Lombard" title="Peter Lombard">Peter Lombard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_of_Hales" title="Alexander of Hales">Alexander of Hales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_of_Chartres" title="Bernard of Chartres">Bernard of Chartres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominicus_Gundissalinus" title="Dominicus Gundissalinus">Dominicus Gundissalinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_de_la_Porr%C3%A9e" title="Gilbert de la Porrée">Gilbert de la Porrée</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_de_Lille" title="Alain de Lille">Alain de Lille</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.2em;text-align:center;">13–14th<br />century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Grosseteste" title="Robert Grosseteste">Robert Grosseteste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Scot" title="Michael Scot">Michael Scot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albertus_Magnus" title="Albertus Magnus">Albertus Magnus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_of_Ghent" title="Henry of Ghent">Henry of Ghent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Bacon" title="Roger Bacon">Roger Bacon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bonaventure" title="Bonaventure">Bonaventure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitello" title="Vitello">Vitello</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Peckham" title="John Peckham">John Peckham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramon_Llull" title="Ramon Llull">Ramon Llull</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siger_of_Brabant" title="Siger of Brabant">Siger of Brabant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boetius_of_Dacia" title="Boetius of Dacia">Boetius of Dacia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrus_Peregrinus_de_Maricourt" title="Petrus Peregrinus de Maricourt">Petrus Peregrinus de Maricourt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meister_Eckhart" title="Meister Eckhart">Meister Eckhart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giles_of_Rome" title="Giles of Rome">Giles of Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Godfrey_of_Fontaines" title="Godfrey of Fontaines">Godfrey of Fontaines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duns_Scotus" title="Duns Scotus">Duns Scotus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Durandus_of_Saint-Pour%C3%A7ain" title="Durandus of Saint-Pourçain">Durandus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrus_Aureolus" class="mw-redirect" title="Petrus Aureolus">Petrus Aureolus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_of_Ockham" title="William of Ockham">William of Ockham</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.2em;text-align:center;">Late</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Buridan" title="Jean Buridan">Jean Buridan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marsilius_of_Inghen" title="Marsilius of Inghen">Marsilius of Inghen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicole_Oresme" title="Nicole Oresme">Nicole Oresme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_of_Saxony_(philosopher)" title="Albert of Saxony (philosopher)">Albert of Saxony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francesc_Eiximenis" title="Francesc Eiximenis">Francesc Eiximenis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_of_Cusa" title="Nicholas of Cusa">Nicholas of Cusa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vincent_Ferrer" title="Vincent Ferrer">Vincent Ferrer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_of_Venice" title="Paul of Venice">Paul of Venice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lambertus_de_Monte" title="Lambertus de Monte">Lambertus de Monte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Hennon" title="John Hennon">John Hennon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Medieval8" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.2em;text-align:center;">Medieval</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Israeli_ben_Solomon" title="Isaac Israeli ben Solomon">Isaac Israeli ben Solomon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saadia_Gaon" title="Saadia Gaon">Saadia Gaon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solomon_ibn_Gabirol" title="Solomon ibn Gabirol">Solomon ibn Gabirol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judah_Halevi" title="Judah Halevi">Judah Halevi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_ibn_Daud" title="Abraham ibn Daud">Abraham ibn Daud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nachmanides" title="Nachmanides">Nachmanides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gersonides" title="Gersonides">Gersonides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hasdai_Crescas" title="Hasdai Crescas">Hasdai Crescas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Albo" title="Joseph Albo">Joseph Albo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Early_Islamic_philosophy" title="Early Islamic philosophy">Islamic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.2em;text-align:center;">Early</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jabir_ibn_Hayyan" title="Jabir ibn Hayyan">Jabir ibn Hayyan (Geber)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibrahim_al-Nazzam" title="Ibrahim al-Nazzam">al-Nazzam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Kindi" title="Al-Kindi">Al-Kindi (Alkindus)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Bakr_al-Razi" title="Abu Bakr al-Razi">Abu Bakr al-Razi (Rhazes)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brethren_of_Purity" title="Brethren of Purity">Ikhwan al-Safa' (Brethren of Purity)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Bishr_Matta_ibn_Yunus" title="Abu Bishr Matta ibn Yunus">Matta ibn Yunus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">Al-Farabi (Alpharabius)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Ya%27qub_al-Sijistani" title="Abu Ya'qub al-Sijistani">Abu Ya'qub al-Sijistani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Masarra" title="Ibn Masarra">Ibn Masarra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Qadi_Abd_al-Jabbar" title="Al-Qadi Abd al-Jabbar">Abd al-Jabbar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_al-Hassan_al-Amiri" title="Abu al-Hassan al-Amiri">Al-Amiri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Sulayman_Sijistani" title="Abu Sulayman Sijistani">Abu Sulayman al-Sijistani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miskawayh" title="Miskawayh">Miskawayh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Haytham" title="Ibn al-Haytham">Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Biruni" title="Al-Biruni">al-Biruni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamid_al-Din_al-Kirmani" title="Hamid al-Din al-Kirmani">al-Kirmani</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.2em;text-align:center;">High</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Ibn Sina (Avicenna)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Hazm" title="Ibn Hazm">Ibn Hazm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Ghazali" title="Al-Ghazali">Al-Ghazali (Algazel)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu%27l-Barak%C4%81t_al-Baghd%C4%81d%C4%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="Abu'l-Barakāt al-Baghdādī">Abu l-Barakat al-Baghdadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avempace" title="Avempace">Ibn Bajjah (Avempace)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayn_al-Quzat_Hamadani" title="Ayn al-Quzat Hamadani">Ayn al-Quzat Hamadani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Tufayl" title="Ibn Tufayl">Ibn Tufayl</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Ibn Rushd (Averroes)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.2em;text-align:center;">Late</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Sab%27in" title="Ibn Sab'in">Ibn Sab'in</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shahab_al-Din_Yahya_ibn_Habash_Suhrawardi" class="mw-redirect" title="Shahab al-Din Yahya ibn Habash Suhrawardi">Shahab al-Din Yahya ibn Habash Suhrawardi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fakhr_al-Din_al-Razi" title="Fakhr al-Din al-Razi">Fakhr al-Din al-Razi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rashid_al-Din_Hamadani" title="Rashid al-Din Hamadani">Rashid al-Din</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Arabi" title="Ibn Arabi">Ibn Arabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zakariya_al-Qazwini" title="Zakariya al-Qazwini">al-Qazwini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Latif_al-Baghdadi" title="Abd al-Latif al-Baghdadi">Abd al-Latif al-Baghdadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Athir_al-Din_al-Abhari" title="Athir al-Din al-Abhari">Athir al-Din al-Abhari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nasir_al-Din_al-Tusi" title="Nasir al-Din al-Tusi">Nasir al-Din al-Tusi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Nafis" title="Ibn al-Nafis">Ibn al-Nafis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qutb_al-Din_al-Shirazi" title="Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi">Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Taymiyya" title="Ibn Taymiyya">Ibn Taymiyya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>See also <a href="/wiki/Renaissance_philosophy" title="Renaissance philosophy">Renaissance philosophy</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Philosophy_of_language338" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Philosophy_of_language" title="Template:Philosophy of language"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Philosophy_of_language" title="Template talk:Philosophy of language"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy_of_language" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy of language"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Philosophy_of_language338" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">Philosophy of language</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/Index_of_language_articles" title="Index of language articles">Index of language articles</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophers_of_language" title="List of philosophers of language">Philosophers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gorgias" title="Gorgias">Gorgias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cratylus" title="Cratylus">Cratylus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eubulides" title="Eubulides">Eubulides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diodorus_Cronus" title="Diodorus Cronus">Diodorus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chrysippus" title="Chrysippus">Chrysippus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhuang_Zhou" title="Zhuang Zhou">Zhuangzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xunzi_(philosopher)" title="Xunzi (philosopher)">Xunzi</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Averroes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Hobbes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Wilkins" title="John Wilkins">Wilkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Arnauld" title="Antoine Arnauld">Arnauld</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Lancelot" title="Claude Lancelot">Lancelot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Leibniz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">Berkeley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Herder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_von_Humboldt" title="Wilhelm von Humboldt">von Humboldt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fritz_Mauthner" title="Fritz Mauthner">Mauthner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Ric%C5%93ur" title="Paul Ricœur">Ricœur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_de_Saussure" title="Ferdinand de Saussure">de Saussure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottlob_Frege" title="Gottlob Frege">Frege</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franz_Boas" title="Franz Boas">Boas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Tillich" title="Paul Tillich">Tillich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Sapir" title="Edward Sapir">Sapir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonard_Bloomfield" title="Leonard Bloomfield">Bloomfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson">Bergson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lev_Vygotsky" title="Lev Vygotsky">Vygotsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Wittgenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Carnap" title="Rudolf Carnap">Carnap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Derrida" title="Jacques Derrida">Derrida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Lee_Whorf" title="Benjamin Lee Whorf">Whorf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._L._Austin" title="J. L. Austin">Austin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Chomsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Georg_Gadamer" title="Hans-Georg Gadamer">Gadamer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saul_Kripke" title="Saul Kripke">Kripke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._J._Ayer" title="A. J. Ayer">Ayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._E._M._Anscombe" title="G. E. M. Anscombe">Anscombe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jaakko_Hintikka" title="Jaakko Hintikka">Hintikka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Dummett" title="Michael Dummett">Dummett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Davidson_(philosopher)" title="Donald Davidson (philosopher)">Davidson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Grice" title="Paul Grice">Grice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Ryle" title="Gilbert Ryle">Ryle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P._F._Strawson" title="P. F. Strawson">Strawson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">Quine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hilary_Putnam" title="Hilary Putnam">Putnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Lewis_(philosopher)" title="David Lewis (philosopher)">Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Searle" title="John Searle">Searle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Watzlawick" title="Paul Watzlawick">Watzlawick</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Theories_of_language" title="Category:Theories of language">Theories</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causal_theory_of_reference" title="Causal theory of reference">Causal theory of reference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contrastivism" title="Contrastivism">Contrast theory of meaning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contrastivism" title="Contrastivism">Contrastivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conventionalism" title="Conventionalism">Conventionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cratylism" title="Cratylism">Cratylism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deconstruction" title="Deconstruction">Deconstruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Descriptivist_theory_of_names" title="Descriptivist theory of names">Descriptivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_reference_theory" title="Direct reference theory">Direct reference theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dramatism" title="Dramatism">Dramatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynamic_semantics" title="Dynamic semantics">Dynamic semantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expressivism" title="Expressivism">Expressivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inquisitive_semantics" title="Inquisitive semantics">Inquisitive semantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_determinism" title="Linguistic determinism">Linguistic determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mediated_reference_theory" title="Mediated reference theory">Mediated reference theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nominalism" title="Nominalism">Nominalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-cognitivism" title="Non-cognitivism">Non-cognitivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phallogocentrism" title="Phallogocentrism">Phallogocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relevance_theory" title="Relevance theory">Relevance theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_externalism" title="Semantic externalism">Semantic externalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_holism" title="Semantic holism">Semantic holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Situation_semantics" title="Situation semantics">Situation semantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supposition_theory" title="Supposition theory">Supposition theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbiosism" title="Symbiosism">Symbiosism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theological_noncognitivism" title="Theological noncognitivism">Theological noncognitivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_descriptions" title="Theory of descriptions">Theory of descriptions</a> (<a href="/wiki/Definite_description" title="Definite description">Definite description</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_language" title="Theory of language">Theory of language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unilalianism" title="Unilalianism">Unilalianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verificationism" title="Verificationism">Verification theory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ambiguity" title="Ambiguity">Ambiguity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cant_(language)" title="Cant (language)">Cant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Class_(philosophy)" title="Class (philosophy)">Class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concept" title="Concept">Concept</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Categorization" class="mw-redirect" title="Categorization">Categories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_resemblance" title="Family resemblance">Family resemblance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intension" title="Intension">Intension</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language" title="Language">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_relativity" title="Linguistic relativity">Linguistic relativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_form" title="Logical form">Logical form</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_representation" title="Mental representation">Mental representation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metalanguage" title="Metalanguage">Metalanguage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modality_(natural_language)" class="mw-redirect" title="Modality (natural language)">Modality (natural language)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presupposition" title="Presupposition">Presupposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principle_of_compositionality" title="Principle of compositionality">Principle of compositionality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property_(philosophy)" title="Property (philosophy)">Property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proposition" title="Proposition">Proposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sense_and_reference" title="Sense and reference">Sense and reference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sentence_(linguistics)" title="Sentence (linguistics)">Sentence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Set_(mathematics)" title="Set (mathematics)">Set</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sign_(semiotics)" title="Sign (semiotics)">Sign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speech_act" title="Speech act">Speech act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statement_(logic)" title="Statement (logic)">Statement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbol" title="Symbol">Symbol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truth-bearer" title="Truth-bearer">Truth-bearer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Use%E2%80%93mention_distinction" title="Use–mention distinction">Use–mention distinction</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Index_of_philosophy_of_language_articles" title="Index of philosophy of language articles">more...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Cratylus_(dialogue)" title="Cratylus (dialogue)">Cratylus</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(n.d.)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Port-Royal_Grammar" title="Port-Royal Grammar">Port-Royal Grammar</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1660)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/De_Arte_Combinatoria" title="De Arte Combinatoria">De Arte Combinatoria</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1666)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/An_Essay_Towards_a_Real_Character,_and_a_Philosophical_Language" title="An Essay Towards a Real Character, and a Philosophical Language">An Essay Towards a Real Character, and a Philosophical Language</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1668)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Alciphron_(book)" title="Alciphron (book)">Alciphron</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1732)</span></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/On_Denoting" title="On Denoting">On Denoting</a>" <span style="font-size:85%;">(1905)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tractatus_Logico-Philosophicus" title="Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus">Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1921)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Language,_Truth,_and_Logic" title="Language, Truth, and Logic">Language, Truth, and Logic</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1936)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Two_Dogmas_of_Empiricism" title="Two Dogmas of Empiricism">Two Dogmas of Empiricism</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1951)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_Investigations" title="Philosophical Investigations">Philosophical Investigations</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1953)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Of_Grammatology" title="Of Grammatology">Of Grammatology</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1967)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Naming_and_Necessity" title="Naming and Necessity">Naming and Necessity</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1980)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Wittgenstein_on_Rules_and_Private_Language" title="Wittgenstein on Rules and Private Language">Wittgenstein on Rules and Private Language</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1982)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Limited_Inc" title="Limited Inc">Limited Inc</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1988)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_information" title="Philosophy of information">Philosophy of information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_logic" title="Philosophical logic">Philosophical logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">Linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatics" title="Pragmatics">Pragmatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric" title="Rhetoric">Rhetoric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Names" title="School of Names">School of Names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantics_(natural_language)" class="mw-redirect" title="Semantics (natural language)">Semantics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Formal_semantics_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Formal semantics (linguistics)">Formal semantics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiotics" title="Semiotics">Semiotics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy_of_language" title="Category:Philosophy of language">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Philosophy/Language" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Philosophy/Language">Task Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia_talk:WikiProject_Philosophy" title="Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Philosophy">Discussion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Philosophy_of_religion576" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Philosophy_of_religion" title="Template:Philosophy of religion"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Philosophy_of_religion" title="Template talk:Philosophy of religion"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy_of_religion" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy of religion"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Philosophy_of_religion576" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">Philosophy of religion</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Concepts in religion</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afterlife" title="Afterlife">Afterlife</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthyphro_dilemma" title="Euthyphro dilemma">Euthyphro dilemma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith" title="Faith">Faith</a> <ul><li>or <a href="/wiki/Belief#Religion" title="Belief">religious belief</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intelligent_design" title="Intelligent design">Intelligent design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miracle" title="Miracle">Miracle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_evil" title="Problem of evil">Problem of evil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soul" title="Soul">Soul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitalism" title="Vitalism">Spirit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodicy" title="Theodicy">Theodicy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theological_veto" title="Theological veto">Theological veto</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Conceptions_of_God" title="Conceptions of God">Conceptions of God</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brahman" title="Brahman">Brahman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demiurge" title="Demiurge">Demiurge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_simplicity" title="Divine simplicity">Divine simplicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_egoism" title="Ethical egoism">Egoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Spirit" title="Holy Spirit">Holy Spirit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misotheism" title="Misotheism">Misotheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pandeism" title="Pandeism">Pandeism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_god" title="Personal god">Personal god</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_theology" title="Process theology">Process theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God" title="God">Supreme Being</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unmoved_mover" title="Unmoved mover">Unmoved mover</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal; text-align:center;">God in</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Abrahamic_religions" title="God in Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creator_in_Buddhism" title="Creator in Buddhism">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Christianity" title="God in Christianity">Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Hinduism" title="God in Hinduism">Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Islam" title="God in Islam">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Jainism" title="God in Jainism">Jainism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Judaism" title="God in Judaism">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Mormonism" title="God in Mormonism">Mormonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Sikhism" title="God in Sikhism">Sikhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_the_Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith" title="God in the Baháʼí Faith">Baháʼí Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wiccan_views_of_divinity" title="Wiccan views of divinity">Wicca</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Existence_of_God" title="Existence of God">Existence of God</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal; text-align:center;">For</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_beauty" title="Argument from beauty">Beauty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christological_argument" title="Christological argument">Christological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_consciousness" title="Argument from consciousness">Consciousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmological_argument" title="Cosmological argument">Cosmological</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kalam_cosmological_argument" title="Kalam cosmological argument">Kalam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmological_argument#Argument_from_contingency" title="Cosmological argument">Contingency</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_degree" title="Argument from degree">Degree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_desire" title="Argument from desire">Desire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_religious_experience" title="Argument from religious experience">Experience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fine-tuned_universe" title="Fine-tuned universe">Fine-tuning of the universe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_love" title="Argument from love">Love</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_miracles" title="Argument from miracles">Miracles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_morality" title="Argument from morality">Morality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proof_of_the_Truthful" title="Proof of the Truthful">Necessary existent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontological_argument" title="Ontological argument">Ontological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pascal%27s_wager" title="Pascal's wager">Pascal's wager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_epistemology" title="Reformed epistemology">Proper basis and Reformed epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_reason" title="Argument from reason">Reason</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teleological_argument" title="Teleological argument">Teleological</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natural-law_argument" title="Natural-law argument">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Watchmaker_analogy" title="Watchmaker analogy">Watchmaker analogy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_argument_for_the_existence_of_God" title="Transcendental argument for the existence of God">Transcendental</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal; text-align:center;">Against</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ultimate_Boeing_747_gambit" title="Ultimate Boeing 747 gambit">747 gambit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atheist%27s_Wager" class="mw-redirect" title="Atheist's Wager">Atheist's Wager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_evil" title="Problem of evil">Evil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_free_will" title="Argument from free will">Free will</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_Hell" title="Problem of Hell">Hell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_inconsistent_revelations" class="mw-redirect" title="Argument from inconsistent revelations">Inconsistent revelations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_nonbelief" title="Argument from nonbelief">Nonbelief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theological_noncognitivism" title="Theological noncognitivism">Noncognitivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occam%27s_razor" title="Occam's razor">Occam's razor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omnipotence_paradox" title="Omnipotence paradox">Omnipotence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_poor_design" title="Argument from poor design">Poor design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russell%27s_teapot" title="Russell's teapot">Russell's teapot</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">Theology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acosmism" title="Acosmism">Acosmism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agnosticism" title="Agnosticism">Agnosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animism" title="Animism">Animism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antireligion" title="Antireligion">Antireligion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atheism" title="Atheism">Atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creationism" title="Creationism">Creationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">Dharmism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deism" title="Deism">Deism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demonology" title="Demonology">Demonology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_command_theory" title="Divine command theory">Divine command theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dualism_in_cosmology" title="Dualism in cosmology">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_esotericism" title="Western esotericism">Esotericism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exclusivism" title="Exclusivism">Exclusivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_existentialism" title="Christian existentialism">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atheistic_existentialism" title="Atheistic existentialism">Atheistic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_theology" title="Feminist theology">Feminist theology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thealogy" title="Thealogy">Thealogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Womanist_theology" title="Womanist theology">Womanist theology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fideism" title="Fideism">Fideism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fundamentalism" title="Fundamentalism">Fundamentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gnosticism" title="Gnosticism">Gnosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henotheism" title="Henotheism">Henotheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religious_humanism" title="Religious humanism">Religious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_humanism" title="Secular humanism">Secular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_humanism" title="Christian humanism">Christian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inclusivism" title="Inclusivism">Inclusivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theories_about_religions" class="mw-redirect" title="Theories about religions">Theories about religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monotheism" title="Monotheism">Monotheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mysticism" title="Mysticism">Mysticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_naturalism" title="Metaphysical naturalism">Metaphysical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_naturalism" title="Religious naturalism">Religious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_naturalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Humanistic naturalism">Humanistic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Age" title="New Age">New Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nondualism" title="Nondualism">Nondualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nontheism" title="Nontheism">Nontheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pandeism" title="Pandeism">Pandeism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panentheism" title="Panentheism">Panentheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pantheism" title="Pantheism">Pantheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perennial_philosophy" title="Perennial philosophy">Perennialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polytheism" title="Polytheism">Polytheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Possibilianism" title="Possibilianism">Possibilianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_theology" title="Process theology">Process theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_skepticism" title="Religious skepticism">Religious skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiritualism_(beliefs)" title="Spiritualism (beliefs)">Spiritualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shamanism" title="Shamanism">Shamanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Asian_religions" title="East Asian religions">Taoic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theism" title="Theism">Theism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendentalism" title="Transcendentalism">Transcendentalism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophies" title="List of philosophies">more...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_religious_language" title="Problem of religious language">Religious language</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eschatological_verification" title="Eschatological verification">Eschatological verification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_game_(philosophy)" title="Language game (philosophy)">Language game</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apophatic_theology" title="Apophatic theology">Apophatic theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verificationism" title="Verificationism">Verificationism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_evil" title="Problem of evil">Problem of evil</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Augustinian_theodicy" title="Augustinian theodicy">Augustinian theodicy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Best_of_all_possible_worlds" title="Best of all possible worlds">Best of all possible worlds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthyphro_dilemma" title="Euthyphro dilemma">Euthyphro dilemma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inconsistent_triad" title="Inconsistent triad">Inconsistent triad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irenaean_theodicy" title="Irenaean theodicy">Irenaean theodicy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_evil" title="Natural evil">Natural evil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodicy" title="Theodicy">Theodicy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophers_of_religion" title="Category:Philosophers of religion">Philosophers<br />of religion</a></div><br />(by date active)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Ancient</a> and<br /><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">medieval</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anselm_of_Canterbury" title="Anselm of Canterbury">Anselm of Canterbury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine of Hippo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Averroes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boethius" title="Boethius">Boethius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaudapada" title="Gaudapada">Gaudapada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaunilo_of_Marmoutiers" title="Gaunilo of Marmoutiers">Gaunilo of Marmoutiers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Pico_della_Mirandola" title="Giovanni Pico della Mirandola">Pico della Mirandola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heraclitus" title="Heraclitus">Heraclitus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_VI_and_I" title="James VI and I">King James VI and I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcion_of_Sinope" title="Marcion of Sinope">Marcion of Sinope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adi_Shankara" title="Adi Shankara">Adi Shankara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_of_Ockham" title="William of Ockham">William of Ockham</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_philosophy" title="Early modern philosophy">Early modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Augustin_Calmet" title="Antoine Augustin Calmet">Augustin Calmet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blaise_Pascal" title="Blaise Pascal">Blaise Pascal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desiderius_Erasmus" class="mw-redirect" title="Desiderius Erasmus">Desiderius Erasmus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Malebranche" title="Nicolas Malebranche">Nicolas Malebranche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Gottfried W Leibniz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Wollaston" title="William Wollaston">William Wollaston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Chubb" title="Thomas Chubb">Thomas Chubb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baron_d%27Holbach" title="Baron d'Holbach">Baron d'Holbach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Johann G Herder</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;">1800<br />1850</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Schleiermacher" title="Friedrich Schleiermacher">Friedrich Schleiermacher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Christian_Friedrich_Krause" title="Karl Christian Friedrich Krause">Karl C F Krause</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Georg W F Hegel</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Thomas Carlyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Whewell" title="William Whewell">William Whewell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Feuerbach" title="Ludwig Feuerbach">Ludwig Feuerbach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Søren Kierkegaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albrecht_Ritschl" title="Albrecht Ritschl">Albrecht Ritschl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afrikan_Spir" title="Afrikan Spir">Afrikan Spir</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;">1880<br />1900</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Haeckel" title="Ernst Haeckel">Ernst Haeckel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Kingdon_Clifford" title="William Kingdon Clifford">W K Clifford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Friedrich Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harald_H%C3%B8ffding" title="Harald Høffding">Harald Høffding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_James" title="William James">William James</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Solovyov_(philosopher)" title="Vladimir Solovyov (philosopher)">Vladimir Solovyov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Troeltsch" title="Ernst Troeltsch">Ernst Troeltsch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Otto" title="Rudolf Otto">Rudolf Otto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lev_Shestov" title="Lev Shestov">Lev Shestov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sergei_Bulgakov" title="Sergei Bulgakov">Sergei Bulgakov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pavel_Florensky" title="Pavel Florensky">Pavel Florensky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Cassirer" title="Ernst Cassirer">Ernst Cassirer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Mar%C3%A9chal" title="Joseph Maréchal">Joseph Maréchal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;">1920<br />postwar</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Santayana" title="George Santayana">George Santayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Buber" title="Martin Buber">Martin Buber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Gu%C3%A9non" title="René Guénon">René Guénon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Tillich" title="Paul Tillich">Paul Tillich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Barth" title="Karl Barth">Karl Barth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emil_Brunner" title="Emil Brunner">Emil Brunner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Bultmann" title="Rudolf Bultmann">Rudolf Bultmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Marcel" title="Gabriel Marcel">Gabriel Marcel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reinhold_Niebuhr" title="Reinhold Niebuhr">Reinhold Niebuhr</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Hartshorne" title="Charles Hartshorne">Charles Hartshorne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mircea_Eliade" title="Mircea Eliade">Mircea Eliade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frithjof_Schuon" title="Frithjof Schuon">Frithjof Schuon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._L._Mackie" title="J. L. Mackie">J L Mackie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Kaufmann_(philosopher)" title="Walter Kaufmann (philosopher)">Walter Kaufmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Lings" title="Martin Lings">Martin Lings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Geach" title="Peter Geach">Peter Geach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_I._Mavrodes" title="George I. Mavrodes">George I Mavrodes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Alston" title="William Alston">William Alston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antony_Flew" title="Antony Flew">Antony Flew</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;">1970<br />1990<br />2010</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_L._Rowe" title="William L. Rowe">William L Rowe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dewi_Zephaniah_Phillips" title="Dewi Zephaniah Phillips">Dewi Z Phillips</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Plantinga" title="Alvin Plantinga">Alvin Plantinga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Kenny" title="Anthony Kenny">Anthony Kenny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Wolterstorff" title="Nicholas Wolterstorff">Nicholas Wolterstorff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Swinburne" title="Richard Swinburne">Richard Swinburne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Merrihew_Adams" title="Robert Merrihew Adams">Robert Merrihew Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ravi_Zacharias" title="Ravi Zacharias">Ravi Zacharias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_van_Inwagen" title="Peter van Inwagen">Peter van Inwagen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Dennett" title="Daniel Dennett">Daniel Dennett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loyal_Rue" title="Loyal Rue">Loyal Rue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Luc_Marion" title="Jean-Luc Marion">Jean-Luc Marion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Lane_Craig" title="William Lane Craig">William Lane Craig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Akbar_Rashad" title="Ali Akbar Rashad">Ali Akbar Rashad</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Pruss" title="Alexander Pruss">Alexander Pruss</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_religion" title="Criticism of religion">Criticism of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desacralization_of_knowledge" title="Desacralization of knowledge">Desacralization of knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_in_religion" title="Ethics in religion">Ethics in religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exegesis" title="Exegesis">Exegesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_religion" title="History of religion">History of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_religious_language" title="Problem of religious language">Religious language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_philosophy" title="Religious philosophy">Religious philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relationship_between_religion_and_science" title="Relationship between religion and science">Relationship between religion and science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith_and_rationality" title="Faith and rationality">Faith and rationality</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Index_of_philosophy_of_religion_articles" title="Index of philosophy of religion articles">more...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Portal</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, 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class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Political_philosophy" title="Template:Political philosophy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Political_philosophy" title="Template talk:Political philosophy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Political_philosophy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Political philosophy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Political_philosophy152" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Terms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authority" title="Authority">Authority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Citizenship" title="Citizenship">Citizenship‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duty" title="Duty">Duty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elite" title="Elite">Elite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation" title="Emancipation">Emancipation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom" title="Freedom">Freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government" title="Government">Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hegemony" title="Hegemony">Hegemony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hierarchy" title="Hierarchy">Hierarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_legitimacy" title="Political legitimacy">Legitimacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">Liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monopoly" title="Monopoly">Monopoly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nation" title="Nation">Nation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obedience_(human_behavior)" class="mw-redirect" title="Obedience (human behavior)">Obedience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace" title="Peace">Peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People" title="People">People</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pluralism_(political_philosophy)" title="Pluralism (political philosophy)">Pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_(social_and_political)" title="Power (social and political)">Power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progress" title="Progress">Progress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda">Propaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property" title="Property">Property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regime" title="Regime">Regime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolution" title="Revolution">Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rights" title="Rights">Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruling_class" title="Ruling class">Ruling class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society" title="Society">Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sovereignty" title="Sovereignty">Sovereignty‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_(polity)" title="State (polity)">State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utopia" title="Utopia">Utopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War" title="War">War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Government</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristocracy" title="Aristocracy">Aristocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autocracy" title="Autocracy">Autocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bureaucracy" title="Bureaucracy">Bureaucracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dictatorship" title="Dictatorship">Dictatorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerontocracy" title="Gerontocracy">Gerontocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meritocracy" title="Meritocracy">Meritocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy" title="Monarchy">Monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oligarchy" title="Oligarchy">Oligarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutocracy" title="Plutocracy">Plutocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technocracy" title="Technocracy">Technocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theocracy" title="Theocracy">Theocracy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ideologies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agrarianism" title="Agrarianism">Agrarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_democracy" title="Christian democracy">Christian democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">Colonialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">Communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporatism" title="Corporatism">Corporatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributism" title="Distributism">Distributism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmentalism" title="Environmentalism">Environmentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fascism" title="Fascism">Fascism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_political_theory" title="Feminist political theory">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">Feudalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperialism" title="Imperialism">Imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamism" title="Islamism">Islamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism" title="Libertarianism">Libertarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Localism_(politics)" title="Localism (politics)">Localism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchism" title="Monarchism">Monarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiculturalism" title="Multiculturalism">Multiculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazism" title="Nazism">Nazism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Populism" title="Populism">Populism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism" title="Republicanism">Republicanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_Darwinism" title="Social Darwinism">Social Darwinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_democracy" title="Social democracy">Social democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Way" title="Third Way">Third Way</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balance_of_power_(international_relations)" title="Balance of power (international relations)">Balance of power</a></li> <li><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Bellum_omnium_contra_omnes" title="Bellum omnium contra omnes">Bellum omnium contra omnes</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Body_politic" title="Body politic">Body politic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clash_of_Civilizations" title="Clash of Civilizations">Clash of civilizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_good" title="Common good">Common good</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consent_of_the_governed" title="Consent of the governed">Consent of the governed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_right_of_kings" title="Divine right of kings">Divine right of kings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_as_a_model_for_the_state" title="Family as a model for the state">Family as a model for the state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monopoly_on_violence" title="Monopoly on violence">Monopoly on violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negative_and_positive_rights" title="Negative and positive rights">Negative and positive rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Night-watchman_state" title="Night-watchman state">Night-watchman state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noble_lie" title="Noble lie">Noble lie</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Noblesse_oblige" title="Noblesse oblige">Noblesse oblige</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_society" title="Open society">Open society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordered_liberty" title="Ordered liberty">Ordered liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Original_position" title="Original position">Original position</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overton_window" title="Overton window">Overton window</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers" title="Separation of powers">Separation of powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_of_nature" title="State of nature">State of nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statolatry" title="Statolatry">Statolatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyranny_of_the_majority" title="Tyranny of the majority">Tyranny of the majority</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_philosophers" title="List of political philosophers">Philosophers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Antiquity</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chanakya" title="Chanakya">Chanakya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Han_Fei" title="Han Fei">Han Fei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lactantius" title="Lactantius">Lactantius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mencius" title="Mencius">Mencius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozi" title="Mozi">Mozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plato%27s_political_philosophy" title="Plato's political philosophy">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shang_Yang" title="Shang Yang">Shang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_Tzu" title="Sun Tzu">Sun Tzu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thucydides" title="Thucydides">Thucydides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophon" title="Xenophon">Xenophon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Middle Ages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">Al-Farabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Averroes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonardo_Bruni" title="Leonardo Bruni">Bruni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dante_Alighieri" title="Dante Alighieri">Dante</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Gelasius_I" title="Pope Gelasius I">Gelasius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Ghazali" title="Al-Ghazali">al-Ghazali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marsilius_of_Padua" title="Marsilius of Padua">Marsilius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nizam_al-Mulk" title="Nizam al-Mulk">Nizam al-Mulk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_of_Ockham" title="William of Ockham">Ockham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gemistos_Plethon" title="Gemistos Plethon">Plethon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Anshi" title="Wang Anshi">Wang</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Early modern<br />period</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_de_La_Bo%C3%A9tie" title="Étienne de La Boétie">Boétie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Bodin" title="Jean Bodin">Bodin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques-B%C3%A9nigne_Bossuet" title="Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet">Bossuet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Calvin" title="John Calvin">Calvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tommaso_Campanella" title="Tommaso Campanella">Campanella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Filmer" title="Robert Filmer">Filmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugo_Grotius" title="Hugo Grotius">Grotius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francesco_Guicciardini" title="Francesco Guicciardini">Guicciardini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Hobbes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hobbes%27s_moral_and_political_philosophy" title="Hobbes's moral and political philosophy">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_VI_and_I" title="James VI and I">James</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Leibniz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Luther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_Machiavelli" title="Niccolò Machiavelli">Machiavelli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Milton" title="John Milton">Milton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_More" title="Thomas More">More</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer" title="Thomas Müntzer">Müntzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_von_Pufendorf" title="Samuel von Pufendorf">Pufendorf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Su%C3%A1rez" title="Francisco Suárez">Suárez</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">18th and 19th<br />centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Bakunin" title="Mikhail Bakunin">Bakunin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Bastiat" title="Frédéric Bastiat">Bastiat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cesare_Beccaria" title="Cesare Beccaria">Beccaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_St_John,_1st_Viscount_Bolingbroke" title="Henry St John, 1st Viscount Bolingbroke">Bolingbroke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_de_Bonald" title="Louis de Bonald">Bonald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Carlyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Comte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Condorcet" title="Marquis de Condorcet">Condorcet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Constant" title="Benjamin Constant">Constant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_Donoso_Cort%C3%A9s" title="Juan Donoso Cortés">Cortés</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Engels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte">Fichte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Fourier" title="Charles Fourier">Fourier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Godwin" title="William Godwin">Godwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Ludwig_von_Haller" title="Karl Ludwig von Haller">Haller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Herder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Iqbal" title="Muhammad Iqbal">Iqbal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Iqbal%27s_political_philosophy" title="Muhammad Iqbal's political philosophy">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy_of_Immanuel_Kant" title="Political philosophy of Immanuel Kant">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustave_Le_Bon" title="Gustave Le Bon">Le Bon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Guillaume_Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_le_Play" title="Pierre Guillaume Frédéric le Play">Le Play</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">Madison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_de_Maistre" title="Joseph de Maistre">Maistre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Mazzini" title="Giuseppe Mazzini">Mazzini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Owen" title="Robert Owen">Owen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Paine" title="Thomas Paine">Paine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Renan" title="Ernest Renan">Renan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Sade" title="Marquis de Sade">Sade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_de_Saint-Simon" title="Henri de Saint-Simon">Saint-Simon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Spencer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germaine_de_Sta%C3%ABl" title="Germaine de Staël">de Staël</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Stirner" title="Max Stirner">Stirner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippolyte_Taine" title="Hippolyte Taine">Taine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_David_Thoreau" title="Henry David Thoreau">Thoreau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Tocqueville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Tucker" title="Benjamin Tucker">Tucker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">20th and 21st<br />centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Giorgio_Agamben" title="Giorgio Agamben">Agamben</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B._R._Ambedkar" title="B. R. Ambedkar">Ambedkar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hannah_Arendt" title="Hannah Arendt">Arendt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Aron" title="Raymond Aron">Aron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_Badiou" title="Alain Badiou">Badiou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zygmunt_Bauman" title="Zygmunt Bauman">Bauman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_de_Benoist" title="Alain de Benoist">Benoist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaiah_Berlin" title="Isaiah Berlin">Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eduard_Bernstein" title="Eduard Bernstein">Bernstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Burnham" title="James Burnham">Burnham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Chomsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Dmowski" title="Roman Dmowski">Dmowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aleksandr_Dugin" title="Aleksandr Dugin">Dugin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Dworkin" title="Ronald Dworkin">Dworkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Evola" title="Julius Evola">Evola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Foucault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erich_Fromm" title="Erich Fromm">Fromm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Fukuyama" title="Francis Fukuyama">Fukuyama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Gandhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Gentile" title="Giovanni Gentile">Gentile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Gramsci" title="Antonio Gramsci">Gramsci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Gu%C3%A9non" title="René Guénon">Guénon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Habermas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Hayek" title="Friedrich Hayek">Hayek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Hermann_Hoppe" title="Hans-Hermann Hoppe">Hoppe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_P._Huntington" title="Samuel P. Huntington">Huntington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Kautsky" title="Karl Kautsky">Kautsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russell_Kirk" title="Russell Kirk">Kirk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Kropotkin" title="Peter Kropotkin">Kropotkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernesto_Laclau" title="Ernesto Laclau">Laclau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Lenin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosa_Luxemburg" title="Rosa Luxemburg">Luxemburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvey_Mansfield" title="Harvey Mansfield">Mansfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Marcuse" title="Herbert Marcuse">Marcuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Maurras" title="Charles Maurras">Maurras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Michels" title="Robert Michels">Michels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_von_Mises" title="Ludwig von Mises">Mises</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaetano_Mosca" title="Gaetano Mosca">Mosca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chantal_Mouffe" title="Chantal Mouffe">Mouffe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Negri" title="Antonio Negri">Negri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Nozick" title="Robert Nozick">Nozick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Nussbaum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Oakeshott" title="Michael Oakeshott">Oakeshott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ortega_y_Gasset" title="José Ortega y Gasset">Ortega</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vilfredo_Pareto" title="Vilfredo Pareto">Pareto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Popper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sayyid_Qutb" title="Sayyid Qutb">Qutb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayn_Rand" title="Ayn Rand">Rand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_R%C3%B6pke" title="Wilhelm Röpke">Röpke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murray_Rothbard" title="Murray Rothbard">Rothbard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Sartre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Schmitt" title="Carl Schmitt">Schmitt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Scruton" title="Roger Scruton">Scruton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Shariati" title="Ali Shariati">Shariati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Sorel" title="Georges Sorel">Sorel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Othmar_Spann" title="Othmar Spann">Spann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oswald_Spengler" title="Oswald Spengler">Spengler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Strauss" title="Leo Strauss">Strauss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_Yat-sen" title="Sun Yat-sen">Sun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Taylor_(philosopher)" title="Charles Taylor (philosopher)">Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Voegelin" title="Eric Voegelin">Voegelin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Walzer" title="Michael Walzer">Walzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Weber</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Republic_(Plato)" title="Republic (Plato)">Republic</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 375 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Politics_(Aristotle)" title="Politics (Aristotle)">Politics</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 350 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/De_re_publica" title="De re publica">De re publica</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(51 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Treatise_on_Law" title="Treatise on Law">Treatise on Law</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 1274)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Monarchia" title="Monarchia">Monarchia</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1313)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Prince" title="The Prince">The Prince</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1532)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Leviathan_(Hobbes_book)" title="Leviathan (Hobbes book)">Leviathan</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1651)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Two_Treatises_of_Government" title="Two Treatises of Government">Two Treatises of Government</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1689)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Spirit_of_Law" title="The Spirit of Law">The Spirit of Law</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1748)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Social_Contract" title="The Social Contract">The Social Contract</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1762)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Reflections_on_the_Revolution_in_France" title="Reflections on the Revolution in France">Reflections on the Revolution in France</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1790)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rights_of_Man" title="Rights of Man">Rights of Man</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1791)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Elements_of_the_Philosophy_of_Right" title="Elements of the Philosophy of Right">Elements of the Philosophy of Right</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1820)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_America" title="Democracy in America">Democracy in America</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1835–1840)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Communist_Manifesto" title="The Communist Manifesto">The Communist Manifesto</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1848)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/On_Liberty" title="On Liberty">On Liberty</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1859)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Revolt_of_the_Masses" title="The Revolt of the Masses">The Revolt of the Masses</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1929)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Road_to_Serfdom" title="The Road to Serfdom">The Road to Serfdom</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1944)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Open_Society_and_Its_Enemies" title="The Open Society and Its Enemies">The Open Society and Its Enemies</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1945)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Origins_of_Totalitarianism" title="The Origins of Totalitarianism">The Origins of Totalitarianism</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1951)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Theory_of_Justice" title="A Theory of Justice">A Theory of Justice</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1971)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_End_of_History_and_the_Last_Man" title="The End of History and the Last Man">The End of History and the Last Man</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1992)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authoritarianism" title="Authoritarianism">Authoritarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_organization#Collectivism_and_individualism" title="Social organization">Collectivism and individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_theories" title="Conflict theories">Conflict theories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contractualism" title="Contractualism">Contractualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_political_economy" title="Critique of political economy">Critique of political economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egalitarianism" title="Egalitarianism">Egalitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elite_theory" title="Elite theory">Elite theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elitism" title="Elitism">Elitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_political_thought" title="History of political thought">History of political thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_discrimination" title="Institutional discrimination">Institutional discrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">Jurisprudence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justification_for_the_state" title="Justification for the state">Justification for the state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machiavellianism_(politics)" title="Machiavellianism (politics)">Machiavellianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_ethics" title="Political ethics">Political ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_spectrum" title="Political spectrum">Political spectrum</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Left-wing_politics" title="Left-wing politics">Left-wing politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centrism" title="Centrism">Centrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right-wing_politics" title="Right-wing politics">Right-wing politics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_theology" title="Political theology">Political theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_violence" title="Political violence">Political violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state" title="Separation of church and state">Separation of church and state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separatism" title="Separatism">Separatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_justice" title="Social justice">Social justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statism" title="Statism">Statism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Totalitarianism" title="Totalitarianism">Totalitarianism</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Index_of_social_and_political_philosophy_articles" title="Index of social and political philosophy articles">Index</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Political_philosophy" title="Category:Political philosophy">Category:Political philosophy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Islamic_medicine183" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Islamic_medicine" title="Template:Islamic medicine"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Islamic_medicine" title="Template talk:Islamic medicine"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Islamic_medicine" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Islamic medicine"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Islamic_medicine183" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic medicine">Islamic medicine</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Physicians_of_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Category:Physicians of the medieval Islamic world">Physicians</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">7th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Hafsa_Yazid" title="Abu Hafsa Yazid">Abu Hafsa Yazid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Harith_ibn_Kalada" title="Al-Harith ibn Kalada">Al-Harith ibn Kalada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bukhtishu" title="Bukhtishu">Bukhtishu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Abi_Ramtha_al-Tamimi" title="Ibn Abi Ramtha al-Tamimi">Ibn Abi Ramtha al-Tamimi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Uthal" title="Ibn Uthal">Ibn Uthal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Masarjawaih" title="Masarjawaih">Masarjawaih</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nafi_ibn_al-Harith" title="Nafi ibn al-Harith">Nafi ibn al-Harith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rufaida_Al-Aslamia" title="Rufaida Al-Aslamia">Rufaida Al-Aslamia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zaynab_al-Awadiya" title="Zaynab al-Awadiya">Zaynab al-Awadiya</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">8th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bukhtishu" title="Bukhtishu">Bukhtishu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ja%27far_al-Sadiq" title="Ja'far al-Sadiq">Ja'ar al-Sadiq</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">9th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Kindi" title="Al-Kindi">Al-Kindi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Ruhawi" title="Al-Ruhawi">Al-Ruhawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albubather" title="Albubather">Albubather</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_al-Ridha" class="mw-redirect" title="Ali al-Ridha">Ali al-Ridha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_ibn_Sahl_Rabban_al-Tabari" title="Ali ibn Sahl Rabban al-Tabari">Ali ibn Sahl Rabban al-Tabari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bukhtishu" title="Bukhtishu">Bukhtishu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunayn_ibn_Ishaq" title="Hunayn ibn Ishaq">Hunayn ibn Ishaq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ishaq_ibn_Hunayn" title="Ishaq ibn Hunayn">Ishaq ibn Hunayn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jabir_ibn_Hayyan" title="Jabir ibn Hayyan">Jabir ibn Hayyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jabril_ibn_Bukhtishu" title="Jabril ibn Bukhtishu">Jabril ibn Bukhtishu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Masawaiyh" title="Masawaiyh">Masawaiyh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salmawaih_ibn_Bunan" title="Salmawaih ibn Bunan">Salmawaih ibn Bunan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shapur_ibn_Sahl" title="Shapur ibn Sahl">Shapur ibn Sahl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yahya_ibn_Sarafyun" title="Yahya ibn Sarafyun">Yahya ibn Sarafyun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuhanna_ibn_Bukhtishu" title="Yuhanna ibn Bukhtishu">Yuhanna ibn Bukhtishu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yusuf_al-Khuri" title="Yusuf al-Khuri">Yusuf al-Khuri</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">10th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%27Ali_ibn_al-%27Abbas_al-Majusi" title="'Ali ibn al-'Abbas al-Majusi">'Ali ibn al-'Abbas al-Majusi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aayon_Ibn_Aayon" title="Aayon Ibn Aayon">Aayon Ibn Aayon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Bakr_Rabee_Ibn_Ahmad_Al-Akhawyni_Bokhari" title="Abu Bakr Rabee Ibn Ahmad Al-Akhawyni Bokhari">Abu Bakr Rabee Ibn Ahmad Al-Akhawyni Bokhari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Bakr_al-Razi" title="Abu Bakr al-Razi">Abu Bakr al-Razi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Sahl_%27Isa_ibn_Yahya_al-Masihi" title="Abu Sahl 'Isa ibn Yahya al-Masihi">Abu Sahl 'Isa ibn Yahya al-Masihi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Zayd_al-Balkhi" title="Abu Zayd al-Balkhi">Abu Zayd al-Balkhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_al-Hasan_al-Tabari" title="Abu al-Hasan al-Tabari">Abu al-Hasan al-Tabari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_al-Qasim_Muqane%27i" title="Abu al-Qasim Muqane'i">Abu al-Qasim Muqane'i</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Zahrawi" title="Al-Zahrawi">Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_ul-Ala_Shirazi" title="Abu ul-Ala Shirazi">Abu ul-Ala Shirazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Kashkari" title="Al-Kashkari">Al-Kaŝkarī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Natili" title="Al-Natili">Al-Natili</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Tamimi,_the_physician" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Tamimi, the physician">Al-Tamimi, the physician</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eutychius_of_Alexandria" title="Eutychius of Alexandria">Eutychius of Alexandria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Abi_al-Ash%CA%BFath" title="Ibn Abi al-Ashʿath">Ibn Abi al-Ashʿath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Juljul" title="Ibn Juljul">Ibn Juljul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Jazzar" title="Ibn al-Jazzar">Ibn al-Jazzar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibrahim_ibn_Baks" title="Ibrahim ibn Baks">Ibrahim ibn Baks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Israeli_ben_Solomon" title="Isaac Israeli ben Solomon">Isaac Israeli ben Solomon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohammed_ibn_Abdun_al-Jabali" title="Mohammed ibn Abdun al-Jabali">Mohammed ibn Abdun al-Jabali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Mansur_Muwaffaq" title="Abu Mansur Muwaffaq">Muvaffak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qumri" title="Qumri">Qumri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qusta_ibn_Luqa" title="Qusta ibn Luqa">Qusta ibn Luqa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">11th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abdollah_ibn_Bukhtishu" class="mw-redirect" title="Abdollah ibn Bukhtishu">Abdollah ibn Bukhtishu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_%27Ubayd_al-Juzjani" title="Abu 'Ubayd al-Juzjani">Abu 'Ubayd al-Juzjani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_al-Hakam_al-Kirmani" title="Abu al-Hakam al-Kirmani">Abu al-Hakam al-Kirmani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Biruni" title="Al-Biruni">Al-Biruni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_ibn_Isa_al-Kahhal" title="Ali ibn Isa al-Kahhal">Ali ibn Isa al-Kahhal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_ibn_Ridwan" title="Ali ibn Ridwan">Ali ibn Ridwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_ibn_Yusuf_al-Ilaqi" class="mw-redirect" title="Ali ibn Yusuf al-Ilaqi">Ali ibn Yusuf al-Ilaqi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ammar_al-Mawsili" title="Ammar al-Mawsili">Ammar ibn Ali al-Mawsili</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Badi%27_al-Asturlabi" title="Al-Badi' al-Asturlabi">Badi' al-Asturlabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Abi_Sadiq" title="Ibn Abi Sadiq">Ibn Abi Sadiq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Al-Thahabi" title="Ibn Al-Thahabi">Ibn Al-Thahabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Butlan" title="Ibn Butlan">Ibn Butlan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Hindu" title="Ibn Hindu">Ibn Hindu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Jazla" title="Ibn Jazla">Ibn Jazla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Haytham" title="Ibn al-Haytham">Ibn al-Haytham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Kattani" title="Ibn al-Kattani">Ibn al-Kattani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Wafid" title="Ibn al-Wafid">Ibn al-Wafid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonah_ibn_Janah" title="Jonah ibn Janah">Jonah ibn Janah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Masawaih_al-Mardini" title="Masawaih al-Mardini">Masawaih</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">12th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Jafar_ibn_Harun_al-Turjali" title="Abu Jafar ibn Harun al-Turjali">Abu Jafar ibn Harun al-Turjali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_al-Bayan_ibn_al-Mudawwar" title="Abu al-Bayan ibn al-Mudawwar">Abu al-Bayan ibn al-Mudawwar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_al-Majd_ibn_Abi_al-Hakam" title="Abu al-Majd ibn Abi al-Hakam">Abu al-Majd ibn Abi al-Hakam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu%27l-Barak%C4%81t_al-Baghd%C4%81d%C4%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="Abu'l-Barakāt al-Baghdādī">Abu'l-Barakāt al-Baghdādī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmad_ibn_Farrokh" title="Ahmad ibn Farrokh">Ahmad ibn Farrokh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Samawal_al-Maghribi" title="Al-Samawal al-Maghribi">Al-Samawal al-Maghribi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avempace" title="Avempace">Avempace</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Averroes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Habal" title="Ibn Habal">Ibn Habal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Jumay%CA%BF" title="Ibn Jumayʿ">Ibn Jumay‘</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Tufayl" title="Ibn Tufayl">Ibn Tufayl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Zuhr" title="Ibn Zuhr">Ibn Zuhr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Tilmidh" title="Ibn al-Tilmidh">Ibn al-Tilmīdh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Moshe ben Maimon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_ibn_Aslam_al-Ghafiqi" title="Muhammad ibn Aslam al-Ghafiqi">Muhammad ibn Aslam Al-Ghafiqi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serapion_the_Younger" title="Serapion the Younger">Serapion the Younger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ya%27qub_ibn_Ishaq_al-Israili" title="Ya'qub ibn Ishaq al-Israili">Ya'qub ibn Ishaq al-Israili</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zayn_al-Din_Gorgani" title="Zayn al-Din Gorgani">Zayn al-Din Gorgani</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">13th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Latif_al-Baghdadi" title="Abd al-Latif al-Baghdadi">Abd al-Latif al-Baghdadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Maimonides" title="Abraham Maimonides">Abraham ben Moses ben Maimon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Dakhwar" title="Al-Dakhwar">Al-Dakhwar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Shahrazuri" title="Al-Shahrazuri">Al-Shahrazuri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amin_al-Din_Rashid_al-Din_Vatvat" title="Amin al-Din Rashid al-Din Vatvat">Amin al-Din Rashid al-Din Vatvat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/As-Suwaydi_(physician)" title="As-Suwaydi (physician)">As-Suwaydi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Da%27ud_Abu_al-Fadl" title="Da'ud Abu al-Fadl">Da'ud Abu al-Fadl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hussam_al-Din_al-Jarrahi" title="Hussam al-Din al-Jarrahi">Hussam al-Din al-Jarrahi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Abi_Usaybi%27a" title="Ibn Abi Usaybi'a">Ibn Abi Usaibia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Tumlus" title="Ibn Tumlus">Ibn Tumlus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Baytar" title="Ibn al-Baytar">Ibn al-Baitar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Nafis" title="Ibn al-Nafis">Ibn al-Nafis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Quff" title="Ibn al-Quff">Ibn al-Quff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al%E2%80%90Raqqam" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn al‐Raqqam">Ibn al‐Raqqam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_ben_Judah_of_Ceuta" title="Joseph ben Judah of Ceuta">Joseph ben Judah of Ceuta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Najib_ad-Din_Samarqandi" title="Najib ad-Din Samarqandi">Najib ad-Din Samarqandi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qutb_al-Din_al-Shirazi" title="Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi">Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rashidun_al-Suri" class="mw-redirect" title="Rashidun al-Suri">Rashidun al-Suri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa%27ad_al-Dawla" title="Sa'ad al-Dawla">Sa'ad al-Dawla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zakariya_al-Qazwini" title="Zakariya al-Qazwini">Zakariya al-Qazwini</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">14th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Nagawri" title="Al-Nagawri">Al-Nagawri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aqsara%27i" title="Aqsara'i">Aqsara'i</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Shuayb" title="Ibn Shuayb">Ibn Shuayb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Akfani" title="Ibn al-Akfani">Ibn al-Akfani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Khatib" title="Ibn al-Khatib">Ibn al-Khatib</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jaghmini" title="Jaghmini">Jaghmini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mansur_ibn_Ilyas" title="Mansur ibn Ilyas">Mansur ibn Ilyas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mas%CA%BDud_ibn_Muhammad_Sijzi" title="Masʽud ibn Muhammad Sijzi">Mas‘ud ibn Muhammad Sijzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_ibn_Mahmud_Amuli" title="Muhammad ibn Mahmud Amuli">Muhammad ibn Mahmud Amuli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Najm_al-Din_Mahmud_ibn_Ilyas_al-Shirazi" title="Najm al-Din Mahmud ibn Ilyas al-Shirazi">Najm al-Din Mahmud ibn Ilyas al-Shirazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nakhshabi" title="Nakhshabi">Nakhshabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rashid_al-Din_Hamadani" title="Rashid al-Din Hamadani">Rashid-al-Din Hamadani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sadid_al-Din_al-Kazaruni" title="Sadid al-Din al-Kazaruni">Sadid al-Din al-Kazaruni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yusuf_ibn_Ismail_al-Kutubi" title="Yusuf ibn Ismail al-Kutubi">Yusuf ibn Ismail al-Kutubi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zayn-e-Attar" title="Zayn-e-Attar">Zayn-e-Attar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">15th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Sa%27id_al-Afif" title="Abu Sa'id al-Afif">Abu Sa'id al-Afif</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burhan-ud-din_Kermani" title="Burhan-ud-din Kermani">Burhan-ud-din Kermani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Husayni_Isfahani" title="Husayni Isfahani">Husayni Isfahani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Ali_Astarabadi" title="Muhammad Ali Astarabadi">Muhammad Ali Astarabadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_ibn_Yusuf_al-Harawi" title="Muhammad ibn Yusuf al-Harawi">Muhammad ibn Yusuf al-Harawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nurbakhshi" title="Nurbakhshi">Nurbakhshi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaykh_Muhammad_ibn_Thaleb" title="Shaykh Muhammad ibn Thaleb">Shaykh Muhammad ibn Thaleb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sabuncuo%C4%9Flu_%C5%9Eerafeddin" title="Sabuncuoğlu Şerafeddin">Şerafeddin Kadir</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">16th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rostam_Gorgani" title="Rostam Gorgani">Rostam Gorgani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%CA%BDImad_Shirazi" title="ʽImad Shirazi">ʽImad Shirazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abul_Qasim_ibn_Mohammed_al-Ghassani" title="Abul Qasim ibn Mohammed al-Ghassani">Abul Qasim ibn Mohammed al-Ghassani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dawud_al-Antaki" title="Dawud al-Antaki">Dawud al-Antaki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hakim-e-Gilani" title="Hakim-e-Gilani">Hakim-e-Gilani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sultan_Ali_Khorasani" title="Sultan Ali Khorasani">Sultan Ali Khorasani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taqi_ad-Din_Muhammad_ibn_Ma%27ruf" title="Taqi ad-Din Muhammad ibn Ma'ruf">Taqi al-Din Muhammad ibn Ma'ruf</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">17th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Qiwam_al-Din_Muhammad_al-Hasani" title="Qiwam al-Din Muhammad al-Hasani">Qiwam al-Din Muhammad al-Hasani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abd_El_Razzaq_Al-Jaza%C3%AFri" title="Abd El Razzaq Al-Jazaïri">Abd El Razzaq Al-Jazaïri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qurayshi_al-Shirazi" title="Qurayshi al-Shirazi">Qurayshi al-Shirazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunakabuni" title="Tunakabuni">Tunakabuni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maqsud-Ali_Tabrizi" title="Maqsud-Ali Tabrizi">Maqsud-Ali Tabrizi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">18th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Khurasani_al-Shirazi" title="Al-Khurasani al-Shirazi">Al-Khurasani al-Shirazi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ophthalmology_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Ophthalmology in the medieval Islamic world">Ophthalmology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychology_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Psychology in the medieval Islamic world">Psychology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Medical_works_of_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Category:Medical works of the medieval Islamic world">Works</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Al-Risalah_al-Dhahabiah" title="Al-Risalah al-Dhahabiah">Al-Risalah al-Dhahabiah</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Canon_of_Medicine" title="The Canon of Medicine">The Canon of Medicine</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tacuinum_Sanitatis" title="Tacuinum Sanitatis">Tacuinum Sanitatis</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anatomy_Charts_of_the_Arabs" title="Anatomy Charts of the Arabs">Anatomy Charts of the Arabs</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Book_of_Healing" title="The Book of Healing">The Book of Healing</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Book_of_the_Ten_Treatises_of_the_Eye" title="Book of the Ten Treatises of the Eye">Book of the Ten Treatises of the Eye</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/De_Gradibus" title="De Gradibus">De Gradibus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Al-Tasrif" title="Al-Tasrif">Al-Tasrif</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Zakhireye_Khwarazmshahi" title="Zakhireye Khwarazmshahi">Zakhireye Khwarazmshahi</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Adab_al-Tabib" title="Adab al-Tabib">Adab al-Tabib</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kamel_al-Sanaat_al-Tibbyya" class="mw-redirect" title="Kamel al-Sanaat al-Tibbyya">Kamel al-Sanaat al-Tibbyya</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Al-Hawi" title="Al-Hawi">Al-Hawi</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Commentary_on_Anatomy_in_Avicenna%27s_Canon" title="Commentary on Anatomy in Avicenna's Canon">Commentary on Anatomy in Avicenna's Canon</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Abi_Usaybi%27a" title="Ibn Abi Usaybi'a">Lives of the Physicians</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Centers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-%27Adudi_Hospital" title="Al-'Adudi Hospital">Al-'Adudi Hospital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bimaristan" title="Bimaristan">Bimarestan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nur_al-Din_Bimaristan" title="Nur al-Din Bimaristan">Nur al-Din Bimaristan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Influences</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_medicine" title="Ancient Greek medicine">Ancient Greek medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Iranian_medicine" title="Ancient Iranian medicine">Ancient Iranian medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayurveda" title="Ayurveda">Ayurveda</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Influenced</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Sina_Academy_of_Medieval_Medicine_and_Sciences" title="Ibn Sina Academy of Medieval Medicine and Sciences">Ibn Sina Academy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Learned_medicine" title="Learned medicine">Learned medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_Renaissance" title="Medical Renaissance">Medical Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_medicine_of_Western_Europe" title="Medieval medicine of Western Europe">Medieval medicine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Astronomy_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world43" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Astronomy_in_medieval_Islam" title="Template:Astronomy in medieval Islam"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Astronomy_in_medieval_Islam" title="Template talk:Astronomy in medieval Islam"><abbr title="Discuss this 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navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div id="*_by_century51"> <ul><li>by century</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">8th</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ahmad_Nahavandi" title="Ahmad Nahavandi">Ahmad Nahavandi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Fadl_ibn_Naubakht" title="Al-Fadl ibn Naubakht">Al-Fadl ibn Naubakht</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mu%E1%B8%A5ammad_ibn_Ibr%C4%81h%C4%ABm_al-Faz%C4%81r%C4%AB" title="Muḥammad ibn Ibrāhīm al-Fazārī">Muḥammad ibn Ibrāhīm al-Fazārī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibr%C4%81h%C4%ABm_al-Faz%C4%81r%C4%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibrāhīm al-Fazārī">Ibrāhīm al-Fazārī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mashallah_ibn_Athari" title="Mashallah ibn Athari">Mashallah ibn Athari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ya%CA%BFq%C5%ABb_ibn_%E1%B9%AC%C4%81riq" class="mw-redirect" title="Yaʿqūb ibn Ṭāriq">Yaʿqūb ibn Ṭāriq</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">9th</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Ali_al-Khayyat" title="Abu Ali al-Khayyat">Abu Ali al-Khayyat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Ma%27shar_al-Balkhi" title="Abu Ma'shar al-Balkhi">Abu Ma'shar al-Balkhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Said_Gorgani" title="Abu Said Gorgani">Abu Said Gorgani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Farghani" title="Al-Farghani">Al-Farghani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Kindi" title="Al-Kindi">Al-Kindi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mahani" title="Al-Mahani">Al-Mahani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Hanifa_Dinawari" title="Abu Hanifa Dinawari">Abu Hanifa Dinawari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-%E1%B8%A4ajj%C4%81j_ibn_Y%C5%ABsuf_ibn_Ma%E1%B9%ADar" title="Al-Ḥajjāj ibn Yūsuf ibn Maṭar">Al-Ḥajjāj ibn Yūsuf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habash_al-Hasib_al-Marwazi" class="mw-redirect" title="Habash al-Hasib al-Marwazi">Al-Marwazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_ibn_Isa_al-Asturlabi" title="Ali ibn Isa al-Asturlabi">Ali ibn Isa al-Asturlabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ban%C5%AB_M%C5%ABs%C4%81_brothers" title="Banū Mūsā brothers">Banū Mūsā brothers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_al-Abbas_Iranshahri" title="Abu al-Abbas Iranshahri">Iranshahri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khalid_ibn_Abd_al%E2%80%90Malik_al%E2%80%90Marwarrudhi" class="mw-redirect" title="Khalid ibn Abd al‐Malik al‐Marwarrudhi">Khalid ibn Abd al‐Malik al‐Marwarrudhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Khwarizmi" title="Al-Khwarizmi">Al-Khwarizmi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sahl_ibn_Bishr" title="Sahl ibn Bishr">Sahl ibn Bishr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Th%C4%81bit_ibn_Qurra" title="Thābit ibn Qurra">Thābit ibn Qurra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yahya_ibn_Abi_Mansur" title="Yahya ibn Abi Mansur">Yahya ibn Abi Mansur</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">10th</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Rahman_al-Sufi" title="Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi">al-Sufi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Adami" title="Ibn al-Adami">Ibn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Adami" title="Al-Adami">Al-Adami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu-Mahmud_Khojandi" class="mw-redirect" title="Abu-Mahmud Khojandi">al-Khojandi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Ja%27far_al-Khazin" title="Abu Ja'far al-Khazin">al-Khazin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Sahl_al-Quhi" title="Abu Sahl al-Quhi">al-Qūhī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_al-Wafa%27_Buzjani" class="mw-redirect" title="Abu al-Wafa' Buzjani">Abu al-Wafa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmad_ibn_Yusuf" title="Ahmad ibn Yusuf">Ahmad ibn Yusuf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Battani" title="Al-Battani">al-Battani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Qabisi" title="Al-Qabisi">Al-Qabisi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-A%27lam" title="Ibn al-A'lam">Ibn al-A'lam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Nayrizi" title="Al-Nayrizi">Al-Nayrizi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Saghani" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Saghani">Al-Saghani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A%E1%B9%A3-%E1%B9%A2aidan%C4%81n%C4%AB" title="Aṣ-Ṣaidanānī">Aṣ-Ṣaidanānī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Yunus" title="Ibn Yunus">Ibn Yunus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibrahim_ibn_Sinan" title="Ibrahim ibn Sinan">Ibrahim ibn Sinan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ma_Yize" title="Ma Yize">Ma Yize</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Sijzi" title="Al-Sijzi">al-Sijzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-%CA%BBIjliyyah" title="Al-ʻIjliyyah">Al-ʻIjliyyah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nastulus" title="Nastulus">Nastulus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abolfadl_Harawi" title="Abolfadl Harawi">Abolfadl Harawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haseb-i_Tabari" title="Haseb-i Tabari">Haseb-i Tabari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maslama_al-Majriti" title="Maslama al-Majriti">al-Majriti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_al-Hasan_al-Ahwazi" title="Abu al-Hasan al-Ahwazi">Abu al-Hasan al-Ahwazi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">11th</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Nasr_Mansur" title="Abu Nasr Mansur">Abu Nasr Mansur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Biruni" title="Al-Biruni">al-Biruni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_ibn_Ridwan" title="Ali ibn Ridwan">Ali ibn Ridwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ab%C5%AB_Is%E1%B8%A5%C4%81q_Ibr%C4%81h%C4%ABm_al-Zarq%C4%81l%C4%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="Abū Isḥāq Ibrāhīm al-Zarqālī">Al-Zarqālī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Samh" title="Ibn al-Samh">Ibn al-Samh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Haytham" title="Ibn al-Haytham">Alhazen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Saffar" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn al-Saffar">Ibn al-Saffar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kushyar_Gilani" title="Kushyar Gilani">Kushyar Gilani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Said_al-Andalusi" title="Said al-Andalusi">Said al-Andalusi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibrahim_ibn_Said_al-Sahli" title="Ibrahim ibn Said al-Sahli">Ibrahim ibn Said al-Sahli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Mu%27adh_al-Jayyani" title="Ibn Mu'adh al-Jayyani">Ibn Mu'adh al-Jayyani </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Isfizari" title="Al-Isfizari">Al-Isfizari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_ibn_Khalaf" title="Ali ibn Khalaf">Ali ibn Khalaf</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">12th</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nur_ad-Din_al-Bitruji" title="Nur ad-Din al-Bitruji">Al-Bitruji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avempace" title="Avempace">Avempace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Tufail" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn Tufail">Ibn Tufail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Kharaq%C4%AB" title="Al-Kharaqī">Al-Kharaqī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Khazini" title="Al-Khazini">Al-Khazini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Samawal_al-Maghribi" title="Al-Samawal al-Maghribi">Al-Samawal al-Maghribi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_al-Salt" class="mw-redirect" title="Abu al-Salt">Abu al-Salt</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Averroes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Kammad" title="Ibn al-Kammad">Ibn al-Kammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jabir_ibn_Aflah" title="Jabir ibn Aflah">Jabir ibn Aflah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omar_Khayyam" title="Omar Khayyam">Omar Khayyam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sharaf_al-Din_al-Tusi" title="Sharaf al-Din al-Tusi">Sharaf al-Din al-Tusi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">13th</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Banna%27_al-Marrakushi" title="Ibn al-Banna' al-Marrakushi">Ibn al-Banna' al-Marrakushi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al%E2%80%90Ha%27im_al%E2%80%90Ishbili" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn al‐Ha'im al‐Ishbili">Ibn al‐Ha'im al‐Ishbili</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jamal_ad-Din_Bukhari" title="Jamal ad-Din Bukhari">Jamal ad-Din</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alam_al-Din_al-Hanafi" title="Alam al-Din al-Hanafi">Alam al-Din al-Hanafi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Najm_al%E2%80%90Din_al%E2%80%90Misri" class="mw-redirect" title="Najm al‐Din al‐Misri">Najm al‐Din al‐Misri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhyi_al-Din_al-Maghribi" title="Muhyi al-Din al-Maghribi">Muhyi al-Din al-Maghribi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nasir_al-Din_al-Tusi" title="Nasir al-Din al-Tusi">Nasir al-Din al-Tusi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qutb_al-Din_al-Shirazi" title="Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi">Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shams_al-Din_al-Samarqandi" title="Shams al-Din al-Samarqandi">Shams al-Din al-Samarqandi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zakariya_al-Qazwini" title="Zakariya al-Qazwini">Zakariya al-Qazwini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mu%27ayyad_al-Din_al-Urdi" title="Mu'ayyad al-Din al-Urdi">al-Urdi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Athir_al-Din_al-Abhari" title="Athir al-Din al-Abhari">al-Abhari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_ibn_Abi_Bakr_al%E2%80%90Farisi" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr al‐Farisi">Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr al‐Farisi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Ali_al-Hasan_al-Marrakushi" title="Abu Ali al-Hasan al-Marrakushi">Abu Ali al-Hasan al-Marrakushi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Ishaq_al-Tunisi" title="Ibn Ishaq al-Tunisi">Ibn Ishaq al-Tunisi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al%E2%80%90Raqqam" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn al‐Raqqam">Ibn al‐Raqqam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Ashraf_Umar_II" title="Al-Ashraf Umar II">Al-Ashraf Umar II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fakhr_al-Din_al-Akhlati" title="Fakhr al-Din al-Akhlati">Fakhr al-Din al-Akhlati</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">14th</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Shatir" title="Ibn al-Shatir">Ibn al-Shatir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shams_al-Din_Abu_Abd_Allah_al-Khalili" title="Shams al-Din Abu Abd Allah al-Khalili">Al-Khalili</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Shuayb" title="Ibn Shuayb">Ibn Shuayb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Muqri_Mohammed_al-Battiwi" title="Abu Muqri Mohammed al-Battiwi"> al-Battiwi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ab%C5%AB_al%E2%80%90%CA%BFUq%C5%ABl" class="mw-redirect" title="Abū al‐ʿUqūl">Abū al‐ʿUqūl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Wabkanawi" title="Al-Wabkanawi">Al-Wabkanawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nizam_al-Din_al-Nisapuri" class="mw-redirect" title="Nizam al-Din al-Nisapuri">Nizam al-Din al-Nisapuri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Rahman_al-Jadiri" title="Abd al-Rahman al-Jadiri"> al-Jadiri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sadr_al-Shari%27a_al-Asghar" title="Sadr al-Shari'a al-Asghar">Sadr al-Shari'a al-Asghar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fathullah_Shirazi" title="Fathullah Shirazi">Fathullah Shirazi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">15th</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Qushji" title="Ali Qushji">Ali Kuşçu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abd_al%E2%80%90Wajid" class="mw-redirect" title="Abd al‐Wajid">Abd al‐Wajid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jamshid_al-Kashi" title="Jamshid al-Kashi">Jamshid al-Kashi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Q%C4%81%E1%B8%8D%C4%AB_Z%C4%81da_al-R%C5%ABm%C4%AB" title="Qāḍī Zāda al-Rūmī">Kadızade Rumi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulugh_Beg" title="Ulugh Beg">Ulugh Beg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sibt_al-Maridini" title="Sibt al-Maridini">Sibt al-Maridini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Majdi" title="Ibn al-Majdi">Ibn al-Majdi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%27Abd_al-%27Aziz_al-Wafa%27i" title="'Abd al-'Aziz al-Wafa'i">al-Wafa'i</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Ishaq_al-Kubunani" title="Abu Ishaq al-Kubunani">al-Kubunani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%27Abd_al-%27Aziz_al-Wafa%27i" title="'Abd al-'Aziz al-Wafa'i">'Abd al-'Aziz al-Wafa'i</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">16th</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Birjandi" title="Al-Birjandi">Al-Birjandi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shams_al-Din_al-Khafri" title="Shams al-Din al-Khafri">al-Khafri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baha%27_al-din_al-%27Amili" class="mw-redirect" title="Baha' al-din al-'Amili">Baha' al-din al-'Amili </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piri_Reis" title="Piri Reis">Piri Reis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taqi_ad-Din_Muhammad_ibn_Ma%27ruf" title="Taqi ad-Din Muhammad ibn Ma'ruf">Takiyüddin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">17th</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yang_Guangxian" title="Yang Guangxian">Yang Guangxian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ehmed%C3%AA_Xan%C3%AE" title="Ehmedê Xanî">Ehmedê Xanî</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al_Achsasi_al_Mouakket" title="Al Achsasi al Mouakket">Al Achsasi al Mouakket</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_al-Rudani" title="Muhammad al-Rudani">Muhammad al-Rudani</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible uncollapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Topics43" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Topics</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Works112" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Arabic_star_names" title="List of Arabic star names">Arabic star names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_calendar" title="Islamic calendar">Islamic calendar</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Aja%27ib_al-Makhluqat" title="Aja'ib al-Makhluqat">Aja'ib al-Makhluqat</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_the_Brethren_of_Purity" title="Encyclopedia of the Brethren of Purity">Encyclopedia of the Brethren of Purity</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tabula_Rogeriana" title="Tabula Rogeriana">Tabula Rogeriana</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Book_of_Healing" title="The Book of Healing">The Book of Healing</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Remaining_Signs_of_Past_Centuries" title="The Remaining Signs of Past Centuries">The Remaining Signs of Past Centuries</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><i><a href="/wiki/Zij" title="Zij">Zij</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alfonsine_tables" title="Alfonsine tables">Alfonsine tables</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Huihui_Lifa" title="Huihui Lifa">Huihui Lifa</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Fixed_Stars" class="mw-redirect" title="Book of Fixed Stars">Book of Fixed Stars</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toledan_Tables" title="Toledan Tables">Toledan Tables</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Zij-i_Ilkhani" title="Zij-i Ilkhani">Zij-i Ilkhani</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Zij-i_Sultani" title="Zij-i Sultani">Zij-i Sultani</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sullam_al-sama%27" title="Sullam al-sama'">Sullam al-sama'</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Astronomy_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world#Instruments" title="Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world">Instruments</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alidade" title="Alidade">Alidade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analog_computer" title="Analog computer">Analog computer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aperture" title="Aperture">Aperture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armillary_sphere" title="Armillary sphere">Armillary sphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrolabe" title="Astrolabe">Astrolabe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astronomical_clock" title="Astronomical clock">Astronomical clock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armillary_sphere" title="Armillary sphere">Celestial globe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compass" title="Compass">Compass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compass_rose" title="Compass rose">Compass rose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dioptra" title="Dioptra">Dioptra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equatorial_ring" title="Equatorial ring">Equatorial ring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equatorium" title="Equatorium">Equatorium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Globe" title="Globe">Globe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graph_paper" title="Graph paper">Graph paper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mural_instrument" title="Mural instrument">Mural instrument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mariner%27s_astrolabe" title="Mariner's astrolabe">Navigational astrolabe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Octant_(instrument)" title="Octant (instrument)">Octant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planisphere" title="Planisphere">Planisphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quadrant_(instrument)" title="Quadrant (instrument)">Quadrant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sextant_(astronomy)" title="Sextant (astronomy)">Sextant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shadow_square" title="Shadow square">Shadow square</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sundial" title="Sundial">Sundial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schema_for_horizontal_dials" title="Schema for horizontal dials">Schema for horizontal sundials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triquetrum_(astronomy)" title="Triquetrum (astronomy)">Triquetrum</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Almucantar" title="Almucantar">Almucantar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apsis" title="Apsis">Apogee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrology_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Astrology in the medieval Islamic world">Astrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrophysics" title="Astrophysics">Astrophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axial_tilt" title="Axial tilt">Axial tilt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azimuth" title="Azimuth">Azimuth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celestial_mechanics" title="Celestial mechanics">Celestial mechanics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celestial_spheres" title="Celestial spheres">Celestial spheres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circular_orbit" title="Circular orbit">Circular orbit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deferent_and_epicycle" title="Deferent and epicycle">Deferent and epicycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_rotation" title="Earth's rotation">Earth's rotation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orbital_eccentricity" title="Orbital eccentricity">Eccentricity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecliptic" title="Ecliptic">Ecliptic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elliptic_orbit" title="Elliptic orbit">Elliptic orbit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equant" title="Equant">Equant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galaxy" title="Galaxy">Galaxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geocentric_model" title="Geocentric model">Geocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravitational_energy" title="Gravitational energy">Gravitational energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravity" title="Gravity">Gravity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heliocentrism" title="Heliocentrism">Heliocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inertia" title="Inertia">Inertia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmology_in_medieval_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmology in medieval Islam">Islamic cosmology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moonlight" title="Moonlight">Moonlight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiverse" title="Multiverse">Multiverse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muwaqqit" title="Muwaqqit">Muwaqqit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axial_tilt" title="Axial tilt">Obliquity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parallax" title="Parallax">Parallax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Precession" title="Precession">Precession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qibla" title="Qibla">Qibla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salah_times" title="Salah times">Salah times</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Specific_gravity" class="mw-redirect" title="Specific gravity">Specific gravity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spherical_Earth" title="Spherical Earth">Spherical Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sublunary_sphere" title="Sublunary sphere">Sublunary sphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunlight" title="Sunlight">Sunlight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supernova" title="Supernova">Supernova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temporal_finitism" title="Temporal finitism">Temporal finitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trepidation" title="Trepidation">Trepidation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triangulation" title="Triangulation">Triangulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tusi_couple" title="Tusi couple">Tusi couple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universe" title="Universe">Universe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Institutions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Azhar_University" title="Al-Azhar University">Al-Azhar University</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Knowledge" title="House of Knowledge">House of Knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Wisdom" title="House of Wisdom">House of Wisdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_al-Qarawiyyin" title="University of al-Qarawiyyin">University of al-Qarawiyyin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astronomy_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world#Observatories" title="Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world">Observatories</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Constantinople_observatory_of_Taqi_ad-Din" title="Constantinople observatory of Taqi ad-Din">Constantinople (Taqi al-Din)</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Maragheh_observatory" title="Maragheh observatory">Maragheh</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Ulugh_Beg_Observatory" title="Ulugh Beg Observatory">Samarkand (Ulugh Beg)</a></span></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Influences</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_astronomy" title="Babylonian astronomy">Babylonian astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_astronomy" title="Egyptian astronomy">Egyptian astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_astronomy#Hellenistic_astronomy" title="Ancient Greek astronomy">Hellenistic astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_astronomy" title="Indian astronomy">Indian astronomy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Influenced</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_science" title="Byzantine science">Byzantine science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_astronomy" title="Chinese astronomy">Chinese astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_science_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="European science in the Middle Ages">Medieval European science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_astronomy" title="Indian astronomy">Indian astronomy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Muslim_scholars_of_the_Maliki_school435" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Maliki_scholars" title="Template:Maliki scholars"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Maliki_scholars" title="Template talk:Maliki scholars"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Maliki_scholars" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Maliki scholars"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Muslim_scholars_of_the_Maliki_school435" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Maliki_school" title="Maliki school">Muslim scholars of the Maliki school</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li>by century (<a href="/wiki/Hijri_year" title="Hijri year">AH</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_Era" title="Common Era">CE</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2nd/8th</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Malik_ibn_Anas" title="Malik ibn Anas">Malik ibn Anas</a> (founder of the school; 711–795)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_ibn_Ziyad" title="Ali ibn Ziyad">Ali ibn Ziyad</a> (d. 799)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Wahb" title="Ibn Wahb">Ibn Wahb</a> (743–813)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Rahman_ibn_al-Qasim" title="Abd al-Rahman ibn al-Qasim">Ibn al-Qasim</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="14" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Tower_of_the_Great_Mosque_of_Kairouan.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="The Great Mosque of Kairouan in present day Tunisia"><img alt="The Great Mosque of Kairouan in present day Tunisia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Tower_of_the_Great_Mosque_of_Kairouan.JPG/125px-Tower_of_the_Great_Mosque_of_Kairouan.JPG" decoding="async" width="125" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Tower_of_the_Great_Mosque_of_Kairouan.JPG/188px-Tower_of_the_Great_Mosque_of_Kairouan.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Tower_of_the_Great_Mosque_of_Kairouan.JPG/250px-Tower_of_the_Great_Mosque_of_Kairouan.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1536" data-file-height="2048" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">3rd/9th</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asad_ibn_al-Furat" title="Asad ibn al-Furat">Asad ibn al-Furat</a> (759–828)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yahya_ibn_Yahya_al-Laythi" title="Yahya ibn Yahya al-Laythi">Yahya ibn Yahya al-Laythi</a> (d. 848)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sahnun" title="Sahnun">Sahnun</a> (d. 854/55)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmad_ibn_Abi_Bakr_al-Zuhri" title="Ahmad ibn Abi Bakr al-Zuhri">Ahmad ibn Abi Bakr al-Zuhri</a> (767–856)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_%27Abd_al-Hakam" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn 'Abd al-Hakam">Ibn 'Abd al-Hakam</a> (801–871)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">4th/10th</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abu_al-Arab" title="Abu al-Arab">Abu al-Arab</a> (d. 945)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Abi_Zayd" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn Abi Zayd">Ibn Abi Zayd</a> (922–996)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Baqillani" title="Al-Baqillani">Al-Baqillani</a> (950–1013)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidi_Mahrez" title="Sidi Mahrez">Sidi Mahrez</a> (951–1022)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qadi_%27Abd_al-Wahhab" class="mw-redirect" title="Qadi 'Abd al-Wahhab">Qadi 'Abd al-Wahhab</a> (973–1035)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Imran_al-Fasi" title="Abu Imran al-Fasi">Abu Imran al-Fasi</a> (d. 1039)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">5th/11th</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Battal" title="Ibn Battal">Ibn Battal</a> (d. 1057)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_%27Abd_al-Barr" title="Ibn 'Abd al-Barr">Ibn 'Abd al-Barr</a> (d. 1071)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_al-Walid_al-Baji" title="Abu al-Walid al-Baji">Al-Baji</a> (1013–1081)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_al-Hassan_al-Lakhmi" title="Abu al-Hassan al-Lakhmi">Al-Lakhmi</a> (1006–1085)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waggag_ibn_Zallu_al-Lamti" title="Waggag ibn Zallu al-Lamti">Al-Lamti</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">6th/12th</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/At-Turtushi" class="mw-redirect" title="At-Turtushi">At-Turtushi</a> (1059–1126)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Maziri" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Maziri">Al-Maziri</a> (1061–1141)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Barrajan" title="Ibn Barrajan">Ibn Barrajan</a> (d. 1141)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Bakr_ibn_al-Arabi" title="Abu Bakr ibn al-Arabi">Abu Bakr ibn al-Arabi</a> (1076–1148)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qadi_Ayyad" class="mw-redirect" title="Qadi Ayyad">Qadi Ayyad</a> (1083–1149)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Suhayli" title="Al-Suhayli">Al-Suhayli</a> (1114–1185)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Averroes</a> (1126–1198)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohammed_ibn_Qasim_al-Tamimi" title="Mohammed ibn Qasim al-Tamimi">Al-Tamimi</a> (d. 1207/08)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">7th/13th</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ali_ibn_al-Qattan" class="mw-redirect" title="Ali ibn al-Qattan">Al-Qattan</a> (d. 1231)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_al-Abbas_al-Azafi" title="Abu al-Abbas al-Azafi">Al-Azafi</a> (1162–1236)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Hajib" title="Ibn al-Hajib">Ibn al-Hajib</a> (d. 1249)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Qurtubi" title="Al-Qurtubi">Al-Qurtubi</a> (1214–1273)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shihab_al-Din_al-Qarafi" title="Shihab al-Din al-Qarafi">Al-Qarafi</a> (1228–1285)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Ata_Allah" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn Ata Allah">Ibn Ata Allah</a> (1259–1310)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_al-Hassan_Ali_ibn_Mohammed_al-Zarwili" title="Abu al-Hassan Ali ibn Mohammed al-Zarwili">Al-Zarwili</a> (d. 1319)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_ibn_Rushayd" title="Muhammad ibn Rushayd">Ibn Rushayd</a> (1259–1321)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">8th/14th</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Haj_al-Abdari" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn al-Haj al-Abdari">Ibn al-Haj</a> (d. 1336)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Juzayy" title="Ibn Juzayy">Ibn Juzayy</a> (d. 1340)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khalil_ibn_Ishaq_al-Jundi" title="Khalil ibn Ishaq al-Jundi">Khalil ibn-Ishaq</a> (d. 1365)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Marzuq" title="Ibn Marzuq">Ibn Marzuq</a> (d. 1379)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Ishaq_al-Shatibi" title="Abu Ishaq al-Shatibi">Ash-Shatibi</a> (1320–1388)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Farhun" title="Ibn Farhun">Ibn Farhun</a> (d. 1397)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Arafa" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn Arafa">Ibn 'Arafa</a> (1316–1401)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a> (1332–1406)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Yahya_ibn_al-Sakkak" title="Abu Yahya ibn al-Sakkak">Al-Sakkak</a> (d. 1415)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taqi_al-Din_al-Fasi" title="Taqi al-Din al-Fasi">Taqi al-Din Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Fasi</a> (1373–1429)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">9th/15th</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sidi_Boushaki" title="Sidi Boushaki">Ibn Faïd</a> (1394–1453)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Rahman_al-Tha%27alibi" title="Abd al-Rahman al-Tha'alibi">Abd al-Rahman al-Tha'alibi</a> (1384–1479)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Azraq" title="Ibn al-Azraq">Ibn al-Azraq</a> (1427–1491)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmad_Zarruq" title="Ahmad Zarruq">Ahmad Zarruq</a> (1442–1493)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibrahim_ibn_Hilal_al-Sijilmasi" title="Ibrahim ibn Hilal al-Sijilmasi">Ibn Hilal al-Sijilmasi</a> (d. 1497/98)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">10th/16th</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ali_ibn_Qasim_al-Zaqqaq" title="Ali ibn Qasim al-Zaqqaq">Ali ibn Qasim al-Zaqqaq</a> (d. 1506/07)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmad_al-Wansharisi" title="Ahmad al-Wansharisi">Al-Wansharisi</a> (d. 1508)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmad_ibn_Abi_Jum%27ah" title="Ahmad ibn Abi Jum'ah">Ibn Abi Jum'ah</a> (d. 1511)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Ghazi_al-Miknasi" title="Ibn Ghazi al-Miknasi">Al-Miknasi</a> (1437–1513)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Hattab" title="Al-Hattab">Al-Hattab</a> (1497–1547)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Akhdari" title="Al-Akhdari">Al-Akhdari</a> (1512–1575)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmed_al-Mandjur" title="Ahmed al-Mandjur">Al-Mandjur</a> (1520–1587)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu-l-Hasan_al-Tamgruti" title="Abu-l-Hasan al-Tamgruti">Al-Tamgruti</a> (d. 1594/95)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">11th/17th</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Ashir" title="Ibn Ashir">Ibn Ashir</a> (1582–1631)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Laqani" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Laqani">Al-Laqani</a> (d. 1631)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Mayyara" title="Muhammad Mayyara">Mayyara</a> (1591–1662)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Abdallah_Mohammed_al-Murabit_al-Dila%27i" title="Abu Abdallah Mohammed al-Murabit al-Dila'i">Al-Dila'i</a> (d. 1678)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Qadir_al-Fasi" title="Abd al-Qadir al-Fasi">Al-Qadir al-Fasi</a> (1599–1680)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Rahman_al-Fasi" title="Abd al-Rahman al-Fasi">Al-Rahman al-Fasi</a> (1631–1685)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abd-al-Baqi_al-Zurqani" title="Abd-al-Baqi al-Zurqani">Az-Zurqani</a> (1611–1688)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_al-Zurqani" title="Muhammad al-Zurqani">Muhammad al-Zurqani</a> (1645–1710)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">12th/18th</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mohammed_ibn_al-Tayyib" title="Mohammed ibn al-Tayyib">Ibn al-Tayyib</a> (1698–1756)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Bannani" title="Al-Bannani">Al-Bannani</a> (1727–1780)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ad-Dardir" class="mw-redirect" title="Ad-Dardir">Ad-Dardir</a> (1715–1786)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidi_M%27hamed_Bou_Qobrine" title="Sidi M'hamed Bou Qobrine">M'Hamed Al-Azhari</a> (d. 1793/94)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohammed_al-Tawudi_ibn_Suda" title="Mohammed al-Tawudi ibn Suda">Al-Tawudi ibn Suda</a> (1700–1795)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohammed_ibn_Abu_al-Qasim_al-Sijilmasi" title="Mohammed ibn Abu al-Qasim al-Sijilmasi">Al-Qasim al-Sijilmasi</a> (d. 1800)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">13th/19th</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ahmad_ibn_%27Ajiba" class="mw-redirect" title="Ahmad ibn 'Ajiba">Ahmad ibn 'Ajiba</a> (1747–1809)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ad-Desouki" class="mw-redirect" title="Ad-Desouki">Ad-Desouki</a> (d. 1815)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Usman_dan_Fodio" title="Usman dan Fodio">Usman dan Fodio</a> (1754–1817)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamdun_ibn_al-Hajj_al-Fasi" title="Hamdun ibn al-Hajj al-Fasi">Al-Hajj al-Fasi</a> (1760–1817)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdullahi_dan_Fodio" title="Abdullahi dan Fodio">Abdullahi dan Fodio</a> (1766–1829)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_%27Ilish" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammad 'Ilish">Muhammad 'Ilish</a> (1802–1882)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmad_At_Tij%C3%A2n%C3%AE_Ibn_B%C3%A2ba_Al_%27Alaw%C3%AE" title="Ahmad At Tijânî Ibn Bâba Al 'Alawî">Al Alawi</a> (d. 1888)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salim_al-Bishri" title="Salim al-Bishri">Salim al-Bishri</a> (1832–1916)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmed_Harrak_Srifi" title="Ahmed Harrak Srifi">Ahmed Harrak Srifi</a> (d. 1925)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmed_Skirej" title="Ahmed Skirej">Ahmed Skirej</a> (1878–1944)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">14th/20th</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_al-%27Arabi_al-Tabbani" title="Muhammad al-'Arabi al-Tabbani">Muhammad al-'Arabi al-Tabbani</a> (1897–1970)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohamed_Fadhel_Ben_Achour" title="Mohamed Fadhel Ben Achour">Mohamed Fadhel Ben Achour</a> (1909–1970)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_al-Tahir_ibn_Ashur" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammad al-Tahir ibn Ashur">Muhammad al-Tahir ibn Ashur</a> (1879–1973)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_ibn_%27Alawi_al-Maliki" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammad ibn 'Alawi al-Maliki">Muhammad ibn 'Alawi al-Maliki</a> (1944–2004)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">15th/21st</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Othman_Battikh" title="Othman Battikh">Othman Battikh</a> (1941–2022)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdallah_bin_Bayyah" title="Abdallah bin Bayyah">Abdallah bin Bayyah</a> (b. 1935)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmed_el-Tayeb" title="Ahmed el-Tayeb">Ahmed el-Tayeb</a> (b. 1946)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmad_Karima" title="Ahmad Karima">Ahmad Karima</a> (b. 1951)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamza_Yusuf" title="Hamza Yusuf">Hamza Yusuf</a> (b. 1958)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_al-Yaqoubi" title="Muhammad al-Yaqoubi">Muhammad al-Yaqoubi</a> (b. 1963)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rashid_Al_Marikhi" title="Rashid Al Marikhi">Rashid Al Marikhi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div>Scholars of other Sunni Islamic schools of jurisprudence <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Hanafi_scholars" title="Template:Hanafi scholars">Hanafi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Hanbali_scholars" title="Template:Hanbali scholars">Hanbali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Shafi%27i_scholars" title="Template:Shafi'i scholars">Shafi'i</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Zahiri_scholars" title="Template:Zahiri scholars">Zahiri</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Aristotelianism339" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Aristotelianism" title="Template:Aristotelianism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Aristotelianism" title="Template talk:Aristotelianism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Aristotelianism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Aristotelianism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Aristotelianism339" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Overview</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Term_logic" title="Term logic">Logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lyceum_(classical)" title="Lyceum (classical)">Lyceum</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ideas and interests</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Active_intellect" title="Active intellect">Active intellect</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Antiperistasis" title="Antiperistasis">Antiperistasis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Arete" title="Arete">Arete</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category_of_being" class="mw-redirect" title="Category of being">Category of being</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Catharsis" title="Catharsis">Catharsis</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Correspondence_theory_of_truth" title="Correspondence theory of truth">Correspondence theory of truth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Essence" title="Essence">Essence</a>–<a href="/wiki/Accident_(philosophy)" title="Accident (philosophy)">accident</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Eudaimonia" title="Eudaimonia">Eudaimonia</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_causes" title="Four causes">Four causes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_future_contingents" title="Problem of future contingents">Future contingents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genus%E2%80%93differentia_definition" title="Genus–differentia definition">Genus–differentia</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hexis" title="Hexis">Hexis</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hylomorphism" title="Hylomorphism">Hylomorphism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lexis_(Aristotle)" title="Lexis (Aristotle)">Lexis</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnanimity" title="Magnanimity">Magnanimity</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mimesis#Aristotle" title="Mimesis">Mimesis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Minima_naturalia" title="Minima naturalia">Minima naturalia</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moderate_realism" title="Moderate realism">Moderate realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mythos_(Aristotle)" title="Mythos (Aristotle)">Mythos</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Philia" title="Philia">Philia</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horror_vacui_(physics)" title="Horror vacui (physics)">Horror vacui (physics)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rational_animal" title="Rational animal">Rational animal</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Phronesis" title="Phronesis">Phronesis</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Potentiality_and_actuality" title="Potentiality and actuality">Potentiality and actuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substance_theory" title="Substance theory">Substance theory</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Hypokeimenon" title="Hypokeimenon">hypokeimenon</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Ousia" title="Ousia">ousia</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syllogism" title="Syllogism">Syllogism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Telos" title="Telos">Telos</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temporal_finitism" title="Temporal finitism">Temporal finitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quiddity" title="Quiddity">Quiddity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haecceity" title="Haecceity">Haecceity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unmoved_mover" title="Unmoved mover">Unmoved mover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">Virtue ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotelian_realist_philosophy_of_mathematics" title="Aristotelian realist philosophy of mathematics">Mathematical realism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Works_of_Aristotle" title="Works of Aristotle">Works</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-style:italic;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Organon" title="Organon">Organon</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Categories_(Aristotle)" title="Categories (Aristotle)">Categories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Interpretation" title="On Interpretation">On Interpretation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prior_Analytics" title="Prior Analytics">Prior Analytics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posterior_Analytics" title="Posterior Analytics">Posterior Analytics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Topics_(Aristotle)" title="Topics (Aristotle)">Topics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sophistical_Refutations" title="Sophistical Refutations">Sophistical Refutations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Aristotelian_physics" title="Aristotelian physics">Physics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Physics_(Aristotle)" title="Physics (Aristotle)">Physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_the_Heavens" title="On the Heavens">On the Heavens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Generation_and_Corruption" title="On Generation and Corruption">On Generation and Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meteorology_(Aristotle)" title="Meteorology (Aristotle)">Meteorology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_the_Soul" title="On the Soul">On the Soul</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Aristotle%27s_biology" title="Aristotle's biology">On Animals</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Animals" title="History of Animals">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parts_of_Animals" title="Parts of Animals">Parts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Movement_of_Animals" title="Movement of Animals">Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progression_of_Animals" title="Progression of Animals">Progression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generation_of_Animals" title="Generation of Animals">Generation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Metaphysics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics_(Aristotle)" title="Metaphysics (Aristotle)">Metaphysics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Aristotelian_ethics" title="Aristotelian ethics">Ethics</a> and politics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nicomachean_Ethics" title="Nicomachean Ethics">Nicomachean Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eudemian_Ethics" title="Eudemian Ethics">Eudemian Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_(Aristotle)" title="Politics (Aristotle)">Politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Athenians_(Aristotle)" title="Constitution of the Athenians (Aristotle)">Constitution of the Athenians</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Rhetoric and poetics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric_(Aristotle)" title="Rhetoric (Aristotle)">Rhetoric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poetics_(Aristotle)" title="Poetics (Aristotle)">Poetics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Parva_Naturalia" title="Parva Naturalia">Parva Naturalia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sense_and_Sensibilia_(Aristotle)" title="Sense and Sensibilia (Aristotle)">Sense and Sensibilia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Memory" title="On Memory">On Memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Sleep" title="On Sleep">On Sleep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Dreams" title="On Dreams">On Dreams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Divination_in_Sleep" title="On Divination in Sleep">On Divination in Sleep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Length_and_Shortness_of_Life" title="On Length and Shortness of Life">On Length and Shortness of Life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Youth,_Old_Age,_Life_and_Death,_and_Respiration" title="On Youth, Old Age, Life and Death, and Respiration">On Youth, Old Age, Life and Death, and Respiration</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lost</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Protrepticus_(Aristotle)" title="Protrepticus (Aristotle)">Protrepticus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pseudo-Aristotle" title="Pseudo-Aristotle">Pseudepigrapha</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/On_Breath" title="On Breath">On Breath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Colors" title="On Colors">On Colors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Plants" title="On Plants">On Plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Indivisible_Lines" title="On Indivisible Lines">On Indivisible Lines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Melissus,_Xenophanes,_and_Gorgias" title="On Melissus, Xenophanes, and Gorgias">On Melissus, Xenophanes, and Gorgias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_the_Universe" title="On the Universe">On the Universe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Things_Heard" title="On Things Heard">On Things Heard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physiognomonics" title="Physiognomonics">Physiognomonics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Marvellous_Things_Heard" title="On Marvellous Things Heard">On Marvellous Things Heard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mechanics_(Aristotle)" title="Mechanics (Aristotle)">Mechanics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problems_(Aristotle)" title="Problems (Aristotle)">Problems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Situations_and_Names_of_Winds" title="The Situations and Names of Winds">The Situations and Names of Winds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Virtues_and_Vices" title="On Virtues and Vices">On Virtues and Vices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economics_(Aristotle)" title="Economics (Aristotle)">Economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric_to_Alexander" title="Rhetoric to Alexander">Rhetoric to Alexander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magna_Moralia" title="Magna Moralia">Magna Moralia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Followers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Peripatetic_school22" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Peripatetic_school" title="Peripatetic school">Peripatetic school</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristoxenus" title="Aristoxenus">Aristoxenus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clearchus_of_Soli" title="Clearchus of Soli">Clearchus of Soli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dicaearchus" title="Dicaearchus">Dicaearchus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eudemus_of_Rhodes" title="Eudemus of Rhodes">Eudemus of Rhodes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theophrastus" title="Theophrastus">Theophrastus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strato_of_Lampsacus" title="Strato of Lampsacus">Strato of Lampsacus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lyco_of_Troas" title="Lyco of Troas">Lyco of Troas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristo_of_Ceos" title="Aristo of Ceos">Aristo of Ceos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critolaus" title="Critolaus">Critolaus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diodorus_of_Tyre" title="Diodorus of Tyre">Diodorus of Tyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erymneus" title="Erymneus">Erymneus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andronicus_of_Rhodes" title="Andronicus of Rhodes">Andronicus of Rhodes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Islamic_Golden_Age22" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Islamic Golden Age</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Kindi" title="Al-Kindi">Al-Kindi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">Al-Farabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avicennism" title="Avicennism">Avicennism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Averroes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Averroism" title="Averroism">Averroism</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Jewish6" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Jewish</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Scholasticism17" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Lombard" title="Peter Lombard">Peter Lombard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albertus_Magnus" title="Albertus Magnus">Albertus Magnus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thomism" title="Thomism">Thomism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duns_Scotus" title="Duns Scotus">Duns Scotus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scotism" title="Scotism">Scotism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_of_Spain" title="Peter of Spain">Peter of Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacopo_Zabarella" title="Jacopo Zabarella">Jacopo Zabarella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pietro_Pomponazzi" title="Pietro Pomponazzi">Pietro Pomponazzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cesare_Cremonini_(philosopher)" title="Cesare Cremonini (philosopher)">Cesar Cremonini</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Modern6" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Modern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Henry_Newman" title="John Henry Newman">Newman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Adolf_Trendelenburg" title="Friedrich Adolf Trendelenburg">Trendelenburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franz_Brentano" title="Franz Brentano">Brentano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mortimer_J._Adler" title="Mortimer J. Adler">Adler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippa_Foot" title="Philippa Foot">Foot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alasdair_MacIntyre" title="Alasdair MacIntyre">MacIntyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Smith" title="Wolfgang Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosalind_Hursthouse" title="Rosalind Hursthouse">Hursthouse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Nussbaum</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Transmission_of_the_Greek_Classics" title="Transmission of the Greek Classics">Transmission of the Greek Classics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Platonism" title="Platonism">Platonism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" 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