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class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Historical_background" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historical_background"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Historical background</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historical_background-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Jackson's_role" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jackson's_role"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Jackson's role</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jackson's_role-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Treaty_of_New_Echota" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Treaty_of_New_Echota"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.1</span> <span>Treaty of New Echota</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Treaty_of_New_Echota-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legal_background" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legal_background"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Legal background</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legal_background-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Choctaw_removal" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Choctaw_removal"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Choctaw removal</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Choctaw_removal-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Seminole_resistance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Seminole_resistance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Seminole resistance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Seminole_resistance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Creek_dissolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Creek_dissolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Creek dissolution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Creek_dissolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chickasaw_monetary_removal" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chickasaw_monetary_removal"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Chickasaw monetary removal</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chickasaw_monetary_removal-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cherokee_forced_relocation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cherokee_forced_relocation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Cherokee forced relocation</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Cherokee_forced_relocation-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Cherokee forced relocation subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Cherokee_forced_relocation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Eastern_Cherokee_Restitution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Eastern_Cherokee_Restitution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Eastern Cherokee Restitution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Eastern_Cherokee_Restitution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Statistics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Statistics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Statistics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Statistics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Legacy</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Legacy subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Terminology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Terminology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Terminology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Terminology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Classification_debate" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classification_debate"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1.1</span> <span>Classification debate</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Classification_debate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Landmarks_and_commemorations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Landmarks_and_commemorations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2</span> <span>Landmarks and commemorations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Landmarks_and_commemorations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Trail_of_Tears_outdoor_historical_drama,_Unto_These_Hills" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Trail_of_Tears_outdoor_historical_drama,_Unto_These_Hills"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2.1</span> <span>Trail of Tears outdoor historical drama, <i>Unto These Hills</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Trail_of_Tears_outdoor_historical_drama,_Unto_These_Hills-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Remember_the_Removal_bike_ride" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Remember_the_Removal_bike_ride"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2.2</span> <span>Remember the Removal bike ride</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Remember_the_Removal_bike_ride-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Commemorative_medallion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Commemorative_medallion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2.3</span> <span>Commemorative medallion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Commemorative_medallion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_literature_and_oral_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_literature_and_oral_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2.4</span> <span>In literature and oral history</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_literature_and_oral_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Documents" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Documents"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>Documents</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Documents-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Trail of Tears</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 44 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-44" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">44 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8B%A8%E1%8B%95%E1%88%9D%E1%89%A3%E1%8B%8E%E1%89%BD_%E1%8C%8E%E1%8B%B3%E1%8A%93" title="የዕምባዎች ጎዳና – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="የዕምባዎች ጎዳና" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>አማርኛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D8%B1%D8%A8_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AF%D9%85%D9%88%D8%B9" title="درب الدموع – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="درب الدموع" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B0_%D1%81%D0%BB%D1%91%D0%B7" title="Дарога слёз – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Дарога слёз" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cam%C3%AD_de_les_Ll%C3%A0grimes" title="Camí de les Llàgrimes – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Camí de les Llàgrimes" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Y_Llwybr_Dagrau" title="Y Llwybr Dagrau – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Y Llwybr Dagrau" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trail_of_Tears" title="Trail of Tears – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Trail of Tears" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pfad_der_Tr%C3%A4nen" title="Pfad der Tränen – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Pfad der Tränen" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sendero_de_l%C3%A1grimas" title="Sendero de lágrimas – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Sendero de lágrimas" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malkoen_bidea" title="Malkoen bidea – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Malkoen bidea" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piste_des_larmes" title="Piste des larmes – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Piste des larmes" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sendeiro_das_b%C3%A1goas" title="Sendeiro das bágoas – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Sendeiro das bágoas" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%88%88%EB%AC%BC%EC%9D%98_%EA%B8%B8" title="눈물의 길 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="눈물의 길" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trail_of_Tears" title="Trail of Tears – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Trail of Tears" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-os mw-list-item"><a href="https://os.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%C3%A6%D1%81%D1%81%D1%8B%D0%B3%D1%82%D1%8B_%D1%84%C3%A6%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B3" title="Цæссыгты фæндаг – Ossetic" lang="os" hreflang="os" data-title="Цæссыгты фæндаг" data-language-autonym="Ирон" data-language-local-name="Ossetic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ирон</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sentiero_delle_lacrime" title="Sentiero delle lacrime – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Sentiero delle lacrime" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%A1%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%9C_%D7%94%D7%93%D7%9E%D7%A2%D7%95%D7%AA" title="מסלול הדמעות – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מסלול הדמעות" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D3%A9%D0%B7_%D0%B6%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%8B_%D0%B6%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8B" title="Көз жасы жолы – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Көз жасы жолы" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyns_Dagrow" title="Hyns Dagrow – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Hyns Dagrow" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kernowek</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asaru_taka" title="Asaru taka – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Asaru taka" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/A%C5%A1ar%C5%B3_kelias" title="Ašarų kelias – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Ašarų kelias" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%B6nnyek_%C3%B6sv%C3%A9nye" title="Könnyek ösvénye – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Könnyek ösvénye" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B7%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5" title="Патека на солзите – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Патека на солзите" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%A3%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A3%E0%B5%80%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%86_%E0%B4%AA%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%A4" title="കണ്ണീരിന്റെ പാത – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="കണ്ണീരിന്റെ പാത" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%9A%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%8A%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9F" title="अश्रूंची पाऊलवाट – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="अश्रूंची पाऊलवाट" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trail_of_Tears" title="Trail of Tears – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Trail of Tears" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trail_of_Tears" title="Trail of Tears – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Trail of Tears" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B6%99%E3%81%AE%E9%81%93" title="涙の道 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="涙の道" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%A5renes_vei" title="Tårenes vei – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Tårenes vei" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Szlak_%C5%81ez" title="Szlak Łez – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Szlak Łez" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trilha_das_L%C3%A1grimas" title="Trilha das Lágrimas – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Trilha das Lágrimas" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drumul_lacrimilor" title="Drumul lacrimilor – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Drumul lacrimilor" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waqaysapa_%C3%91an" title="Waqaysapa Ñan – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Waqaysapa Ñan" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B0_%D1%81%D0%BB%D1%91%D0%B7" title="Дорога слёз – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Дорога слёз" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trail_of_Tears" title="Trail of Tears – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Trail of Tears" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B0_%D1%81%D1%83%D0%B7%D0%B0" title="Стаза суза – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Стаза суза" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyynelten_tie" title="Kyynelten tie – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Kyynelten tie" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%A5rarnas_v%C3%A4g" title="Tårarnas väg – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Tårarnas väg" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%80%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%99%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%8D" title="கண்ணீர்த் தடங்கள் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="கண்ணீர்த் தடங்கள்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%AA%E0%B9%89%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%98%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%99%E0%B9%89%E0%B8%B3%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%B2" title="เส้นทางธารน้ำตา – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="เส้นทางธารน้ำตา" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-chr mw-list-item"><a href="https://chr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8E%A8%E1%8F%A5%E1%8E%A7%E1%8E%B2%E1%8F%93_%E1%8E%A0%E1%8F%81%E1%8E%AC%E1%8E%A2" title="ᎨᏥᎧᎲᏓ ᎠᏁᎬᎢ – Cherokee" lang="chr" hreflang="chr" data-title="ᎨᏥᎧᎲᏓ ᎠᏁᎬᎢ" data-language-autonym="ᏣᎳᎩ" data-language-local-name="Cherokee" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ᏣᎳᎩ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%B6zya%C5%9F%C4%B1_Yolu" title="Gözyaşı Yolu – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Gözyaşı Yolu" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B0_%D1%81%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%B7" title="Дорога сліз – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Дорога сліз" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%A1%80%E6%B7%9A%E4%B9%8B%E8%B7%AF" title="血淚之路 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="血淚之路" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%9C%BC%E6%B3%AA%E4%B9%8B%E8%B7%AF" title="眼泪之路 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="眼泪之路" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q750448#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> 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srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/30px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/40px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Forced relocation and ethnic cleansing of the southeastern Native American tribes</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the event in Native American history. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Trail_of_Tears_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Trail of Tears (disambiguation)">Trail of Tears (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vevent"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above summary" style="font-size:125%;">Trail of Tears</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader">Part of <a href="/wiki/Indian_removal" title="Indian removal">Indian removal</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:TrailofTearsMemorial-3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/TrailofTearsMemorial-3.jpg/275px-TrailofTearsMemorial-3.jpg" decoding="async" width="275" height="266" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/TrailofTearsMemorial-3.jpg/413px-TrailofTearsMemorial-3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/TrailofTearsMemorial-3.jpg/550px-TrailofTearsMemorial-3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="774" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">The Trail of Tears memorial at the <a href="/wiki/New_Echota" title="New Echota">New Echota</a> Historic Site in <a href="/wiki/Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="Georgia (U.S. state)">Georgia</a>, which honors the Cherokees who died on the Trail of Tears</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Location</th><td class="infobox-data location"><a href="/wiki/Southeastern_United_States" title="Southeastern United States">Southeastern United States</a> and <a href="/wiki/Indian_Territory" title="Indian Territory">Indian Territory</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Date</th><td class="infobox-data">1830–1850</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Target</th><td class="infobox-data">The "<a href="/wiki/Five_Civilized_Tribes" title="Five Civilized Tribes">Five Civilized Tribes</a>" (<a href="/wiki/Cherokee" title="Cherokee">Cherokee</a>, <a href="/wiki/Muscogee_(Creek)_Nation" class="mw-redirect" title="Muscogee (Creek) Nation">Muscogee</a>, <a href="/wiki/Seminole" title="Seminole">Seminole</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chickasaw" title="Chickasaw">Chickasaw</a>, <a href="/wiki/Choctaw" title="Choctaw">Choctaw</a>)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Attack type</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Forced_displacement" title="Forced displacement">Forced displacement</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_cleansing" title="Ethnic cleansing">Ethnic cleansing</a><sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li><li><a href="/wiki/Mass_murder" title="Mass murder">Mass murder</a></li></ul></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Cause</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align: left;"><a href="/wiki/Indian_Removal_Act" title="Indian Removal Act">Indian Removal Act</a> signed by President <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Jackson" title="Andrew Jackson">Andrew Jackson</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Deaths</th><td class="infobox-data">13,200–16,700<sup id="cite_ref-Ntotaldeath_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ntotaldeath-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Victims</th><td class="infobox-data">60,000 <a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Native Americans in the United States">Indigenous Americans</a> forcibly relocated to <a href="/wiki/Indian_Territory" title="Indian Territory">Indian Territory</a>.</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Perpetrators</th><td class="infobox-data"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_federal_government" class="mw-redirect" title="United States federal government">United States federal government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Army_on_the_Frontier" title="Army on the Frontier">United States Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Militia_(United_States)" title="Militia (United States)">State militias</a></li></ul> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Motive</th><td class="infobox-data"> <ul><li>Acquisition of Native American land east of the <a href="/wiki/Mississippi_River" title="Mississippi River">Mississippi River</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_against_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Racism against Native Americans in the United States">Anti-Native American racism</a><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>Trail of Tears</b> was the <a href="/wiki/Forced_displacements" class="mw-redirect" title="Forced displacements">forced displacement</a> of approximately 60,000 people of the "<a href="/wiki/Five_Civilized_Tribes" title="Five Civilized Tribes">Five Civilized Tribes</a>" between 1830 and 1850, and the additional thousands of <a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Native Americans in the United States">Native Americans</a> and their enslaved African Americans<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> within that were <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_cleansing" title="Ethnic cleansing">ethnically cleansed</a> by the <a href="/wiki/United_States_government" class="mw-redirect" title="United States government">United States government</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-minges_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-minges-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As part of <a href="/wiki/Indian_removal" title="Indian removal">Indian removal</a>, members of the <a href="/wiki/Cherokee" title="Cherokee">Cherokee</a>, <a href="/wiki/Muscogee_(Creek)_Nation" class="mw-redirect" title="Muscogee (Creek) Nation">Muscogee</a>, <a href="/wiki/Seminole" title="Seminole">Seminole</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chickasaw" title="Chickasaw">Chickasaw</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Choctaw" title="Choctaw">Choctaw</a> nations were forcibly removed from their ancestral homelands in the <a href="/wiki/Southeastern_United_States" title="Southeastern United States">Southeastern United States</a> to newly designated <a href="/wiki/Indian_Territory" title="Indian Territory">Indian Territory</a> west of the <a href="/wiki/Mississippi_River" title="Mississippi River">Mississippi River</a> after the passage of the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Removal_Act" title="Indian Removal Act">Indian Removal Act</a> in 1830.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-minges_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-minges-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Cherokee_removal" title="Cherokee removal">Cherokee removal</a> in 1838 was the last forced removal east of the Mississippi and was brought on by the discovery of gold near <a href="/wiki/Dahlonega,_Georgia" title="Dahlonega, Georgia">Dahlonega, Georgia</a>, in 1828, resulting in the <a href="/wiki/Georgia_Gold_Rush" title="Georgia Gold Rush">Georgia Gold Rush</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The relocated peoples suffered from exposure, disease, and starvation while en route to their newly designated Indian reserve. Thousands died from disease before reaching their destinations or shortly after.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-HamlineLaw_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HamlineLaw-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A variety of scholars have classified the Trail of Tears as an example of the <a href="/wiki/Native_American_genocide_in_the_United_States" title="Native American genocide in the United States">genocide of Native Americans</a>;<sup id="cite_ref-Ostler2019_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ostler2019-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> others categorize it as <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_cleansing" title="Ethnic cleansing">ethnic cleansing</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Anderson2014_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Anderson2014-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>c<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Overview">Overview</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Trails_of_Tears_en.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Trails_of_Tears_en.png/390px-Trails_of_Tears_en.png" decoding="async" width="390" height="298" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Trails_of_Tears_en.png/585px-Trails_of_Tears_en.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Trails_of_Tears_en.png/780px-Trails_of_Tears_en.png 2x" data-file-width="2025" data-file-height="1547" /></a><figcaption>A map of the process of <a href="/wiki/Indian_Removal" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Removal">Indian Removal</a>, 1830–1838. Oklahoma is depicted in light yellow-green.</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1830, a group of Indian nations collectively referred to as the "<a href="/wiki/Five_Civilized_Tribes" title="Five Civilized Tribes">Five Civilized Tribes</a>" (the Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Muscogee, and Seminole nations), were living <a href="/wiki/Autonomous#Politics" class="mw-redirect" title="Autonomous">autonomously</a> in what would later be termed the American <a href="/wiki/Deep_South" title="Deep South">Deep South</a>. The process of cultural transformation from their traditional way of life towards a <a href="/wiki/White_Americans" title="White Americans">white American</a> way of life as proposed by <a href="/wiki/George_Washington" title="George Washington">George Washington</a> and <a href="/wiki/Henry_Knox" title="Henry Knox">Henry Knox</a> was gaining momentum, especially among the Cherokee and Choctaw.<sup id="cite_ref-perdue_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-perdue-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>American settlers had been pressuring the federal government to remove Indians from the Southeast; many settlers were encroaching on Indian lands, while others wanted more land made available to the settlers. Although the effort was vehemently opposed by some, including <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">U.S. Congressman</a> <a href="/wiki/Davy_Crockett" title="Davy Crockett">Davy Crockett</a> of <a href="/wiki/Tennessee" title="Tennessee">Tennessee</a>, <a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Andrew_Jackson" title="Presidency of Andrew Jackson">President</a> <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Jackson" title="Andrew Jackson">Andrew Jackson</a> was able to gain Congressional passage of the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Removal_Act" title="Indian Removal Act">Indian Removal Act</a> of 1830, which authorized the government to extinguish any Indian title to land claims in the Southeast. </p><p>In 1831, the Choctaw became the first Nation to be removed, and their removal served as the model for all future relocations. <a href="/wiki/Seminole_Wars" title="Seminole Wars">After two wars</a>, many Seminoles were removed in 1832. The Creek removal followed in 1834, the Chickasaw in 1837, and lastly the Cherokee in 1838.<sup id="cite_ref-PBS_Indian_Removal_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PBS_Indian_Removal-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some managed to evade the removals, however, and remained in their ancestral homelands; some Choctaw still reside in Mississippi, Creek in Alabama and Florida, Cherokee in <a href="/wiki/North_Carolina" title="North Carolina">North Carolina</a>, and Seminole in Florida. A small group of Seminole, fewer than 500, evaded forced removal; the modern <a href="/wiki/Seminole_Tribe_of_Florida" title="Seminole Tribe of Florida">Seminole Nation of Florida</a> is descended from these individuals.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A number of non-Indians who lived with the nations, including over 4,000 slaves and others of African descent such as spouses or <a href="/wiki/Freedmen" class="mw-redirect" title="Freedmen">Freedmen</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> also accompanied the Indians on the trek westward.<sup id="cite_ref-PBS_Indian_Removal_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PBS_Indian_Removal-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 1837, 46,000 Indians from the southeastern states had been removed from their homelands, thereby opening 25 million acres (100,000 km<sup>2</sup>) for white settlement.<sup id="cite_ref-PBS_Indian_Removal_40-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PBS_Indian_Removal-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarter1976232_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarter1976232-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When the "Five Tribes" arrived in Indian Territory, "they followed their physical appropriation of Plains Indians' land with an erasure of their predecessor's history", and "perpetuated the idea that they had found an undeveloped 'wilderness" when they arrived" in an attempt to appeal to white American values by participating in the settler colonial process themselves. Other Indian nations, such as the Quapaws and Osages had moved to Indian Territory before the "Five Tribes" and saw them as intruders.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historical_background">Historical background</h3></div> <p>Before 1838, the fixed boundaries of these autonomous <a href="/wiki/Federally_recognized_tribe" class="mw-redirect" title="Federally recognized tribe">Indian nations</a>, comprising large areas of the United States, were subject to continual cession and annexation, in part due to pressure from <a href="/wiki/Squatting" title="Squatting">squatters</a> and the threat of military force in the newly declared <a href="/wiki/Territories_of_the_United_States" title="Territories of the United States">U.S. territories</a>—federally administered regions whose boundaries supervened upon the Indian treaty claims. As these territories became <a href="/wiki/U.S._state" title="U.S. state">U.S. states</a>, state governments sought to dissolve the boundaries of the Indian nations within their borders, which were independent of state jurisdiction, and to expropriate the land therein. These pressures were exacerbated by U.S. population growth and the expansion of <a href="/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">slavery</a> in the South, with the rapid development of cotton cultivation in the uplands after the invention of the <a href="/wiki/Cotton_gin" title="Cotton gin">cotton gin</a> by <a href="/wiki/Eli_Whitney" title="Eli Whitney">Eli Whitney</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Jahoda_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jahoda-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many people of the southeastern Indian nations had become <a href="/wiki/Economic_integration" title="Economic integration">economically integrated</a> into the economy of the region. This included the plantation economy and the possession of slaves, who were also forcibly relocated during the removal.<sup id="cite_ref-Jahoda_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jahoda-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Prior to Jackson's presidency, removal policy was already in place and justified by the myth of the "<a href="/wiki/Vanishing_Indian" title="Vanishing Indian">Vanishing Indian</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historian Jeffrey Ostler explains that "Scholars have exposed how the discourse of the vanishing Indian was an ideology that made declining Indigenous American populations seem to be an inevitable consequence of natural processes and so allowed Americans to evade moral responsibility for their destructive choices".<sup id="cite_ref-Ostler2019_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ostler2019-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite the common association of Andrew Jackson and the Trail of Tears, ideas for Removal began prior to Jackson's presidency. Ostler explains, "A singular focus on Jackson obscures the fact that he did not invent the idea of removal…Months after the passage of the Removal Act, Jackson described the legislation as the 'happy consummation' of a policy 'pursued for nearly 30 years<span style="padding-right:.15em;">'</span>".<sup id="cite_ref-Ostler2019_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ostler2019-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/James_Fenimore_Cooper" title="James Fenimore Cooper">James Fenimore Cooper</a> was also a key component of the maintenance of the "vanishing Indian" myth. This vanishing narrative can be seen as existing prior to the Trail of Tears through Cooper's novel <i><a href="/wiki/The_Last_of_the_Mohicans" title="The Last of the Mohicans">The Last of the Mohicans</a></i>. Scholar and author <a href="/wiki/Roxanne_Dunbar-Ortiz" title="Roxanne Dunbar-Ortiz">Roxanne Dunbar-Ortiz</a> shows that: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Cooper has the last of the 'noble' and 'pure' Natives die off as nature would have it, with the 'last Mohican' handing the continent over to Hawkeye, the nativized settler, his adopted son ... Cooper had much to do with creating the US origin myth to which generations of historians have dedicated themselves, fortifying what historian Francis Jennings has described as "exclusion from the process of formation of American society and culture".<sup id="cite_ref-Dunbar-Ortiz2014_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dunbar-Ortiz2014-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Jackson's_role"><span id="Jackson.27s_role"></span>Jackson's role</h3></div> <p>Although Jackson was not the sole, or original, architect of Removal policy, his contributions were influential in its trajectory. Jackson's support for the removal of the Indians began at least a decade before his presidency.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Indian removal was Jackson's top legislative priority upon taking office.<sup id="cite_ref-Howe_2007_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Howe_2007-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After being elected president, he wrote in his first address to Congress: "The emigration should be voluntary, for it would be as cruel as unjust to compel the aborigines to abandon the graves of their fathers and seek a home in a distant land. But they should be distinctly informed that if they remain within the limits of the States they must be subject to their laws. In return for their obedience as individuals they will without doubt be protected in the enjoyment of those possessions which they have improved by their industry".<sup id="cite_ref-Dunbar-Ortiz2014_48-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dunbar-Ortiz2014-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The prioritization of American Indian removal and his violent past created a sense of restlessness among U.S. territories. During his presidency, "the United States made eighty-six treaties with twenty-six American Indian nations between New York and the Mississippi, all of them forcing land cessions, including removals".<sup id="cite_ref-Dunbar-Ortiz2014_48-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dunbar-Ortiz2014-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In a speech regarding Indian removal, Jackson said,<sup id="cite_ref-National_Archives_2021_y004_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-National_Archives_2021_y004-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>It will separate the Indians from immediate contact with settlements of whites; free them from the power of the States; enable them to pursue happiness in their own way and under their own rude institutions; will retard the progress of decay, which is lessening their numbers, and perhaps cause them gradually, under the protection of the Government and through the influence of good counsels, to cast off their savage habits and become an interesting, civilized, and Christian community.</p></blockquote> <p>The removals, conducted under both Presidents <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Jackson" title="Andrew Jackson">Jackson</a> and <a href="/wiki/Martin_Van_Buren" title="Martin Van Buren">Van Buren</a>, followed the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Removal_Act" title="Indian Removal Act">Indian Removal Act</a> of 1830, which provided the president with powers to exchange land with Indian nations and provide infrastructure improvements on the existing lands. The law also gave the president power to pay for transportation costs to the West, should the nations willingly choose to relocate. The law did not, however, allow the president to force Indian nations to move west without a mutually agreed-upon treaty.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Referring to the Indian Removal Act, Martin Van Buren, Jackson's <a href="/wiki/Vice_President_of_the_United_States" title="Vice President of the United States">vice president</a> and successor, is quoted as saying "There was no measure, in the whole course of [Jackson's] administration, of which he was more exclusively the author than this."<sup id="cite_ref-Howe_2007_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Howe_2007-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to historian Roxanne Dunbar-Ortiz, Jackson's intentions were outwardly violent. Dunbar-Ortiz claims that Jackson believed in "bleeding enemies to give them their senses" on his quest to "serve the goal of U.S. expansion". According to her, American Indians presented an obstacle to the fulfillment of Manifest Destiny, in his mind.<sup id="cite_ref-Dunbar-Ortiz2014_48-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dunbar-Ortiz2014-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (June 2022)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Throughout his military career, according to historian <a href="/wiki/Amy_H._Sturgis" title="Amy H. Sturgis">Amy H. Sturgis</a>, "Jackson earned and emphasized his reputation as an 'Indian fighter', a man who believed creating fear in the native population was more desirable than cultivating friendship".<sup id="cite_ref-Sturgis_2007_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sturgis_2007-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a message to Congress on the eve of Indian Removal, December 6, 1830, Jackson wrote that removal "will relieve the whole State of Mississippi and the western part of Alabama of Indian occupancy, and enable those States to advance rapidly in population, wealth, and power. It will separate the Indians from immediate contact with settlements of whites." In this way, Sturgis has argued that Jackson demarcated the Indian population as an "obstacle" to national success.<sup id="cite_ref-Sturgis_2007_53-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sturgis_2007-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sturgis writes that Jackson's removal policies were met with pushback from respectable social figures and that "many leaders of Jacksonian reform movements were particularly disturbed by U.S policy toward American Indians".<sup id="cite_ref-Sturgis_2007_53-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sturgis_2007-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Among these opponents were women's advocate and founder of the American Woman's Educational Association <a href="/wiki/Catharine_Beecher" title="Catharine Beecher">Catherine Beecher</a> and politician <a href="/wiki/Davy_Crockett" title="Davy Crockett">Davy Crockett</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Sturgis_2007_53-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sturgis_2007-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Historian <a href="/wiki/Francis_Paul_Prucha" title="Francis Paul Prucha">Francis Paul Prucha</a>, on the other hand, writes that these assessments were put forward by Jackson's political opponents and that Jackson had benevolent intentions. According to him, Jackson's critics have been too harsh, if not wrong.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He states that Jackson never developed a doctrinaire anti-Indian attitude and that his dominant goal was to preserve the security and well-being of the United States and its Indian and white inhabitants.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Corroborating Prucha's interpretation, historian <a href="/wiki/Robert_V._Remini" title="Robert V. Remini">Robert V. Remini</a> argues that Jackson never intended the "monstrous result" of his policy.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERemini2001270_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERemini2001270-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Remini argues further that had Jackson not orchestrated the removal of the "<a href="/wiki/Five_Civilized_Tribes" title="Five Civilized Tribes">Five Civilized Tribes</a>" from their ancestral homelands, they would have been totally wiped out.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Treaty_of_New_Echota">Treaty of New Echota</h4></div> <p>Jackson chose to continue with Indian removal, and negotiated the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_New_Echota" title="Treaty of New Echota">Treaty of New Echota</a>, on December 29, 1835, which granted the Cherokee two years to move to Indian Territory (modern-day Oklahoma). The Chickasaws and Choctaws had readily accepted and signed treaties with the U.S. government, while the Creeks did so under coercion.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The negotiation of the Treaty of New Echota was largely encouraged by Jackson, and it was signed by a minority Cherokee political faction, the Treaty Party, led by Cherokee leader <a href="/wiki/Elias_Boudinot_(Cherokee)" title="Elias Boudinot (Cherokee)">Elias Boudinot</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the treaty was opposed by most of the Cherokee people, as it was not approved by the Cherokee National Council, and it was not signed by Principal Chief <a href="/wiki/John_Ross_(Cherokee_chief)" title="John Ross (Cherokee chief)">John Ross</a>. The Cherokee National Council submitted a petition, signed by thousands of Cherokee citizens, urging Congress to void the agreement in February 1836.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite this opposition, the Senate ratified the treaty in March 1836, and the Treaty of New Echota thus became the legal basis for the Trail of Tears. Only a fraction of the Cherokees left voluntarily. The U.S. government, with assistance from state militias, forced most of the remaining Cherokees west in 1838.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="A complete citation is needed. (November 2022)">full citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The Cherokees were temporarily remanded in camps in eastern Tennessee. In November, the Cherokee were broken into groups of around 1,000 each and began the journey west. They endured heavy rains, snow, and freezing temperatures.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When the Cherokee negotiated the Treaty of New Echota, they exchanged all their land east of the Mississippi for land in modern Oklahoma and a $5 million payment from the federal government. Many Cherokee felt betrayed that their leadership accepted the deal, and over 16,000 Cherokee signed a petition to prevent the passage of the treaty. By the end of the decade in 1840, tens of thousands of Cherokee and other Indian nations had been removed from their land east of the Mississippi River. The Creek, Choctaw, Seminole, and Chicksaw were also relocated under the Indian Removal Act of 1830. One Choctaw leader portrayed the removal as "A Trail of Tears and Deaths", a devastating event that removed most of the Indian population of the southeastern United States from their traditional homelands.<sup id="cite_ref-history.com_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-history.com-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legal_background">Legal background</h2></div> <p>The establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Territory" title="Indian Territory">Indian Territory</a> and the extinguishing of Indian land claims east of the Mississippi by the Indian Removal Act anticipated the U.S. <a href="/wiki/Indian_reservation" title="Indian reservation">Indian reservation</a> system, which was imposed on remaining Indian lands later in the 19th century.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The statutory argument for Indian sovereignty persisted until the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">U.S. Supreme Court</a> ruled in <i><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Nation_v._Georgia" title="Cherokee Nation v. Georgia">Cherokee Nation v. Georgia</a></i> (1831), that the Cherokee were not a sovereign and independent nation, and therefore not entitled to a hearing before the court. In the years after the Indian Removal Act, the Cherokee filed several lawsuits regarding conflicts with the state of Georgia. Some of these cases reached the Supreme Court, the most influential being <i><a href="/wiki/Worcester_v._Georgia" title="Worcester v. Georgia">Worcester v. Georgia</a></i> (1832). Samuel Worcester and other non-Indians were convicted by Georgia law for residing in Cherokee territory in the state of Georgia without a license. Worcester was sentenced to prison for four years and appealed the ruling, arguing that this sentence violated treaties made between Indian nations and the United States federal government by imposing state laws on Cherokee lands. The Court ruled in Worcester's favor, declaring that the Cherokee Nation was subject only to federal law and that the <a href="/wiki/Supremacy_Clause" title="Supremacy Clause">Supremacy Clause</a> barred legislative interference by the state of Georgia. Chief Justice Marshall argued, "The Cherokee nation, then, is a distinct community occupying its own territory in which the laws of Georgia can have no force. The whole intercourse between the United States and this Nation, is, by our constitution and laws, vested in the government of the United States."<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Court did not ask <a href="/wiki/Federal_marshal" class="mw-redirect" title="Federal marshal">federal marshals</a> to carry out the decision.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBerutti1992305–306_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBerutti1992305–306-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Worcester</i> thus imposed no obligations on Jackson; there was nothing for him to enforce,<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although Jackson's' political enemies conspired to find evidence, to be used in the <a href="/wiki/1832_United_States_presidential_election" title="1832 United States presidential election">forthcoming political election</a>, to claim that he would refuse to enforce the <i>Worcester</i> decision.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He feared that enforcement would lead to open warfare between federal troops and the Georgia militia, which would compound the <a href="/wiki/Nullification_Crisis" class="mw-redirect" title="Nullification Crisis">ongoing crisis in South Carolina</a> and lead to a broader civil war. Instead, he vigorously negotiated a land exchange treaty with the Cherokee.<sup id="cite_ref-CherokeeR_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CherokeeR-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-The_Journal_of_Southern_History_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_Journal_of_Southern_History-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After this, Jackson's political opponents <a href="/wiki/Henry_Clay" title="Henry Clay">Henry Clay</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_Quincy_Adams" title="John Quincy Adams">John Quincy Adams</a>, who supported the <i>Worcester</i> decision, became outraged by Jackson's alleged refusal to uphold Cherokee claims against the state of Georgia.<sup id="cite_ref-Cave_Abuse_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cave_Abuse-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Author and political activist <a href="/wiki/Ralph_Waldo_Emerson" title="Ralph Waldo Emerson">Ralph Waldo Emerson</a> wrote an account of Cherokee assimilation into the American culture, declaring his support of the <i>Worcester</i> decision.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At the time, members of individual Indian nations were not considered <a href="/wiki/United_States_citizen" class="mw-redirect" title="United States citizen">United States citizens</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While citizenship tests existed for Indians living in newly annexed areas before and after forced relocation, individual U.S. states did not recognize the Indian nations' land claims, only individual <a href="/wiki/Title_(property)" title="Title (property)">title</a> under State law, and distinguished between the rights of white and non-white citizens, who often had limited standing in court; and <a href="/wiki/Indian_removal" title="Indian removal">Indian removal</a> was carried out under U.S. military jurisdiction, often by state militias. As a result, individual Indians who could prove U.S. citizenship were nevertheless displaced from newly annexed areas.<sup id="cite_ref-Jahoda_45-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jahoda-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Choctaw_removal">Choctaw removal</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Choctaw_Trail_of_Tears" title="Choctaw Trail of Tears">Choctaw Trail of Tears</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:George-W-Harkins.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/George-W-Harkins.jpg/170px-George-W-Harkins.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="217" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/George-W-Harkins.jpg/255px-George-W-Harkins.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/George-W-Harkins.jpg/340px-George-W-Harkins.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="1023" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/George_W._Harkins" title="George W. Harkins">George W. Harkins</a>, Choctaw chief.</figcaption></figure> <p>The Choctaw nation resided in large portions of what are now the U.S. states of <a href="/wiki/Alabama" title="Alabama">Alabama</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mississippi" title="Mississippi">Mississippi</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Louisiana" title="Louisiana">Louisiana</a>. After a series of treaties starting in 1801, the Choctaw nation was reduced to 11 million acres (45,000 km<sup>2</sup>). The <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Dancing_Rabbit_Creek" title="Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek">Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek</a> ceded the remaining country to the United States and was ratified in early 1831. The removals were only agreed to after a provision in the Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek allowed some Choctaw to remain. The Choctaws were the first to sign a removal treaty presented by the federal government. President Jackson wanted strong negotiations with the Choctaws in Mississippi, and the Choctaws seemed much more cooperative than Andrew Jackson had imagined. The treaty provided that the United States would bear the expense of moving their homes and that they had to be removed within two and a half years of the signed treaty.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The chief of the Choctaw nation, <a href="/wiki/George_W._Harkins" title="George W. Harkins">George W. Harkins</a>, wrote to the citizens of the United States before the removals were to commence: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>It is with considerable diffidence that I attempt to address the American people, knowing and feeling sensibly my incompetency; and believing that your highly and well-improved minds would not be well entertained by the address of a Choctaw. But having determined to emigrate west of the Mississippi river this fall, I have thought proper in bidding you farewell to make a few remarks expressive of my views, and the feelings that actuate me on the subject of our removal... We as Choctaws rather chose to suffer and be free, than live under the degrading influence of laws, which our voice could not be heard in their formation.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>George W. Harkins, George W. Harkins to the American People<sup id="cite_ref-george_address_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-george_address-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <p>United States Secretary of War <a href="/wiki/Lewis_Cass" title="Lewis Cass">Lewis Cass</a> appointed <a href="/wiki/George_Strother_Gaines" title="George Strother Gaines">George Gaines</a> to manage the removals. Gaines decided to remove Choctaws in three phases starting in November 1831 and ending in 1833. The first groups met at Memphis and Vicksburg, where a harsh winter battered the emigrants with flash floods, sleet, and snow. Initially, the Choctaws were to be transported by wagon but floods halted them. With food running out, the residents of Vicksburg and Memphis were concerned. Five steamboats (the <i>Walter Scott</i>, the <i>Brandywine</i>, the <i>Reindeer</i>, the <i>Talma</i>, and the <i>Cleopatra</i>) would ferry Choctaws to their river-based destinations. The Memphis group traveled up the Arkansas for about 60 miles (100 km) to Arkansas Post. There the temperature stayed below freezing for almost a week with the rivers clogged with ice, so there could be no travel for weeks. Food rationing consisted of a handful of boiled corn, one turnip, and two cups of heated water per day. Forty government wagons were sent to Arkansas Post to transport them to Little Rock. When they reached Little Rock, a Choctaw chief referred to their trek as a "<i>trail of tears and death</i>".<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Vicksburg group was led by an incompetent guide and was lost in the <a href="/wiki/Lake_Providence,_Louisiana" title="Lake Providence, Louisiana">Lake Providence</a> swamps. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Alexis_de_tocqueville.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Alexis_de_tocqueville.jpg/170px-Alexis_de_tocqueville.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="228" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Alexis_de_tocqueville.jpg/255px-Alexis_de_tocqueville.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Alexis_de_tocqueville.jpg/340px-Alexis_de_tocqueville.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1031" data-file-height="1382" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Alexis de Tocqueville</a>, French political thinker and historian</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Alexis de Tocqueville</a>, the French philosopher, witnessed the Choctaw removals while in <a href="/wiki/Memphis,_Tennessee" title="Memphis, Tennessee">Memphis, Tennessee</a>, in 1831: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>In the whole scene there was an air of ruin and destruction, something which betrayed a final and irrevocable adieu; one couldn't watch without feeling one's heart wrung. The Indians were tranquil but somber and taciturn. There was one who could speak English and of whom I asked why the Chactas were leaving their country. "To be free," he answered, could never get any other reason out of him. We ... watch the expulsion ... of one of the most celebrated and ancient American peoples.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Alexis de Tocqueville, <i>Democracy in America</i><sup id="cite_ref-Tocqueville_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tocqueville-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <p>Nearly 17,000 Choctaws made the move to what would be called <a href="/wiki/Indian_Territory" title="Indian Territory">Indian Territory</a> and then later <a href="/wiki/Oklahoma" title="Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESatz1986[httpsarchiveorgdetailsafterremovalchoc0000unsepage7_7]_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESatz1986[httpsarchiveorgdetailsafterremovalchoc0000unsepage7_7]-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> About 2,500–6,000 died along the trail of tears. Approximately 5,000–6,000 Choctaws remained in Mississippi in 1831 after the initial removal efforts.<sup id="cite_ref-david_baird_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-david_baird-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Peterson_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Peterson-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Choctaws who chose to remain in newly formed Mississippi were subject to legal conflict, harassment, and intimidation. The Choctaws "have had our habitations torn down and burned, our fences destroyed, cattle turned into our fields and we ourselves have been scourged, manacled, fettered and otherwise personally abused, until by such treatment some of our best men have died".<sup id="cite_ref-Peterson_80-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Peterson-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Choctaws in Mississippi were later reformed as the <a href="/wiki/Mississippi_Band_of_Choctaw_Indians" title="Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians">Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians</a> and the removed Choctaws became the <a href="/wiki/Choctaw_Nation_of_Oklahoma" title="Choctaw Nation of Oklahoma">Choctaw Nation of Oklahoma</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Seminole_resistance">Seminole resistance</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Seminole_Wars" title="Seminole Wars">Seminole Wars</a></div> <p>The U.S. acquired Florida from <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a> via the <a href="/wiki/Adams%E2%80%93On%C3%ADs_Treaty" title="Adams–Onís Treaty">Adams–Onís Treaty</a> and took possession in 1821. In 1832 the Seminoles were called to a meeting at Payne's Landing on the <a href="/wiki/Ocklawaha_River" title="Ocklawaha River">Ocklawaha River</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Payne%27s_Landing" title="Treaty of Payne's Landing">Treaty of Payne's Landing</a> called for the Seminoles to move west, if the land were found to be suitable. They were to be settled on the <a href="/wiki/Creek_(American_Indians)" class="mw-redirect" title="Creek (American Indians)">Creek</a> reservation and become part of the Creek nation, who considered them deserters<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="A complete citation is needed. (December 2017)">full citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>; some of the Seminoles had been derived from Creek bands but also from other Indian nations. Those among the nation who once were members of Creek bands did not wish to move west to where they were certain that they would meet death for leaving the main band of Creek Indians. The delegation of seven chiefs who were to inspect the new reservation did not leave Florida until October 1832. After touring the area for several months and conferring with the Creeks who had already settled there, the seven chiefs signed a statement on March 28, 1833, that the new land was acceptable. Upon their return to Florida, however, most of the chiefs renounced the statement, claiming that they had not signed it, or that they had been forced to sign it, and in any case, that they did not have the power to decide for all the Indian nations and bands that resided on the reservation. The <a href="/wiki/Apalachicola_band" title="Apalachicola band">villages</a> in the area of the <a href="/wiki/Apalachicola_River" title="Apalachicola River">Apalachicola River</a> were more easily persuaded, however, and went west in 1834.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On December 28, 1835, a group of Seminoles and blacks ambushed a U.S. Army company marching from Fort Brooke in Tampa to Fort King in <a href="/wiki/Ocala" class="mw-redirect" title="Ocala">Ocala</a>, killing all but three of the 110 army troops. This came to be known as the <a href="/wiki/Dade_Massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Dade Massacre">Dade Massacre</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tuko-See-Mathla.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Tuko-See-Mathla.jpg/170px-Tuko-See-Mathla.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="253" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Tuko-See-Mathla.jpg/255px-Tuko-See-Mathla.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Tuko-See-Mathla.jpg/340px-Tuko-See-Mathla.jpg 2x" data-file-width="939" data-file-height="1400" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Seminole" title="Seminole">Seminole</a> warrior Tuko-see-mathla, 1834</figcaption></figure> <p>As the realization that the Seminoles would resist relocation sank in, Florida began preparing for war. The St. Augustine Militia asked the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_War" title="United States Department of War">War Department</a> for the loan of 500 muskets. Five hundred volunteers were mobilized under Brig. Gen. <a href="/wiki/Richard_K._Call" title="Richard K. Call">Richard K. Call</a>. Indian war parties raided farms and settlements, and families fled to forts, large towns, or out of the territory altogether. A war party led by <a href="/wiki/Osceola" title="Osceola">Osceola</a> captured a Florida militia supply train, killing eight of its guards and wounding six others. Most of the goods taken were recovered by the militia in another fight a few days later. Sugar plantations along the Atlantic coast south of St. Augustine were destroyed, with many of the slaves on the plantations joining the Seminoles.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other war chiefs such as <a href="/wiki/Halleck_Tustenuggee" title="Halleck Tustenuggee">Halleck Tustenuggee</a>, Jumper, and <a href="/wiki/Black_Seminoles" title="Black Seminoles">Black Seminoles</a> Abraham and John Horse continued the Seminole resistance against the army. The war ended, after a full decade of fighting, in 1842. The U.S. government is estimated to have spent about $20,000,000 on the war, ($631,448,276 today). Many Indians were forcibly exiled to Creek lands west of the Mississippi; others retreated into the Everglades. In the end, the government gave up trying to subjugate the Seminole in their Everglades redoubts and left fewer than 500 Seminoles in peace. Other scholars state that at least several hundred Seminoles remained in the Everglades after the Seminole Wars.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As a result of the Seminole Wars, the surviving Seminole band of the Everglades claims to be the only federally recognized Indian nation which never relinquished sovereignty or signed a peace treaty with the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-Seminole_Tribe_of_Florida_-_STOF_n343_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Seminole_Tribe_of_Florida_-_STOF_n343-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In general the American people tended to view the Indian resistance as unwarranted. An article published by the Virginia <a href="/wiki/National_Enquirer_(1836)" title="National Enquirer (1836)"><i>Enquirer</i></a> on January 26, 1836, called the "Hostilities of the Seminoles", assigned all the blame for the violence that came from the Seminole's resistance to the Seminoles themselves. The article accuses the Indians of not staying true to their word—the promises they supposedly made in the treaties and negotiations from the Indian Removal Act.<sup id="cite_ref-Enquire_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Enquire-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Creek_dissolution">Creek dissolution</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Muscogee" title="Muscogee">Muscogee</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Selocta.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Selocta.jpg/170px-Selocta.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="283" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Selocta.jpg/255px-Selocta.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Selocta.jpg/340px-Selocta.jpg 2x" data-file-width="901" data-file-height="1499" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Selocta_Chinnabby" title="Selocta Chinnabby">Selocta Chinnabby</a> (<i>Shelocta</i>) was a <a href="/wiki/Muscogee_(Creek)" class="mw-redirect" title="Muscogee (Creek)">Muscogee</a> chief who appealed to <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Jackson" title="Andrew Jackson">Andrew Jackson</a> to reduce the demands for Creek lands at the signing of the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Fort_Jackson" title="Treaty of Fort Jackson">Treaty of Fort Jackson</a>. </figcaption></figure> <p>After the War of 1812, some Muscogee leaders such as <a href="/wiki/William_McIntosh" title="William McIntosh">William McIntosh</a> and Chief <a href="/wiki/Shelocta" class="mw-redirect" title="Shelocta">Shelocta</a> signed treaties that ceded more land to Georgia. The 1814 signing of the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Fort_Jackson" title="Treaty of Fort Jackson">Treaty of Fort Jackson</a> signaled the end for the Creek Nation and for all Indians in the South.<sup id="cite_ref-Remini_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Remini-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Friendly Creek leaders, like Shelocta and Big Warrior, addressed Sharp Knife (the Indian nickname for Andrew Jackson) and reminded him that they keep the peace. Nevertheless, Jackson retorted that they did not "cut (<a href="/wiki/Tecumseh" title="Tecumseh">Tecumseh</a>'s) throat" when they had the chance, so they must now cede Creek lands. Jackson also ignored Article 9 of the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Ghent" title="Treaty of Ghent">Treaty of Ghent</a> that restored sovereignty to Indians and their nations. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Jackson opened this first peace session by faintly acknowledging the help of the friendly Creeks. That done, he turned to the Red Sticks and admonished them for listening to evil counsel. For their crime, he said, the entire Creek Nation must pay. He demanded the equivalent of all expenses incurred by the United States in prosecuting the war, which by his calculation came to 23,000,000 acres (93,000 km<sup>2</sup>) of land.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Robert V. Remini, <i>Andrew Jackson</i><sup id="cite_ref-Remini_86-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Remini-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <p>Eventually, the Creek Confederacy enacted a law that made further land cessions a <a href="/wiki/Capital_offense" class="mw-redirect" title="Capital offense">capital offense</a>. Nevertheless, on February 12, 1825, McIntosh and other chiefs signed the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Indian_Springs_(1825)" title="Treaty of Indian Springs (1825)">Treaty of Indian Springs</a>, which gave up most of the remaining Creek lands in Georgia.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Senate" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Senate">U.S. Senate</a> ratified the treaty, McIntosh was assassinated on April 30, 1825, by Creeks led by Menawa. </p><p>The Creek National Council, led by <a href="/wiki/Opothleyahola" title="Opothleyahola">Opothle Yohola</a>, protested to the United States that the Treaty of Indian Springs was fraudulent. President <a href="/wiki/John_Quincy_Adams" title="John Quincy Adams">John Quincy Adams</a> was sympathetic, and eventually, the treaty was nullified in a new agreement, the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Washington_(1826)" title="Treaty of Washington (1826)">Treaty of Washington (1826)</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The historian R. Douglas Hurt wrote: "The Creeks had accomplished what no Indian nation had ever done or would do again—achieve the annulment of a ratified treaty."<sup id="cite_ref-Hurt_2002_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hurt_2002-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, Governor <a href="/wiki/George_Troup" title="George Troup">George Troup</a> of Georgia ignored the new treaty and began to forcibly remove the Indians under the terms of the earlier treaty. At first, President Adams attempted to intervene with federal troops, but Troup called out the militia, and Adams, fearful of a civil war, conceded. As he explained to his intimates, "The Indians are not worth going to war over." </p><p>Although the Creeks had been forced from Georgia, with many Lower Creeks moving to the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Territory" title="Indian Territory">Indian Territory</a>, there were still about 20,000 Upper Creeks living in Alabama. However, the state moved to abolish tribal governments and extend state laws over the Creeks. <a href="/wiki/Opothle_Yohola" class="mw-redirect" title="Opothle Yohola">Opothle Yohola</a> appealed to the administration of President Andrew Jackson for protection from Alabama; when none was forthcoming, the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Cusseta" title="Treaty of Cusseta">Treaty of Cusseta</a> was signed on March 24, 1832, which divided up Creek lands into individual allotments.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Creeks could either sell their allotments and receive funds to remove to the west, or stay in Alabama and submit to state laws. The Creeks were never given a fair chance to comply with the terms of the treaty, however. Rampant illegal settlement of their lands by Americans continued unabated with federal and state authorities unable or unwilling to do much to halt it. Further, as recently detailed by historian Billy Winn in his thorough chronicle of the events leading to removal, a variety of fraudulent schemes designed to cheat the Creeks out of their allotments, many of them organized by speculators operating out of Columbus, Georgia and Montgomery, Alabama, were perpetrated after the signing of the Treaty of Cusseta.<sup id="cite_ref-Winn_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Winn-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A portion of the beleaguered Creeks, many desperately poor and feeling abused and oppressed by their American neighbors, struck back by carrying out occasional raids on area farms and committing other isolated acts of violence. Escalating tensions erupted into open war with the United States after the destruction of the village of Roanoke, Georgia, located along the Chattahoochee River on the boundary between Creek and American territory, in May 1836. During the so-called "<a href="/wiki/Creek_War_of_1836" title="Creek War of 1836">Creek War of 1836</a>" <a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_War" title="United States Secretary of War">Secretary of War</a> <a href="/wiki/Lewis_Cass" title="Lewis Cass">Lewis Cass</a> dispatched General <a href="/wiki/Winfield_Scott" title="Winfield Scott">Winfield Scott</a> to end the violence by forcibly removing the Creeks to the Indian Territory west of the Mississippi River. With the Indian Removal Act of 1830 it continued into 1835 and after as in 1836 over 15,000 Creeks were driven from their land for the last time. 3,500 of those 15,000 Creeks did not survive the trip to Oklahoma where they eventually settled.<sup id="cite_ref-history.com_63-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-history.com-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Chickasaw_monetary_removal">Chickasaw monetary removal</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Chickasaw" title="Chickasaw">Chickasaw</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Military_Road_Marker_US_64_Marion_AR.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Military_Road_Marker_US_64_Marion_AR.jpg/170px-Military_Road_Marker_US_64_Marion_AR.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="228" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Military_Road_Marker_US_64_Marion_AR.jpg/255px-Military_Road_Marker_US_64_Marion_AR.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Military_Road_Marker_US_64_Marion_AR.jpg/340px-Military_Road_Marker_US_64_Marion_AR.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1936" data-file-height="2592" /></a><figcaption>Historic Marker in <a href="/wiki/Marion,_Arkansas" title="Marion, Arkansas">Marion, Arkansas</a>, for the Trail of Tears</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Village_Creek_State_Park_Wynne_AR_Trail_of_Tears.theora.ogv/220px--Village_Creek_State_Park_Wynne_AR_Trail_of_Tears.theora.ogv.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="180" data-durationhint="61" data-mwtitle="Village_Creek_State_Park_Wynne_AR_Trail_of_Tears.theora.ogv" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Village_Creek_State_Park_Wynne_AR_Trail_of_Tears.theora.ogv"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/48/Village_Creek_State_Park_Wynne_AR_Trail_of_Tears.theora.ogv/Village_Creek_State_Park_Wynne_AR_Trail_of_Tears.theora.ogv.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="352" data-height="288" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/48/Village_Creek_State_Park_Wynne_AR_Trail_of_Tears.theora.ogv" type="video/ogg; codecs="theora, vorbis"" data-width="352" data-height="288" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/48/Village_Creek_State_Park_Wynne_AR_Trail_of_Tears.theora.ogv/Village_Creek_State_Park_Wynne_AR_Trail_of_Tears.theora.ogv.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="294" data-height="240" /></video></span><figcaption>Fragment of the Trail of Tears still intact at <a href="/wiki/Village_Creek_State_Park_(Arkansas)" title="Village Creek State Park (Arkansas)">Village Creek State Park</a>, Arkansas (2010)</figcaption></figure> <p>The Chickasaw received financial compensation from the United States for their lands east of the Mississippi River. In 1836, the Chickasaws had reached an agreement to purchase land from the previously removed Choctaws after a bitter five-year debate. They paid the Choctaws $530,000 (equal to $14,700,000 today) for the westernmost part of the Choctaw land. The first group of Chickasaws moved in 1837 and was led by John M. Millard. The Chickasaws gathered at <a href="/wiki/Memphis,_Tennessee" title="Memphis, Tennessee">Memphis</a> on July 4, 1837, with all of their assets—belongings, livestock, and slaves. Once across the Mississippi River, they followed routes previously established by the Choctaws and the Creeks. Once in <a href="/wiki/Oklahoma" title="Oklahoma">Indian Territory</a>, the Chickasaws merged with the Choctaw nation. </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cherokee_forced_relocation">Cherokee forced relocation</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Cherokee_removal" title="Cherokee removal">Cherokee removal</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:John_Ross_of_the_Cherokee.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/John_Ross_of_the_Cherokee.jpg/170px-John_Ross_of_the_Cherokee.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="198" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/John_Ross_of_the_Cherokee.jpg/255px-John_Ross_of_the_Cherokee.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/John_Ross_of_the_Cherokee.jpg/340px-John_Ross_of_the_Cherokee.jpg 2x" data-file-width="633" data-file-height="738" /></a><figcaption>Cherokee Principal Chief <a href="/wiki/John_Ross_(Cherokee_chief)" title="John Ross (Cherokee chief)">John Ross</a>, photographed before his death in 1866</figcaption></figure> <p>By 1838, about 2,000 Cherokee had voluntarily relocated from Georgia to <a href="/wiki/Indian_Territory" title="Indian Territory">Indian Territory</a> (present day Oklahoma). Forcible removals began in May 1838 when General <a href="/wiki/Winfield_Scott" title="Winfield Scott">Winfield Scott</a> received a final order from President <a href="/wiki/Martin_Van_Buren" title="Martin Van Buren">Martin Van Buren</a> to relocate the remaining Cherokees.<sup id="cite_ref-history.com_63-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-history.com-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Approximately 4,000 Cherokees died in the ensuing trek to Oklahoma.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the <a href="/wiki/Cherokee_language" title="Cherokee language">Cherokee language</a>, the event is called <span title="Cherokee-language text"><i lang="chr">nu na da ul tsun yi</i></span> ("the place where they cried") or <span title="Cherokee-language text"><i lang="chr">nu na hi du na tlo hi lu i</i></span> (the trail where they cried). The Cherokee Trail of Tears resulted from the enforcement of the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_New_Echota" title="Treaty of New Echota">Treaty of New Echota</a>, an agreement signed under the provisions of the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Removal_Act" title="Indian Removal Act">Indian Removal Act</a> of 1830, which exchanged Indian land in the East for lands west of the <a href="/wiki/Mississippi_River" title="Mississippi River">Mississippi River</a>, but which was never accepted by the elected tribal leadership or a majority of the Cherokee people.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There were significant changes in gender relations within the Cherokee Nation during the implementation of the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Removal_Act" title="Indian Removal Act">Indian Removal Act</a> during the 1830s. Cherokee historically operated on a <a href="/wiki/Matrilineality" title="Matrilineality">matrilineal kinship system</a>, where children belonged to the clan of their mother and their only relatives were those who could be traced through her. In addition to being matrilineal, Cherokees were also matrilocal.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to the naturalist William Bartram, "Marriage gives no right to the husband over the property of his wife; and when they part, she keeps the children and property belonging to them."<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this way, the typical Cherokee family was structured in a way where the wife held possession to the property, house, and children.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, during the 1820s and 1830s, "Cherokees [began adopting] the Anglo-American concept of power—a political system dominated by wealthy, highly acculturated men and supported by an ideology that made women … subordinate".<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Treaty of New Echota was largely signed by men. While women were present at the rump council negotiating the treaty, they did not have a seat at the table to participate in the proceedings.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historian Theda Perdue explains that "Cherokee women met in their own councils to discuss their own opinions" despite not being able to participate.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The inability for women to join in on the negotiation and signing of the Treaty of New Echota shows how the role of women changed dramatically within Cherokee Nation following colonial encroachment. For instance, Cherokee women played a significant role in the negotiation of land transactions as late as 1785, where they spoke at a treaty conference held at Hopewell, South Carolina to clarify and extend land cessions stemming from Cherokee support of the British in the American Revolution.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The sparsely inhabited Cherokee lands were highly attractive to Georgian farmers experiencing population pressure, and illegal settlements resulted. Long-simmering tensions between Georgia and the Cherokee Nation were brought to a crisis by the discovery of gold near <a href="/wiki/Dahlonega,_Georgia" title="Dahlonega, Georgia">Dahlonega, Georgia</a>, in 1829, resulting in the <a href="/wiki/Georgia_Gold_Rush" title="Georgia Gold Rush">Georgia Gold Rush</a>, the second <a href="/wiki/Gold_rush" title="Gold rush">gold rush</a> in U.S. history. Hopeful gold speculators began trespassing on Cherokee lands, and pressure mounted to fulfill the <i><a href="/wiki/Compact_of_1802" title="Compact of 1802">Compact of 1802</a></i> in which the US Government promised to extinguish Indian land claims in the state of Georgia. </p><p>When Georgia moved to extend state laws over Cherokee lands in 1830, the matter went to the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">U.S. Supreme Court</a>. In <i><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Nation_v._Georgia" title="Cherokee Nation v. Georgia">Cherokee Nation v. Georgia</a></i> (1831), the <a href="/wiki/John_Marshall" title="John Marshall">Marshall court</a> ruled that the <a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Nation_(19th_century)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cherokee Nation (19th century)">Cherokee Nation</a> was not a sovereign and independent nation, and therefore refused to hear the case. However, in <i><a href="/wiki/Worcester_v._Georgia" title="Worcester v. Georgia">Worcester v. Georgia</a></i> (1832), the Court ruled that Georgia could not impose laws in Cherokee territory, since only the national government—not state governments—had authority in Indian affairs. <i><a href="/wiki/Worcester_v_Georgia" class="mw-redirect" title="Worcester v Georgia">Worcester v Georgia</a></i> is associated with Andrew Jackson's famous, though apocryphal, quote "John Marshall has made his decision; now let him enforce it!" In reality, this quote did not appear until 30 years after the incident and was first printed in a textbook authored by Jackson critic <a href="/wiki/Horace_Greeley" title="Horace Greeley">Horace Greeley</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-The_Journal_of_Southern_History_70-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_Journal_of_Southern_History-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Stephens.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Stephens.jpg/220px-Stephens.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="251" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Stephens.jpg/330px-Stephens.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Stephens.jpg/440px-Stephens.jpg 2x" data-file-width="530" data-file-height="604" /></a><figcaption>Elizabeth "Betsy" Brown Stephens (1903), a Cherokee Indian who walked the Trail of Tears in 1838</figcaption></figure> <p>Fearing open warfare between federal troops and the Georgia militia, Jackson decided not to enforce Cherokee claims against the state of Georgia. He was already embroiled in a constitutional crisis with <a href="/wiki/South_Carolina" title="South Carolina">South Carolina</a> (i.e. the <a href="/wiki/Nullification_crisis" title="Nullification crisis">nullification crisis</a>) and favored Cherokee relocation over civil war.<sup id="cite_ref-The_Journal_of_Southern_History_70-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_Journal_of_Southern_History-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Removal_Act" title="Indian Removal Act">Indian Removal Act</a> of 1830, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">U.S. Congress</a> had given Jackson authority to negotiate removal treaties, exchanging Indian land in the East for land west of the Mississippi River. Jackson used the dispute with Georgia to put pressure on the Cherokees to sign a removal treaty. </p><p>The final treaty, passed in Congress by a single vote, and signed by <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">President</a> <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Jackson" title="Andrew Jackson">Andrew Jackson</a>, was imposed by his successor President <a href="/wiki/Martin_Van_Buren" title="Martin Van Buren">Martin Van Buren</a>. Van Buren allowed <a href="/wiki/Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="Georgia (U.S. state)">Georgia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tennessee" title="Tennessee">Tennessee</a>, <a href="/wiki/North_Carolina" title="North Carolina">North Carolina</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Alabama" title="Alabama">Alabama</a> an armed force of 7,000 militiamen, army regulars, and volunteers under General Winfield Scott to relocate about 13,000 Cherokees to <a href="/wiki/Cleveland,_Tennessee" title="Cleveland, Tennessee">Cleveland, Tennessee</a>. After the initial roundup, the U.S. military oversaw the emigration to Oklahoma. Former Cherokee lands were immediately opened to settlement. Most of the deaths during the journey were caused by disease, malnutrition, and exposure during an unusually cold winter.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMooney2020130_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMooney2020130-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the winter of 1838 the Cherokee began the 1,000-mile (1,600 km) march with scant clothing and most on foot without shoes or moccasins. The march began in <a href="/wiki/Red_Clay_State_Park" class="mw-redirect" title="Red Clay State Park">Red Clay, Tennessee</a>, the location of the last Eastern capital of the Cherokee Nation. Because of the diseases, the Indians were not allowed to go into any towns or villages along the way; many times this meant traveling much farther to go around them.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After crossing Tennessee and Kentucky, they arrived at the <a href="/wiki/Ohio_River" title="Ohio River">Ohio River</a> across from <a href="/wiki/Golconda,_Illinois" title="Golconda, Illinois">Golconda in southern Illinois</a> about the 3rd of December 1838. Here the starving Indians were charged a dollar a head (equal to $28.61 today) to cross the river on "Berry's Ferry" which typically charged twelve cents, equal to $3.43 today. They were not allowed passage until the ferry had serviced all others wishing to cross and were forced to take shelter under "Mantle Rock", a shelter bluff on the Kentucky side, until "Berry had nothing better to do". Many died huddled together at Mantle Rock waiting to cross. Several Cherokee were murdered by locals. The Cherokee filed a lawsuit against the U.S. Government through the courthouse in <a href="/wiki/Vienna,_Illinois" title="Vienna, Illinois">Vienna</a>, suing the government for $35 a head (equal to $1,001.44 today) to bury the murdered Cherokee.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As they crossed southern Illinois, on December 26, Martin Davis, commissary agent for Moses Daniel's detachment, wrote: </p> <blockquote><p>There is the coldest weather in Illinois I ever experienced anywhere. The streams are all frozen over something like 8 or 12 inches [20 or 30 cm] thick. We are compelled to cut through the ice to get water for ourselves and animals. It snows here every two or three days at the fartherest. We are now camped in Mississippi [River] swamp 4 miles (6 km) from the river, and there is no possible chance of crossing the river for the numerous quantity of ice that comes floating down the river every day. We have only traveled 65 miles (105 km) on the last month, including the time spent at this place, which has been about three weeks. It is unknown when we shall cross the river....<sup id="cite_ref-FamilyTree_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FamilyTree-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>A volunteer soldier from Georgia who participated in the removal recounted: </p> <blockquote><p>I fought through the civil war and have seen men shot to pieces and slaughtered by thousands, but the Cherokee removal was the cruelest work I ever knew.<sup id="cite_ref-Historical_Sketch_of_the_Cherokee_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Historical_Sketch_of_the_Cherokee-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Southern_Illinois_Trail_of_Tears_map.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Southern_Illinois_Trail_of_Tears_map.jpg/300px-Southern_Illinois_Trail_of_Tears_map.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="138" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Southern_Illinois_Trail_of_Tears_map.jpg/450px-Southern_Illinois_Trail_of_Tears_map.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Southern_Illinois_Trail_of_Tears_map.jpg/600px-Southern_Illinois_Trail_of_Tears_map.jpg 2x" data-file-width="757" data-file-height="349" /></a><figcaption>A Trail of Tears map of Southern Illinois from the USDA – U.S. Forest Service</figcaption></figure> <p>It eventually took almost three months to cross the 60 miles (97 kilometres) on land between the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The trek through southern Illinois is where the Cherokee suffered most of their deaths. However a few years before forced removal, some Cherokee who opted to leave their homes voluntarily chose a water-based route through the Tennessee, Ohio and Mississippi rivers. It took only 21 days, but the Cherokee who were forcibly relocated were wary of water travel.<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Environmental researchers David Gaines and Jere Krakow outline the "context of the tragic Cherokee relocation" as one predicated on the difference between "Indian regard for the land, and its contrast with the Euro-Americans view of land as property".<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This divergence in perspective on land, according to sociologists Gregory Hooks and Chad L. Smith, led to the homes of American Indian people "being donated and sold off" by the United States government to "promote the settlement and development of the West," with railroad developers, white settlers, land developers, and mining companies assuming ownership.<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In American Indian society, according to Colville scholar <a href="/wiki/Dina_Gilio-Whitaker" title="Dina Gilio-Whitaker">Dina Gilio-Whitaker</a>, it caused "the loss of ancient connections to homelands and sacred sites," "the deaths of upward of 25 percent of those on the trail" and "the loss of life-sustaining livestock and crops."<sup id="cite_ref-Gilio-Whitaker_108-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gilio-Whitaker-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Dina Gilio-Whitaker draws on research by Choctaw and Chippewa historian <a href="/wiki/Clara_Sue_Kidwell" title="Clara Sue Kidwell">Clara Sue Kidwell</a> to show the relationship between the Trail of Tears and a negative impact on the environment. In tracking the environmental changes of the southeastern tribes who relocated to new lands across the Trail of Tears, Kidwell finds that "prior to removal the tribes had already begun adapting to a cash-based, private property economic system with their adoption of many European customs (including the practice of slave owning), after their move west they had become more deeply entrenched into the American economic system with the discovery of coal deposits and the western expansion of the railroads on and through their lands. So while they adapted to their new environments, their relationship to land would change to fit the needs of an imposed capitalist system".<sup id="cite_ref-Gilio-Whitaker_108-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gilio-Whitaker-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cherokee ethnobotanist Clint Carroll illustrates how this imposed capitalist system altered Cherokee efforts to protect traditional medicinal plants during relocation, saying that "these changes have resulted in contrasting land management paradigms, rooted in the language of 'resource-based' versus 'relationship-based' approaches, a binary imposed on tribal governments by the Bureau of Indian Affairs through their historically paternalistic relationship".<sup id="cite_ref-Gilio-Whitaker_108-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gilio-Whitaker-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This shift in land management as a function of removal had negative environmental ramifications such as solidifying "a deeply entrenched bureaucratic structure that still drives much of the federal-tribal relationship and determines how tribal governments use their lands, sometimes in ways that contribute to climate change and, in extreme cases, ways that lead to human rights abuses".<sup id="cite_ref-Gilio-Whitaker_108-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gilio-Whitaker-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In addition to a physical relocation, American Indian removal and the Trail of Tears had social and cultural effects as American Indians were forced "to contemplate abandonment of their native land. To the Cherokees life was a part of the land. Every rock, every tree, every place had a spirit. And the spirit was central to the tribal lifeway. To many, the thought of loss of place was a thought of loss of self, loss of Cherokeeness, and a loss of life- way".<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This cultural shift is characterized by Gilio-Whitaker as "environmental deprivation," a concept that "relates to historical processes of land and resource dispossession calculated to bring about the destruction of Indigenous Americans' lives and cultures. Environmental deprivation in this sense refers to actions by settlers and settler governments that are designed to block Native peoples' access to life-giving and culture-affirming resources".<sup id="cite_ref-Gilio-Whitaker_108-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gilio-Whitaker-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The separation of American Indian people from their land lead to the loss of cultural knowledge and practices, as described by scholar Rachel Robison-Greene, who finds the "legacy of fifteenth-century European colonial domination" led to "Indigenous knowledge and perspectives" being "ignored and denigrated by the vast majority of social, physical, biological and agricultural scientists, and governments using colonial powers to exploit Indigenous resources".<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Indigenous cultural and intellectual contribution to "environmental issues" in the form of a "rich history, cultural customs, and practical wisdom regarding sustainable environmental practices" can be lost because of Indigenous removal and the Trail of Tears, according to Greene. </p><p>Removed Cherokees initially settled near <a href="/wiki/Tahlequah,_Oklahoma" title="Tahlequah, Oklahoma">Tahlequah, Oklahoma</a>. When signing the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_New_Echota" title="Treaty of New Echota">Treaty of New Echota</a> in 1835 Major Ridge said "I have signed my death warrant." The resulting political turmoil led to the killings of <a href="/wiki/Major_Ridge" title="Major Ridge">Major Ridge</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Ridge" title="John Ridge">John Ridge</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Elias_Boudinot_(Cherokee)" title="Elias Boudinot (Cherokee)">Elias Boudinot</a>; of the leaders of the Treaty Party, only <a href="/wiki/Stand_Watie" title="Stand Watie">Stand Watie</a> escaped death.<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The population of the Cherokee Nation eventually rebounded, and today the Cherokees are the largest American Indian group in the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There were some exceptions to removal. Approximately 100 Cherokees evaded the U.S. soldiers and lived off the land in Georgia and other states. Those Cherokees who lived on private, individually owned lands (rather than communally owned tribal land) were not subject to removal. In North Carolina, about 400 Cherokees, sometimes referred to as the Oconaluftee Cherokee due to their settlement near to the <a href="/wiki/Oconaluftee_River" title="Oconaluftee River">river of the same name</a>, lived on land in the <a href="/wiki/Great_Smoky_Mountains" title="Great Smoky Mountains">Great Smoky Mountains</a> owned by a white man named <a href="/wiki/William_Holland_Thomas" title="William Holland Thomas">William Holland Thomas</a> (who had been adopted by Cherokees as a boy), and were thus not subject to removal. Added to this were some 200 Cherokee from the Nantahala area allowed to stay in the <a href="/wiki/Qualla_Boundary" title="Qualla Boundary">Qualla Boundary</a> after assisting the U.S. Army in hunting down and capturing the family of the old prophet, <a href="/wiki/Tsali" title="Tsali">Tsali</a>, who was executed by a firing squad as were most of his family. These North Carolina Cherokees became the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Band_of_Cherokee_Indians" title="Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians">Eastern Band of the Cherokee Nation</a>. </p><p>A local newspaper, the <i>Highland Messenger</i>, said July 24, 1840, "that between nine hundred and a thousand of these deluded beings … are still hovering about the homes of their fathers, in the counties of <a href="/wiki/Macon_County,_North_Carolina" title="Macon County, North Carolina">Macon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cherokee_County,_North_Carolina" title="Cherokee County, North Carolina">Cherokee</a>" and "that they are a great annoyance to the citizens" who wanted to buy land there believing the Cherokee were gone; the newspaper reported that President Martin Van Buren said "they … are, in his opinion, free to go or stay.'<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Several Cherokee speakers throughout history offered first-hand accounts of the events of the Trail of Tears as well as provided insight into its lasting effects. <a href="/wiki/Elias_Boudinot_(Cherokee)" title="Elias Boudinot (Cherokee)">Elias Budinot</a>, <a href="/wiki/Major_Ridge" title="Major Ridge">Major Ridge</a>, <a href="/wiki/Speckled_Snake" title="Speckled Snake">Speckled Snake</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Ross_(Cherokee_chief)" title="John Ross (Cherokee chief)">John Ross</a>, and Richard Taylor were all notable Cherokee orators during the 19th century who used the speech as a form of resistance against the U.S. government. John Ross, the Cherokee Chief from 1828 to 1866, and Major Ridge embarked on a speaking tour within the Cherokee Nation itself in hopes of strengthening a sense of unity amongst the tribal members.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_114-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tribal unity was a central tenet to Cherokee resistance, with Ross stating in his council address: "'Much…depends on our unity of sentiment and firmness of action, in maintaining those sacred rights which we have ever enjoyed'".<sup id="cite_ref-:1_114-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cherokee speeches like this were made even more important because the state of Georgia made it illegal for members of American Indian tribes to both speak to an all-white court and convince other Indian tribal members not to move.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_114-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another influential Cherokee figure was Cherokee writer John Ridge, son of Major Ridge, who wrote four articles using the pseudonym "Socrates". His works were published in the Cherokee Phoenix, the nation's newspaper. The choice of pseudonym, according to literary scholar Kelly Wisecup, "...facilitated a rhetorical structure that created not only a public persona recognizable to the Phoenix's multiple readerships but also a public character who argued forcefully that white readers should respect Cherokee rights and claims".<sup id="cite_ref-:2_115-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The main focal points of Ridge's articles critiqued the perceived hypocrisy of the U.S. government, colonial history, and the events leading up to the Trail of Tears, using excerpts from American and European history and literature.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_115-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Eastern_Cherokee_Restitution">Eastern Cherokee Restitution</h3></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Claims" title="United States Court of Claims">United States Court of Claims</a> ruled in favor of the Eastern Cherokee Nation's claim against the U.S. on May 18, 1905. This resulted in the appropriation of $1 million (equal to $27,438,023.04 today) to the Nation's eligible individuals and families. Interior Department employee Guion Miller created a list using several rolls and applications to verify tribal enrollment for the distribution of funds, known as the Guion Miller Roll. The applications received documented over 125,000 individuals; the court approved more than 30,000 individuals to share in the funds.<sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (December 2017)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Statistics">Statistics</h2></div> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Southern removals </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Nation </th> <th>Population before removal </th> <th>Treaty and year </th> <th>Major emigration </th> <th>Total removed </th> <th>Number remaining </th> <th>Deaths during removal </th> <th>Deaths from warfare </th></tr> <tr> <td>Choctaw </td> <td>19,554<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEForeman195347_117-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEForeman195347-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <pre>+ white citizens of the Choctaw Nation + 500 Black slaves </pre> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Dancing_Rabbit_Creek" title="Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek">Dancing Rabbit Creek (1830)</a> </td> <td>1831–1836 </td> <td>15,000<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESatz1986[httpsarchiveorgdetailsafterremovalchoc0000unsepage7_7]_78-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESatz1986[httpsarchiveorgdetailsafterremovalchoc0000unsepage7_7]-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>5,000–6,000<sup id="cite_ref-NOTE1_118-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NOTE1-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-david_baird2_119-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-david_baird2-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-peterson_120-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-peterson-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>2,000–4,000+ (<a href="/wiki/Cholera" title="Cholera">cholera</a>) </td> <td>none </td></tr> <tr> <td>Creek (Muscogee) </td> <td>22,700 + 900 Black slaves<sup id="cite_ref-fn_(c)_121-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fn_(c)-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Cusseta" title="Treaty of Cusseta">Cusseta (1832)</a> </td> <td>1834–1837 </td> <td>19,600<sup id="cite_ref-Rem272_122-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rem272-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>744<sup id="cite_ref-:8_123-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>3,500–4,500 (disease after removal)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThornton199185_124-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThornton199185-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:3_125-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>Unknown (<a href="/wiki/Creek_War_of_1836" title="Creek War of 1836">Creek War of 1836</a>) </td></tr> <tr> <td>Chickasaw </td> <td>4,914 + 1,156 Black slaves<sup id="cite_ref-:0_126-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Pontotoc_Creek" title="Treaty of Pontotoc Creek">Pontotoc Creek (1832)</a> </td> <td>1837–1847 </td> <td>4,600<sup id="cite_ref-:8_123-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>400<sup id="cite_ref-:8_123-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>500–800 </td> <td>none </td></tr> <tr> <td>Cherokee </td> <td>16,542 + 201 married white + 1,592 Black slaves<sup id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_New_Echota" title="Treaty of New Echota">New Echota (1835)</a> </td> <td>1836–1838 </td> <td>16,000,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrucha1984241_128-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrucha1984241-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but according to Indian Affairs report from 1841 there were 25,911 Cherokees already removed to Indian Territory.<sup id="cite_ref-:8_123-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>1,500 </td> <td>4,000–8,000<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEhle2011291–292_129-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEhle2011291–292-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThornton199175–93_130-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThornton199175–93-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:3_125-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Dunbar-Ortiz2014_48-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dunbar-Ortiz2014-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap">: <span title="Page: 113
Quotation: "Half of the sixteen thousand Cherokee men, women, and children who were rounded up and force-marched in the dead of winter out of their country perished on the journey."" class="tooltip tooltip-dashed" style="border-bottom: 1px dashed;">113</span> </sup> </td> <td>none </td></tr> <tr> <td>Seminole </td> <td>3,700–5,000<sup id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> + fugitive slaves </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Payne%27s_Landing" title="Treaty of Payne's Landing">Payne's Landing (1832)</a> </td> <td>1832–1842 </td> <td>2,833<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrucha1984233_132-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrucha1984233-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>–4,000<sup id="cite_ref-133" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>250<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrucha1984233_132-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrucha1984233-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>–500<sup id="cite_ref-WallaceFoner1993_134-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WallaceFoner1993-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or 575<sup id="cite_ref-:8_123-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td> </td> <td>up to 5,500 (<a href="/wiki/Second_Seminole_War" title="Second Seminole War">Second Seminole War</a>) </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legacy">Legacy</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Terminology">Terminology</h3></div> <p>The events have sometimes been referred to as "<a href="/wiki/Death_march" title="Death march">death marches</a>", in particular when referring to the Cherokee march across Tennessee, Kentucky and Missouri in 1838.<sup id="cite_ref-Jahoda_45-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jahoda-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-135" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-136" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Indians who had the means initially provided for their own removal. Contingents that were led by conductors from the U.S. Army included those led by Edward Deas, who was claimed to be a sympathizer for the Cherokee plight.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2011)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The largest death toll from the Cherokee forced relocation comes from the period after the May 23, 1838 deadline. This was at the point when the remaining Cherokee were <a href="/wiki/Internment" title="Internment">rounded up into camps</a> and placed into large groups, often over 700 in size. Communicable diseases spread quickly through these closely quartered groups, killing many. These groups were among the last to move, but following the same routes the others had taken; the areas they were going through had been depleted of supplies due to the vast numbers that had gone before them. The marchers were subject to extortion and violence along the route. In addition, these final contingents were forced to set out during the hottest and coldest months of the year, killing many. Exposure to the elements, disease, starvation, harassment by local frontiersmen, and insufficient rations similarly killed up to one-third of the Choctaw and other nations on the march.<sup id="cite_ref-david_baird_79-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-david_baird-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There exists some debate among historians and the affected nations as to whether the term "Trail of Tears" should be used to refer to the entire history of forced relocations from the Eastern United States into <a href="/wiki/Indian_Territory" title="Indian Territory">Indian Territory</a>, to the relocations of specifically the Five Civilized Tribes, to the route of the march, or to specific marches in which the remaining holdouts from each area were rounded up.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Classification_debate">Classification debate</h4></div> <p>There is debate among historians about how the Trail of Tears should be classified. Some historians classify the events as a form of <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_cleansing" title="Ethnic cleansing">ethnic cleansing</a>;<sup id="cite_ref-:4_137-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:7_138-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Anderson2014_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Anderson2014-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> others refer to it as genocide.<sup id="cite_ref-Gilio-Whitaker_108-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gilio-Whitaker-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ostler2019_12-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ostler2019-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Dunbar-Ortiz2014_48-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dunbar-Ortiz2014-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Historian and biographer <a href="/wiki/Robert_V._Remini" title="Robert V. Remini">Robert V. Remini</a> wrote that Jackson's policy on Native Americans was based on good intentions. He writes: "Jackson fully expected the Indians to thrive in their new surroundings, educate their children, acquire the skills of white civilization so as to improve their living conditions, and become citizens of the United States. Removal, in his mind, would provide all these blessings....Jackson genuinely believed that what he had accomplished rescued these people from inevitable annihilation."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERemini2001279–281_139-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERemini2001279–281-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historian <a href="/wiki/Sean_Wilentz" title="Sean Wilentz">Sean Wilentz</a> writes that some critics who label Indian removal as genocide view Jacksonian democracy as a "momentous transition from the ethical community upheld by antiremoval men", and says this view is a caricature of US history that "turns tragedy into melodrama, exaggerates parts at the expense of the whole, and sacrifices nuance for sharpness".<sup id="cite_ref-140" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:6_141-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historian <a href="/wiki/Donald_B._Cole" title="Donald B. Cole">Donald B. Cole</a>, too, argues that it is difficult to find evidence of a conscious desire for genocide in Jackson's policy on Native Americans, but dismisses the idea that Jackson was motivated by the welfare of Native Americans.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_141-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Colonial historian Daniel Blake Smith disagrees with the usage of the term genocide, adding that "no one wanted, let alone planned for, Cherokees to die in the forced removal out West".<sup id="cite_ref-142" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> Historian Justin D. Murphy argues that:<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"></p><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Although the “Trail of Tears” was tragic, it does not quite meet the standard of genocide, and the extent to which tribes were allowed to retain their identity, albeit by removal, does not quite meet the standard of <a href="/wiki/Cultural_genocide" title="Cultural genocide">cultural genocide</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-143" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>In contrast, some scholars have debated that the Trail of Tears was a genocidal act.<sup id="cite_ref-Ostler2019_12-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ostler2019-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Anderson2014_34-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Anderson2014-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:4_137-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historian Jeffrey Ostler argues that the threat of genocide was used to ensure Natives' compliance with removal policies,<sup id="cite_ref-Ostler2019_12-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ostler2019-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Conrad2019_144-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Conrad2019-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap">: <span title="Page: 1
Quotation: "Ostler argues that "genocide was a part of the history under consideration" (7)...and he argues that Indigenous people demonstrated a "consciousness of genocide," even in contexts where genocide did not occur, and acted creatively to survive the perceived threat of destruction (147)."" class="tooltip tooltip-dashed" style="border-bottom: 1px dashed;">1</span> </sup> and concludes that, "In its outcome and in the means used to gain compliance, the policy had genocidal dimensions."<sup id="cite_ref-Conrad2019_144-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Conrad2019-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Patrick_Wolfe" title="Patrick Wolfe">Patrick Wolfe</a> argues that <a href="/wiki/Settler_colonialism" title="Settler colonialism">settler colonialism</a> and genocide are interrelated but should be distinguished from each other, writing that settler colonialism is "more than the summary liquidation of Indigenous people, though it includes that."<sup id="cite_ref-Wolfe2006_145-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wolfe2006-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wolfe describes the assimilation of Indigenous people who escaped relocation (and particularly their abandonment of collectivity) as a form of cultural genocide, though he emphasises that cultural genocide is “the real thing” in that it resulted in large numbers of deaths. The Trail of Tears was thus a settler-colonial <i>replacement</i> of Indigenous people and culture in addition to a genocidal mass-killing according to Wolfe.<sup id="cite_ref-Wolfe2006_145-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wolfe2006-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap">: <span title="Page: 1
Quotation: "settler colonialism destroys to replace"" class="tooltip tooltip-dashed" style="border-bottom: 1px dashed;">1</span> </sup><sup id="cite_ref-Wolfe2006_145-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wolfe2006-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap">: <span title="Page: 2
Quotation: "Mass murders are not the same thing as genocide, though the one action can be both. Thus genocide has been achieved by means of summary mass murder (to cite examples already used the Trail of Tears) in the frontier massacring of Indigenous peoples, in the Holocaust, and in Rwanda. But there can be summary mass murder without genocide, as in the case of 9/11, and there can be genocide without summary mass murder, as in the case of the continuing post-frontier destruction, in whole and in part, of Indigenous genoi."" class="tooltip tooltip-dashed" style="border-bottom: 1px dashed;">2</span> </sup> <a href="/wiki/Roxanne_Dunbar-Ortiz" title="Roxanne Dunbar-Ortiz">Roxanne Dunbar-Ortiz</a> describes the policy as genocide, saying: "The fledgling United States government's method of dealing with native people—a process which then included systematic genocide, property theft, and total subjugation—reached its nadir in 1830 under the federal policy of President Andrew Jackson."<sup id="cite_ref-Dunbar-Ortiz2014_48-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dunbar-Ortiz2014-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mankiller emphasises that Jackson's policies were the natural extension of much earlier genocidal policies toward Native Americans established through territorial expansion during the <a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Thomas_Jefferson" title="Presidency of Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson administration</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Dunbar-Ortiz2014_48-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dunbar-Ortiz2014-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Dina_Gilio-Whitaker" title="Dina Gilio-Whitaker">Dina Gilio-Whitaker</a>, in <i><a href="/wiki/As_Long_as_Grass_Grows" title="As Long as Grass Grows">As Long as Grass Grows</a></i>, describes the Trail of Tears and the <a href="/wiki/Long_Walk_of_the_Navajo" title="Long Walk of the Navajo">Diné long walk</a> as <a href="/wiki/Structural_violence" title="Structural violence">structural</a> genocide, because they destroyed Native relations to land, one another, and nonhuman beings which imperiled their culture, life, and history. According to her, these are ongoing actions that constitute both cultural and physical genocide.<sup id="cite_ref-Gilio-Whitaker_108-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gilio-Whitaker-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 35–51">: 35–51 </span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-146" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Landmarks_and_commemorations">Landmarks and commemorations</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cherokee_Removal_Map.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Cherokee_Removal_Map.jpg/220px-Cherokee_Removal_Map.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Cherokee_Removal_Map.jpg/330px-Cherokee_Removal_Map.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Cherokee_Removal_Map.jpg/440px-Cherokee_Removal_Map.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4608" data-file-height="3456" /></a><figcaption>Walkway map at the <a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Removal_Memorial_Park" title="Cherokee Removal Memorial Park">Cherokee Removal Memorial Park</a> in Tennessee depicting the routes of the Cherokee on the Trail of Tears, June 2020</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Trail_of_tears_map_NPS.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Trail_of_tears_map_NPS.jpg/340px-Trail_of_tears_map_NPS.jpg" decoding="async" width="340" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Trail_of_tears_map_NPS.jpg/510px-Trail_of_tears_map_NPS.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Trail_of_tears_map_NPS.jpg/680px-Trail_of_tears_map_NPS.jpg 2x" data-file-width="902" data-file-height="443" /></a><figcaption>Map of National Historic trails</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1987, about 2,200 miles (3,500 km) of trails were authorized by federal law to mark the removal of 17 detachments of the Cherokee people.<sup id="cite_ref-147" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Called the <b>Trail of Tears <a href="/wiki/National_Historic_Trail" class="mw-redirect" title="National Historic Trail">National Historic Trail</a></b>, it traverses portions of nine states and includes land and water routes.<sup id="cite_ref-148" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Trail_of_Tears_outdoor_historical_drama,_Unto_These_Hills"><span id="Trail_of_Tears_outdoor_historical_drama.2C_Unto_These_Hills"></span>Trail of Tears outdoor historical drama, <i>Unto These Hills</i></h4></div> <p>A historical drama based on the Trail of Tears, <i><a href="/wiki/Unto_These_Hills" title="Unto These Hills">Unto These Hills</a></i> written by <a href="/wiki/Kermit_Hunter" title="Kermit Hunter">Kermit Hunter</a>, has sold over five million tickets for its performances since its opening on July 1, 1950, both touring and at the outdoor Mountainside Theater of the Cherokee Historical Association in <a href="/wiki/Cherokee,_North_Carolina" title="Cherokee, North Carolina">Cherokee, North Carolina</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-149" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-149"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-150" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Remember_the_Removal_bike_ride">Remember the Removal bike ride</h4></div> <p>A regular event, the "Remember the Removal Bike Ride," entails six cyclists from the Cherokee Nation to ride over 950 miles while retracing the same path that their ancestors took. The cyclists, who average about 60 miles a day, start their journey in the former capital of the Cherokee Nation, <a href="/wiki/New_Echota" title="New Echota">New Echota</a>, <a href="/wiki/Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="Georgia (U.S. state)">Georgia</a>, and finish in <a href="/wiki/Tahlequah" class="mw-redirect" title="Tahlequah">Tahlequah</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oklahoma" title="Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-151" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-151"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In June 2024, <a href="/wiki/Shawna_Baker" title="Shawna Baker">Shawna Baker</a>, justice of the Cherokee Nation Supreme Court was a mentor cyclist on the 40th commemorative ride.<sup id="cite_ref-152" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-152"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>149<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Commemorative_medallion">Commemorative medallion</h4></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Cherokee" title="Cherokee">Cherokee</a> artist Troy Anderson was commissioned to design the <i>Cherokee Trail of Tears Sesquicentennial Commemorative Medallion</i>. The falling-tear medallion shows a seven-pointed star, the symbol of the seven clans of the Cherokees.<sup id="cite_ref-153" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-153"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>150<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="In_literature_and_oral_history">In literature and oral history</h4></div> <ul><li><i>Family Stories From the Trail of Tears</i> is a collection edited by Lorrie Montiero and transcribed by Grant Foreman, taken from the Indian-Pioneer History Collection<sup id="cite_ref-154" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-154"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>151<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johnny_Cash" title="Johnny Cash">Johnny Cash</a> played in the 1970 <a href="/wiki/NET_Playhouse" title="NET Playhouse">NET Playhouse</a> dramatization of <i>The Trail of Tears</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-155" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-155"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>152<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He also recorded the reminiscences of a participant in the removal of the Cherokee.<sup id="cite_ref-156" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-156"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>153<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Walking_the_Trail" title="Walking the Trail">Walking the Trail</a></i> (1991) is a book by <a href="/wiki/Jerry_Ellis_(author)" title="Jerry Ellis (author)">Jerry Ellis</a> describing his 900-mile walk retracing of the Trail of Tears in reverse</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruth_Muskrat_Bronson" title="Ruth Muskrat Bronson">Ruth Muskrat Bronson</a>, a Cherokee scholar and poet, was a more contemporary figure who wrote a poem titled "Trail of Tears" that enshrined the devastation faced by the Cherokee nation that still permeates Indigenous conscience today:</li></ul> <blockquote><p>From the homes their fathers made // From the graves the tall trees shade // For the sake of greed and gold, // The Cherokees were forced to go // To a land they did not know; // And Father Time or wisdom old // Cannot erase, through endless years // The memory of the trail of tears.</p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Ntotaldeath-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Ntotaldeath_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <ul><li>Cherokee - 4,000</li> <li>Creek and Seminole in <a href="/wiki/Second_Seminole_War" title="Second Seminole War">Second Seminole War</a> (1835–1842) - 3,000</li> <li>Chickasaw - 3,500</li> <li>Choctaw - 2,500–6,000</li></ul> </span></li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><div><ul><li>Political scientist <a href="/wiki/Michael_Rogin" title="Michael Rogin">Michael Rogin</a> – "To face responsibility for specific killings might have led to efforts to stop it; to avoid individual deaths turned Indian removal into a theory of genocide."<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li><li>Indigenous studies scholar Nicky Michael and historian Beverly Jean Smith – "Over one-fourth died on the forced death marches of the 1830s. By any United Nations standard, these actions can be equated with genocide and ethnic cleansing."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMichaelSmithLowe202127_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMichaelSmithLowe202127-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li><li>Historian Jim Piecuch argues that the Trail of Tears constitutes one tool in the genocide of Native Americans over the three centuries since the beginning of colonization in north America.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li><li>Political scientist Andrew R. Basso – "The Cherokee Trail of Tears should be understood within the context of colonial genocide in the Americas. This is yet another chapter of colonial forces acting against an indigenous group in order to secure rich and fertile lands, resources, and living spaces."<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li><li>Political scientist <a href="/wiki/Barbara_Harff" title="Barbara Harff">Barbara Harff</a> – "One of the most enduring and abhorrent problems of the world is genocide, which is neither particular to a specific race, class, or nation, nor rooted in any one ethnocentric view of the world. […] Often democratic institutions are cited as safeguards against mass excesses. In view of the treatment of Amerindians by agents of the U.S. government, this view is unwarranted. For example, the thousands of Cherokees who died during the Trail of Tears (Cherokee Indians were forced to march in 1838-1839 from Appalachia to Oklahoma) testify that even a democratic system may tum against its people."<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li><li>Legal scholar <a href="/wiki/Rennard_Strickland" title="Rennard Strickland">Rennard Strickland</a> – "There were, of course, great and tragic Indian massacres and bitter exoduses, illegal even under the laws of war. We know these acts of genocide by place names - Sand Creek, the Battle of Washita, Wounded Knee - and by their tragic poetic codes - the Trail of Tears, the Long Walk, the Cheyenne Autumn. But ... genocidal objectives have been carried out under color of law - in de Tocqueville's phrase, "legally, philanthropically, without shedding blood, and without violating a single great principle of morality in the eyes of the word." These were legally enacted policies whereby a way of life, a culture, was deliberately obliterated. As the great Indian orator Dragging Canoe concluded, "Whole Indian Nations have melted away like balls of snow in the sun leaving scarcely a name except as imperfectly recorded by their destroyers"."<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li><li>Legal scholars Christopher Turner and <a href="/wiki/Mary_Ellen_Turpel-Lafond" title="Mary Ellen Turpel-Lafond">Mary Ellen Turpel-Lafond</a> reiterate Strickland's assessment.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li><li>Attorney Maria Conversa – "The theft of ancestral tribal lands, the genocide of tribal members, public hostility towards Native peoples, and irreversible oppression--these are the realities that every indigenous person has had to face because of colonization. By recognizing and respecting the Muscogee Creek Nation's authority to criminally sentence its own members, the United States Supreme Court could have taken a small step towards righting these wrongs."<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li><li>Genocide education scholar Thomas Keefe – "The preparation (Stage 7) for genocide, specifically the transfer of population that "Deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part" as stated in Article II of the UNCPPCG is clear in the Trail of Tears and other deportations of Native American populations from land seized for the benefit of European-American populations."<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li><li>Historian <a href="/wiki/David_Stannard" title="David Stannard">David Stannard</a> and ethnic studies scholar <a href="/wiki/Ward_Churchill" title="Ward Churchill">Ward Churchill</a> have both identified the trail of tears as part of the United States history of genocidal actions against indigenous nations.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li><li>Sociologist <a href="/wiki/James_V._Fenelon" title="James V. Fenelon">James V. Fenelon</a> and historian Clifford E. Trafzer – "Instead the national government and its leaders have offered a systemic denial of genocide, the occurrence of which would be contrary to the principles of a democratic and just society. "Denial of massive death counts is common among those whose forefathers were the perpetrators of the genocide" (Stannard, 1992, p. 152) with motives of protecting "the moral reputations of those people and that country responsible," including some scholars. It took 50 years of scholarly debate for the academy to recognize well-documented genocides of the Indian removals in the 1830s, including the Cherokee Trail of Tears, as with other nations of the "Five Civilized" southeastern tribes."<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li><li>Sociologist Benjamin P. Bowser, psychologist Carol O. Word, and Kate Shaw – "There was a pattern to Indian genocide. One-by-one, each Native state was defeated militarily; successive Native generations fought and were defeated as well. As settlers became more numerous and stronger militarily, Indians became fewer and weaker militarily. In one Indian nation after the other, resistance eventually collapsed due to the death toll from violence. Then, survivors were displaced from their ancestral lands, which had sustained them for generations. […] Starting in 1830, surviving Native people, mostly Cherokee, in the Eastern US were ordered by President Andrew Jackson to march up to two thousand miles and to cross the Mississippi River to settle in Oklahoma. Thousands died on the Trail of Tears. This pattern of defeat, displacement, and victimization repeated itself in the American West. From this history, Native Americans were victims of all five <a href="/wiki/Raphael_Lemkin" title="Raphael Lemkin">Lemkin</a> specified genocidal acts."<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li><li>Sociologist and historian <a href="/wiki/Vahakn_Dadrian" title="Vahakn Dadrian">Vahakn Dadrian</a> lists the expulsion of the Cherokee as an example of utilitarian genocide, stating "the expulsion and decimation of the Cherokee Indians from the territories of the State of Georgia is symbolic of the pattern of perpetration inflicted upon the American Indian by Whites in North America."<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li><li>Genocide scholar <a href="/wiki/Adam_Jones_(Canadian_scholar)" title="Adam Jones (Canadian scholar)">Adam Jones</a> – "Forced relocations of Indian populations often took the form of genocidal death marches, most infamously the "Trails of Tears" of the Cherokee and Navajo nations, which killed between 20 and 40 percent of the targeted populations en route. The barren "tribal reservations" to which survivors were consigned exacted their own grievous toll through malnutrition and disease."<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li><li>Cherokee politician <a href="/wiki/Bill_John_Baker" title="Bill John Baker">Bill John Baker</a> – "this ruthless [Indian Removal Act] policy subjected 46,000 Indians—to a forced migration under punishing conditions […] amounted to genocide, the ethnic cleansing of men, women and children, motivated by racial hatred and greed, and carried out through sadism and violence."<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li><li>Sociologist and psychologist Laurence French wrote that the trail of tears was at least a campaign of cultural genocide.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li><li>Cultural studies scholar Melissa Slocum – "Rarely is the conversation about the impact of genocide on today’s generations or the overall steps that lead to genocide. As well, most curricula in the education system, from kindergarten up through to college, does not discuss in detail American Indian genocide beyond possibly a quick one-day mention of the Cherokee Trail of Tears."<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li><li>English and literary scholar Thir Bahadur Budhathoki – "On the basis of the basic concept of genocide as propounded by Rephael Lemkin, the definitions of the UN Convention and other genocide scholars, sociological perspective of genocide-modernity nexus and the philosophical understanding of such crime as an evil in its worst possible form, the fictional representation of the entire process of Cherokee removal including its antecedents and consequences represented in these novels, is genocidal in nature. However, the American government, that mostly represents the perpetrators of the process, and the Euro-American culture of the United States considered as the mainstream culture, have not acknowledged the Native American tragedy as genocide."<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li><li>Muscogee Nation Historic and Cultural Preservation Manager Rae Lynn Butler – "really was about extinguishing a race of people"; Archivist at the Cherokee Heritage Center Jerrid Miller – "The Trail of Tears was outright genocide".<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_cleansing" title="Ethnic cleansing">Ethnic cleansing</a> is a term dating from the 20th Century with roots in 1940s Nazi Germany, coming into wide usage starting in 1988.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">Genocide</a> is a term that came into use in 1944 from <a href="/wiki/Raphael_Lemkin" title="Raphael Lemkin">Raphael Lemkin</a>'s book <i>Axis Rule in Occupied Europe</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Long_Walk_of_the_Navajo" title="Long Walk of the Navajo">Long Walk of the Navajo</a>, a later forced removal</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cupe%C3%B1o#Cupeño_trail_of_tears" title="Cupeño">Cupeño trail of tears</a>, the last native forced removal</li> <li><a href="/wiki/California_Genocide" class="mw-redirect" title="California Genocide">California Genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Cheyenne_Exodus" title="Northern Cheyenne Exodus">Northern Cheyenne Exodus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Potawatomi_Trail_of_Death" title="Potawatomi Trail of Death">Potawatomi Trail of Death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Cherokee_removal" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of Cherokee removal">Timeline of Cherokee removal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steamboat_Monmouth_disaster" title="Steamboat Monmouth disaster">Steamboat <i>Monmouth</i> disaster</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceA-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 17,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=A+Brief+History+of+the+Trail+of+Tears&rft.pub=www.cherokee.org&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cherokee.org%2FAbout-The-Nation%2FHistory%2FTrail-of-Tears%2FA-Brief-History-of-the-Trail-of-Tears&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrail+of+Tears" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-HamlineLaw-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-HamlineLaw_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211212200423/http://worldwithoutgenocide.org/genocides-and-conflicts/american-indian">"Native Americans"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldwithoutgenocide.org/genocides-and-conflicts/american-indian">the original</a> on December 12, 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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(June 1995). <i>West of Eden: The Historiography of the Trail of Tears</i> (PhD). <a href="/wiki/University_of_Toledo" title="University of Toledo">University of Toledo</a>. pp. 216–217.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=West+of+Eden%3A+The+Historiography+of+the+Trail+of+Tears&rft.inst=University+of+Toledo&rft.date=1995-06&rft.aulast=Lutz&rft.aufirst=Regan+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrail+of+Tears" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMichaelSmithLowe202127-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMichaelSmithLowe202127_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMichaelSmithLowe2021">Michael, Smith & Lowe 2021</a>, p. 27.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPiecuch2014" class="citation book cs1">Piecuch, Jim (7 December 2014). 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"Chapter 2 'Both White and Red'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>". <i>Mixed Blood Indians: Racial Construction in the Early South</i>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Georgia_Press" title="University of Georgia Press">University of Georgia Press</a>. p. 51. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8203-2731-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-8203-2731-X"><bdi>0-8203-2731-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+2+%27Both+White+and+Red%27&rft.btitle=Mixed+Blood+Indians%3A+Racial+Construction+in+the+Early+South&rft.pages=51&rft.pub=University+of+Georgia+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-8203-2731-X&rft.aulast=Perdue&rft.aufirst=Theda&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrail+of+Tears" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part4/4h1567.html">"The Trail of Tears"</a>. <a href="/wiki/PBS" title="PBS">PBS</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170627170755/https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part4/4h1567.html">Archived</a> from the original on June 27, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 17,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Trail+of+Tears&rft.pub=PBS&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pbs.org%2Fwgbh%2Faia%2Fpart4%2F4h1567.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrail+of+Tears" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-PBS_Indian_Removal-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-PBS_Indian_Removal_40-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-PBS_Indian_Removal_40-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-PBS_Indian_Removal_40-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part4/4p2959.html">"Indian removal 1814 - 1858"</a>. <a href="/wiki/PBS" title="PBS">PBS</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100418182301/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part4/4p2959.html">Archived</a> from the original on April 18, 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 18,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Indian+removal+1814+-+1858&rft.pub=PBS&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pbs.org%2Fwgbh%2Faia%2Fpart4%2F4p2959.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrail+of+Tears" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGannon1996" class="citation book cs1">Gannon, Michael, ed. (1996). <i>The new history of Florida</i>. Gainesville, FL: <a href="/wiki/University_Press_of_Florida" title="University Press of Florida">University Press of Florida</a>. pp. 183–206. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0813014158" title="Special:BookSources/0813014158"><bdi>0813014158</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/32469459">32469459</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+new+history+of+Florida&rft.place=Gainesville%2C+FL&rft.pages=183-206&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Florida&rft.date=1996&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F32469459&rft.isbn=0813014158&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrail+of+Tears" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith" class="citation magazine cs1">Smith, Ryan P. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240814020344/https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smithsonian-institution/how-native-american-slaveholders-complicate-trail-tears-narrative-180968339/">"How Native American Slaveholders Complicate the Trail of Tears Narrative"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Smithsonian_Magazine" class="mw-redirect" title="Smithsonian Magazine">Smithsonian Magazine</a></i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smithsonian-institution/how-native-american-slaveholders-complicate-trail-tears-narrative-180968339/">the original</a> on August 14, 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 9,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Smithsonian+Magazine&rft.atitle=How+Native+American+Slaveholders+Complicate+the+Trail+of+Tears+Narrative&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Ryan+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.smithsonianmag.com%2Fsmithsonian-institution%2Fhow-native-american-slaveholders-complicate-trail-tears-narrative-180968339%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrail+of+Tears" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECarter1976232-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarter1976232_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCarter1976">Carter 1976</a>, p. 232.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoberts2021" class="citation book cs1">Roberts, Alaina E. (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Jk4gEAAAQBAJ&q=i%27ve+been+here+all+the+while"><i>I've Been Here All The While: Black Freedom on Native Land</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Pennsylvania_Press" title="University of Pennsylvania Press">University of Pennsylvania Press</a>. pp. 12–15. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780812253030" title="Special:BookSources/9780812253030"><bdi>9780812253030</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=I%27ve+Been+Here+All+The+While%3A+Black+Freedom+on+Native+Land&rft.pages=12-15&rft.pub=University+of+Pennsylvania+Press&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=9780812253030&rft.aulast=Roberts&rft.aufirst=Alaina+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJk4gEAAAQBAJ%26q%3Di%2527ve%2Bbeen%2Bhere%2Ball%2Bthe%2Bwhile&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrail+of+Tears" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Jahoda-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Jahoda_45-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Jahoda_45-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Jahoda_45-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Jahoda_45-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJahoda1975" class="citation book cs1">Jahoda, Gloria (1975). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/trailoftears00jaho"><i>Trail of Tears: The Story of the American Indian Removal 1813-1855</i></a>. Wings Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-517-14677-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-517-14677-4"><bdi>978-0-517-14677-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Trail+of+Tears%3A+The+Story+of+the+American+Indian+Removal+1813-1855&rft.pub=Wings+Books&rft.date=1975&rft.isbn=978-0-517-14677-4&rft.aulast=Jahoda&rft.aufirst=Gloria&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ftrailoftears00jaho&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrail+of+Tears" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'Brien2010" class="citation book cs1">O'Brien, Jean (2010). <i>Firsting and Lasting: Writing Indians Out of Existence in New England</i>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Minnesota_Press" title="University of Minnesota Press">University of Minnesota Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1452915258" title="Special:BookSources/978-1452915258"><bdi>978-1452915258</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Firsting+and+Lasting%3A+Writing+Indians+Out+of+Existence+in+New+England&rft.pub=University+of+Minnesota+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1452915258&rft.aulast=O%27Brien&rft.aufirst=Jean&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrail+of+Tears" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBerkhofer1979" class="citation book cs1">Berkhofer, Robert (1979). <i>The White Man's Indian: Images of the American Indian, from Columbus to the Present</i>. <a href="/wiki/Alfred_A._Knopf" title="Alfred A. Knopf">Knopf Doubleday Publishing</a>. p. 29. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780394727943" title="Special:BookSources/9780394727943"><bdi>9780394727943</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+White+Man%27s+Indian%3A+Images+of+the+American+Indian%2C+from+Columbus+to+the+Present&rft.pages=29&rft.pub=Knopf+Doubleday+Publishing&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=9780394727943&rft.aulast=Berkhofer&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrail+of+Tears" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dunbar-Ortiz2014-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Dunbar-Ortiz2014_48-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dunbar-Ortiz2014_48-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dunbar-Ortiz2014_48-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dunbar-Ortiz2014_48-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dunbar-Ortiz2014_48-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dunbar-Ortiz2014_48-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dunbar-Ortiz2014_48-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dunbar-Ortiz2014_48-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDunbar-Ortiz2014" class="citation book cs1">Dunbar-Ortiz, Roxanne (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/868199534"><i>An indigenous peoples' history of the United States</i></a>. Boston: <a href="/wiki/Beacon_Press" title="Beacon Press">Beacon Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8070-0040-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8070-0040-3"><bdi>978-0-8070-0040-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/868199534">868199534</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+indigenous+peoples%27+history+of+the+United+States&rft.place=Boston&rft.pub=Beacon+Press&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F868199534&rft.isbn=978-0-8070-0040-3&rft.aulast=Dunbar-Ortiz&rft.aufirst=Roxanne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F868199534&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrail+of+Tears" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWallace2011" class="citation book cs1">Wallace, Anthony (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=07xRyJGG4wAC"><i>The Long, Bitter Trail: Andrew Jackson and the Indians</i></a>. Farrar, Straus and Giroux. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781429934275" title="Special:BookSources/9781429934275"><bdi>9781429934275</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Long%2C+Bitter+Trail%3A+Andrew+Jackson+and+the+Indians&rft.pub=Farrar%2C+Straus+and+Giroux&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9781429934275&rft.aulast=Wallace&rft.aufirst=Anthony&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D07xRyJGG4wAC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrail+of+Tears" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Howe_2007-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Howe_2007_50-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Howe_2007_50-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHowe2007" class="citation book cs1">Howe, Daniel Walker (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0XIvPDF9ijcC"><i>What Hath God Wrought: The Transformation of America, 1815–1848</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199743797" title="Special:BookSources/9780199743797"><bdi>9780199743797</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=What+Hath+God+Wrought%3A+The+Transformation+of+America%2C+1815%E2%80%931848&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=9780199743797&rft.aulast=Howe&rft.aufirst=Daniel+Walker&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0XIvPDF9ijcC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrail+of+Tears" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-National_Archives_2021_y004-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-National_Archives_2021_y004_51-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.archives.gov/milestone-documents/jacksons-message-to-congress-on-indian-removal">"President Andrew Jackson's Message to Congress 'On Indian Removal' (1830)"</a>. <i>National Archives</i>. June 25, 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 26,</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=National+Archives&rft.atitle=President+Andrew+Jackson%27s+Message+to+Congress+%27On+Indian+Removal%27+%281830%29&rft.date=2021-06-25&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.archives.gov%2Fmilestone-documents%2Fjacksons-message-to-congress-on-indian-removal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrail+of+Tears" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorris2007" class="citation journal cs1">Morris, Michael (2007). <span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=27955256&site=eds-live&scope=site">"Georgia and the Conversation over Indian Removal"</a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Georgia_Historical_Quarterly" class="mw-redirect" title="Georgia Historical Quarterly">Georgia Historical Quarterly</a></i>. <b>91</b> (4): 403–423<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 15,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Georgia+Historical+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Georgia+and+the+Conversation+over+Indian+Removal&rft.volume=91&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=403-423&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Morris&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsearch.ebscohost.com%2Flogin.aspx%3Fdirect%3Dtrue%26db%3Da9h%26AN%3D27955256%26site%3Deds-live%26scope%3Dsite&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrail+of+Tears" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sturgis_2007-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sturgis_2007_53-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sturgis_2007_53-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sturgis_2007_53-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sturgis_2007_53-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSturgis2007" class="citation book cs1">Sturgis, Amy H. (2007). <i>The Trail of Tears and Indian removal</i>. <a href="/wiki/Greenwood_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Greenwood Press">Greenwood Press</a>. pp. 33, 40, 41. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-05620-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-05620-8"><bdi>978-0-313-05620-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/181203333">181203333</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Trail+of+Tears+and+Indian+removal&rft.pages=33%2C+40%2C+41&rft.pub=Greenwood+Press&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F181203333&rft.isbn=978-0-313-05620-8&rft.aulast=Sturgis&rft.aufirst=Amy+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrail+of+Tears" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPrucha1969" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Francis_Paul_Prucha" title="Francis Paul Prucha">Prucha, Francis Paul</a> (1969). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1904204">"Andrew Jackson's Indian Policy: A Reassessment"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Journal_of_American_History" title="The Journal of American History">The Journal of American History</a></i>. <b>56</b> (3): 527–539. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1904204">10.2307/1904204</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0021-8723">0021-8723</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1904204">1904204</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+American+History&rft.atitle=Andrew+Jackson%27s+Indian+Policy%3A+A+Reassessment&rft.volume=56&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=527-539&rft.date=1969&rft.issn=0021-8723&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1904204%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1904204&rft.aulast=Prucha&rft.aufirst=Francis+Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1904204&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrail+of+Tears" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoyd1999" class="citation book cs1">Boyd, Kelly (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0121vD9STIMC&pg=PA967"><i>Encyclopedia of Historians and Historical Writing</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Taylor_%26_Francis" title="Taylor & Francis">Taylor & Francis</a>. p. 967. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-884964-33-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-884964-33-6"><bdi>978-1-884964-33-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Historians+and+Historical+Writing&rft.pages=967&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-1-884964-33-6&rft.aulast=Boyd&rft.aufirst=Kelly&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0121vD9STIMC%26pg%3DPA967&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrail+of+Tears" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERemini2001270-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERemini2001270_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRemini2001">Remini 2001</a>, p. 270.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRemini1998" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_V._Remini" title="Robert V. Remini">Remini, Robert V.</a> (1998-04-10). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GFYXfKlPhLkC"><i>Andrew Jackson: The Course of American Democracy, 1833–1845</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Johns_Hopkins_University_Press" title="Johns Hopkins University Press">Johns Hopkins University Press</a>. p. 574. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-5913-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-5913-7"><bdi>978-0-8018-5913-7</bdi></a>. <q>They are gone, wiped out. And there are other such tribes. President Jackson and his Democratic friends warned the Cherokees and the other southern tribes that extinction would be their fate if they refused to remove.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Andrew+Jackson%3A+The+Course+of+American+Democracy%2C+1833%E2%80%931845&rft.pages=574&rft.pub=Johns+Hopkins+University+Press&rft.date=1998-04-10&rft.isbn=978-0-8018-5913-7&rft.aulast=Remini&rft.aufirst=Robert+V.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGFYXfKlPhLkC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrail+of+Tears" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFeller2016" class="citation web cs1">Feller, Daniel (October 4, 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240701054020/https://millercenter.org/president/jackson/domestic-affairs">"Andrew Jackson: Domestic Affairs"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Miller_Center" class="mw-redirect" title="Miller Center">Miller Center</a></i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://millercenter.org/president/jackson/domestic-affairs">the original</a> on July 1, 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 11,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Miller+Center&rft.atitle=Andrew+Jackson%3A+Domestic+Affairs&rft.date=2016-10-04&rft.aulast=Feller&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmillercenter.org%2Fpresident%2Fjackson%2Fdomestic-affairs&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrail+of+Tears" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClair1997" class="citation journal cs1">Clair, Robin Patric (September 1997). "Organizing silence: Silence as voice and voice as silence in the narrative exploration of the treaty of New Echota". <i>Western Journal of Communication</i>. <b>61</b> (3): 315–337. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F10570319709374580">10.1080/10570319709374580</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1057-0314">1057-0314</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Western+Journal+of+Communication&rft.atitle=Organizing+silence%3A+Silence+as+voice+and+voice+as+silence+in+the+narrative+exploration+of+the+treaty+of+New+Echota&rft.volume=61&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=315-337&rft.date=1997-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F10570319709374580&rft.issn=1057-0314&rft.aulast=Clair&rft.aufirst=Robin+Patric&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrail+of+Tears" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarroll2015" class="citation book cs1">Carroll, Clint (May 15, 2015). "Shaping New Homelands: Landscapes of Removal and Renewal". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.5749/minnesota/9780816690893.003.0003"><i>Roots of Our Renewal: Ethnobotany and Cherokee Environmental Governance</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Minnesota_Press" title="University of Minnesota Press">University of Minnesota Press</a>. pp. 57–82. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5749%2Fminnesota%2F9780816690893.003.0003">10.5749/minnesota/9780816690893.003.0003</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780816690893" title="Special:BookSources/9780816690893"><bdi>9780816690893</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 10,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Shaping+New+Homelands%3A+Landscapes+of+Removal+and+Renewal&rft.btitle=Roots+of+Our+Renewal%3A+Ethnobotany+and+Cherokee+Environmental+Governance&rft.pages=57-82&rft.pub=University+of+Minnesota+Press&rft.date=2015-05-15&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5749%2Fminnesota%2F9780816690893.003.0003&rft.isbn=9780816690893&rft.aulast=Carroll&rft.aufirst=Clint&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.5749%2Fminnesota%2F9780816690893.003.0003&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrail+of+Tears" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRiver" class="citation book cs1">River, Charles. <i>The Trail of Tears: Forced Removal of Five Civilized Tribes</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Trail+of+Tears%3A+Forced+Removal+of+Five+Civilized+Tribes&rft.aulast=River&rft.aufirst=Charles&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrail+of+Tears" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPerdueGreen2008" class="citation book cs1">Perdue, Theda; Green, Michael D. (2008). <i>The Cherokee Nation and the Trail of Tears</i>. Viking. p. 137. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780670031504" title="Special:BookSources/9780670031504"><bdi>9780670031504</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cherokee+Nation+and+the+Trail+of+Tears&rft.pages=137&rft.pub=Viking&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9780670031504&rft.aulast=Perdue&rft.aufirst=Theda&rft.au=Green%2C+Michael+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrail+of+Tears" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-history.com-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-history.com_63-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-history.com_63-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-history.com_63-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.history.com/topics/native-american-history/trail-of-tears">"Trail of Tears"</a>. <a href="/wiki/History_Channel" title="History Channel">History Channel</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141214040657/http://www.history.com/topics/native-american-history/trail-of-tears">Archived</a> from the original on December 14, 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 15,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Trail+of+Tears&rft.pub=History+Channel&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.history.com%2Ftopics%2Fnative-american-history%2Ftrail-of-tears&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrail+of+Tears" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoates" class="citation book cs1">Coates, Julia. <i>Trail of Tears</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Trail+of+Tears&rft.aulast=Coates&rft.aufirst=Julia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrail+of+Tears" class="Z3988"></span><br /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oyez.org/cases/1789-1850/31us515">"Worcester v. Georgia"</a>. Oyez. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170122232751/https://www.oyez.org/cases/1789-1850/31us515">Archived</a> from the original on January 22, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 5,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Worcester+v.+Georgia&rft.pub=Oyez&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oyez.org%2Fcases%2F1789-1850%2F31us515&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrail+of+Tears" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBerutti1992305–306-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBerutti1992305–306_65-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBerutti1992">Berutti 1992</a>, pp. 305–306.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBanner2005" class="citation book cs1">Banner, Stuart (2005). <i>How the Indians Lost Their Land: Law and Power on the Frontier</i>. Cambridge, MA: <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a>. pp. 218–224.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=How+the+Indians+Lost+Their+Land%3A+Law+and+Power+on+the+Frontier&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.pages=218-224&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Banner&rft.aufirst=Stuart&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrail+of+Tears" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNorgren2004" class="citation book cs1">Norgren, Jill (2004). <i>The Cherokee Cases: Two Landmark Federal Decisions in the Fight for Sovereignty</i>. Norman, OK: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Oklahoma_Press" title="University of Oklahoma Press">University of Oklahoma Press</a>. pp. 122–130.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cherokee+Cases%3A+Two+Landmark+Federal+Decisions+in+the+Fight+for+Sovereignty&rft.place=Norman%2C+OK&rft.pages=122-130&rft.pub=University+of+Oklahoma+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Norgren&rft.aufirst=Jill&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrail+of+Tears" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEllis1987" class="citation book cs1">Ellis, Richard E. (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=H8rQCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA31"><i>The Union at Risk: Jacksonian Democracy, States' Rights and the Nullification Crisis</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. p. 31. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-802084-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-802084-4"><bdi>978-0-19-802084-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Union+at+Risk%3A+Jacksonian+Democracy%2C+States%27+Rights+and+the+Nullification+Crisis&rft.pages=31&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-0-19-802084-4&rft.aulast=Ellis&rft.aufirst=Richard+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DH8rQCwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA31&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrail+of+Tears" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-CherokeeR-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-CherokeeR_69-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGilbert1996" class="citation book cs1">Gilbert, Joan (1996). "The Cherokee Home in the East". <i>The Trail of Tears Across Missouri</i>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Missouri_Press" title="University of Missouri Press">University of Missouri Press</a>. p. 14. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8262-1063-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-8262-1063-5"><bdi>0-8262-1063-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Cherokee+Home+in+the+East&rft.btitle=The+Trail+of+Tears+Across+Missouri&rft.pages=14&rft.pub=University+of+Missouri+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=0-8262-1063-5&rft.aulast=Gilbert&rft.aufirst=Joan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrail+of+Tears" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-The_Journal_of_Southern_History-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-The_Journal_of_Southern_History_70-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-The_Journal_of_Southern_History_70-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-The_Journal_of_Southern_History_70-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMiles1973" class="citation journal cs1">Miles, Edwin A (November 1973). "After John Marshall's Decision: Worcester v Georgia and the Nullification Crisis". <i>The Journal of Southern History</i>. <b>39</b> (4): 519–544. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2205966">10.2307/2205966</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2205966">2205966</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Southern+History&rft.atitle=After+John+Marshall%27s+Decision%3A+Worcester+v+Georgia+and+the+Nullification+Crisis&rft.volume=39&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=519-544&rft.date=1973-11&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2205966&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2205966%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Miles&rft.aufirst=Edwin+A&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrail+of+Tears" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cave_Abuse-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Cave_Abuse_71-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCave2003" class="citation journal cs1">Cave, Alfred A. (Winter 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.0018-2370.2003.00055.x">"Abuse of Power: Andrew Jackson and the Indian Removal Act of 1830"</a>. <i>The Historian</i>. <b>65</b> (6): 1347–1350. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.0018-2370.2003.00055.x">10.1111/j.0018-2370.2003.00055.x</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/24452618">24452618</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144157296">144157296</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Historian&rft.atitle=Abuse+of+Power%3A+Andrew+Jackson+and+the+Indian+Removal+Act+of+1830&rft.ssn=winter&rft.volume=65&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=1347-1350&rft.date=2003&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144157296%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F24452618%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.0018-2370.2003.00055.x&rft.aulast=Cave&rft.aufirst=Alfred+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1111%252Fj.0018-2370.2003.00055.x&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrail+of+Tears" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrey2009" class="citation book cs1">Frey, Rebecca Joyce (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=m569AfPJkB4C"><i>Genocide and International Justice</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Infobase_Publishing" class="mw-redirect" title="Infobase Publishing">Infobase Publishing</a>. pp. 128–131. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0816073108" title="Special:BookSources/978-0816073108"><bdi>978-0816073108</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 16,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Genocide+and+International+Justice&rft.pages=128-131&rft.pub=Infobase+Publishing&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0816073108&rft.aulast=Frey&rft.aufirst=Rebecca+Joyce&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dm569AfPJkB4C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrail+of+Tears" class="Z3988"></span><br /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEmerson" class="citation web cs1">Emerson, Ralph Waldo. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cherokee.org/AboutTheNation/History/TrailofTears/RalphWaldoEmersonsLetter.aspx">"Letter to Martin Van Buren President of the United States 1836"</a>. www.cherokee.org/. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160617163041/http://www.cherokee.org/AboutTheNation/History/TrailofTears/RalphWaldoEmersonsLetter.aspx">Archived</a> from the original on June 17, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 14,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Letter+to+Martin+Van+Buren+President+of+the+United+States+1836&rft.pub=www.cherokee.org%2F&rft.aulast=Emerson&rft.aufirst=Ralph+Waldo&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cherokee.org%2FAboutTheNation%2FHistory%2FTrailofTears%2FRalphWaldoEmersonsLetter.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrail+of+Tears" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240629193503/https://www.nlm.nih.gov/nativevoices/timeline/431.html">"Tribes - Native Voices - 1924: American Indians granted U.S. citizenship"</a>. <a href="/wiki/United_States_National_Library_of_Medicine" title="United States National Library of Medicine">United States National Library of Medicine</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nlm.nih.gov/nativevoices/timeline/431.html">the original</a> on June 29, 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 29,</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Tribes+-+Native+Voices+-+1924%3A+American+Indians+granted+U.S.+citizenship&rft.pub=United+States+National+Library+of+Medicine&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nlm.nih.gov%2Fnativevoices%2Ftimeline%2F431.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrail+of+Tears" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Davis, Ethan. "An Administrative Trail of Tears: Indian Removal". <i>American Journal of Legal History</i> 50, no. 1 (2008): 65–68. Accessed December 15, 2014. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavis2008" class="citation journal cs1">Davis, Ethan (2008). "An Administrative Trail of Tears: Indian Removal". <i>The American Journal of Legal History</i>. <b>50</b> (1): 49–100. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fajlh%2F50.1.49">10.1093/ajlh/50.1.49</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/25664483">25664483</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Journal+of+Legal+History&rft.atitle=An+Administrative+Trail+of+Tears%3A+Indian+Removal&rft.volume=50&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=49-100&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fajlh%2F50.1.49&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F25664483%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Davis&rft.aufirst=Ethan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrail+of+Tears" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-george_address-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-george_address_75-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarkins1831" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/George_W._Harkins" title="George W. Harkins">Harkins, George</a> (1831). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060527025102/http://anpa.ualr.edu/trailOfTears/letters/1831DecemberGeorgeWHarkinstotheAmericanPeople.htm">"1831 - December - George W. Harkins to the American People"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://anpa.ualr.edu/trailOfTears/letters/1831DecemberGeorgeWHarkinstotheAmericanPeople.htm">the original</a> on May 27, 2006<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 23,</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=1831+-+December+-+George+W.+Harkins+to+the+American+People&rft.date=1831&rft.aulast=Harkins&rft.aufirst=George&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fanpa.ualr.edu%2FtrailOfTears%2Fletters%2F1831DecemberGeorgeWHarkinstotheAmericanPeople.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrail+of+Tears" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSandra_Faiman-Silva1997" class="citation book cs1">Sandra Faiman-Silva (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DS5LgMyvYNAC&q=%22trail+of+tears+and+death%22+choctaw&pg=PA19"><i>Choctaws at the Crossroads</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Nebraska_Press" title="University of Nebraska Press">University of Nebraska Press</a>. p. 19. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0803269026" title="Special:BookSources/978-0803269026"><bdi>978-0803269026</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Choctaws+at+the+Crossroads&rft.pages=19&rft.pub=University+of+Nebraska+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0803269026&rft.au=Sandra+Faiman-Silva&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDS5LgMyvYNAC%26q%3D%2522trail%2Bof%2Btears%2Band%2Bdeath%2522%2Bchoctaw%26pg%3DPA19&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrail+of+Tears" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tocqueville-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Tocqueville_77-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFde_Tocqueville1835–1840" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">de Tocqueville, Alexis</a> (1835–1840). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080513004221/http://xroads.virginia.edu/%7EHYPER/DETOC/race/indian.html">"Tocqueville and Beaumont on Race"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://xroads.virginia.edu/~HYPER/DETOC/race/indian.html">the original</a> on May 13, 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 28,</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Tocqueville+and+Beaumont+on+Race&rft.date=1835%2F1840&rft.aulast=de+Tocqueville&rft.aufirst=Alexis&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fxroads.virginia.edu%2F~HYPER%2FDETOC%2Frace%2Findian.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrail+of+Tears" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESatz1986[httpsarchiveorgdetailsafterremovalchoc0000unsepage7_7]-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESatz1986[httpsarchiveorgdetailsafterremovalchoc0000unsepage7_7]_78-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESatz1986[httpsarchiveorgdetailsafterremovalchoc0000unsepage7_7]_78-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSatz1986">Satz 1986</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/afterremovalchoc0000unse/page/7">7</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-david_baird-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-david_baird_79-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-david_baird_79-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaird1973" class="citation book cs1">Baird, David (1973). "The Choctaws Meet the Americans, 1783 to 1843". <i>The Choctaw People</i>. United States: Indian Tribal Series. p. 36. <a href="/wiki/ASIN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ASIN (identifier)">ASIN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/B000CIIGTW">B000CIIGTW</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Choctaws+Meet+the+Americans%2C+1783+to+1843&rft.btitle=The+Choctaw+People&rft.place=United+States&rft.pages=36&rft.pub=Indian+Tribal+Series&rft.date=1973&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.amazon.com%2Fdp%2FB000CIIGTW%23id-name%3DASIN&rft.aulast=Baird&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrail+of+Tears" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Peterson-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Peterson_80-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Peterson_80-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWalter1979" class="citation book cs1">Walter, Williams (1979). "Three Efforts at Development among the Choctaws of Mississippi". <i>Southeastern Indians: Since the Removal Era</i>. Athens, Georgia: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Georgia_Press" title="University of Georgia Press">University of Georgia Press</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Three+Efforts+at+Development+among+the+Choctaws+of+Mississippi&rft.btitle=Southeastern+Indians%3A+Since+the+Removal+Era&rft.place=Athens%2C+Georgia&rft.pub=University+of+Georgia+Press&rft.date=1979&rft.aulast=Walter&rft.aufirst=Williams&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrail+of+Tears" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Missall. pp. 83-85.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Missall. pp. 93–94.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sources<div><ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCovington1993" class="citation book cs1">Covington, James W. (1993). <i>The Seminoles of Florida</i>. Gainesville, Florida: <a href="/wiki/University_Press_of_Florida" title="University Press of Florida">University Press of Florida</a>. pp. 145–146. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8130-1196-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-8130-1196-5"><bdi>0-8130-1196-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Seminoles+of+Florida&rft.place=Gainesville%2C+Florida&rft.pages=145-146&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Florida&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=0-8130-1196-5&rft.aulast=Covington&rft.aufirst=James+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrail+of+Tears" class="Z3988"></span></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorris2004" class="citation book cs1">Morris, Theodore (2004). <i>Florida's Lost Tribes</i>. <a href="/wiki/University_Press_of_Florida" title="University Press of Florida">University Press of Florida</a>. p. 63.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Florida%27s+Lost+Tribes&rft.pages=63&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Florida&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Morris&rft.aufirst=Theodore&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrail+of+Tears" class="Z3988"></span></li><li><a href="#CITEREFPrucha1984">Prucha 1984</a>, pp. 232–233</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Seminole_Tribe_of_Florida_-_STOF_n343-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Seminole_Tribe_of_Florida_-_STOF_n343_84-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240301003453/https://www.semtribe.com/">"Seminole Tribe of Florida"</a>. <i>Seminole Tribe of Florida - STOF</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.semtribe.com/">the original</a> on March 1, 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 26,</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Seminole+Tribe+of+Florida+-+STOF&rft.atitle=Seminole+Tribe+of+Florida&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.semtribe.com%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrail+of+Tears" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Enquire-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Enquire_85-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1">"Hostilities of the Seminoles". <i>Enquirer [Richmond, Virginia] Print</i>. January 26, 1836.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Enquirer+%5BRichmond%2C+Virginia%5D+Print.&rft.atitle=Hostilities+of+the+Seminoles&rft.date=1836-01-26&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrail+of+Tears" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Remini-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Remini_86-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Remini_86-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRemini1998" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_V._Remini" title="Robert V. Remini">Remini, Robert</a> (1998) [1977]. "The Creek War: Victory". <i>Andrew Jackson: The Course of American Empire, 1767–1821</i>. Vol. 1. <a href="/wiki/Johns_Hopkins_University_Press" title="Johns Hopkins University Press">Johns Hopkins University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0801859115" title="Special:BookSources/0801859115"><bdi>0801859115</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Creek+War%3A+Victory&rft.btitle=Andrew+Jackson%3A+The+Course+of+American+Empire%2C+1767%E2%80%931821&rft.pub=Johns+Hopkins+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=0801859115&rft.aulast=Remini&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrail+of+Tears" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOklahoma_State_University_Library" class="citation web cs1">Oklahoma State University Library. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://digital.library.okstate.edu/kappler/Vol2/treaties/cre0214.htm">"Indian Affairs: Laws and Treaties"</a>. Digital.library.okstate.edu. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090106140643/http://digital.library.okstate.edu/kappler/Vol2/treaties/cre0214.htm">Archived</a> from the original on January 6, 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 25,</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Indian+Affairs%3A+Laws+and+Treaties&rft.pub=Digital.library.okstate.edu&rft.au=Oklahoma+State+University+Library&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdigital.library.okstate.edu%2Fkappler%2FVol2%2Ftreaties%2Fcre0214.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrail+of+Tears" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://digital.library.okstate.edu/kappler/Vol2/treaties/cre0264.htm"><i>Indian Affairs: Laws and Treaties</i></a>. Vol. 2: Treaties. <a href="/wiki/Oklahoma_State_University_Library" class="mw-redirect" title="Oklahoma State University Library">Oklahoma State University Library</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170922061315/http://digital.library.okstate.edu/kappler/Vol2/treaties/cre0264.htm">Archived</a> from the original on September 22, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 18,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Indian+Affairs%3A+Laws+and+Treaties&rft.pub=Oklahoma+State+University+Library&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdigital.library.okstate.edu%2Fkappler%2FVol2%2Ftreaties%2Fcre0264.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrail+of+Tears" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hurt_2002-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hurt_2002_89-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHurt2002" class="citation book cs1">Hurt, R. Douglas (2002). <i>The Indian Frontier, 1763–1846 (Histories of the American Frontier)</i>. Albuquerque: <a href="/wiki/University_of_New_Mexico_Press" title="University of New Mexico Press">University of New Mexico Press</a>. p. 148. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8263-1966-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-8263-1966-1"><bdi>0-8263-1966-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Indian+Frontier%2C+1763%E2%80%931846+%28Histories+of+the+American+Frontier%29&rft.place=Albuquerque&rft.pages=148&rft.pub=University+of+New+Mexico+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-8263-1966-1&rft.aulast=Hurt&rft.aufirst=R.+Douglas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrail+of+Tears" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOklahoma_State_University_Library" class="citation web cs1">Oklahoma State University Library. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://digital.library.okstate.edu/kappler/Vol2/treaties/cre0341.htm">"Indian Affairs: Laws and Treaties"</a>. Digital.library.okstate.edu. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090108173817/http://digital.library.okstate.edu/kappler/vol2/treaties/cre0341.htm">Archived</a> from the original on January 8, 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 25,</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Indian+Affairs%3A+Laws+and+Treaties&rft.pub=Digital.library.okstate.edu&rft.au=Oklahoma+State+University+Library&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdigital.library.okstate.edu%2Fkappler%2FVol2%2Ftreaties%2Fcre0341.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrail+of+Tears" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Winn-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Winn_91-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWinn2015" class="citation book cs1">Winn, William W (2015). <i>The Triumph of the Ecunnau-Nuxulgee: Land Speculators, George M. Troup, State Rights, and the Removal of the Creek Indians from Georgia and Alabama, 1825–38</i>. Macon: <a href="/wiki/Mercer_University_Press" title="Mercer University Press">Mercer University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780881465228" title="Special:BookSources/9780881465228"><bdi>9780881465228</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Triumph+of+the+Ecunnau-Nuxulgee%3A+Land+Speculators%2C+George+M.+Troup%2C+State+Rights%2C+and+the+Removal+of+the+Creek+Indians+from+Georgia+and+Alabama%2C+1825%E2%80%9338&rft.pub=Macon%3A+Mercer+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9780881465228&rft.aulast=Winn&rft.aufirst=William+W&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrail+of+Tears" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cherokee.org/About-The-Nation/History/Trail-of-Tears/A-Brief-History-of-the-Trail-of-Tears">"A Brief History of the Trail of Tears"</a>. www.cherokee.org. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171018070255/http://www.cherokee.org/About-The-Nation/History/Trail-of-Tears/A-Brief-History-of-the-Trail-of-Tears">Archived</a> from the original on October 18, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 18,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=A+Brief+History+of+the+Trail+of+Tears&rft.pub=www.cherokee.org&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cherokee.org%2FAbout-The-Nation%2FHistory%2FTrail-of-Tears%2FA-Brief-History-of-the-Trail-of-Tears&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrail+of+Tears" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHill2011" class="citation journal cs1">Hill, Sarah H. (2011). <span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=71619082&site=eds-live&scope=site">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'To Overawe the Indians and Give Confidence to the Whites': Preparations for the Removal of the Cherokee Nation from Georgia"</a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Georgia_Historical_Quarterly" class="mw-redirect" title="Georgia Historical Quarterly">Georgia Historical Quarterly</a></i>. <b>95</b> (4): 465–497<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 14,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Georgia+Historical+Quarterly&rft.atitle=%27To+Overawe+the+Indians+and+Give+Confidence+to+the+Whites%27%3A+Preparations+for+the+Removal+of+the+Cherokee+Nation+from+Georgia&rft.volume=95&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=465-497&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Hill&rft.aufirst=Sarah+H.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsearch.ebscohost.com%2Flogin.aspx%3Fdirect%3Dtrue%26db%3Da9h%26AN%3D71619082%26site%3Deds-live%26scope%3Dsite&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrail+of+Tears" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMiles2015" class="citation book cs1">Miles, Tiya (2015). <i>Ties that bind: the story of an Afro-Cherokee family in slavery and freedom</i> (Second ed.). 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"The rhetoric of removal and the trail of tears: Cherokee speaking against Jackson's Indian removal policy, 1828–1832". <i>Southern Speech Communication Journal</i>. <b>47</b> (3): 292–309. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F10417948209372535">10.1080/10417948209372535</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0361-8269">0361-8269</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Southern+Speech+Communication+Journal&rft.atitle=The+rhetoric+of+removal+and+the+trail+of+tears%3A+Cherokee+speaking+against+Jackson%27s+Indian+removal+policy%2C+1828%E2%80%931832&rft.volume=47&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=292-309&rft.date=1982-09-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F10417948209372535&rft.issn=0361-8269&rft.aulast=Strickland&rft.aufirst=William+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrail+of+Tears" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_115-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_115-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWisecup2017" class="citation journal cs1">Wisecup, Kelly (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5749/natiindistudj.4.1.0030">"Practicing Sovereignty: Colonial Temporalities, Cherokee Justice, and the "Socrates" Writings of John Ridge"</a>. <i>Native American and Indigenous Studies</i>. <b>4</b> (1): 30–60. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5749%2Fnatiindistudj.4.1.0030">10.5749/natiindistudj.4.1.0030</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2332-1261">2332-1261</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5749/natiindistudj.4.1.0030">10.5749/natiindistudj.4.1.0030</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:149269064">149269064</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Native+American+and+Indigenous+Studies&rft.atitle=Practicing+Sovereignty%3A+Colonial+Temporalities%2C+Cherokee+Justice%2C+and+the+%22Socrates%22+Writings+of+John+Ridge&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=30-60&rft.date=2017&rft.issn=2332-1261&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A149269064%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F10.5749%2Fnatiindistudj.4.1.0030%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5749%2Fnatiindistudj.4.1.0030&rft.aulast=Wisecup&rft.aufirst=Kelly&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F10.5749%2Fnatiindistudj.4.1.0030&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrail+of+Tears" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMiller2017" class="citation book cs1">Miller, Guion (March 2017). <i>The Guion Miller Roll: Index to the Applications submitted for the Cherokee Roll</i>. CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1544972503" title="Special:BookSources/978-1544972503"><bdi>978-1544972503</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Guion+Miller+Roll%3A+Index+to+the+Applications+submitted+for+the+Cherokee+Roll&rft.pub=CreateSpace+Independent+Publishing+Platform&rft.date=2017-03&rft.isbn=978-1544972503&rft.aulast=Miller&rft.aufirst=Guion&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrail+of+Tears" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEForeman195347-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEForeman195347_117-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFForeman1953">Foreman 1953</a>, p. 47.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NOTE1-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-NOTE1_118-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Several thousand more emigrated West from 1844 to 1849; Foreman, pp. 103–4.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-david_baird2-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-david_baird2_119-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaird1973" class="citation book cs1">Baird, David (1973). "The Choctaws Meet the Americans, 1783 to 1843". <i>The Choctaw People</i>. United States: Indian Tribal Series. p. 36. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/73-80708">73-80708</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Choctaws+Meet+the+Americans%2C+1783+to+1843&rft.btitle=The+Choctaw+People&rft.place=United+States&rft.pages=36&rft.pub=Indian+Tribal+Series&rft.date=1973&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F73-80708&rft.aulast=Baird&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrail+of+Tears" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-peterson-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-peterson_120-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWalter1979" class="citation book cs1">Walter, Williams (1979). "Three Efforts at Development among the Choctaws of Mississippi". <i>Southeastern Indians: Since the Removal Era</i>. Athens, Georgia: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Georgia_Press" title="University of Georgia Press">University of Georgia Press</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Three+Efforts+at+Development+among+the+Choctaws+of+Mississippi&rft.btitle=Southeastern+Indians%3A+Since+the+Removal+Era&rft.place=Athens%2C+Georgia&rft.pub=University+of+Georgia+Press&rft.date=1979&rft.aulast=Walter&rft.aufirst=Williams&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrail+of+Tears" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-fn_(c)-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-fn_(c)_121-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFForeman" class="citation cs2">Foreman, <i>1832 census</i>, p. 111</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=1832+census&rft.pages=111&rft.au=Foreman&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrail+of+Tears" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rem272-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Rem272_122-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRemini2001">Remini 2001</a>, p. 272</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:8-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:8_123-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:8_123-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:8_123-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:8_123-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:8_123-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.library.wisc.edu/digital/A2PBGWKCDCUSUE8A/full/AIHAF7ELMGXYOF84">"Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs", Office of Indian Affairs, November 25, 1841"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Report+of+the+Commissioner+of+Indian+Affairs%22%2C+Office+of+Indian+Affairs%2C+November+25%2C+1841.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsearch.library.wisc.edu%2Fdigital%2FA2PBGWKCDCUSUE8A%2Ffull%2FAIHAF7ELMGXYOF84&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrail+of+Tears" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEThornton199185-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThornton199185_124-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFThornton1991">Thornton 1991</a>, p. 85.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:3-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:3_125-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_125-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOstler2015" class="citation web cs1">Ostler, Jeffrey (March 2, 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://oxfordre.com/americanhistory/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780199329175.001.0001/acrefore-9780199329175-e-3">"Genocide and American Indian History"</a>. <i>Oxford Research Encyclopedia of American History</i>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facrefore%2F9780199329175.013.3">10.1093/acrefore/9780199329175.013.3</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-932917-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-932917-5"><bdi>978-0-19-932917-5</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 9,</span> 2022</span>. <q>During the removal process in the 1830s, approximately 2,000 Choctaws, 4,500 Creeks, and 5,000 Cherokees perished, mostly from intersecting factors of disease, starvation, exposure, and demoralization. Many hundreds died during the journey west, though the "trail of tears" metaphor obscures the fact that the majority of deaths occurred in internment camps while awaiting transportation west and in the first few years after relocation.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Oxford+Research+Encyclopedia+of+American+History&rft.atitle=Genocide+and+American+Indian+History&rft.date=2015-03-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Facrefore%2F9780199329175.013.3&rft.isbn=978-0-19-932917-5&rft.aulast=Ostler&rft.aufirst=Jeffrey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Foxfordre.com%2Famericanhistory%2Fdisplay%2F10.1093%2Facrefore%2F9780199329175.001.0001%2Facrefore-9780199329175-e-3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrail+of+Tears" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:0_126-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240525011259/https://www.okhistory.org/publications/enc/entry.php?entry=CH033">"Chickasaw"</a>. <i>The Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.okhistory.org/publications/enc/entry.php?entry=CH033">the original</a> on May 25, 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 4,</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+Oklahoma+History+and+Culture&rft.atitle=Chickasaw&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.okhistory.org%2Fpublications%2Fenc%2Fentry.php%3Fentry%3DCH033&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrail+of+Tears" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.archives.gov/files/research/microfilm/m1773.pdf">"Eastern Cherokee Census Rolls, 1835–1884"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. National Archives and Records Administration. 2005.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Eastern+Cherokee+Census+Rolls%2C+1835%E2%80%931884&rft.pub=National+Archives+and+Records+Administration&rft.date=2005&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.archives.gov%2Ffiles%2Fresearch%2Fmicrofilm%2Fm1773.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrail+of+Tears" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrucha1984241-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrucha1984241_128-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPrucha1984">Prucha 1984</a>, p. 241.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEhle2011291–292-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEhle2011291–292_129-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEhle2011">Ehle 2011</a>, pp. 291–292.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEThornton199175–93-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThornton199175–93_130-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFThornton1991">Thornton 1991</a>, pp. 75–93.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSwanton1922" class="citation book cs1">Swanton, John Reed (1922). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SEYSAAAAYAAJ&q=seminoles+florida+1844+3,136&pg=PA443"><i>Early History of the Creek Indians and Their Neighbors, Issue 73</i></a>. Washington, D.C.: US Government Printing Office. p. 443.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Early+History+of+the+Creek+Indians+and+Their+Neighbors%2C+Issue+73&rft.place=Washington%2C+D.C.&rft.pages=443&rft.pub=US+Government+Printing+Office&rft.date=1922&rft.aulast=Swanton&rft.aufirst=John+Reed&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSEYSAAAAYAAJ%26q%3Dseminoles%2Bflorida%2B1844%2B3%2C136%26pg%3DPA443&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrail+of+Tears" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrucha1984233-132"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrucha1984233_132-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrucha1984233_132-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPrucha1984">Prucha 1984</a>, p. 233.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWallaceFoner1993" class="citation book cs1">Wallace, Anthony; Foner, Eric (July 1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=idFiNsZghKkC&pg=PA100"><i>The Long, Bitter Trail: Andrew Jackson and the Indians</i></a>. Macmillan. p. 101. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8090-1552-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8090-1552-8"><bdi>978-0-8090-1552-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Long%2C+Bitter+Trail%3A+Andrew+Jackson+and+the+Indians&rft.pages=101&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=1993-07&rft.isbn=978-0-8090-1552-8&rft.aulast=Wallace&rft.aufirst=Anthony&rft.au=Foner%2C+Eric&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DidFiNsZghKkC%26pg%3DPA100&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrail+of+Tears" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-WallaceFoner1993-134"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-WallaceFoner1993_134-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWallaceFoner1993" class="citation book cs1">Wallace, Anthony; Foner, Eric (July 1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=idFiNsZghKkC&pg=PA100"><i>The Long, Bitter Trail: Andrew Jackson and the Indians</i></a>. Farrar, Straus and Giroux. pp. 100–101. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8090-1552-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8090-1552-8"><bdi>978-0-8090-1552-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Long%2C+Bitter+Trail%3A+Andrew+Jackson+and+the+Indians&rft.pages=100-101&rft.pub=Farrar%2C+Straus+and+Giroux&rft.date=1993-07&rft.isbn=978-0-8090-1552-8&rft.aulast=Wallace&rft.aufirst=Anthony&rft.au=Foner%2C+Eric&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DidFiNsZghKkC%26pg%3DPA100&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrail+of+Tears" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTreuer2020" class="citation news cs1">Treuer, David (July–August 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240519034228/https://www.foreignaffairs.com/reviews/review-essay/2020-06-09/land-not-your-land">"This Land Is Not Your Land"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Foreign_Affairs" title="Foreign Affairs">Foreign Affairs</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0015-7120">0015-7120</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.foreignaffairs.com/reviews/review-essay/2020-06-09/land-not-your-land">the original</a> on May 19, 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 22,</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Foreign+Affairs&rft.atitle=This+Land+Is+Not+Your+Land&rft.date=2020-07%2F2020-08&rft.issn=0015-7120&rft.aulast=Treuer&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.foreignaffairs.com%2Freviews%2Freview-essay%2F2020-06-09%2Fland-not-your-land&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrail+of+Tears" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarson2008" class="citation journal cs1">Carson, James (Winter 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230922173150/https://www.southerncultures.org/article/the-obituary-of-nations-ethnic-cleansing-memory-and-the-origins-of-the-old-south/">"Ethnic Cleansing, Memory, and the Origins of the Old South"</a>. <i>Southern Cultures</i>. <b>14</b> (4): 6–31. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fscu.0.0026">10.1353/scu.0.0026</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144154298">144154298</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.southerncultures.org/article/the-obituary-of-nations-ethnic-cleansing-memory-and-the-origins-of-the-old-south/">the original</a> on September 22, 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Southern+Cultures&rft.atitle=Ethnic+Cleansing%2C+Memory%2C+and+the+Origins+of+the+Old+South&rft.ssn=winter&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=6-31&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fscu.0.0026&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144154298%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Carson&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.southerncultures.org%2Farticle%2Fthe-obituary-of-nations-ethnic-cleansing-memory-and-the-origins-of-the-old-south%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrail+of+Tears" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:4-137"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:4_137-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_137-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJochum2017" class="citation web cs1">Jochum, Glenn (December 13, 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240710193612/https://news.stonybrook.edu/humanities/kelton-lecture-describes-debate-over-genocide-of-indigenous-peoples">"Kelton Lecture Describes Debate Over Genocide of Indigenous Peoples"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://news.stonybrook.edu/humanities/kelton-lecture-describes-debate-over-genocide-of-indigenous-peoples/">the original</a> on July 10, 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 13,</span> 2024</span>. <q>Scholars generally agree that the Trail of Tears was not genocide but instead ethnic cleansing: "rendering an area ethnically homogenous by using force or intimidation to remove from a given area persons of another ethnic or religious group."<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span></q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Kelton+Lecture+Describes+Debate+Over+Genocide+of+Indigenous+Peoples&rft.date=2017-12-13&rft.aulast=Jochum&rft.aufirst=Glenn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnews.stonybrook.edu%2Fhumanities%2Fkelton-lecture-describes-debate-over-genocide-of-indigenous-peoples%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrail+of+Tears" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:7-138"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:7_138-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWalker_Howe2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Walker_Howe" title="Daniel Walker Howe">Walker Howe, Daniel</a> (2007). "Jacksonian Democracy and the Rule of Law". <i><a href="/wiki/What_Hath_God_Wrought:_The_Transformation_of_America,_1815%E2%80%931848" title="What Hath God Wrought: The Transformation of America, 1815–1848">What Hath God Wrought: The Transformation of America, 1815–1848</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. p. 423. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0195392432" title="Special:BookSources/978-0195392432"><bdi>978-0195392432</bdi></a>. <q>Today Americans deplore the expropriation and explusion of [Indians]... a practice now called "ethnic cleansing"...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Jacksonian+Democracy+and+the+Rule+of+Law&rft.btitle=What+Hath+God+Wrought%3A+The+Transformation+of+America%2C+1815%E2%80%931848&rft.pages=423&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0195392432&rft.aulast=Walker+Howe&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrail+of+Tears" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERemini2001279–281-139"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERemini2001279–281_139-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRemini2001">Remini 2001</a>, pp. 279–281.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-140"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilentz2006" class="citation book cs1">Wilentz, Sean (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2laNEAAAQBAJ"><i>Rise of American Democracy: Jefferson To Lincoln</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/W._W._Norton_%26_Company" title="W. W. Norton & Company">W. W. Norton & Company</a>. p. 324. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-32921-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-32921-6"><bdi>978-0-393-32921-6</bdi></a>. <q>[Jacksonian Democracy's] first crusade, aimed, the critics charge, at the "infantilization" and "genocide" of the Indians, removal supposedly signaled a momentous transition from the ethical community upheld by antiremoval men to Jackson's boundless individualism. Jackson's democracy, for these historians - indeed liberal society - was founded on degradation, dishonor, and death. Like all historical caricatures, this one turns tragedy into melodrama, exaggerates parts at the expense of the whole...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rise+of+American+Democracy%3A+Jefferson+To+Lincoln&rft.pages=324&rft.pub=W.+W.+Norton+%26+Company&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-393-32921-6&rft.aulast=Wilentz&rft.aufirst=Sean&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2laNEAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrail+of+Tears" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:6-141"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:6_141-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_141-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCole1993" class="citation book cs1">Cole, Donald B. (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yWR3AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA117"><i>The Presidency of Andrew Jackson</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/University_Press_of_Kansas" title="University Press of Kansas">University Press of Kansas</a>. p. 117. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7006-0600-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7006-0600-9"><bdi>978-0-7006-0600-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Presidency+of+Andrew+Jackson&rft.pages=117&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Kansas&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-7006-0600-9&rft.aulast=Cole&rft.aufirst=Donald+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DyWR3AAAAMAAJ%26pg%3DPA117&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrail+of+Tears" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-142"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith2011" class="citation book cs1">Smith, Daniel Blake (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nX4aodeyreoC&pg=PA2"><i>An American Betrayal: Cherokee Patriots and the Trail of Tears</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Henry_Holt_and_Company" title="Henry Holt and Company">Henry Holt and Company</a>. p. 2. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4299-7396-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4299-7396-0"><bdi>978-1-4299-7396-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+American+Betrayal%3A+Cherokee+Patriots+and+the+Trail+of+Tears&rft.pages=2&rft.pub=Henry+Holt+and+Company&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-4299-7396-0&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Daniel+Blake&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DnX4aodeyreoC%26pg%3DPA2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrail+of+Tears" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-143"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMurphy2022" class="citation book cs1">Murphy, Justin D. (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DapVEAAAQBAJ&pg=PR23"><i>American Indian Wars: The Essential Reference Guide</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/ABC-CLIO" class="mw-redirect" title="ABC-CLIO">ABC-CLIO</a>. p. 23. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4408-7510-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4408-7510-6"><bdi>978-1-4408-7510-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=American+Indian+Wars%3A+The+Essential+Reference+Guide&rft.pages=23&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=978-1-4408-7510-6&rft.aulast=Murphy&rft.aufirst=Justin+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDapVEAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPR23&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrail+of+Tears" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Conrad2019-144"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Conrad2019_144-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Conrad2019_144-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFConrad2019" class="citation journal cs1">Conrad, Paul (2019). "Review: Surviving Genocide: Native Nations and the United States from the American Revolution to Bleeding Kansas". <i>Early American Literature</i>. <b>56</b> (1): 286–290. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Feal.2021.0021">10.1353/eal.2021.0021</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:234112850">234112850</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Early+American+Literature&rft.atitle=Review%3A+Surviving+Genocide%3A+Native+Nations+and+the+United+States+from+the+American+Revolution+to+Bleeding+Kansas&rft.volume=56&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=286-290&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Feal.2021.0021&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A234112850%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Conrad&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrail+of+Tears" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wolfe2006-145"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Wolfe2006_145-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wolfe2006_145-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wolfe2006_145-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWolfe2006" class="citation journal cs1">Wolfe, Patrick (December 1, 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14623520601056240">"Settler colonialism and the elimination of the native"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Genocide_Research" title="Journal of Genocide Research">Journal of Genocide Research</a></i>. <b>8</b> (4): 387–409. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14623520601056240">10.1080/14623520601056240</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1462-3528">1462-3528</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143873621">143873621</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Genocide+Research&rft.atitle=Settler+colonialism+and+the+elimination+of+the+native&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=387-409&rft.date=2006-12-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143873621%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1462-3528&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F14623520601056240&rft.aulast=Wolfe&rft.aufirst=Patrick&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1080%252F14623520601056240&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrail+of+Tears" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-146"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJacklet2019" class="citation journal cs1">Jacklet, Ben (January 4, 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://journals.librarypublishing.arizona.edu/jpe/article/id/2115/">"Review of Dina Gilio-Whitaker, 2019. As long as grass grows: the Indigenous fight for environmental justice, from colonization to Standing Rock"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Political_Ecology" title="Journal of Political Ecology">Journal of Political Ecology</a></i>. <b>26</b> (1). <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2458%2Fv26i1.23503">10.2458/v26i1.23503</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1073-0451">1073-0451</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:200057371">200057371</a>. <q>The full extent of the State's project to hamstring the rights of Indigenous people in the U.S. becomes clear in Chapter 2, provocatively titled "Genocide by any other name: a history of Indigenous environmental injustice." This unflinching examination of settler colonialism and its wrongdoings exposes familiar tropes such as the "pristine" American West and "vanishing" populations of Native Americans while delivering difficult truths about forced relocation, structural genocide, and slavery. In addition to the well-known tragedies of the Long Walk and the Trail of Tears...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Political+Ecology&rft.atitle=Review+of+Dina+Gilio-Whitaker%2C+2019.+As+long+as+grass+grows%3A+the+Indigenous+fight+for+environmental+justice%2C+from+colonization+to+Standing+Rock&rft.volume=26&rft.issue=1&rft.date=2019-01-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A200057371%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1073-0451&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2458%2Fv26i1.23503&rft.aulast=Jacklet&rft.aufirst=Ben&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjournals.librarypublishing.arizona.edu%2Fjpe%2Farticle%2Fid%2F2115%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrail+of+Tears" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-147"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nps.gov/trte/learn/historyculture/index.htm">"Trail of Tears: History & Culture"</a>. National Park Service. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150227093703/http://www.nps.gov/trte/learn/historyculture/index.htm">Archived</a> from the original on February 27, 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 8,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Trail+of+Tears%3A+History+%26+Culture&rft.pub=National+Park+Service&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nps.gov%2Ftrte%2Flearn%2Fhistoryculture%2Findex.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrail+of+Tears" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-148"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://imgis.nps.gov/#Trails">"Geographic Resources Division"</a>. National Park Service. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171018192020/https://imgis.nps.gov/#Trails">Archived</a> from the original on October 18, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 18,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Geographic+Resources+Division&rft.pub=National+Park+Service&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fimgis.nps.gov%2F%23Trails&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrail+of+Tears" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-149"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cherokeehistorical.org/unto-these-hills/">"Unto These Hills Drama - Cherokee Historical Association"</a>. www.cherokeehistorical.org. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171018071833/http://www.cherokeehistorical.org/unto-these-hills/">Archived</a> from the original on October 18, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 18,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Unto+These+Hills+Drama+-+Cherokee+Historical+Association&rft.pub=www.cherokeehistorical.org&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cherokeehistorical.org%2Funto-these-hills%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrail+of+Tears" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-150"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aboutcherokee.com/trail-of-tears.html">"Cherokee Ancestry"</a>. www.aboutcherokee.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171018071659/http://www.aboutcherokee.com/trail-of-tears.html">Archived</a> from the original on October 18, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 18,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Cherokee+Ancestry&rft.pub=www.aboutcherokee.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aboutcherokee.com%2Ftrail-of-tears.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrail+of+Tears" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-151"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStaff_reports2022" class="citation web cs1">Staff reports (April 13, 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220505105524/https://www.cherokeephoenix.org/education/cherokee-nation-announces-2022-remember-the-removal-bike-ride-participants/article_2172c55a-bb3e-11ec-bcba-5fc8aaed04be.html">"Cherokee Nation announces 2022 'Remember the Removal' bike ride participants"</a>. <i>cherokeephoenix.org</i>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 10,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=cherokeephoenix.org&rft.atitle=Cherokee+Nation+announces+2022+%27Remember+the+Removal%27+bike+ride+participants&rft.date=2022-04-13&rft.au=Staff+reports&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cherokeephoenix.org%2Feducation%2Fcherokee-nation-announces-2022-remember-the-removal-bike-ride-participants%2Farticle_2172c55a-bb3e-11ec-bcba-5fc8aaed04be.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrail+of+Tears" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-152"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-152">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newspapers.com/article/tulsa-world-clary-felix-cyclists-take/153899023/">"Clary, Felix. Cyclists Take on Trail (pt. 1)"</a>. <i>Tulsa World</i>. June 9, 2024. pp. A15<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 26,</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Tulsa+World&rft.atitle=Clary%2C+Felix.+Cyclists+Take+on+Trail+%28pt.+1%29&rft.pages=A15&rft.date=2024-06-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.newspapers.com%2Farticle%2Ftulsa-world-clary-felix-cyclists-take%2F153899023%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrail+of+Tears" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-153"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://newsok.com/cherokees-to-mark-anniversary-of-trail-of-tears-to-oklahoma/article/2257412">"Cherokees to Mark Anniversary of "Trail of Tears" to Oklahoma"</a>. News OK. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150402091804/http://newsok.com/cherokees-to-mark-anniversary-of-trail-of-tears-to-oklahoma/article/2257412">Archived</a> from the original on April 2, 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 11,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Cherokees+to+Mark+Anniversary+of+%22Trail+of+Tears%22+to+Oklahoma&rft.pub=News+OK&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnewsok.com%2Fcherokees-to-mark-anniversary-of-trail-of-tears-to-oklahoma%2Farticle%2F2257412&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrail+of+Tears" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-154"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMontieroForeman" class="citation book cs1">Montiero, Lorrie; Foreman, Grant. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150703182314/http://www.ualr.edu/sequoyah/uploads/2011/11/Family%20Stories%20from%20the%20Trail%20of%20Tears.htm"><i>Family Stories From the Trail of Tears</i></a>. American Native Press Archives and Sequoyah Research Center. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://americanarchive.org/catalog/cpb-aacip_512-ht2g73818t">the original</a> on August 27, 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=American+Archive+of+Public+Broadcasting&rft.atitle=NET+Playhouse%3B+The+Trail+of+Tears%3A+John+Ross&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Famericanarchive.org%2Fcatalog%2Fcpb-aacip_512-ht2g73818t&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrail+of+Tears" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-156"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-156">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220123051046/https://www.creoliste.fr/docs/essays/Trail_of_Tears.html">"Birthday Story of Private John G. Burnett, Captain Abraham McClellan's Company, 2nd Regiment, 2nd Brigade, Mounted Infantry, Cherokee Indian Removal, 1838-39"</a>. <i>creoliste.fr</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.creoliste.fr/docs/essays/Trail_of_Tears.html">the original</a> on January 23, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=creoliste.fr&rft.atitle=Birthday+Story+of+Private+John+G.+Burnett%2C+Captain+Abraham+McClellan%27s+Company%2C+2nd+Regiment%2C+2nd+Brigade%2C+Mounted+Infantry%2C+Cherokee+Indian+Removal%2C+1838-39.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.creoliste.fr%2Fdocs%2Fessays%2FTrail_of_Tears.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrail+of+Tears" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThornton1991" class="citation book cs1">Thornton, Russell (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ow_Vjtta0YsC&pg=PA75">"The Demography of the Trail of Tears Period: A New Estimate of Cherokee Population Losses"</a>. 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New York: <a href="/wiki/Anchor_Books" class="mw-redirect" title="Anchor Books">Anchor Books</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-385-23954-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-385-23954-7"><bdi>978-0-385-23954-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Trail+of+Tears%3A+The+Rise+and+Fall+of+the+Cherokee+Nation&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Anchor+Books&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-385-23954-7&rft.aulast=Ehle&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DMC2lR-lpmfwC%26pg%3DPA391&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrail+of+Tears" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFForeman1953" class="citation book cs1">Foreman, Grant (1953) [1932]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=L8ZOg03I0s0C"><i>Indian Removal: The Emigration of the Five Civilized Tribes of Indians</i></a> (11 ed.). Norman, Oklahoma: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Oklahoma_Press" title="University of Oklahoma Press">University of Oklahoma Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8061-1172-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-8061-1172-0"><bdi>0-8061-1172-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Indian+Removal%3A+The+Emigration+of+the+Five+Civilized+Tribes+of+Indians&rft.place=Norman%2C+Oklahoma&rft.edition=11&rft.pub=University+of+Oklahoma+Press&rft.date=1953&rft.isbn=0-8061-1172-0&rft.aulast=Foreman&rft.aufirst=Grant&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DL8ZOg03I0s0C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrail+of+Tears" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJahoda1995" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Gloria_Jahoda" title="Gloria Jahoda">Jahoda, Gloria</a> (1995) [1975]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/trailoftears00jaho"><i>Trail of Tears: The Story of the American Indian Removal 1813–1855</i></a>. Henry Holt & Co. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-517-14677-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-517-14677-4"><bdi>978-0-517-14677-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Trail+of+Tears%3A+The+Story+of+the+American+Indian+Removal+1813%E2%80%931855&rft.pub=Henry+Holt+%26+Co&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-517-14677-4&rft.aulast=Jahoda&rft.aufirst=Gloria&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ftrailoftears00jaho&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrail+of+Tears" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMichaelSmithLowe2021" class="citation journal cs1">Michael, Nicky; Smith, Beverly Jean; Lowe, William (2021). "Reclaiming Social Justice and Human Rights: The 1830 Indian Removal Act and the Ethnic Cleansing of Native American Tribes". <i>Journal of Health and Human Experience</i>. <b>6</b> (1): 25–39.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Health+and+Human+Experience&rft.atitle=Reclaiming+Social+Justice+and+Human+Rights%3A+The+1830+Indian+Removal+Act+and+the+Ethnic+Cleansing+of+Native+American+Tribes&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=25-39&rft.date=2021&rft.aulast=Michael&rft.aufirst=Nicky&rft.au=Smith%2C+Beverly+Jean&rft.au=Lowe%2C+William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrail+of+Tears" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMooney2020" class="citation book cs1">Mooney, James (2020) [1902]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NPT3DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA130"><i>Myths of the Cherokee</i></a>. p. 130. (There are multiple Mooney publications with the title of <i>Myths of the Cherokee</i>, the first being a summary published in The Journal of American Folklore in 1888. This particular reference is the version published by the US Government Printing Office in 1902 which was from The Nineteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology.)</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Myths+of+the+Cherokee&rft.pages=130&rft.date=2020&rft.aulast=Mooney&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNPT3DwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA130&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrail+of+Tears" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: postscript (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_postscript" title="Category:CS1 maint: postscript">link</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPerdueGreen2008" class="citation book cs1">Perdue, Theda; Green, Michael (2008) [2007]. <i>The Cherokee Nation and the Trail of Tears</i>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Penguin_Books" title="Penguin Books">Penguin Books</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-311367-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-311367-6"><bdi>978-0-14-311367-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cherokee+Nation+and+the+Trail+of+Tears&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-14-311367-6&rft.aulast=Perdue&rft.aufirst=Theda&rft.au=Green%2C+Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrail+of+Tears" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPrucha1984" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Francis_Paul_Prucha" title="Francis Paul Prucha">Prucha, Francis Paul</a> (1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/greatfatherun01pruc"><i>The Great Father: The United States Government and the American Indians</i></a>. Lincoln, Nebraska: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Nebraska_Press" title="University of Nebraska Press">University of Nebraska Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8032-3668-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-8032-3668-9"><bdi>0-8032-3668-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Great+Father%3A+The+United+States+Government+and+the+American+Indians&rft.place=Lincoln%2C+Nebraska&rft.pub=University+of+Nebraska+Press&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=0-8032-3668-9&rft.aulast=Prucha&rft.aufirst=Francis+Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgreatfatherun01pruc&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrail+of+Tears" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iSeWGTYsFcsC">Google Books</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRemini2001" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_V._Remini" title="Robert V. Remini">Remini, Robert</a> (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/andrewjacksonhis00remi"><i>Andrew Jackson and his Indian Wars</i></a>. New York: Viking. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-670-91025-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-670-91025-0"><bdi>978-0-670-91025-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Andrew+Jackson+and+his+Indian+Wars&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Viking&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-670-91025-0&rft.aulast=Remini&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fandrewjacksonhis00remi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrail+of+Tears" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSatz1986" class="citation book cs1">Satz, Ronald (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/afterremovalchoc0000unse/">"The Mississippi Choctaw: From the Removal Treaty of the Federal Agency"</a>. In Wells, Samuel J.; Tuby, Roseanna (eds.). <i>After Removal: The Choctaw in Mississippi</i>. <a href="/wiki/University_Press_of_Mississippi" title="University Press of Mississippi">University Press of Mississippi</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87805-289-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-87805-289-5"><bdi>0-87805-289-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Mississippi+Choctaw%3A+From+the+Removal+Treaty+of+the+Federal+Agency&rft.btitle=After+Removal%3A+The+Choctaw+in+Mississippi&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Mississippi&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=0-87805-289-5&rft.aulast=Satz&rft.aufirst=Ronald&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fafterremovalchoc0000unse%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrail+of+Tears" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilson1998" class="citation book cs1">Wilson, James (1998). <i>The Earth Shall Weep: A History of Native America</i>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Grove_Press" title="Grove Press">Grove Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8021-3680-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8021-3680-0"><bdi>978-0-8021-3680-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Earth+Shall+Weep%3A+A+History+of+Native+America&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Grove+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-8021-3680-0&rft.aulast=Wilson&rft.aufirst=James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrail+of+Tears" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Documents">Documents</h2></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">U.S. Senate (April 15–17, 1830). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090206201426/http://georgiainfo.galileo.usg.edu/chdebate.htm"><i>Cherokee Indian Removal Debate</i></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://georgiainfo.galileo.usg.edu/chdebate.htm">the original</a> on February 6, 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cherokee+Indian+Removal+Debate&rft.date=1830-04-15%2F1830-04-17&rft.au=U.S.+Senate&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgeorgiainfo.galileo.usg.edu%2Fchdebate.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrail+of+Tears" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Scott, Winfield (May 10, 1838). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081006002910/http://www.cherokee.org/Culture/CulInfo/TOT/125/Default.aspx"><i>Winfield Scott's Address to the Cherokee Nation</i></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cherokee.org/Culture/CulInfo/TOT/125/Default.aspx">the original</a> on October 6, 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Winfield+Scott%27s+Address+to+the+Cherokee+Nation&rft.date=1838-05-10&rft.aulast=Scott&rft.aufirst=Winfield&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cherokee.org%2FCulture%2FCulInfo%2FTOT%2F125%2FDefault.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrail+of+Tears" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081227033848/http://georgiainfo.galileo.usg.edu/scottord.htm"><i>Gen. Winfield Scott's Order to U.S. Troops Assigned to the Cherokee Removal</i></a>. Cherokee Agency. May 17, 1838. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://georgiainfo.galileo.usg.edu/scottord.htm">the original</a> on December 27, 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gen.+Winfield+Scott%27s+Order+to+U.S.+Troops+Assigned+to+the+Cherokee+Removal&rft.pub=Cherokee+Agency&rft.date=1838-05-17&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgeorgiainfo.galileo.usg.edu%2Fscottord.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrail+of+Tears" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alex_W._Bealer" title="Alex W. Bealer">Bealer, Alex W.</a> (1996) [1972]. <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/onlynamesremainc00beal_0"><i>Only the Names Remain: The Cherokees and The Trail of Tears</i></a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Boston,_Massachusetts" class="mw-redirect" title="Boston, Massachusetts">Boston, Massachusetts</a>: Little, Brown. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-316-08519-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-316-08519-9"><bdi>978-0-316-08519-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Only+the+Names+Remain%3A+The+Cherokees+and+The+Trail+of+Tears&rft.place=Boston%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pub=Little%2C+Brown&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-316-08519-9&rft.aulast=Bealer&rft.aufirst=Alex+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fonlynamesremainc00beal_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrail+of+Tears" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Fitzgerald, David; King, Duane (2008). <i>The Cherokee Trail of Tears</i>. Portland, Oregon: Graphic Arts Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88240-752-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-88240-752-4"><bdi>978-0-88240-752-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cherokee+Trail+of+Tears&rft.place=Portland%2C+Oregon&rft.pub=Graphic+Arts+Books&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-88240-752-4&rft.aulast=Fitzgerald&rft.aufirst=David&rft.au=King%2C+Duane&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrail+of+Tears" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Greene, Lance. <i>Their Determination to Remain: A Cherokee Community's Resistance to the Trail of Tears in North Carolina</i> (<a href="/wiki/University_of_Alabama_Press" title="University of Alabama Press">University of Alabama Press</a>, 2022) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=58260">online review</a></li> <li>Gregg, Matthew T. and David M. Wishart. "The price of Cherokee removal". Explorations in Economic History Volume 49, Issue 4, October 2012, Pages 423–442</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Wallace, Anthony (1993). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/longbittertraila0000wall"><i>The Long, Bitter Trail: Andrew Jackson and the Indians</i></a></span> (Hardback ed.). New York: Hill and Wang. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8090-6631-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-8090-6631-9"><bdi>0-8090-6631-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Long%2C+Bitter+Trail%3A+Andrew+Jackson+and+the+Indians&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=Hardback&rft.pub=Hill+and+Wang&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=0-8090-6631-9&rft.aulast=Wallace&rft.aufirst=Anthony&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Flongbittertraila0000wall&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrail+of+Tears" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Winn, William W. (2015). <i>The Triumph of the Ecunnau-Nuxulgee: Land Speculators, George M. Troup, State Rights, and the Removal of the Creek Indians from Georgia and Alabama, 1825-38</i>. Macon: <a href="/wiki/Mercer_University_Press" title="Mercer University Press">Mercer University Press</a>. 9780881465228.</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Trail_of_Tears:_Cherokee_Legacy" title="The Trail of Tears: Cherokee Legacy">The Trail of Tears: Cherokee Legacy</a></i>; 2006 documentary directed by Chip Richie and narrated by <a href="/wiki/James_Earl_Jones" title="James Earl Jones">James Earl Jones</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nps.gov/trte/index.htm">Trail of Tears National Historic Trail (U.S. National Park Service)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.semtribe.com/History/IndianRemoval.aspx">Seminole Tribe of Florida History: Indian Resistance and Removal</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160429225513/http://www.semtribe.com/History/IndianRemoval.aspx">Archived</a> 2016-04-29 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nps.gov/archive/ocmu/Removal.htm">Muscogee (Creek) Removal</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cherokeeregistry.com/">Cherokee Heritage Documentation Center</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080907225258/http://www.cherokee.org/Culture/History/TOT/Default.aspx">Cherokee Nation Cultural Resource Center </a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090915182030/http://kingwoodkowboy.com/trailoftears.html">Trail of Tears - The Dream We Dreamed</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nps.gov/history/NR/twhp/wwwlps/lessons/118trail/118trail.htm"><i>The Trail of Tears and the Forced Relocation of the Cherokee Nation,</i> a National Park Service Teaching with Historic Places (TwHP) lesson plan</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.accessgenealogy.com/native/trail_of_tears.htm">Trail of Tears Roll</a>, Access genealogy</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://georgiainfo.galileo.usg.edu/topics/historical_markers/county/gordon/trail-of-tears">Trail of Tears</a> historical marker</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output 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a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Indian_removal" title="Template:Indian removal"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Indian_removal" title="Template talk:Indian removal"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Indian_removal" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Indian removal"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Indian_Removal" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Indian_removal" title="Indian removal">Indian Removal</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Battles and military incidents<br />(chronologically)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Burnt_Corn" title="Battle of Burnt Corn">Battle of Burnt Corn</a> (1813)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fort_Mims_massacre" title="Fort Mims massacre">Fort Mims massacre</a> (1813)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Horseshoe_Bend_(1814)" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Horseshoe Bend (1814)">Battle of Horseshoe Bend</a> (1814)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Negro_Fort" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Negro Fort">Battle of Negro Fort</a> (1816)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Fowltown" title="Battle of Fowltown">Battle of Fowltown</a> (1817)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scott_Massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Scott Massacre">Scott Massacre</a> (1817)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fort_Hughes_(Georgia)" title="Fort Hughes (Georgia)">Attack at Fort Hughes</a> (1817)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ocheesee" title="Battle of Ocheesee">Battle of Ocheesee</a> (1817–1818)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seminole_Wars" title="Seminole Wars">Seminole Wars</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Policies and laws</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Removal_Act" title="Indian Removal Act">Removal Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgia_Land_Lotteries" title="Georgia Land Lotteries">Georgia Land Lotteries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manifest_destiny" title="Manifest destiny">Manifest destiny</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Worcester_v._Georgia" title="Worcester v. Georgia">Worcester v. Georgia</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Removals (chronologically)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indian_removals_in_Indiana" title="Indian removals in Indiana">Indian removals in Indiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Choctaw_Trail_of_Tears" title="Choctaw Trail of Tears">Choctaw Trail of Tears</a> (1831–1833)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Trail of Tears</a> (1831–1838)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_removal" title="Cherokee removal">Cherokee removal</a> (1836–1839)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Potawatomi_Trail_of_Death" title="Potawatomi Trail of Death">Potawatomi Trail of Death</a> (1838)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sandy_Lake_Tragedy" title="Sandy Lake Tragedy">Sandy Lake Tragedy</a> (1850)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nome_Cult_Trail" title="Nome Cult Trail">Nome Cult Trail</a> (1863)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Long_Walk_of_the_Navajo" title="Long Walk of the Navajo">Long Walk of the Navajo</a> (1864)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burt_Lake_burn-out" title="Burt Lake burn-out">Burt Lake burn-out</a> (1900)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">American politicians<br />and military officials</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_C._Calhoun" title="John C. Calhoun">John C. Calhoun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lewis_Cass" title="Lewis Cass">Lewis Cass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Gadsden" title="James Gadsden">James Gadsden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Rockingham_Gilmer" class="mw-redirect" title="George Rockingham Gilmer">George Rockingham Gilmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Jackson" title="Andrew Jackson">Andrew Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson_and_Indian_removal" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas Jefferson and Indian removal">Thomas Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Monroe" title="James Monroe">James Monroe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winfield_Scott" title="Winfield Scott">Winfield Scott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Tipton" title="John Tipton">John Tipton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Wallace_(Indiana_politician)" title="David Wallace (Indiana politician)">David Wallace</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People who helped Indians<br />or documented removals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arbuthnot_and_Ambrister_incident" title="Arbuthnot and Ambrister incident">Robert C. Ambrister</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arbuthnot_and_Ambrister_incident" title="Arbuthnot and Ambrister incident">George Arbuthnot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Hawkins" title="Benjamin Hawkins">Benjamin Hawkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Nicolls" title="Edward Nicolls">Edward Nicolls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Petit" title="Benjamin Petit">Benjamin Marie Petit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Winter_(artist)" title="George Winter (artist)">George Winter</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Land cession treaties<br />(chronologically)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Fort_Stanwix" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaty of Fort Stanwix">Fort Stanwix (1st)</a> (1768)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Fort_Stanwix_(1784)" title="Treaty of Fort Stanwix (1784)">Fort Stanwix (2nd)</a> (1784)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Fort_McIntosh" title="Treaty of Fort McIntosh">Fort McIntosh</a> (1785)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Treaty_of_Buffalo_Creek" title="First Treaty of Buffalo Creek">Buffalo Creek (1st)</a> (1788)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_New_York_(1790)" title="Treaty of New York (1790)">New York (1st)</a> (1790)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Greenville" title="Treaty of Greenville">Greenville</a> (1795)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_New_York_(1796)" title="Treaty of New York (1796)">New York (2nd)</a> (1796)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Forbes_and_Company#The_Forbes_land_grants" title="John Forbes and Company">Forbes Purchase</a> (1804–1811)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Fort_Jackson" title="Treaty of Fort Jackson">Fort Jackson</a> (1814)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_the_Creek_Agency_(1818)" title="Treaty of the Creek Agency (1818)">Creek Agency</a> (1818)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Doak%27s_Stand" title="Treaty of Doak's Stand">Doak's Stand</a> (1820)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Indian_Springs_(1821)" title="Treaty of Indian Springs (1821)">Indian Springs</a> (1821)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Treaty_of_Prairie_du_Chien" title="First Treaty of Prairie du Chien">Prairie du Chien (1st)</a> (1825)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Treaty_of_Prairie_du_Chien" title="Second Treaty of Prairie du Chien">Prairie du Chien (2nd)</a> (1829)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Treaty_of_Prairie_du_Chien" title="Third Treaty of Prairie du Chien">Prairie du Chien (3rd)</a> (1829)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Dancing_Rabbit_Creek" title="Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek">Dancing Rabbit Creek</a> (1830)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Treaty_of_Prairie_du_Chien" title="Fourth Treaty of Prairie du Chien">Prairie du Chien (4th)</a> (1831)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Cusseta" title="Treaty of Cusseta">Cusseta</a> (1832)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Payne%27s_Landing" title="Treaty of Payne's Landing">Payne's Landing</a> (1832)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Pontotoc_Creek" title="Treaty of Pontotoc Creek">Pontotoc Creek</a> (1832)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_New_Echota" title="Treaty of New Echota">New Echota</a> (1835)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Treaty_of_Buffalo_Creek" title="Second Treaty of Buffalo Creek">Buffalo Creek (2nd)</a> (1838)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_La_Pointe" title="Treaty of La Pointe">La Pointe (1st)</a> (1842)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Treaty_of_Buffalo_Creek" title="Third Treaty of Buffalo Creek">Buffalo Creek (3rd)</a> (1842)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_La_Pointe" title="Treaty of La Pointe">La Pointe (2nd)</a> (1854)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Treaty_of_Buffalo_Creek" title="Fourth Treaty of Buffalo Creek">Buffalo Creek (4th)</a> (1857)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Landbases</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_historical_Indian_reservations_in_the_United_States" title="List of historical Indian reservations in the United States">Former reservations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Former_Indian_reservations_in_Oklahoma" title="Former Indian reservations in Oklahoma">in Oklahoma</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Territory" title="Indian Territory">Indian Territory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_barrier_state" title="Indian barrier state">Indian barrier state (proposed)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Reserve_(1763)" title="Indian Reserve (1763)">Indian Reserve (1763)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unassigned_Lands" title="Unassigned Lands">Unassigned Lands</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_title_in_the_United_States" title="Aboriginal title in the United States">Aboriginal title</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_title_statutes_in_the_Thirteen_Colonies" title="Aboriginal title statutes in the Thirteen Colonies">in the Thirteen Colonies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Land_Claims_Settlements" title="Indian Land Claims Settlements">Land claims settlements</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_genocide_in_the_United_States" title="Native American genocide in the United States">Native American genocide in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Checkerboarding_(land)" title="Checkerboarding (land)">Reservation checkerboarding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diminishment" title="Diminishment">Reservation diminishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_reservation_politics" title="Native American reservation politics">Reservation politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Nicolls%27_Outpost" title="Treaty of Nicolls' Outpost">Treaty of Nicolls' Outpost</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Links_to_related_articles" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#e8e8ff;"><div id="Links_to_related_articles" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Links to related articles</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-size:114%"><div style="padding:0px"> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="State_of_Georgia" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="Template:Georgia (U.S. state)"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="Template talk:Georgia (U.S. state)"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Georgia (U.S. state)"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="State_of_Georgia" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/U.S._state" title="U.S. state">State</a> of <a href="/wiki/Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="Georgia (U.S. state)">Georgia</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><b><a href="/wiki/Atlanta" title="Atlanta">Atlanta</a></b> (capital)</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="Outline of Georgia (U.S. state)">Topics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_Georgia_(U.S._state)-related_articles" title="Index of Georgia (U.S. state)-related articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="Climate change in Georgia (U.S. state)">Climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="Geology of Georgia (U.S. state)">Geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="History of Georgia (U.S. state)">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_congressional_delegations_from_Georgia" title="United States congressional delegations from Georgia">Congressional delegations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_of_Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="Government of Georgia (U.S. state)">Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="Law of Georgia (U.S. state)">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_people_from_Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="List of people from Georgia (U.S. state)">People</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Mass_media_in_Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="Category:Mass media in Georgia (U.S. state)">Mass media</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_newspapers_in_Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="List of newspapers in Georgia (U.S. state)">newspapers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_radio_stations_in_Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="List of radio stations in Georgia (U.S. state)">radio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_television_stations_in_Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="List of television stations in Georgia (U.S. state)">TV</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="Music of Georgia (U.S. state)">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="Elections in Georgia (U.S. state)">Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="Geography of Georgia (U.S. state)">Geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Georgia_state_parks" title="List of Georgia state parks">State parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Georgia_state_symbols" title="List of Georgia state symbols">Symbols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transportation_in_Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="Transportation in Georgia (U.S. state)">Transportation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Tourist_attractions_in_Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="Category:Tourist attractions in Georgia (U.S. state)">Tourist attractions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Georgia_(U.S._state)" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in Georgia (U.S. state)">African Americans</a> (<a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Georgia_(U.S._state)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of slavery in Georgia (U.S. state)">Slavery</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Society</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="Abortion in Georgia (U.S. state)">Abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="Culture of Georgia (U.S. state)">Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="Crime in Georgia (U.S. state)">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="Demographics of Georgia (U.S. state)">Demographics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgia_(U.S._state)#Economy" title="Georgia (U.S. state)">Economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="Education in Georgia (U.S. state)">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gun_laws_in_Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="Gun laws in Georgia (U.S. state)">Gun laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_Georgia_(U.S._state)" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in Georgia (U.S. state)">LGBT rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="Politics of Georgia (U.S. state)">Politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sports_in_Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="Sports in Georgia (U.S. state)">Sports</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_regions_of_the_United_States#Georgia" title="List of regions of the United States">Regions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Georgia" class="mw-redirect" title="Central Georgia">Central Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_Georgia" title="Coastal Georgia">Coastal Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Georgia_(region)" title="East Georgia (region)">East Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Central_Georgia" title="East Central Georgia">East Central Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_Isles_of_Georgia" title="Golden Isles of Georgia">Golden Isles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lower_Coastal_Plain_(Georgia)" title="Lower Coastal Plain (Georgia)">Lower Coastal Plain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlanta_metropolitan_area" class="mw-redirect" title="Atlanta metropolitan area">Metro Atlanta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Georgia" title="North Georgia">North Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northeast_Georgia" title="Northeast Georgia">Northeast Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Georgia" title="Northwest Georgia">Northwest Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_Islands" title="Sea Islands">Sea Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Georgia_(region)" title="South Georgia (region)">South Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Rivers" title="Southern Rivers">Southern Rivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southeast_Georgia" title="Southeast Georgia">Southeast Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southwest_Georgia" title="Southwest Georgia">Southwest Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Georgia_(region)" title="West Georgia (region)">West Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Central_Georgia" title="West Central Georgia">West Central Georgia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_Georgia_(U.S._state)_cities_by_population" class="mw-redirect" title="List of largest Georgia (U.S. state) cities by population">Largest cities</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albany,_Georgia" title="Albany, Georgia">Albany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlanta" title="Atlanta">Atlanta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Athens,_Georgia" title="Athens, Georgia">Athens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augusta,_Georgia" title="Augusta, Georgia">Augusta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columbus,_Georgia" title="Columbus, Georgia">Columbus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johns_Creek,_Georgia" title="Johns Creek, Georgia">Johns Creek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macon,_Georgia" title="Macon, Georgia">Macon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marietta,_Georgia" title="Marietta, Georgia">Marietta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roswell,_Georgia" title="Roswell, Georgia">Roswell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sandy_Springs,_Georgia" title="Sandy Springs, Georgia">Sandy Springs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Savannah,_Georgia" title="Savannah, Georgia">Savannah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Fulton,_Georgia" title="South Fulton, Georgia">South Fulton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valdosta,_Georgia" title="Valdosta, Georgia">Valdosta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warner_Robins,_Georgia" title="Warner Robins, Georgia">Warner Robins</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_counties_in_Georgia" title="List of counties in Georgia">Counties</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Appling_County,_Georgia" title="Appling County, Georgia">Appling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atkinson_County,_Georgia" title="Atkinson County, Georgia">Atkinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacon_County,_Georgia" title="Bacon County, Georgia">Bacon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baker_County,_Georgia" title="Baker County, Georgia">Baker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baldwin_County,_Georgia" title="Baldwin County, Georgia">Baldwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banks_County,_Georgia" title="Banks County, Georgia">Banks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barrow_County,_Georgia" title="Barrow County, Georgia">Barrow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bartow_County,_Georgia" title="Bartow County, Georgia">Bartow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ben_Hill_County,_Georgia" title="Ben Hill County, Georgia">Ben Hill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berrien_County,_Georgia" title="Berrien County, Georgia">Berrien</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibb_County,_Georgia" title="Bibb County, Georgia">Bibb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bleckley_County,_Georgia" title="Bleckley County, Georgia">Bleckley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brantley_County,_Georgia" title="Brantley County, Georgia">Brantley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brooks_County,_Georgia" title="Brooks County, Georgia">Brooks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bryan_County,_Georgia" title="Bryan County, Georgia">Bryan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulloch_County,_Georgia" title="Bulloch County, Georgia">Bulloch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burke_County,_Georgia" title="Burke County, Georgia">Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Butts_County,_Georgia" title="Butts County, Georgia">Butts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calhoun_County,_Georgia" title="Calhoun County, Georgia">Calhoun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camden_County,_Georgia" title="Camden County, Georgia">Camden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Candler_County,_Georgia" title="Candler County, Georgia">Candler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carroll_County,_Georgia" title="Carroll County, Georgia">Carroll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catoosa_County,_Georgia" title="Catoosa County, Georgia">Catoosa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charlton_County,_Georgia" title="Charlton County, Georgia">Charlton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chatham_County,_Georgia" title="Chatham County, Georgia">Chatham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chattahoochee_County,_Georgia" title="Chattahoochee County, Georgia">Chattahoochee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chattooga_County,_Georgia" title="Chattooga County, Georgia">Chattooga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_County,_Georgia" title="Cherokee County, Georgia">Cherokee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clarke_County,_Georgia" title="Clarke County, Georgia">Clarke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clay_County,_Georgia" title="Clay County, Georgia">Clay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clayton_County,_Georgia" title="Clayton County, Georgia">Clayton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinch_County,_Georgia" title="Clinch County, Georgia">Clinch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cobb_County,_Georgia" title="Cobb County, Georgia">Cobb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coffee_County,_Georgia" title="Coffee County, Georgia">Coffee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colquitt_County,_Georgia" title="Colquitt County, Georgia">Colquitt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columbia_County,_Georgia" title="Columbia County, Georgia">Columbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cook_County,_Georgia" title="Cook County, Georgia">Cook</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coweta_County,_Georgia" title="Coweta County, Georgia">Coweta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crawford_County,_Georgia" title="Crawford County, Georgia">Crawford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crisp_County,_Georgia" title="Crisp County, Georgia">Crisp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dade_County,_Georgia" title="Dade County, Georgia">Dade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dawson_County,_Georgia" title="Dawson County, Georgia">Dawson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decatur_County,_Georgia" title="Decatur County, Georgia">Decatur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DeKalb_County,_Georgia" title="DeKalb County, Georgia">DeKalb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dodge_County,_Georgia" title="Dodge County, Georgia">Dodge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dooly_County,_Georgia" title="Dooly County, Georgia">Dooly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dougherty_County,_Georgia" title="Dougherty County, Georgia">Dougherty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Douglas_County,_Georgia" title="Douglas County, Georgia">Douglas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_County,_Georgia" title="Early County, Georgia">Early</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Echols_County,_Georgia" title="Echols County, Georgia">Echols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effingham_County,_Georgia" title="Effingham County, Georgia">Effingham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elbert_County,_Georgia" title="Elbert County, Georgia">Elbert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emanuel_County,_Georgia" title="Emanuel County, Georgia">Emanuel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evans_County,_Georgia" title="Evans County, Georgia">Evans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fannin_County,_Georgia" title="Fannin County, Georgia">Fannin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fayette_County,_Georgia" title="Fayette County, Georgia">Fayette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floyd_County,_Georgia" title="Floyd County, Georgia">Floyd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forsyth_County,_Georgia" title="Forsyth County, Georgia">Forsyth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_County,_Georgia" title="Franklin County, Georgia">Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fulton_County,_Georgia" title="Fulton County, Georgia">Fulton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilmer_County,_Georgia" title="Gilmer County, Georgia">Gilmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glascock_County,_Georgia" title="Glascock County, Georgia">Glascock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glynn_County,_Georgia" title="Glynn County, Georgia">Glynn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gordon_County,_Georgia" title="Gordon County, Georgia">Gordon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grady_County,_Georgia" title="Grady County, Georgia">Grady</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greene_County,_Georgia" title="Greene County, Georgia">Greene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gwinnett_County,_Georgia" title="Gwinnett County, Georgia">Gwinnett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habersham_County,_Georgia" title="Habersham County, Georgia">Habersham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hall_County,_Georgia" title="Hall County, Georgia">Hall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hancock_County,_Georgia" title="Hancock County, Georgia">Hancock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haralson_County,_Georgia" title="Haralson County, Georgia">Haralson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harris_County,_Georgia" title="Harris County, Georgia">Harris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hart_County,_Georgia" title="Hart County, Georgia">Hart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heard_County,_Georgia" title="Heard County, Georgia">Heard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_County,_Georgia" title="Henry County, Georgia">Henry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Houston_County,_Georgia" title="Houston County, Georgia">Houston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irwin_County,_Georgia" title="Irwin County, Georgia">Irwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jackson_County,_Georgia" title="Jackson County, Georgia">Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jasper_County,_Georgia" title="Jasper County, Georgia">Jasper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeff_Davis_County,_Georgia" title="Jeff Davis County, Georgia">Jeff Davis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jefferson_County,_Georgia" title="Jefferson County, Georgia">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jenkins_County,_Georgia" title="Jenkins County, Georgia">Jenkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johnson_County,_Georgia" title="Johnson County, Georgia">Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jones_County,_Georgia" title="Jones County, Georgia">Jones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamar_County,_Georgia" title="Lamar County, Georgia">Lamar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lanier_County,_Georgia" title="Lanier County, Georgia">Lanier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laurens_County,_Georgia" title="Laurens County, Georgia">Laurens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lee_County,_Georgia" title="Lee County, Georgia">Lee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty_County,_Georgia" title="Liberty County, Georgia">Liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lincoln_County,_Georgia" title="Lincoln County, Georgia">Lincoln</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Long_County,_Georgia" title="Long County, Georgia">Long</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lowndes_County,_Georgia" title="Lowndes County, Georgia">Lowndes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lumpkin_County,_Georgia" title="Lumpkin County, Georgia">Lumpkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macon_County,_Georgia" title="Macon County, Georgia">Macon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madison_County,_Georgia" title="Madison County, Georgia">Madison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marion_County,_Georgia" title="Marion County, Georgia">Marion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/McDuffie_County,_Georgia" title="McDuffie County, Georgia">McDuffie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/McIntosh_County,_Georgia" title="McIntosh County, Georgia">McIntosh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meriwether_County,_Georgia" title="Meriwether County, Georgia">Meriwether</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miller_County,_Georgia" title="Miller County, Georgia">Miller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitchell_County,_Georgia" title="Mitchell County, Georgia">Mitchell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monroe_County,_Georgia" title="Monroe County, Georgia">Monroe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montgomery_County,_Georgia" title="Montgomery County, Georgia">Montgomery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morgan_County,_Georgia" title="Morgan County, Georgia">Morgan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murray_County,_Georgia" title="Murray County, Georgia">Murray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muscogee_County,_Georgia" title="Muscogee County, Georgia">Muscogee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newton_County,_Georgia" title="Newton County, Georgia">Newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oconee_County,_Georgia" title="Oconee County, Georgia">Oconee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oglethorpe_County,_Georgia" title="Oglethorpe County, Georgia">Oglethorpe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paulding_County,_Georgia" title="Paulding County, Georgia">Paulding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peach_County,_Georgia" title="Peach County, Georgia">Peach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pickens_County,_Georgia" title="Pickens County, Georgia">Pickens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierce_County,_Georgia" title="Pierce County, Georgia">Pierce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pike_County,_Georgia" title="Pike County, Georgia">Pike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polk_County,_Georgia" title="Polk County, Georgia">Polk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulaski_County,_Georgia" title="Pulaski County, Georgia">Pulaski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Putnam_County,_Georgia" title="Putnam County, Georgia">Putnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quitman_County,_Georgia" title="Quitman County, Georgia">Quitman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rabun_County,_Georgia" title="Rabun County, Georgia">Rabun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Randolph_County,_Georgia" title="Randolph County, Georgia">Randolph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richmond_County,_Georgia" title="Richmond County, Georgia">Richmond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rockdale_County,_Georgia" title="Rockdale County, Georgia">Rockdale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schley_County,_Georgia" title="Schley County, Georgia">Schley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Screven_County,_Georgia" title="Screven County, Georgia">Screven</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seminole_County,_Georgia" title="Seminole County, Georgia">Seminole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spalding_County,_Georgia" title="Spalding County, Georgia">Spalding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephens_County,_Georgia" title="Stephens County, Georgia">Stephens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stewart_County,_Georgia" title="Stewart County, Georgia">Stewart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sumter_County,_Georgia" title="Sumter County, Georgia">Sumter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Talbot_County,_Georgia" title="Talbot County, Georgia">Talbot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taliaferro_County,_Georgia" title="Taliaferro County, Georgia">Taliaferro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tattnall_County,_Georgia" title="Tattnall County, Georgia">Tattnall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taylor_County,_Georgia" title="Taylor County, Georgia">Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telfair_County,_Georgia" title="Telfair County, Georgia">Telfair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terrell_County,_Georgia" title="Terrell County, Georgia">Terrell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_County,_Georgia" title="Thomas County, Georgia">Thomas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tift_County,_Georgia" title="Tift County, Georgia">Tift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toombs_County,_Georgia" title="Toombs County, Georgia">Toombs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Towns_County,_Georgia" title="Towns County, Georgia">Towns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treutlen_County,_Georgia" title="Treutlen County, Georgia">Treutlen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Troup_County,_Georgia" title="Troup County, Georgia">Troup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turner_County,_Georgia" title="Turner County, Georgia">Turner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twiggs_County,_Georgia" title="Twiggs County, Georgia">Twiggs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Union_County,_Georgia" title="Union County, Georgia">Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upson_County,_Georgia" title="Upson County, Georgia">Upson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walker_County,_Georgia" title="Walker County, Georgia">Walker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walton_County,_Georgia" title="Walton County, Georgia">Walton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ware_County,_Georgia" title="Ware County, Georgia">Ware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warren_County,_Georgia" title="Warren County, Georgia">Warren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washington_County,_Georgia" title="Washington County, Georgia">Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wayne_County,_Georgia" title="Wayne County, Georgia">Wayne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Webster_County,_Georgia" title="Webster County, Georgia">Webster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wheeler_County,_Georgia" title="Wheeler County, Georgia">Wheeler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_County,_Georgia" title="White County, Georgia">White</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whitfield_County,_Georgia" title="Whitfield County, Georgia">Whitfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilcox_County,_Georgia" title="Wilcox County, Georgia">Wilcox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilkes_County,_Georgia" title="Wilkes County, Georgia">Wilkes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilkinson_County,_Georgia" title="Wilkinson County, Georgia">Wilkinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Worth_County,_Georgia" title="Worth County, Georgia">Worth</a></li> <li>(<i><a href="/wiki/Campbell_County,_Georgia" title="Campbell County, Georgia">Campbell</a></i>)</li> <li>(<i><a href="/wiki/Milton_County,_Georgia" title="Milton County, Georgia">Milton</a></i>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><i><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Flag_of_the_State_of_Georgia.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_State_of_Georgia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Flag_of_the_State_of_Georgia.svg/48px-Flag_of_the_State_of_Georgia.svg.png 1.5x, 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class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="WikiProject"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Georgia (U.S. state)">WikiProject</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="24px&#124;border_&#124;alt=Oklahoma&#124;link=Oklahoma_History_of_Oklahoma" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_Oklahoma" class="mw-redirect" title="Template:History of Oklahoma"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_Oklahoma" class="mw-redirect" title="Template talk:History of Oklahoma"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_Oklahoma" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of Oklahoma"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="24px&#124;border_&#124;alt=Oklahoma&#124;link=Oklahoma_History_of_Oklahoma" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Oklahoma" title="Oklahoma"><img alt="Oklahoma" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Flag_of_Oklahoma.svg/24px-Flag_of_Oklahoma.svg.png" decoding="async" width="24" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Flag_of_Oklahoma.svg/36px-Flag_of_Oklahoma.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Flag_of_Oklahoma.svg/48px-Flag_of_Oklahoma.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="675" data-file-height="450" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/History_of_Oklahoma" title="History of Oklahoma">History of Oklahoma</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Prior to 19th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cooper_Bison_Kill_Site" title="Cooper Bison Kill Site">Cooper Bison Kill</a> (11th millennium BCE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiro_Mounds" title="Spiro Mounds">Spiro Mounds</a> (9th–15th century CE)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">19th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Purchase" title="Louisiana Purchase">Louisiana Purchase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arkansas_Territory" title="Arkansas Territory">Arkansas Territory</a> (1819−1824)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comanche%E2%80%93Mexico_Wars" title="Comanche–Mexico Wars">Comanche–Mexico Wars</a> (1821–1870s)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cutthroat_Gap_Massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Cutthroat Gap Massacre">Cutthroat Gap Massacre</a> (1833)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Removal" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Removal">Indian Removal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Territory" title="Indian Territory">Indian Territory</a> (1834–1907)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antelope_Hills_Expedition" class="mw-redirect" title="Antelope Hills Expedition">Antelope Hills Expedition</a> (1858)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Territory_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Indian Territory in the American Civil War">Civil War</a> (1861–1865)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washita_Massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Washita Massacre">Washita Massacre</a> (1868)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oklahoma_Territory" title="Oklahoma Territory">Oklahoma Territory</a> (1890–1907)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_run#In_Oklahoma" title="Land run">Land runs</a> (1890s)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">20th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/State_of_Sequoyah" title="State of Sequoyah">State of Sequoyah</a> (1905)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oklahoma" title="Oklahoma">State of Oklahoma</a> (1907)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crazy_Snake_Rebellion" title="Crazy Snake Rebellion">Crazy Snake Rebellion</a> (1909)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_Corn_Rebellion" title="Green Corn Rebellion">Green Corn Rebellion</a> (1917)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osage_Indian_murders" title="Osage Indian murders">Osage Indian murders</a> (1920s)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulsa_race_massacre" title="Tulsa race massacre">Tulsa race massacre</a> (1921)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dust_Bowl" title="Dust Bowl">Dust Bowl</a> (1930s)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_River_Bridge_War" title="Red River Bridge War">Red River Bridge War</a> (1931)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oklahoma_City_bombing" title="Oklahoma City bombing">Oklahoma City bombing</a> (1995)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">21st century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2005_University_of_Oklahoma_bombing" title="2005 University of Oklahoma bombing">OU Bombing</a> (2005)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Protected_areas_of_Tennessee" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#bbeb85;;background:#abdb75;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Protected_areas_of_Tennessee" title="Template:Protected areas of Tennessee"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Protected_areas_of_Tennessee" title="Template talk:Protected areas of Tennessee"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Protected_areas_of_Tennessee" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Protected areas of Tennessee"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Protected_areas_of_Tennessee" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Protected_areas_of_the_United_States" title="Protected areas of the United States">Protected areas</a> of <a href="/wiki/Tennessee" title="Tennessee">Tennessee</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#bbeb85;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Protected_areas_of_the_United_States" title="Protected areas of the United States">Federal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#cbfb95;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_national_parks_of_the_United_States" title="List of national parks of the United States">National parks</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Smoky_Mountains_National_Park" title="Great Smoky Mountains National Park">Great Smoky Mountains National Park</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#cbfb95;"><a href="/wiki/National_Historic_Site_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="National Historic Site (United States)">National historical<br />parks and sites</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Johnson_National_Historic_Site" title="Andrew Johnson National Historic Site">Andrew Johnson National Historic Site</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cumberland_Gap_National_Historical_Park" title="Cumberland Gap National Historical Park">Cumberland Gap National Historical Park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project_National_Historical_Park" title="Manhattan Project National Historical Park">Manhattan Project National Historical Park</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#cbfb95;"><a href="/wiki/National_Military_Park" class="mw-redirect" title="National Military Park">National Military Parks</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chickamauga_and_Chattanooga_National_Military_Park" title="Chickamauga and Chattanooga National Military Park">Chickamauga and Chattanooga National Military Park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fort_Donelson_National_Battlefield" title="Fort Donelson National Battlefield">Fort Donelson National Battlefield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shiloh_National_Military_Park" title="Shiloh National Military Park">Shiloh National Military Park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stones_River_National_Battlefield" title="Stones River National Battlefield">Stones River National Battlefield</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#cbfb95;"><a href="/wiki/National_recreation_area" title="National recreation area">National recreation areas</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Land_Between_the_Lakes_National_Recreation_Area" title="Land Between the Lakes National Recreation Area">Land Between the Lakes National Recreation Area</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#cbfb95;"><a href="/wiki/National_Trails_System" title="National Trails System">National Trails System</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Appalachian_Trail" title="Appalachian Trail">Appalachian National Scenic Trail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natchez_Trace_Trail" title="Natchez Trace Trail">Natchez Trace National Scenic Trail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overmountain_Victory_National_Historic_Trail" title="Overmountain Victory National Historic Trail">Overmountain Victory National Historic Trail</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Trail of Tears National Historic Trail</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#cbfb95;"><a href="/wiki/National_forest_(United_States)" title="National forest (United States)">National forests</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_National_Forest" title="Cherokee National Forest">Cherokee National Forest</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#cbfb95;"><a href="/wiki/National_Wild_and_Scenic_Rivers_System" title="National Wild and Scenic Rivers System">National Wild and Scenic Rivers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Obed_River" title="Obed River">Obed River</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#cbfb95;"><a href="/wiki/National_Wildlife_Refuge" title="National Wildlife Refuge">National Wildlife Refuges</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chickasaw_National_Wildlife_Refuge" title="Chickasaw National Wildlife Refuge">Chickasaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross_Creeks_National_Wildlife_Refuge" title="Cross Creeks National Wildlife Refuge">Cross Creeks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hatchie_National_Wildlife_Refuge" title="Hatchie National Wildlife Refuge">Hatchie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lake_Isom" title="Lake Isom">Lake Isom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lower_Hatchie_National_Wildlife_Refuge" title="Lower Hatchie National Wildlife Refuge">Lower Hatchie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reelfoot_National_Wildlife_Refuge" title="Reelfoot National Wildlife Refuge">Reelfoot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tennessee_National_Wildlife_Refuge" title="Tennessee National Wildlife Refuge">Tennessee</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#cbfb95;"><a href="/wiki/National_Wilderness_Preservation_System#Wilderness_areas" title="National Wilderness Preservation System">Wilderness areas</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bald_River_Gorge_Wilderness" title="Bald River Gorge Wilderness">Bald River Gorge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Big_Frog_Wilderness" title="Big Frog Wilderness">Big Frog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Big_Laurel_Branch_Wilderness" title="Big Laurel Branch Wilderness">Big Laurel Branch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Citico_Creek_Wilderness" title="Citico Creek Wilderness">Citico Creek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cohutta_Wilderness" title="Cohutta Wilderness">Cohutta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gee_Creek_Wilderness" title="Gee Creek Wilderness">Gee Creek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joyce_Kilmer-Slickrock_Wilderness" title="Joyce Kilmer-Slickrock Wilderness">Joyce Kilmer-Slickrock</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Little_Frog_Mountain_Wilderness&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Little Frog Mountain Wilderness (page does not exist)">Little Frog Mountain</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pond_Mountain_Wilderness&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pond Mountain Wilderness (page does not exist)">Pond Mountain</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sampson_Mountain_Wilderness&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sampson Mountain Wilderness (page does not exist)">Sampson Mountain</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unaka_Mountain_Wilderness&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Unaka Mountain Wilderness (page does not exist)">Unaka Mountain</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#cbfb95;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_areas_in_the_United_States_National_Park_System" title="List of areas in the United States National Park System">Other protected areas</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Big_South_Fork_National_River_and_Recreation_Area" title="Big South Fork National River and Recreation Area">Big South Fork National River and Recreation Area</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foothills_Parkway" title="Foothills Parkway">Foothills Parkway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gatlinburg_Bypass" title="Gatlinburg Bypass">Gatlinburg Bypass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natchez_Trace_Parkway" title="Natchez Trace Parkway">Natchez Trace Parkway</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#bbeb85;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Tennessee_state_parks_and_natural_areas" title="List of Tennessee state parks and natural areas">State</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#cbfb95;">East Tennessee<br />state parks</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Big_Ridge_State_Park" title="Big Ridge State Park">Big Ridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Booker_T._Washington_State_Park_(Tennessee)" title="Booker T. Washington State Park (Tennessee)">Booker T. Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cove_Lake_State_Park" title="Cove Lake State Park">Cove Lake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cumberland_Mountain_State_Park" title="Cumberland Mountain State Park">Cumberland Mountain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Crockett_Birthplace_State_Park" title="David Crockett Birthplace State Park">David Crockett Birthplace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_Creek_Falls_State_Park" title="Fall Creek Falls State Park">Fall Creek Falls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fort_Loudoun_State_Historic_Park" title="Fort Loudoun State Historic Park">Fort Loudoun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frozen_Head_State_Park" title="Frozen Head State Park">Frozen Head</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harrison_Bay_State_Park" title="Harrison Bay State Park">Harrison Bay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hiwassee/Ocoee_Scenic_River_State_Park" title="Hiwassee/Ocoee Scenic River State Park">Hiwassee/Ocoee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Mountain_State_Park" title="Indian Mountain State Park">Indian Mountain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justin_P._Wilson_Cumberland_Trail_State_Park" title="Justin P. Wilson Cumberland Trail State Park">Justin P. Wilson Cumberland Trail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamar_Alexander_Rocky_Fork_State_Park" title="Lamar Alexander Rocky Fork State Park">Lamar Alexander Rocky Fork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norris_Dam_State_Park" title="Norris Dam State Park">Norris Dam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panther_Creek_State_Park" title="Panther Creek State Park">Panther Creek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Clay_State_Historic_Park" title="Red Clay State Historic Park">Red Clay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roan_Mountain_State_Park" title="Roan Mountain State Park">Roan Mountain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_Islands_State_Birding_Park" title="Seven Islands State Birding Park">Seven Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sycamore_Shoals_State_Historic_Area" title="Sycamore Shoals State Historic Area">Sycamore Shoals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warriors%27_Path_State_Park" title="Warriors' Path State Park">Warriors' Path</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#cbfb95;">Middle Tennessee<br />state parks</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bicentennial_Capitol_Mall_State_Park" title="Bicentennial Capitol Mall State Park">Bicentennial Capitol Mall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bledsoe_Creek_State_Park" title="Bledsoe Creek State Park">Bledsoe Creek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burgess_Falls_State_Park" title="Burgess Falls State Park">Burgess Falls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cedars_of_Lebanon_State_Park" title="Cedars of Lebanon State Park">Cedars Of Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cordell_Hull_Birthplace_State_Park" title="Cordell Hull Birthplace State Park">Cordell Hull Birthplace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cummins_Falls_State_Park" title="Cummins Falls State Park">Cummins Falls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Crockett_State_Park" title="David Crockett State Park">David Crockett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dunbar_Cave_State_Park" title="Dunbar Cave State Park">Dunbar Cave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edgar_Evins_State_Park" title="Edgar Evins State Park">Edgar Evins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_Creek_Falls_State_Park" title="Fall Creek Falls State Park">Fall Creek Falls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harpeth_River_State_Park" title="Harpeth River State Park">Harpeth River</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Horton_State_Park" title="Henry Horton State Park">Henry Horton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johnsonville_State_Historic_Park" title="Johnsonville State Historic Park">Johnsonville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Long_Hunter_State_Park" title="Long Hunter State Park">Long Hunter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montgomery_Bell_State_Park" title="Montgomery Bell State Park">Montgomery Bell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mousetail_Landing_State_Park" title="Mousetail Landing State Park">Mousetail Landing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Stone_Fort_(Tennessee)" title="Old Stone Fort (Tennessee)">Old Stone Fort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pickett_CCC_Memorial_State_Park" title="Pickett CCC Memorial State Park">Pickett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Port_Royal_State_Park" title="Port Royal State Park">Port Royal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radnor_Lake_State_Natural_Area" title="Radnor Lake State Natural Area">Radnor Lake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rock_Island_State_Park_(Tennessee)" title="Rock Island State Park (Tennessee)">Rock Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sgt._Alvin_C._York_State_Historic_Park" title="Sgt. Alvin C. York State Historic Park">Sgt. Alvin C. York</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Cumberland_State_Park" title="South Cumberland State Park">South Cumberland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standing_Stone_State_Park" title="Standing Stone State Park">Standing Stone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tims_Ford_State_Park" title="Tims Ford State Park">Tims Ford</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#cbfb95;">West Tennessee<br />state parks</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Big_Cypress_Tree_State_Park" title="Big Cypress Tree State Park">Big Cypress Tree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Big_Hill_Pond_State_Park" title="Big Hill Pond State Park">Big Hill Pond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chickasaw_State_Park_(Tennessee)" title="Chickasaw State Park (Tennessee)">Chickasaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fort_Pillow_State_Historic_Park" title="Fort Pillow State Historic Park">Fort Pillow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meeman-Shelby_Forest_State_Park" title="Meeman-Shelby Forest State Park">Meeman-Shelby Forest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natchez_Trace_State_Park" title="Natchez Trace State Park">Natchez Trace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nathan_Bedford_Forrest_State_Park" title="Nathan Bedford Forrest State Park">Nathan Bedford Forrest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paris_Landing_State_Park" title="Paris Landing State Park">Paris Landing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pickwick_Landing_State_Park" title="Pickwick Landing State Park">Pickwick Landing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pinson_Mounds" title="Pinson Mounds">Pinson Mounds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reelfoot_Lake_State_Park" title="Reelfoot Lake State Park">Reelfoot Lake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T._O._Fuller_State_Park" title="T. O. Fuller State Park">T. O. Fuller</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#cbfb95;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Tennessee_state_forests" title="List of Tennessee state forests">State forests</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bledsoe_State_Forest&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bledsoe State Forest (page does not exist)">Bledsoe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cedars_of_Lebanon_State_Forest" class="mw-redirect" title="Cedars of Lebanon State Forest">Cedars of Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chickasaw_State_Forest&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Chickasaw State Forest (page does not exist)">Chickasaw</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chuck_Swan_State_Forest&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Chuck Swan State Forest (page does not exist)">Chuck Swan</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Franklin_State_Forest&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Franklin State Forest (page does not exist)">Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Tully_State_Forest&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="John Tully State Forest (page does not exist)">John Tully</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lewis_State_Forest&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lewis State Forest (page does not exist)">Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lone_Mountain_State_Forest" title="Lone Mountain State Forest">Lone Mountain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Sundquist_State_Forest" title="Martha Sundquist State Forest">Martha Sundquist</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Natchez_Trace_State_Forest&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Natchez Trace State Forest (page does not exist)">Natchez Trace</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pickett_State_Forest&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pickett State Forest (page does not exist)">Pickett</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Prentice_Cooper_State_Forest&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Prentice Cooper State Forest (page does not exist)">Prentice Cooper</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Scott_State_Forest&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Scott State Forest (page does not exist)">Scott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standing_Stone_State_Park" title="Standing Stone State Park">Standing Stone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stewart_State_Forest" title="Stewart State Forest">Stewart</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#cbfb95;"><a href="/wiki/Pocket_wilderness" title="Pocket wilderness">State natural areas</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Auntney_Hollow_State_Natural_Area&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Auntney Hollow State Natural Area (page does not exist)">Auntney Hollow</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Barnett%27s_Woods_State_Natural_Area&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Barnett's Woods State Natural Area (page does not exist)">Barnett's Woods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bays_Mountain_Park" title="Bays Mountain Park">Bays Mountain</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Beaman_Park_State_Natural_Area&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Beaman Park State Natural Area (page does not exist)">Beaman Park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Big_Bone_Cave" title="Big Bone Cave">Big Bone Cave</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Campbell_Bend_Barrens_State_Natural_Area&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Campbell Bend Barrens State Natural Area (page does not exist)">Campbell Bend Barrens</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carroll_Cabin_Barrens_Glade_State_Natural_Area&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Carroll Cabin Barrens Glade State Natural Area (page does not exist)">Carroll Cabin Barrens Glade</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mr._and_Mrs._Harry_Lee_Carter_State_Natural_Area&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mr. and Mrs. Harry Lee Carter State Natural Area (page does not exist)">Mr. and Mrs. Harry Lee Carter</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chimneys_State_Natural_Area&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Chimneys State Natural Area (page does not exist)">Chimneys</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Colditz_Cove_State_Natural_Area&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Colditz Cove State Natural Area (page does not exist)">Colditz Cove</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Couchville_Cedar_Glade_State_Natural_Area" title="Couchville Cedar Glade State Natural Area">Couchville Cedar Glade</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crowder_Cemetery_Barrens_State_Natural_Area&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Crowder Cemetery Barrens State Natural Area (page does not exist)">Crowder Cemetery Barrens</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Devils_Backbone_State_Natural_Area&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Devils Backbone State Natural Area (page does not exist)">Devils Backbone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dry_Branch_State_Natural_Area" title="Dry Branch State Natural Area">Dry Branch</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Duck_River_Complex_State_Natural_Area&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Duck River Complex State Natural Area (page does not exist)">Duck River Complex</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Elsie_Quarterman_Cedar_Glade_State_Natural_Area&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Elsie Quarterman Cedar Glade State Natural Area (page does not exist)">Elsie Quarterman Cedar Glade</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Falling_Water_Falls_State_Natural_Area&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Falling Water Falls State Natural Area (page does not exist)">Falling Water Falls</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fate_Sanders_Barrens_State_Natural_Area&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Fate Sanders Barrens State Natural Area (page does not exist)">Fate Sanders Barrens</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flat_Rock_Cedar_Glade_%26_Barrens_State_Natural_Area&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Flat Rock Cedar Glade & Barrens State Natural Area (page does not exist)">Flat Rock Cedar Glade & Barrens</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gattinger%E2%80%99s_Cedar_Glade_%26_Barrens_State_Natural_Area&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gattinger’s Cedar Glade & Barrens State Natural Area (page does not exist)">Gattinger’s Cedar Glade & Barrens</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ghost_River_State_Natural_Area&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ghost River State Natural Area (page does not exist)">Ghost River</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Grundy_Forest_State_Natural_Area&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Grundy Forest State Natural Area (page does not exist)">Grundy Forest</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hampton_Creek_Cove_State_Natural_Area&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hampton Creek Cove State Natural Area (page does not exist)">Hampton Creek Cove</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hawkins_Cove_State_Natural_Area&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hawkins Cove State Natural Area (page does not exist)">Hawkins Cove</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hicks_Gap_State_Natural_Area&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hicks Gap State Natural Area (page does not exist)">Hicks Gap</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hill_Forest_State_Natural_Area&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hill Forest State Natural Area (page does not exist)">Hill Forest</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Honey_Creek_State_Natural_Area_(Tennessee)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Honey Creek State Natural Area (Tennessee) (page does not exist)">Honey Creek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_Mountain_(Knox_County,_Tennessee)" title="House Mountain (Knox County, Tennessee)">House Mountain</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hubbard%E2%80%99s_Cave_State_Natural_Area&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hubbard’s Cave State Natural Area (page does not exist)">Hubbard’s Cave</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=John_%26_Hester_Lane_Cedar_Glades_State_Natural_Area&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="John & Hester Lane Cedar Glades State Natural Area (page does not exist)">John & Hester Lane Cedar Glades</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Noel_at_Bon_Aqua_State_Natural_Area&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="John Noel at Bon Aqua State Natural Area (page does not exist)">John Noel at Bon Aqua</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Langford_Branch_State_Natural_Area&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Langford Branch State Natural Area (page does not exist)">Langford Branch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laurel-Snow_State_Natural_Area" title="Laurel-Snow State Natural Area">Laurel-Snow </a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lost_Creek_State_Natural_Area&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lost Creek State Natural Area (page does not exist)">Lost Creek</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lucius_Burch_Jr._Forest_State_Natural_Area&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lucius Burch Jr. Forest State Natural Area (page does not exist)">Lucius Burch Jr. Forest</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Manus_Road_Cedar_Glade_State_Natural_Area&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Manus Road Cedar Glade State Natural Area (page does not exist)">Manus Road Cedar Glade</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=May_Prairie_State_Natural_Area&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="May Prairie State Natural Area (page does not exist)">May Prairie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Chickamauga_Creek_Gorge_State_Park" title="North Chickamauga Creek Gorge State Park">North Chickamauga Creek Gorge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Forest_Arboretum_of_Overton_Park" title="Old Forest Arboretum of Overton Park">Old Forest</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Overbridge_State_Natural_Area&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Overbridge State Natural Area (page does not exist)">Overbridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ozone_Falls_State_Natural_Area" title="Ozone Falls State Natural Area">Ozone Falls</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Piney_Falls_State_Natural_Area&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Piney Falls State Natural Area (page does not exist)">Piney Falls</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pogue_Creek_State_Natural_Area&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pogue Creek State Natural Area (page does not exist)">Pogue Creek</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Powell_River_Preserve_State_Natural_Area&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Powell River Preserve State Natural Area (page does not exist)">Powell River Preserve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radnor_Lake_State_Natural_Area" title="Radnor Lake State Natural Area">Radnor Lake</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Riverwoods_State_Natural_Area&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Riverwoods State Natural Area (page does not exist)">Riverwoods</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roundtop_Mountain_State_Natural_Area&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Roundtop Mountain State Natural Area (page does not exist)">Roundtop Mountain</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rugby_Tennessee&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rugby Tennessee (page does not exist)">Rugby</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Savage_Gulf_State_Natural_Area&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Savage Gulf State Natural Area (page does not exist)">Savage Gulf</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sequatchie_Cave_State_Natural_Area&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sequatchie Cave State Natural Area (page does not exist)">Sequatchie Cave</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Short_Mountain_State_Natural_Area&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Short Mountain State Natural Area (page does not exist)">Short Mountain</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Short_Springs_State_Natural_Area&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Short Springs State Natural Area (page does not exist)">Short Springs</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sneed_Road_Cedar_Glade_State_Natural_Area&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sneed Road Cedar Glade State Natural Area (page does not exist)">Sneed Road Cedar Glade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stillhouse_Hollow_Falls_State_Natural_Area" title="Stillhouse Hollow Falls State Natural Area">Stillhouse Hollow Falls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stinging_Fork_Falls_State_Natural_Area" title="Stinging Fork Falls State Natural Area">Stinging Fork Falls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stones_River_National_Battlefield" title="Stones River National Battlefield">Stones River Cedar Glade & Barrens</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sunk_Lake_State_Natural_Area&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sunk Lake State Natural Area (page does not exist)">Sunk Lake</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sunnybell_Cedar_Glade_State_Natural_Area&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sunnybell Cedar Glade State Natural Area (page does not exist)">Sunnybell Cedar Glade</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Taylor_Hollow_State_Natural_Area&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Taylor Hollow State Natural Area (page does not exist)">Taylor Hollow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Big_South_Fork_National_River_and_Recreation_Area" title="Big South Fork National River and Recreation Area">Twin Arches</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vesta_Cedar_GladeState_Natural_Area&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Vesta Cedar GladeState Natural Area (page does not exist)">Vesta Cedar Glade</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vine_Cedar_Glade_State_Natural_Area&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Vine Cedar Glade State Natural Area (page does not exist)">Vine Cedar Glade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virgin_Falls_State_Natural_Area" class="mw-redirect" title="Virgin Falls State Natural Area">Virgin Falls</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Walker_Branch_State_Natural_Area&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Walker Branch State Natural Area (page does not exist)">Walker Branch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Walls_of_Jericho_(canyon)" title="The Walls of Jericho (canyon)">Walls of Jericho</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Walterhill_Floodplain_State_Natural_Area&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Walterhill Floodplain State Natural Area (page does not exist)">Walterhill Floodplain</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Washmorgan_Hollow_State_Natural_Area&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Washmorgan Hollow State Natural Area (page does not exist)">Washmorgan Hollow</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Watauga_River_Bluffs_State_Natural_Area&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Watauga River Bluffs State Natural Area (page does not exist)">Watauga River Bluffs</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=William_B._Clark_Conservation_Area&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="William B. Clark Conservation Area (page does not exist)">William B. Clark</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=William_R._Davenport_Refuge_State_Natural_Area&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="William R. Davenport Refuge State Natural Area (page does not exist)">William R. Davenport Refuge</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wilson_School_Road_Forest_and_Cedar_Glades_State_Natural_Area&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Wilson School Road Forest and Cedar Glades State Natural Area (page does not exist)">Wilson School Road</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Window_Cliffs_State_Natural_Area" title="Window Cliffs State Natural Area">Window Cliffs</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#cbfb95;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buffalo_Ridge_Refuge" title="Buffalo Ridge Refuge">Buffalo Ridge Refuge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catoosa_Wildlife_Management_Area" title="Catoosa Wildlife Management Area">Catoosa Wildlife Management Area</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background:#bbeb85;;font-style: italic;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tennessee_Department_of_Agriculture" title="Tennessee Department of Agriculture">Tennessee Department of Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tennessee_Department_of_Environment_and_Conservation" title="Tennessee Department of Environment and Conservation">Tennessee Department of Environment and Conservation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Seminole" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#ccccff;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Seminole" title="Template:Seminole"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Seminole" title="Template talk:Seminole"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Seminole" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Seminole"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Seminole" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Seminole" title="Seminole">Seminole</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#ccccff;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_federally_recognized_tribes" class="mw-redirect" title="List of federally recognized tribes">Federally recognized tribes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;padding:0.25em 0; line-height:1.em;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Miccosukee_Tribe_of_Indians_of_Florida" class="mw-redirect" title="Miccosukee Tribe of Indians of Florida">Miccosukee Tribe of Indians of Florida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seminole_Nation_of_Oklahoma" title="Seminole Nation of Oklahoma">Seminole Nation of Oklahoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seminole_Tribe_of_Florida" title="Seminole Tribe of Florida">Seminole Tribe of Florida</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#ccccff;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Indian_reservations" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian reservations">Reservations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;padding:0.25em 0; line-height:1.em;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Big_Cypress_Reservation" title="Big Cypress Reservation">Big Cypress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brighton_Reservation" title="Brighton Reservation">Brighton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fort_Pierce_Reservation" class="mw-redirect" title="Fort Pierce Reservation">Fort Pierce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hollywood_Reservation" title="Hollywood Reservation">Hollywood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immokalee_Reservation" class="mw-redirect" title="Immokalee Reservation">Immokalee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miccosukee_Reservation" class="mw-redirect" title="Miccosukee Reservation">Miccosukee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tampa_Reservation" title="Tampa Reservation">Tampa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#ccccff;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_languages_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous languages of the Americas">Languages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;padding:0.25em 0; line-height:1.em;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afro-Seminole_Creole" title="Afro-Seminole Creole">Afro-Seminole Creole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikasuki_language" title="Mikasuki language">Mikasuki language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muscogee_language" title="Muscogee language">Muscogee language</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#ccccff;;width:1%">Culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;padding:0.25em 0; line-height:1.em;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ah-Tah-Thi-Ki_Seminole_Indian_Museum" title="Ah-Tah-Thi-Ki Seminole Indian Museum">Ah-Tah-Thi-Ki Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alligator_wrestling" title="Alligator wrestling">Alligator wrestling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Seminoles" title="Black Seminoles">Black Seminoles</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mascogos" title="Mascogos">Mascogos</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chickee" title="Chickee">Chickee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fastachee" title="Fastachee">Fastachee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Mothers_Society" title="Four Mothers Society">Four Mothers Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_Corn_Ceremony" title="Green Corn Ceremony">Green Corn Ceremony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seminole_music" title="Seminole music">Seminole music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stomp_dance" title="Stomp dance">Stomp dance</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#ccccff;;width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;padding:0.25em 0; line-height:1.em;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_people_of_the_Everglades_region" title="Indigenous people of the Everglades region">Indigenous people of the Everglades region</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seminole_Wars" title="Seminole Wars">Seminole Wars</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Trail of Tears</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_Corn_Rebellion" title="Green Corn Rebellion">Green Corn Rebellion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#ccccff;;width:1%">Politics and law</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;padding:0.25em 0; line-height:1.em;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_chiefs_of_the_Seminoles" title="List of chiefs of the Seminoles">List of chiefs</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Oklahoma_Tax_Commission_v._United_States" title="Oklahoma Tax Commission v. United States">Oklahoma Tax Commission v. United States</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Seminole_Nation_v._United_States" title="Seminole Nation v. United States">Seminole Nation v. United States</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#ccccff;;width:1%">Education</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;padding:0.25em 0; line-height:1.em;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ahfachkee_School" title="Ahfachkee School">Ahfachkee School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miccosukee_Indian_School" title="Miccosukee Indian School">Miccosukee Indian School</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Cherokee" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Cherokee" title="Template:Cherokee"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Cherokee" title="Template talk:Cherokee"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Cherokee" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Cherokee"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Cherokee" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Cherokee" title="Cherokee">Cherokee</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Tribes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Nation" title="Cherokee Nation">Cherokee Nation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Band_of_Cherokee_Indians" title="Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians">Eastern Band</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Keetoowah_Band_of_Cherokee_Indians" title="United Keetoowah Band of Cherokee Indians">United Keetoowah Band</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_society" title="Cherokee society">Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_National_Holiday" title="Cherokee National Holiday">National holiday</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_calendar" title="Cherokee calendar">Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_clans" title="Cherokee clans">Clans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Principal_Chiefs_of_the_Cherokee" title="List of Principal Chiefs of the Cherokee">Chiefs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gadugi" class="mw-redirect" title="Gadugi">Gadugi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghigau" title="Ghigau">Ghigau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_Corn_Ceremony" title="Green Corn Ceremony">Green Corn Ceremony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_language" title="Cherokee language">Language</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Cherokee_language" title="History of the Cherokee language">history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_syllabary" title="Cherokee syllabary">syllabary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_(Unicode_block)" title="Cherokee (Unicode block)">Cherokee (Unicode block)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Supplement" title="Cherokee Supplement">Cherokee Supplement (Unicode block)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Immersion_School" title="Cherokee Immersion School">Cherokee Immersion School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Kituwah_Academy" title="New Kituwah Academy">New Kituwah Academy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_marbles" title="Cherokee marbles">Marbles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_spiritual_beliefs" title="Cherokee spiritual beliefs">Spiritual beliefs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moon-eyed_people" title="Moon-eyed people">Moon-eyed people</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_ethnobotany" title="Cherokee ethnobotany">Ethnobotany</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_drink" class="mw-redirect" title="Black drink">Black drink</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanuchi" title="Kanuchi">Kanuchi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stomp_dance" title="Stomp dance">Stomp dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Booger_dance" title="Booger dance">Booger dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_the_Cherokee_Nation" title="Flag of the Cherokee Nation">Flag of the Cherokee Nation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Legends</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ani_Hyuntikwalaski" title="Ani Hyuntikwalaski">Ani Hyuntikwalaski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deer_Woman" title="Deer Woman">Deer Woman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horned_Serpent" title="Horned Serpent">Horned Serpent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moon-eyed_people" title="Moon-eyed people">Moon-eyed people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nun%27Yunu%27Wi" title="Nun'Yunu'Wi">Nun'Yunu'Wi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N%C3%BB%C3%B1n%C3%AB%27h%C3%AF" title="Nûñnë'hï">Nûñnë'hï</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raven_Mocker" title="Raven Mocker">Kâ'lanû Ahkyeli'skï</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spearfinger" title="Spearfinger">U'tlun'ta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsul_%27Kalu" title="Tsul 'Kalu">Tsul 'Kalu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_history" title="Cherokee history">History</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Cherokee_history" title="Timeline of Cherokee history">timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_military_history" title="Cherokee military history">military</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_treaties" title="Cherokee treaties">Treaties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kituwa" title="Kituwa">Kituwa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ani-kutani" title="Ani-kutani">Ani-kutani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skiagusta" title="Skiagusta">skiagusta (rank)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utsidihi" class="mw-redirect" title="Utsidihi">outacite (rank)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raven_of_Chota" title="Raven of Chota">Raven of Chota</a></li> <li>Wars <ul><li>Tribal Wars <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Taliwa" title="Battle of Taliwa">Battle of Taliwa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Cherokee_War" title="Anglo-Cherokee War">Anglo-Cherokee War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Fort_Loudoun" title="Siege of Fort Loudoun">Siege of Fort Loudoun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Echoee" title="Battle of Echoee">Battle of Echoee</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_War_of_1776" class="mw-redirect" title="Cherokee War of 1776">Cherokee War of 1776</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee%E2%80%93American_wars" title="Cherokee–American wars">Cherokee–American wars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hightower" title="Battle of Hightower">Battle of Hightower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lindley%27s_Fort" title="Battle of Lindley's Fort">Battle of Lindley's Fort</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nickajack_Expedition" title="Nickajack Expedition">Nickajack Expedition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Cherokee in the American Civil War">American Civil War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1st_Cherokee_Mounted_Rifles" title="1st Cherokee Mounted Rifles">1st Cherokee Mounted Rifles</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_treaties" title="Cherokee treaties">Cherokee treaties</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_New_Echota" title="Treaty of New Echota">Treaty of New Echota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Tellico" title="Treaty of Tellico">Treaty of Tellico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Turkeytown" title="Treaty of Turkeytown">Treaty of Turkeytown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Dewitt%27s_Corner" title="Treaty of Dewitt's Corner">Treaty of Dewitt's Corner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Hard_Labour" title="Treaty of Hard Labour">Treaty of Hard Labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Lochaber" title="Treaty of Lochaber">Treaty of Lochaber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Hopewell" title="Treaty of Hopewell">Treaty of Hopewell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Holston" title="Treaty of Holston">Treaty of Holston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jackson_and_McMinn_Treaty" title="Jackson and McMinn Treaty">Jackson and McMinn Treaty</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transylvania_Colony" title="Transylvania Colony">Transylvania Purchase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chickamauga_Cherokee" title="Chickamauga Cherokee">Chickamauga Cherokee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overhill_Cherokee" title="Overhill Cherokee">Overhill Cherokee</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Phoenix" title="Cherokee Phoenix">Cherokee Phoenix</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Nation_(1794%E2%80%931907)" title="Cherokee Nation (1794–1907)">Cherokee Nation (1794–1907)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_removal" title="Cherokee removal">Removal</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Trail of Tears</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Removal_Act" title="Indian Removal Act">Indian Removal Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_descent" title="Cherokee descent">Cherokee descent</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacob_Brown_Grant_Deeds" title="Jacob Brown Grant Deeds">Jacob Brown Grant Deeds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Texas_Cherokees" title="Texas Cherokees">Texas Cherokees</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Heritage_Center" title="Cherokee Heritage Center">Heritage Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Preservation_Foundation" title="Cherokee Preservation Foundation">Cherokee Preservation Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Nation_Warriors_Society" title="Cherokee Nation Warriors Society">Warriors Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Original_Keetoowah_Society" title="Original Keetoowah Society">Original Keetoowah Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keetoowah_Nighthawk_Society" title="Keetoowah Nighthawk Society">Keetoowah Nighthawk Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_National_Youth_Choir" title="Cherokee National Youth Choir">Youth Choir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_heritage_groups" title="Cherokee heritage groups">Heritage groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Southwest_Township_(Albuquerque,_New_Mexico)" title="Cherokee Southwest Township (Albuquerque, New Mexico)">Cherokee Southwest Township</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oconaluftee_Indian_Village" title="Oconaluftee Indian Village">Oconaluftee Indian Village</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Unto_These_Hills" title="Unto These Hills">Unto These Hills</a></i></li></ul></li> <li>Education <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Female_Seminary" title="Cherokee Female Seminary">Female Seminary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Male_Seminary" title="Cherokee Male Seminary">Male Seminary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Central_Schools" title="Cherokee Central Schools">Cherokee Central Schools</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_High_School_(North_Carolina)" title="Cherokee High School (North Carolina)">Cherokee High School</a></li></ul></li> <li>Sequoyah Schools <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sequoyah_High_School_(Cherokee_County,_Oklahoma)" title="Sequoyah High School (Cherokee County, Oklahoma)">Sequoyah High School</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Politics and law</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Principal_Chiefs_of_the_Cherokee" class="mw-redirect" title="Principal Chiefs of the Cherokee">Principal Chiefs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_Law" title="Blood Law">Blood Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amerindian_slave_ownership#Cherokee" title="Amerindian slave ownership">Slavery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1842_Slave_Revolt_in_the_Cherokee_Nation" title="1842 Slave Revolt in the Cherokee Nation">1842 revolt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_freedmen_controversy" title="Cherokee freedmen controversy">freedmen controversy</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Nation_v._Georgia" title="Cherokee Nation v. Georgia">Cherokee Nation v. Georgia</a></i> (1831)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Worcester_v._Georgia" title="Worcester v. Georgia">Worcester v. Georgia</a></i> (1832)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Cherokee_Tobacco" title="The Cherokee Tobacco">The Cherokee Tobacco</a> case</i> (1871)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Nation_of_Oklahoma_v._Leavitt" title="Cherokee Nation of Oklahoma v. Leavitt">Cherokee Nation v. Leavitt</a></i> (2005)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Commission" title="Cherokee Commission">Cherokee Commission</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Outlet" title="Cherokee Outlet">Cherokee Strip</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Strip_(Kansas)" title="Cherokee Strip (Kansas)">in Kansas</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sequoyah_Constitutional_Convention" title="Sequoyah Constitutional Convention">Sequoyah Constitutional Convention</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Towns and<br /> villages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historic_Cherokee_settlements" title="Historic Cherokee settlements">Cherokee Towns (pre-Removal)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Long_Island_(Tennessee)" title="Long Island (Tennessee)">Amoyeligunahita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brasstown,_North_Carolina" title="Brasstown, North Carolina">Brasstown</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chatuga_(Cherokee_town)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Chatuga (Cherokee town) (page does not exist)">Chatuga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chilhowee_(Cherokee_town)" title="Chilhowee (Cherokee town)">Chilhowee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chota_(Cherokee_town)" title="Chota (Cherokee town)">Chota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conasauga,_Georgia" title="Conasauga, Georgia">Conasauga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Too-Cowee" title="Too-Cowee">Cowee</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coyotee&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Coyotee (page does not exist)">Coyotee</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crowtown,_Alabama&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Crowtown, Alabama (page does not exist)">Crowtown</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dirt_town_(Cherokee_town)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dirt town (Cherokee town) (page does not exist)">Dirt town</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ducktown,_Tennessee" title="Ducktown, Tennessee">Ducktown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rome,_Georgia" title="Rome, Georgia">Etowah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frogtown_Creek" title="Frogtown Creek">Frogtown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Hiwassee" title="Great Hiwassee">Hiwassee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hiwassee_Island" title="Hiwassee Island">Hiwassee Island</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Island_town_(Cherokee_town)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Island town (Cherokee town) (page does not exist)">Island town</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isunigu" title="Isunigu">Isunigu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joara" title="Joara">Joara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keowee" title="Keowee">Keowee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kituwa" title="Kituwa">Kituwa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sugartown" title="Sugartown">Kulsetsiyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Long_Swamp_Site" title="Long Swamp Site">Long Swamp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mialoquo_(Cherokee_town)" title="Mialoquo (Cherokee town)">Mialoquo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nacoochee_Mound" title="Nacoochee Mound">Nacoochee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nantahala,_North_Carolina" title="Nantahala, North Carolina">Nantahala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Echota" title="New Echota">New</a><a href="/wiki/New_Town,_Georgia" title="New Town, Georgia">Echota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nickajack" title="Nickajack">Nickajack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikwasi" title="Nikwasi">Nikwasi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nununyi" title="Nununyi">Nununyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocoee,_Tennessee" title="Ocoee, Tennessee">Ocoee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oconee_County,_South_Carolina" title="Oconee County, South Carolina">Oconee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oostanaula,_Georgia" title="Oostanaula, Georgia">Oostanaula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Clay,_Georgia" title="Red Clay, Georgia">Red Clay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Citico_(Cherokee_town)" title="Citico (Cherokee town)">Settico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spikebuck_Town_Mound_and_Village_Site" title="Spikebuck Town Mound and Village Site">Spike Bucktown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tallassee_(Cherokee_town)" title="Tallassee (Cherokee town)">Talisi</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Talulah_(Cherokee_town)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Talulah (Cherokee town) (page does not exist)">Talulah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanasi" title="Tanasi">Tanasi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Tellico" title="Great Tellico">Tellico</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tomassee_(Cherokee_town)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tomassee (Cherokee town) (page does not exist)">Tomassee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tomotley" title="Tomotley">Tomotley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toqua_(Tennessee)" title="Toqua (Tennessee)">Toqua</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Toxoway_(Cherokee_town)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Toxoway (Cherokee town) (page does not exist)">Toxoway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/St._Elmo_Historic_District_(Chattanooga,_Tennessee)" title="St. Elmo Historic District (Chattanooga, Tennessee)">Tsatanugi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuckasegee,_North_Carolina" title="Tuckasegee, North Carolina">Tuckasegee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tugaloo" title="Tugaloo">Tugaloo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkeytown_(Cherokee_town)" title="Turkeytown (Cherokee town)">Turkeytown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turtletown,_Tennessee" title="Turtletown, Tennessee">Turtletown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuskegee_(Cherokee_town)" title="Tuskegee (Cherokee town)">Tuskegee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whiteside,_Tennessee" title="Whiteside, Tennessee">Running Water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willstown_(Cherokee_town)" title="Willstown (Cherokee town)">Titsohili</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Nation_(1794%E2%80%931907)" title="Cherokee Nation (1794–1907)">Cherokee Nations</a></li> <li>Western Cherokee Nation <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Nation" title="Cherokee Nation">Cherokee Nation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tahlequah,_Oklahoma" title="Tahlequah, Oklahoma">Tahlequah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tahlonteeskee,_Oklahoma" title="Tahlonteeskee, Oklahoma">Tahlonteeskee</a></li></ul></li> <li>Eastern Band <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee,_North_Carolina" title="Cherokee, North Carolina">Cherokee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qualla_Boundary" title="Qualla Boundary">Qualla Boundary</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Landmarks and<br /> memorial sites</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_National_Capitol" title="Cherokee National Capitol">Cherokee National Capitol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Removal_Memorial_Park" title="Cherokee Removal Memorial Park">Cherokee Removal Memorial Park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chieftains_Museum" title="Chieftains Museum">Chieftains Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Cherokee_Female_Seminary_Site" title="First Cherokee Female Seminary Site">First Cherokee Female Seminary Site</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaculla_Rock" title="Judaculla Rock">Judaculla Rock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Long_Island_(Tennessee)" title="Long Island (Tennessee)">Long Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Ross_House_(Rossville,_Georgia)" title="John Ross House (Rossville, Georgia)">John Ross House</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ross%27s_Landing" title="Ross's Landing">Ross's Landing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sequoyah%27s_Cabin" title="Sequoyah's Cabin">Sequoyah's Cabin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tellico_Blockhouse" title="Tellico Blockhouse">Tellico Blockhouse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trail_of_Tears_State_Park" title="Trail of Tears State Park">Trail of Tears State Park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brainerd_Mission" title="Brainerd Mission">Brainerd Mission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rattlesnake_Springs" title="Rattlesnake Springs">Rattlesnake Springs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fort_Cass" title="Fort Cass">Fort Cass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Clay_State_Historic_Park" title="Red Clay State Historic Park">Red Clay State Historic Park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hair_Conrad_Cabin" title="Hair Conrad Cabin">Hair Conrad Cabin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nancy_Ward_Tomb" title="Nancy Ward Tomb">Nancy Ward Tomb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blythe_Ferry" title="Blythe Ferry">Blythe Ferry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bussell_Island" title="Bussell Island">Bussell Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chief_Vann_House_Historic_Site" title="Chief Vann House Historic Site">Chief Vann House Historic Site</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mantle_Rock_Archeological_District" title="Mantle Rock Archeological District">Mantle Rock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Museum_of_the_Cherokee_People" title="Museum of the Cherokee People">Museum of the Cherokee People</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asheville,_North_Carolina" title="Asheville, North Carolina">Untokiasdiyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standing_Stone_State_Park" title="Standing Stone State Park">Standing</a> <a href="/wiki/Monterey,_Tennessee" title="Monterey, Tennessee">Stone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ball_Ground,_Georgia" title="Ball Ground, Georgia">Stick Ball Grounds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cullasaja_River" title="Cullasaja River">Cullasaja River</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuckasegee_River" title="Tuckasegee River">Tuckasegee River</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oconaluftee_(Great_Smoky_Mountains)" title="Oconaluftee (Great Smoky Mountains)">Oconaluftee valley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oconaluftee_River" title="Oconaluftee River">Oconaluftee River</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abrams_Creek_(Tennessee)" title="Abrams Creek (Tennessee)">Abrams Creek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sycamore_Shoals" title="Sycamore Shoals">Sycamore Shoals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trading_Path" title="Trading Path">The Great Trading Path</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Indian_Warpath" title="Great Indian Warpath">The Great War Path</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hiwassee_River_Heritage_Center" title="Hiwassee River Heritage Center">Hiwassee River Heritage Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chatata" title="Chatata">Chatata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Townsend,_Tennessee" title="Townsend, Tennessee">Tuckaleechee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fort_Smith_National_Historic_Site" title="Fort Smith National Historic Site"> Fort Smith Historic Site</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Port_Royal_State_Park" title="Port Royal State Park">Port Royal State Park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_Civilized_Tribes_Museum" title="Five Civilized Tribes Museum">Five Civilized Tribes Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murphy,_North_Carolina" title="Murphy, North Carolina">Tlanusiyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Path" title="Cherokee Path">Cherokee Path</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Early leaders <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moytoy_of_Tellico" title="Moytoy of Tellico">Moytoy of Tellico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attakullakulla" title="Attakullakulla">Attakullakulla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amouskositte" title="Amouskositte">Amouskositte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conocotocko_I" title="Conocotocko I">Old Hop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moytoy_of_Citico" title="Moytoy of Citico">Moytoy of Citico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conocotocko_II" title="Conocotocko II">Standing Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ostenaco" title="Ostenaco">Outacite of Keowee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oconostota" title="Oconostota">Oconostota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Savanukah" title="Savanukah">Savanukah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Tassel" title="Old Tassel">Old Tassel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Little_Turkey" title="Little Turkey">Little Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dragging_Canoe" title="Dragging Canoe">Dragging Canoe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Watts_(Cherokee_chief)" title="John Watts (Cherokee chief)">Kunokeski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doublehead" title="Doublehead">Incalatanga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tagwadihi" title="Tagwadihi">Tagwadihi</a></li></ul></li> <li>Cherokee Nation East (1794–1839) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Fox_(Cherokee_chief)" title="Black Fox (Cherokee chief)">Enola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pathkiller" title="Pathkiller">Pathkiller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Big_Tiger" title="Big Tiger">Big Tiger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_R._Hicks" title="Charles R. Hicks">Charles R. Hicks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Hicks_(Cherokee_chief)" title="William Hicks (Cherokee chief)">William Hicks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Ross_(Cherokee_chief)" title="John Ross (Cherokee chief)">John Ross</a></li></ul></li> <li>Cherokee Nation West (1810–1839) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Bowl_(Cherokee_chief)" title="The Bowl (Cherokee chief)">The Bowl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Takatoka" title="Takatoka">Degadoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tahlonteeskee_(Cherokee_chief)" title="Tahlonteeskee (Cherokee chief)">Tahlonteeskee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Jolly" title="John Jolly">John Jolly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sam_Houston" title="Sam Houston">Sam Houston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Looney_(Cherokee_chief)" title="John Looney (Cherokee chief)">John Looney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rogers_(Cherokee_chief)" title="John Rogers (Cherokee chief)">John Rogers</a></li></ul></li> <li>Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians (1824–present) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yonaguska" title="Yonaguska">Yonaguska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Holland_Thomas" title="William Holland Thomas">William Holland Thomas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nimrod_Jarrett_Smith" title="Nimrod Jarrett Smith">Tsaladihi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerard_Parker" title="Gerard Parker">Gerard Parker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joyce_Dugan" title="Joyce Dugan">Joyce Dugan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrick_Lambert" title="Patrick Lambert">Patrick Lambert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Sneed" title="Richard Sneed">Richard Sneed</a></li></ul></li> <li>Cherokee Nation in Indian Territory (1839–1907) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lewis_Downing" title="Lewis Downing">Lewis Downing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stand_Watie" title="Stand Watie">Degataga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_P._Ross" title="William P. Ross">William P. Ross</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Thompson_(Cherokee_chief)" title="Charles Thompson (Cherokee chief)">Utselata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dennis_Bushyhead" title="Dennis Bushyhead">Dennis Bushyhead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joel_B._Mayes" title="Joel B. Mayes">Joel B. Mayes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johnson_Harris" title="Johnson Harris">Johnson Harris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Houston_Mayes" title="Samuel Houston Mayes">Samuel Houston Mayes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Buffington" title="Thomas Buffington">Thomas Buffington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Charles_Rogers" title="William Charles Rogers">William Charles Rogers</a></li></ul></li> <li>Cherokee Nation (1975–present) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/J._B._Milam" title="J. B. Milam">J. B. Milam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._W._Keeler" title="W. W. Keeler">W. W. Keeler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ross_Swimmer" title="Ross Swimmer">Ross Swimmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilma_Mankiller" title="Wilma Mankiller">Wilma Mankiller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joe_Byrd_(Cherokee_Nation_Principal_Chief)" title="Joe Byrd (Cherokee Nation Principal Chief)">Joe Byrd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chad_Smith_(politician)" title="Chad Smith (politician)">Chadwick "Corntassel" Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bill_John_Baker" title="Bill John Baker">Bill John Baker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chuck_Hoskin_Jr." title="Chuck Hoskin Jr.">Chuck Hoskin Jr.</a></li></ul></li> <li>United Keetoowah Band of Cherokee Indians (1939–present) <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=James_L._Gordon_(Cherokee_chief)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="James L. Gordon (Cherokee chief) (page does not exist)">James L. Gordon</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Hair_(Cherokee_chief)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="John Hair (Cherokee chief) (page does not exist)">John W. Hair</a></li></ul></li> <li>Other notable Cherokee <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nancy_Ward" title="Nancy Ward">Nancy Ward</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsali" title="Tsali">Tsali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tahlonteeskee_(Cherokee_warrior)" title="Tahlonteeskee (Cherokee warrior)">Tahlonteeskee (warrior)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turtle-at-Home" title="Turtle-at-Home">Turtle-at-Home</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Junaluska" title="Junaluska">Junaluska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goingsnake" title="Goingsnake">Goingsnake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elias_Boudinot_(Cherokee)" title="Elias Boudinot (Cherokee)">Elias Boudinot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wauhatchie" title="Wauhatchie">Wauhatchie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Vann" title="James Vann">James Vann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Vann_(Cherokee_leader)" title="David Vann (Cherokee leader)">David Vann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Vann" title="Joseph Vann">Joseph Vann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Benge" title="Bob Benge">Bob Benge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whitepath" title="Whitepath">Nunnahitsunega</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ned_Christie" title="Ned Christie">Ned Christie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Martin_(judge)" title="John Martin (judge)">John Martin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Markwayne_Mullin" title="Markwayne Mullin">Markwayne Mullin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yvette_Herrell" title="Yvette Herrell">Yvette Herrell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sequoyah" title="Sequoyah">Sequoya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Major_Ridge" title="Major Ridge">Major Ridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jenny_McIntosh" title="Jenny McIntosh">Jenny McIntosh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sam_Sixkiller" title="Sam Sixkiller">Sam Sixkiller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clement_V._Rogers" title="Clement V. Rogers">Clement V. Rogers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redbird_Smith" title="Redbird Smith">Redbird Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Durbin_Feeling" title="Durbin Feeling">Durbin Feeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hastings_Shade" title="Hastings Shade">Hastings Shade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kimberly_Teehee" title="Kimberly Teehee">Kimberly Teehee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shawna_Baker" title="Shawna Baker">Shawna Baker</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><i>See also: <a href="https://chr.wikipedia.org/wiki/" class="extiw" title="chr:">Cherokee-language Wikipedia</a></i></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Muscogee_Creek_Confederacy" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#cccccc;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Muscogee" title="Template:Muscogee"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Muscogee" title="Template talk:Muscogee"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Muscogee" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Muscogee"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Muscogee_Creek_Confederacy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Muscogee" title="Muscogee">Muscogee Creek Confederacy</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#cccccc;;width:1%">Four mother towns</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;padding:0.25em 0; line-height:1.em;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abihka" title="Abihka">Abihka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coweta_tribal_town" class="mw-redirect" title="Coweta tribal town">Coweta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cusseta,_Creek_Nation" class="mw-redirect" title="Cusseta, Creek Nation">Kasihta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tukabatchee" title="Tukabatchee">Tukabatchee</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#cccccc;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Southeastern_Woodlands" title="Indigenous peoples of the Southeastern Woodlands">Groups and towns</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;padding:0.25em 0; line-height:1.em;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alabama_people" title="Alabama people">Alabama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apalachicola_(tribal_town)" title="Apalachicola (tribal town)">Apalachicola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coushatta" title="Coushatta">Coushatta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eufaula_people" title="Eufaula people">Eufaula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fowltown" class="mw-redirect" title="Fowltown">Fowltown</a> (four locations)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hitchiti" title="Hitchiti">Hitchiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miccosukee" title="Miccosukee">Miccosukee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muklassa" title="Muklassa">Muklassa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muscogee_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Muscogee people">Muscogee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Okchai" title="Okchai">Okchai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Okfuskee" title="Okfuskee">Okfuskee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prospect_Bluff_Historic_Sites" title="Prospect Bluff Historic Sites">Prospect Bluff Historic Sites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sabacola" title="Sabacola">Sabacola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tallapoosas" title="Tallapoosas">Tallapoosa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_town" title="Tribal town">Tribal town</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#cccccc;;width:1%">Leaders</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;padding:0.25em 0; line-height:1.em;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Josiah_Francis_(Hillis_Hadjo)" title="Josiah Francis (Hillis Hadjo)">Josiah Francis</a> (Francis the Prophet)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_McIntosh" title="William McIntosh">William McIntosh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_McQueen" title="Peter McQueen">Peter McQueen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menawa" title="Menawa">Menawa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neamathla" title="Neamathla">Neamathla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osceola" title="Osceola">Osceola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Weatherford" title="William Weatherford">William Weatherford</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#cccccc;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Muskogean_languages" title="Muskogean languages">Languages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;padding:0.25em 0; line-height:1.em;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alabama_language" title="Alabama language">Alabama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apalachee_language" title="Apalachee language">Apalachee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muscogee_language" title="Muscogee language">Creek-Seminole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koasati_language" title="Koasati language">Koasati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikasuki_language" title="Mikasuki language">Mikasuki-Hitchiti</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#cccccc;;width:1%">Culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;padding:0.25em 0; line-height:1.em;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Creek_mythology" title="Creek mythology">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Mothers_Society" title="Four Mothers Society">Four Mothers Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_Corn_Ceremony" title="Green Corn Ceremony">Green Corn Ceremony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stomp_dance" title="Stomp dance">Stomp dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/College_of_the_Muscogee_Nation" title="College of the Muscogee Nation">College of the Muscogee Nation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#cccccc;;width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;padding:0.25em 0; line-height:1.em;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mississippian_culture" title="Mississippian culture">Mississippian culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pisgah_phase" title="Pisgah phase">Pisgah phase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etowah_Indian_Mounds" title="Etowah Indian Mounds">Etowah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moundville_Archaeological_Site" title="Moundville Archaeological Site">Moundville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Long_Swamp_Site" title="Long Swamp Site">Long Swamp Site</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apalachicola_Province" title="Apalachicola Province">Apalachicola Province</a> (predecessor to Lower Towns)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chiaha" title="Chiaha">Chiaha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leon-Jefferson_culture" title="Leon-Jefferson culture">Leon-Jefferson culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Taliwa" title="Battle of Taliwa">Battle of Taliwa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_of_Muskogee" title="State of Muskogee">State of Muskogee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Forbes_and_Company#The_Forbes_land_grants" title="John Forbes and Company">Forbes purchase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Sticks" title="Red Sticks">Red Sticks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Stick_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Red Stick War">Red Stick War</a> (Creek civil war)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Burnt_Corn" title="Battle of Burnt Corn">Battle of Burnt Corn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fort_Mims_Massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Fort Mims Massacre">Fort Mims Massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kimbell-James_Massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Kimbell-James Massacre">Kimbell-James Massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Horseshoe_Bend_(1814)" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Horseshoe Bend (1814)">Battle of Horseshoe Bend (1814)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prospect_Bluff_Historic_Sites" title="Prospect Bluff Historic Sites">Prospect Bluff Historic Sites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ocheesee" title="Battle of Ocheesee">Battle of Ocheesee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seminole_Wars" title="Seminole Wars">Seminole Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Removal_Act" title="Indian Removal Act">Indian Removal Act</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Trail of Tears</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creek_War_of_1836" title="Creek War of 1836">Creek War of 1836</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creek_National_Capitol" title="Creek National Capitol">Creek National Capitol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crazy_Snake_Rebellion" title="Crazy Snake Rebellion">Crazy Snake Rebellion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#cccccc;;width:1%">Politics and law</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;padding:0.25em 0; line-height:1.em;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_New_York_(1790)" title="Treaty of New York (1790)">Treaty of New York (1790)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Fort_Jackson" title="Treaty of Fort Jackson">Treaty of Fort Jackson (1814)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Nicolls%27_Outpost" title="Treaty of Nicolls' Outpost">Treaty of Nicolls' Outpost</a> (unratified)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Moultrie_Creek" title="Treaty of Moultrie Creek">Treaty of Moultrie Creek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Washington_(1826)" title="Treaty of Washington (1826)">Treaty of Washington (1826)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Removal_Act" title="Indian Removal Act">Indian Removal Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Cusseta" title="Treaty of Cusseta">Treaty of Cusseta</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Oklahoma_Tax_Commission_v._United_States" title="Oklahoma Tax Commission v. United States">Oklahoma Tax Commission v. United States</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sharp_v._Murphy" title="Sharp v. Murphy">Sharp v. Murphy</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#cccccc;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_federally_recognized_tribes_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="List of federally recognized tribes in the United States">Federally recognized tribes</a> (20th century)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;padding:0.25em 0; line-height:1.em;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alabama-Coushatta_Tribe_of_Texas" class="mw-redirect" title="Alabama-Coushatta Tribe of Texas">Alabama-Coushatta Tribe of Texas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alabama-Quassarte_Tribal_Town" class="mw-redirect" title="Alabama-Quassarte Tribal Town">Alabama-Quassarte Tribal Town</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coushatta_Tribe_of_Louisiana" title="Coushatta Tribe of Louisiana">Coushatta Tribe of Louisiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kialegee_Tribal_Town" title="Kialegee Tribal Town">Kialegee Tribal Town</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muscogee_(Creek)_Nation" class="mw-redirect" title="Muscogee (Creek) Nation">Muscogee (Creek) Nation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poarch_Band_of_Creek_Indians" title="Poarch Band of Creek Indians">Poarch Band of Creek Indians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thlopthlocco_Tribal_Town" title="Thlopthlocco Tribal Town">Thlopthlocco Tribal Town</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Chickasaw" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Chickasaw" title="Template:Chickasaw"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Chickasaw" title="Template talk:Chickasaw"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Chickasaw" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Chickasaw"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Chickasaw" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Chickasaw" title="Chickasaw">Chickasaw</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Culture and religion</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chickasaw_language" title="Chickasaw language">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ababinili" title="Ababinili">Ababinili</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Mothers_Society" title="Four Mothers Society">Four Mothers Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_Corn_Ceremony" title="Green Corn Ceremony">Green Corn Ceremony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panti%27" title="Panti'">Panti'</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pashofa" title="Pashofa">Pashofa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stomp_dance" title="Stomp dance">Stomp dance</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Government</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chickasaw_Nation" title="Chickasaw Nation">Chickasaw Nation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chickasaw_Wars" title="Chickasaw Wars">Chickasaw Wars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chickasaw_Campaign_of_1736" title="Chickasaw Campaign of 1736">1st</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chickasaw_Campaign_of_1739" title="Chickasaw Campaign of 1739">2nd</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ex_parte_Joins" title="Ex parte Joins">Ex parte Joins</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Hopewell" title="Treaty of Hopewell">Treaty of Hopewell</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Trail of Tears</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_with_Choctaws_and_Chickasaws" title="Treaty with Choctaws and Chickasaws">Treaty with Choctaws and Chickasaws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atoka_Agreement" title="Atoka Agreement">Atoka Agreement</a> (1897)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Chickasaw_Nation_v._United_States" title="Chickasaw Nation v. United States">Chickasaw Nation v. United States</a></i> (2001)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Places</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bloomfield_Academy_(Oklahoma)" title="Bloomfield Academy (Oklahoma)">Bloomfield Academy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chickasaw_Cultural_Center" title="Chickasaw Cultural Center">Chickasaw Cultural Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chickasaw_Nation" title="Chickasaw Nation">Chickasaw Nation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chickasaw_Nation_Capitols" title="Chickasaw Nation Capitols">Chickasaw Nation Capitols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fort_Jefferson_(Kentucky)" title="Fort Jefferson (Kentucky)">Fort Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kullihoma_Grounds" title="Kullihoma Grounds">Kullihoma Grounds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Savannah,_Georgia" title="New Savannah, Georgia">New Savannah, Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Town_(Mississippi)" title="Old Town (Mississippi)">Old Town</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Savannah_Town,_South_Carolina" title="Savannah Town, South Carolina">Savannah Town, South Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tishomingo_City_Hall" title="Tishomingo City Hall">Tishomingo City Hall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_House_of_the_Chickasaws" title="White House of the Chickasaws">White House of the Chickasaws</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Media</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/KADA_(AM)" title="KADA (AM)">KADA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/KADA-FM" title="KADA-FM">KADA-FM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/KAZC" title="KAZC">KAZC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/KCNP" title="KCNP">KCNP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/KTLS-FM" title="KTLS-FM">KTLS-FM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/KXFC" title="KXFC">KXFC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/KYKC" title="KYKC">KYKC</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Casinos</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ada_Gaming_Center" title="Ada Gaming Center">Ada Gaming Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Gold_Casino" title="Black Gold Casino">Black Gold Casino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Border_Casino" title="Border Casino">Border Casino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chisholm_Trail_Casino" title="Chisholm Trail Casino">Chisholm Trail Casino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gold_Mountain_Casino" title="Gold Mountain Casino">Gold Mountain Casino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newcastle_Casino" title="Newcastle Casino">Newcastle Casino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riverwind_Casino" title="Riverwind Casino">Riverwind Casino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SaltCreek_Casino" title="SaltCreek Casino">SaltCreek Casino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treasure_Valley_Casino" title="Treasure Valley Casino">Treasure Valley Casino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/WinStar_World_Casino" title="WinStar World Casino">WinStar World Casino</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Choctaw" title="Choctaw">Choctaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chakchiuma" title="Chakchiuma">Chakchiuma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alabama_people" title="Alabama people">Alabama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_Civilized_Tribes" title="Five Civilized Tribes">Five Civilized Tribes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Native_American_topics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Native_American_topics" title="Template:Native American topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Native_American_topics" title="Template talk:Native American topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Native_American_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Native American topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Native_American_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Native Americans in the United States">Native American</a> topics</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="History of Native Americans in the United States">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paleo-Indians" title="Paleo-Indians">Paleo-Indians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithic_stage" title="Lithic stage">Lithic stage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaic_period_in_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaic period in the Americas">Archaic period in the Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formative_stage" title="Formative stage">Formative stage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classic_stage" title="Classic stage">Classic stage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-Classic_stage" title="Post-Classic stage">Post-Classic stage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woodland_period" title="Woodland period">Woodland period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_trade" title="Native American trade">Trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="European colonization of the Americas">European colonization of the Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_history_of_the_Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Population history of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Population history of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_genocide_in_the_United_States" title="Native American genocide in the United States">Genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partus_sequitur_ventrem" title="Partus sequitur ventrem">Partus sequitur ventrem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_Civilized_Tribes" title="Five Civilized Tribes">Five Civilized Tribes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_among_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery among Native Americans in the United States">Slavery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amerindian_slave_ownership" title="Amerindian slave ownership">ownership</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_removal" title="Indian removal">Indian removal</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Trail of Tears</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Territory" title="Indian Territory">Indian Territory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Native Americans in the American Civil War">Native Americans in the American Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dawes_Rolls" title="Dawes Rolls">Dawes Rolls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Certificate_Degree_of_Indian_Blood" class="mw-redirect" title="Certificate Degree of Indian Blood">Certificate Degree of Indian Blood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_assimilation_of_Native_Americans" title="Cultural assimilation of Native Americans">Cultural assimilation of Native Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Appropriations_Act" title="Indian Appropriations Act">Indian Appropriations Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_Integrity_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Racial Integrity Act">Racial Integrity Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Citizenship_Act_of_1924" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Citizenship Act of 1924">Indian Citizenship Act of 1924</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Reorganization_Act_of_1934" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Reorganization Act of 1934">Indian Reorganization Act of 1934</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_quantum_laws" title="Blood quantum laws">Blood quantum laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_and_World_War_II" title="Native Americans and World War II">Native Americans and World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Indian_boarding_schools" title="American Indian boarding schools">American Indian boarding schools</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Indian_boarding_school_gravesites" title="American Indian boarding school gravesites">gravesites</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">Civil rights movement</a> / <a href="/wiki/Native_American_Rights_Fund" title="Native American Rights Fund">Native American Rights Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Power_movement" title="Red Power movement">Native American rights movement/Red Power movement (1968-1977)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_civil_rights" title="Native American civil rights">Native American civil rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_against_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Racism against Native Americans in the United States">Discrimination</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Native_American_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American culture">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mississippian_culture" title="Mississippian culture">Mississippian culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adena_culture" title="Adena culture">Adena culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hohokam" title="Hohokam"> Hohokam culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plains_Indians" title="Plains Indians">Plains Indians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anishinaabe" title="Anishinaabe">Anishinaabe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iroquois" title="Iroquois">Iroquois culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_cuisine" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American cuisine">Food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_music" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_Film_and_Video_Festival" title="Native American Film and Video Festival">Film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Peoples%27_Day_(United_States)" title="Indigenous Peoples' Day (United States)">Indigenous Peoples' Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_literature" title="Mesoamerican literature">Mesoamerican literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_fashion" title="Native American fashion">Fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_social_statistics_of_Native_Americans" title="Modern social statistics of Native Americans">Neighborhoods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_disease_and_epidemics" title="Native American disease and epidemics">Native American disease and epidemics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_identity_in_the_United_States" title="Native American identity in the United States">Native American identity in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pow_wow" class="mw-redirect" title="Pow wow">Pow wow</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Native_American_wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American wars">Wars</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beaver_Wars" title="Beaver Wars">Beaver Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Powhatan_Wars" title="Anglo-Powhatan Wars">Anglo-Powhatan Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pequot_War" title="Pequot War">Pequot War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kieft%27s_War" title="Kieft's War">Kieft's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peach_Tree_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Peach Tree War">Peach Tree War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esopus_Wars" title="Esopus Wars">Esopus Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_Philip%27s_War" title="King Philip's War">King Philip's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuscarora_War" title="Tuscarora War">Tuscarora War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yamasee_War" title="Yamasee War">Yamasee War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dummer%27s_War" title="Dummer's War">Dummer's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pontiac%27s_War" title="Pontiac's War">Pontiac's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lord_Dunmore%27s_War" title="Lord Dunmore's War">Lord Dunmore's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">American Revolutionary War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee%E2%80%93American_wars" title="Cherokee–American wars">Cherokee–American wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Indian_War" title="Northwest Indian War">Northwest Indian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_1812" title="War of 1812">War of 1812</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creek_War" title="Creek War">Creek War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arikara_War" title="Arikara War">Arikara War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seminole_Wars" title="Seminole Wars">Seminole Wars</a> / <a href="/wiki/Second_Seminole_War" title="Second Seminole War">Second Seminole War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osage_Indian_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Osage Indian War">Osage Indian War </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Texas%E2%80%93Indian_wars" title="Texas–Indian wars">Texas–Indian wars (1836–1877)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Comanche_Wars" title="Comanche Wars">Comanche Wars (1836–1877)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Antelope_Hills_expedition" title="Antelope Hills expedition">Antelope Hills expedition (1858)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Comanche_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Comanche Campaign">Comanche Campaign (1867–1875)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Red_River_War" title="Red River War">Red River War (1874–1875)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Buffalo_Hunters%27_War" title="Buffalo Hunters' War">Buffalo Hunters' War (1876–1877)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cayuse_War" title="Cayuse War">Cayuse War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apache_Wars" title="Apache Wars">Apache Wars (1849–1924)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Jicarilla_War" title="Jicarilla War">Jicarilla War (1849–1855)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Apache_Wars#Chiricahua_Wars" title="Apache Wars">Chiricahua Wars (1860–1886)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Yavapai_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Yavapai War">Tonto War (1871–1875)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Victorio%27s_War" title="Victorio's War">Victorio's War (1879–1880)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Apache_Wars#Geronimo's_War" title="Apache Wars">Geronimo's War (1881–1886)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Post_1887_Apache_Wars_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Post 1887 Apache Wars period">Post 1887 Apache Wars period (1887–1924)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuma_War" title="Yuma War">Yuma War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ute_Wars" title="Ute Wars">Ute Wars (1850–1923)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Battle_at_Fort_Utah" title="Battle at Fort Utah">Battle at Fort Utah (1850)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Walkara#Walker_War" title="Walkara">Walker War (1853–1854)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Tintic_War" title="Tintic War">Tintic War (1856)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Black_Hawk_War_(1865%E2%80%9372)" class="mw-redirect" title="Black Hawk War (1865–72)">Black Hawk War (1865–1872)</a> / <a href="/wiki/White_River_War" class="mw-redirect" title="White River War">White River War (1879)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ute_Wars" title="Ute Wars">Ute War (1887)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Bluff_War" title="Bluff War">Bluff War (1914–1915)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ute_Wars" title="Ute Wars">Bluff Skirmish (1921)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posey_War" title="Posey War">Posey War (1923)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sioux_Wars" title="Sioux Wars">Sioux Wars (1854–1891)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Sioux_Wars#First_Sioux_War" title="Sioux Wars">First Sioux War (1854-1856)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Dakota_War_of_1862" title="Dakota War of 1862">Dakota War (1862)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Colorado_War" title="Colorado War">Colorado War (1863–1865)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Powder_River_Expedition_(1865)" title="Powder River Expedition (1865)">Powder River War (1865)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Red_Cloud%27s_War" title="Red Cloud's War">Red Cloud's War (1866–1868)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Great_Sioux_War_of_1876" title="Great Sioux War of 1876">Great Sioux War (1876–1877)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Northern_Cheyenne_Exodus" title="Northern Cheyenne Exodus">Northern Cheyenne Exodus (1878-1879)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ghost_Dance_War" title="Ghost Dance War">Ghost Dance War (1890–1891)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rogue_River_Wars" title="Rogue River Wars">Rogue River Wars (1855–1856)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yakima_War" title="Yakima War">Yakima War (1855–1858)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Puget_Sound_War" title="Puget Sound War">Puget Sound War (1855–1856)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Coeur_d%27Alene_War" title="Coeur d'Alene War">Coeur d'Alene War (1858)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohave_War" title="Mohave War">Mohave War (1858–1859)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navajo_Wars#American_period" title="Navajo Wars">Navajo Wars (1849–1866)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paiute_War" title="Paiute War">Paiute War (1860)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yavapai_Wars" title="Yavapai Wars">Yavapai Wars (1861–1875)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snake_War" title="Snake War">Snake War (1864–1869)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hualapai_War_(1865%E2%80%9370)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hualapai War (1865–70)">Hualapai War (1865–1870)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modoc_War" title="Modoc War">Modoc War (1872–1873)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nez_Perce_War" title="Nez Perce War">Nez Perce War (1877)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bannock_War" title="Bannock War">Bannock War (1878)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crow_War" title="Crow War">Crow War (1887)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bannock_War_of_1895" title="Bannock War of 1895">Bannock Uprising (1895)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yaqui_Uprising" title="Yaqui Uprising">Yaqui Uprising (1896)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Sugar_Point" title="Battle of Sugar Point">Battle of Sugar Point (1898)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crazy_Snake_Rebellion" title="Crazy Snake Rebellion">Crazy Snake Rebellion (1909)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kelley_Creek#Last_Massacre" title="Battle of Kelley Creek">Last Massacre (1911)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kelley_Creek" title="Battle of Kelley Creek">Battle of Kelley Creek (1911)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bear_Valley" title="Battle of Bear Valley">Battle of Bear Valley (1918)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Education, science<br /> and technology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_studies" title="Native American studies">Native American studies</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Religion</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Indian_Religious_Freedom_Act" title="American Indian Religious Freedom Act">American Indian Religious Freedom Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eagle_feather_law" title="Eagle feather law">Eagle feather law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_religions" title="Native American religions">Native American religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_people_and_Mormonism" title="Native American people and Mormonism">Native American people and Mormonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_church" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American church">Native American church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smudging" title="Smudging">Smudging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_Dance" title="Sun Dance">Sun Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sweat_lodge" title="Sweat lodge">Sweat lodge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longhouse_Religion" title="Longhouse Religion">Longhouse Religion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Political movements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_civil_rights" title="Native American civil rights">Native American civil rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Congress_of_American_Indians" title="National Congress of American Indians">National Congress of American Indians</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Indian_Movement" title="American Indian Movement">American Indian Movement (AIM)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Power_Movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Red Power Movement">Red Power Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Alcatraz" title="Occupation of Alcatraz">Occupation of Alcatraz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trail_of_Broken_Treaties" title="Trail of Broken Treaties">Trail of Broken Treaties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Wounded_Knee" class="mw-redirect" title="Occupation of Wounded Knee">Occupation of Wounded Knee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Same-sex_marriage_in_tribal_nations_in_the_United_States" title="Same-sex marriage in tribal nations in the United States">Same-sex marriage in tribal nations in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missing_and_Murdered_Indigenous_Women" title="Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women">Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women</a> (<a href="/wiki/Red_handprint" title="Red handprint">Red handprint</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_recognition_in_the_United_States" title="Native American recognition in the United States">Native American recognition in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_women_in_politics" title="Native American women in politics">Native American women in politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_sovereignty" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribal sovereignty">Tribal sovereignty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_Back" title="Land Back">Land Back</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Civic and economic<br />groups</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Association_for_the_Advancement_of_Colored_People" class="mw-redirect" title="National Association for the Advancement of Colored People">National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_Rights_Fund" title="Native American Rights Fund">Native American Rights Fund (NARF)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Congress_of_American_Indians" title="National Congress of American Indians">National Congress of American Indians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Indian_Youth_Council" title="National Indian Youth Council">National Indian Youth Council (NIYC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_of_All_Red_Nations" title="Women of All Red Nations">Women of All Red Nations (WARN)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Indian_Treaty_Council" title="International Indian Treaty Council">The International Indian Treaty Council (IITC)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ethnic subdivisions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Indians_in_the_United_States" title="Black Indians in the United States">Black Indians in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Indigenous peoples of the Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Creole_people" title="Louisiana Creole people">Louisiana Creole people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pretendian" title="Pretendian">Pretendian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Demographics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._communities_with_Native_American_majority_populations" class="mw-redirect" title="List of U.S. communities with Native American majority populations">List of U.S. communities with Native American majority populations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Modern_social_statistics_of_Native_Americans" title="Modern social statistics of Native Americans">Modern social statistics of Native Americans</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_reservation" title="Indian reservation">Reservations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reservation_poverty" title="Reservation poverty">Reservation poverty</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_English" title="American English">American English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Indian_English" title="American Indian English">American Indian English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_Pidgin_English" title="Native American Pidgin English">Native American Pidgin English</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_languages_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous languages of the Americas">Native American languages</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By state/city</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._communities_with_Native_American_majority_populations" class="mw-redirect" title="List of U.S. communities with Native American majority populations">List</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alaska_Natives" title="Alaska Natives">Alaska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_Arizona" title="Indigenous peoples of Arizona">Arizona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_California" title="Indigenous peoples of California">California</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Indigenous_People_of_Colorado" title="Template:Indigenous People of Colorado">Colorado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_Florida" title="Indigenous peoples of Florida">Florida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_Hawaiians" title="Native Hawaiians">Hawaii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Indians_of_Iowa" class="mw-redirect" title="American Indians of Iowa">Iowa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Native_Americans_in_Maryland" title="Template:Native Americans in Maryland">Maryland</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Native_Americans_in_Baltimore" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Native Americans in Baltimore">Baltimore</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Native_American_Tribes_in_Michigan" title="Template:Native American Tribes in Michigan">Michigan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_tribes_in_Nebraska" title="Native American tribes in Nebraska">Nebraska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Native_American_Tribes_in_North_Carolina" title="Template:Native American Tribes in North Carolina">North Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_American_Tribes_in_Oklahoma" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Native American Tribes in Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_peoples_of_Oregon" title="Native American peoples of Oregon">Oregon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_tribes_in_Virginia" title="Native American tribes in Virginia">Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Native_American_Tribes_in_Wisconsin" title="Template:Native American Tribes in Wisconsin">Wisconsin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_Americans_of_the_United_States" title="List of Native Americans of the United States">Native Americans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_American_artists" title="List of Native American artists">artists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_American_actors" title="List of Native American actors">actors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_American_leaders_of_the_Indian_Wars" title="List of Native American leaders of the Indian Wars">Native American War Leaders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_American_musicians" title="List of Native American musicians">musicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States_Congress" title="List of Native Americans in the United States Congress">Native American politicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_writers_from_peoples_indigenous_to_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="List of writers from peoples indigenous to the Americas">writers</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_American_Medal_of_Honor_recipients" title="List of Native American Medal of Honor recipients">Native American Medal of Honor recipients</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federally_recognized_tribes" class="mw-redirect" title="List of federally recognized tribes">List of federally recognized tribes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federally_recognized_tribes_by_state" title="List of federally recognized tribes by state">by state</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State-recognized_tribes_in_the_United_States" title="State-recognized tribes in the United States">State-recognized tribes in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indian_reservations_in_the_United_States" title="List of Indian reservations in the United States">List of Indian reservations in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indian_massacres_in_North_America" title="List of Indian massacres in North America">Massacres</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Native_American_culture" title="Category:Native American culture">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Portal:Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_the_United_States" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:US_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Template:US history"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:US_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Template talk:US history"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:US_history" title="Special:EditPage/Template:US history"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_the_United_States" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States" title="History of the United States">History of the United States</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight: bold;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_United_States_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of United States history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_United_States_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Outline of United States history">Outline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Events" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Events</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pre-Colonial</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Geological_history_of_North_America" title="Geological history of North America">Prehistoric</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_era" title="Pre-Columbian era">Pre-Columbian Era</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Colonial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Colonial history of the United States">Colonial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Exploration_of_North_America" title="Exploration of North America">Exploration of North America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="European colonization of the Americas">European colonization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_disease_and_epidemics" title="Native American disease and epidemics">Native American epidemics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Jamestown,_Virginia_(1607%E2%80%931699)" title="History of Jamestown, Virginia (1607–1699)">Settlement of Jamestown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirteen_Colonies" title="Thirteen Colonies">Thirteen Colonies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_William%27s_War" title="King William's War">King William's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queen_Anne%27s_War" title="Queen Anne's War">Queen Anne's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dummer%27s_War" title="Dummer's War">Dummer's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Great_Awakening" title="First Great Awakening">First Great Awakening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_Jenkins%27_Ear" title="War of Jenkins' Ear">War of Jenkins' Ear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_George%27s_War" title="King George's War">King George's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolution#Origin" title="American Revolution">Prelude to Revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Enlightenment" title="American Enlightenment">American Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_and_Indian_War" title="French and Indian War">French and Indian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Proclamation_of_1763" title="Royal Proclamation of 1763">Proclamation of 1763</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sugar_Act" title="Sugar Act">Sugar Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stamp_Act_Congress" title="Stamp Act Congress">Stamp Act Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sons_of_Liberty" title="Sons of Liberty">Sons of Liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boston_Massacre" title="Boston Massacre">Boston Massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boston_Tea_Party" title="Boston Tea Party">Boston Tea Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intolerable_Acts" title="Intolerable Acts">Intolerable Acts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Continental_Congress" title="First Continental Congress">First Continental Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_Association" title="Continental Association">Continental Association</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1776%E2%80%931789)" title="History of the United States (1776–1789)">1776–1789</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Continental_Congress" title="Second Continental Congress">Second Continental Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lee_Resolution" title="Lee Resolution">Lee Resolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" title="United States Declaration of Independence">Declaration of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Paris_(1783)" title="Treaty of Paris (1783)">Treaty of Paris</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederation_period" title="Confederation period">Confederation period</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Articles_of_Confederation" title="Articles of Confederation">Articles of Confederation</a> <a href="/wiki/Perpetual_Union" title="Perpetual Union">and Perpetual Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_Mutiny_of_1783" title="Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783">Pennsylvania Mutiny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shays%27_Rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Shays' Rebellion">Shays' Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Ordinance" title="Northwest Ordinance">Northwest Ordinance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="History of the United States Constitution">Drafting and ratification of the Constitution</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1789%E2%80%931815)" title="History of the United States (1789–1815)">1789–1815</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights" title="United States Bill of Rights">Bill of Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federalist_Era" title="Federalist Era">Federalist Era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Whiskey_Rebellion" title="Whiskey Rebellion">Whiskey Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quasi-War" title="Quasi-War">Quasi-War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeffersonian_democracy" title="Jeffersonian democracy">Jeffersonian era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Purchase" title="Louisiana Purchase">Louisiana Purchase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_1812" title="War of 1812">War of 1812</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1815%E2%80%931849)" title="History of the United States (1815–1849)">1815–1849</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Era_of_Good_Feelings" title="Era of Good Feelings">Era of Good Feelings</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Missouri_Compromise" title="Missouri Compromise">Missouri Compromise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monroe_Doctrine" title="Monroe Doctrine">Monroe Doctrine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacksonian_democracy" title="Jacksonian democracy">Jacksonian era</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Trail of Tears</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nat_Turner%27s_slave_rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Nat Turner's slave rebellion">Nat Turner's slave rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nullification_crisis" title="Nullification crisis">Nullification crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manifest_destiny" title="Manifest destiny">Westward expansion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexican%E2%80%93American_War" title="Mexican–American War">Mexican–American War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seneca_Falls_Convention" title="Seneca Falls Convention">Seneca Falls Convention</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution#United_States" title="Industrial Revolution">First Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Great_Awakening" title="Second Great Awakening">Second Great Awakening</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1849%E2%80%931865)" title="History of the United States (1849–1865)">1849–1865</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antebellum_South" title="Antebellum South">Antebellum Era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/California_Gold_Rush" class="mw-redirect" title="California Gold Rush">California Gold Rush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Origins of the American Civil War">Prelude to War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compromise_of_1850" title="Compromise of 1850">Compromise of 1850</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_Slave_Act_of_1850" title="Fugitive Slave Act of 1850">Fugitive Slave Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kansas%E2%80%93Nebraska_Act" title="Kansas–Nebraska Act">Kansas–Nebraska Act</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bleeding_Kansas" title="Bleeding Kansas">Bleeding Kansas</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dred_Scott_v._Sandford" title="Dred Scott v. Sandford">Dred Scott decision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1860_United_States_presidential_election" title="1860 United States presidential election">Election of Lincoln</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_of_America#Secession" title="Confederate States of America">Secession</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">Civil War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation_Proclamation" title="Emancipation Proclamation">Emancipation Proclamation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Abraham_Lincoln" title="Assassination of Abraham Lincoln">Assassination of Abraham Lincoln</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1865%E2%80%931917)" title="History of the United States (1865–1917)">1865–1917</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Amendments" title="Reconstruction Amendments">Amendments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_transcontinental_railroad" title="First transcontinental railroad">First transcontinental railroad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan" title="Ku Klux Klan">Ku Klux Klan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enforcement_Acts" title="Enforcement Acts">Enforcement Acts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compromise_of_1877" title="Compromise of 1877">Compromise of 1877</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Industrial_Revolution#United_States" title="Second Industrial Revolution">Second Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilded_Age" title="Gilded Age">Gilded Age</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Gospel_of_Wealth" title="The Gospel of Wealth">The Gospel of Wealth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_James_A._Garfield" title="Assassination of James A. Garfield">Assassination of James A. Garfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Exclusion_Act" title="Chinese Exclusion Act">Chinese Exclusion Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pendleton_Civil_Service_Reform_Act" title="Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act">Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haymarket_affair" title="Haymarket affair">Haymarket affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sherman_Antitrust_Act" title="Sherman Antitrust Act">Sherman Antitrust Act</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_Era" title="Progressive Era">Progressive Era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93American_War" title="Spanish–American War">Spanish–American War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_imperialism" title="American imperialism">Imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_William_McKinley" title="Assassination of William McKinley">Assassination of William McKinley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Square_Deal" title="Square Deal">Square Deal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nadir_of_American_race_relations" title="Nadir of American race relations">Nadir of American race relations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1917%E2%80%931945)" title="History of the United States (1917–1945)">1917–1945</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_in_World_War_I" title="United States in World War I">World War I</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paris_Peace_Conference_(1919%E2%80%931920)#American_approach" title="Paris Peace Conference (1919–1920)">Paris Peace Conference</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Red_Scare" title="First Red Scare">First Red Scare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roaring_Twenties" title="Roaring Twenties">Roaring Twenties</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prohibition_in_the_United_States" title="Prohibition in the United States">Prohibition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_the_United_States" title="Women's suffrage in the United States">Women's suffrage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulsa_race_massacre" title="Tulsa race massacre">Tulsa race massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan#Second_Klan:_1915–1944" title="Ku Klux Klan">Second Klan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bath_School_disaster" title="Bath School disaster">Bath School disaster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harlem_Renaissance" title="Harlem Renaissance">Harlem Renaissance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wall_Street_Crash_of_1929" class="mw-redirect" title="Wall Street Crash of 1929">Wall Street Crash of 1929</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dust_Bowl" title="Dust Bowl">Dust Bowl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Deal" title="New Deal">New Deal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_States_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of the United States during World War II">World War II</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor" title="Attack on Pearl Harbor">Pearl Harbor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_home_front_during_World_War_II" title="United States home front during World War II">home front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1945%E2%80%931964)" title="History of the United States (1945–1964)">1945–1964</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_strike_wave_of_1945%E2%80%931946" title="United States strike wave of 1945–1946">Strike wave of 1945–1946</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War_(1947%E2%80%931948)" title="Cold War (1947–1948)">Start of Cold War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Truman_Doctrine" title="Truman Doctrine">Truman Doctrine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War_(1948%E2%80%931953)" title="Cold War (1948–1953)">Early Cold War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/North_Atlantic_Treaty" title="North Atlantic Treaty">North Atlantic Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivy_Mike" title="Ivy Mike">Ivy Mike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/McCarthyism" title="McCarthyism">McCarthyism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post%E2%80%93World_War_II_economic_expansion" title="Post–World War II economic expansion">Post-war boom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_Mercury" title="Project Mercury">Project Mercury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">Civil Rights Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War_(1953%E2%80%931962)" title="Cold War (1953–1962)">Early–mid Cold War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cuban_Missile_Crisis" title="Cuban Missile Crisis">Cuban Missile Crisis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_John_F._Kennedy" title="Assassination of John F. Kennedy">Assassination of John F. Kennedy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1964%E2%80%931980)" title="History of the United States (1964–1980)">1964–1980</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Society" title="Great Society">Great Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Race" title="Space Race">Space Race</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Project_Gemini" title="Project Gemini">Project Gemini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apollo_program" title="Apollo program">Apollo program</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War_(1962%E2%80%931979)" title="Cold War (1962–1979)">Mid Cold War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/D%C3%A9tente" title="Détente">Détente</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Saigon" title="Fall of Saigon">Fall of Saigon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Assassination of Martin Luther King Jr.">Assassination of Martin Luther King Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counterculture_of_the_1960s" title="Counterculture of the 1960s">Counterculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second-wave_feminism" title="Second-wave feminism">Second-wave feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gay_liberation" title="Gay liberation">Gay liberation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stonewall_riots" title="Stonewall riots">Stonewall riots</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Watergate_scandal" title="Watergate scandal">Watergate scandal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran_hostage_crisis" title="Iran hostage crisis">Iran hostage crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_Majority" title="Moral Majority">Moral Majority</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1980%E2%80%931991)" title="History of the United States (1980–1991)">1980–1991</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reagan_era" title="Reagan era">Reagan era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reaganomics" title="Reaganomics">Reaganomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Contra_affair" title="Iran–Contra affair">Iran–Contra affair</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crack_epidemic_in_the_United_States" title="Crack epidemic in the United States">Crack epidemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War_(1979%E2%80%931985)" title="Cold War (1979–1985)">Late Cold War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_invasion_of_Grenada" title="United States invasion of Grenada">Invasion of Grenada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reagan_Doctrine" title="Reagan Doctrine">Reagan Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War_(1985%E2%80%931991)" title="Cold War (1985–1991)">End of the Cold War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_program" title="Space Shuttle program">Space Shuttle program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_on_drugs" title="War on drugs">War on drugs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_invasion_of_Panama" title="United States invasion of Panama">Invasion of Panama</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1991%E2%80%932008)" title="History of the United States (1991–2008)">1991–2008</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_War" title="Gulf War">Gulf War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_American_Free_Trade_Agreement" title="North American Free Trade Agreement">NAFTA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1992_Los_Angeles_riots" title="1992 Los Angeles riots"> Los Angeles riots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1993_World_Trade_Center_bombing" title="1993 World Trade Center bombing">WTC bombing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waco_siege" title="Waco siege">Waco siege</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Revolution" title="Republican Revolution">Republican Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oklahoma_City_bombing" title="Oklahoma City bombing">Oklahoma City bombing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columbine_High_School_massacre" title="Columbine High School massacre">Columbine</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bush_v._Gore" title="Bush v. Gore">Bush v. Gore</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/September_11_attacks" title="September 11 attacks">September 11 attacks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_on_terror" title="War on terror">War on terror</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/War_in_Afghanistan_(2001%E2%80%932021)" title="War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)">War in Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraq_War" title="Iraq War">Iraq War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hurricane_Katrina" title="Hurricane Katrina">Hurricane Katrina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virginia_Tech_shooting" title="Virginia Tech shooting">Virginia Tech shooting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Recession_in_the_United_States" title="Great Recession in the United States">Great Recession</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(2008%E2%80%93present)" title="History of the United States (2008–present)">2008–present</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Osama_bin_Laden" title="Killing of Osama bin Laden">Killing of Osama bin Laden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mass_shootings_in_the_United_States" title="List of mass shootings in the United States">Rise in mass shootings</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2011_Tucson_shooting" title="2011 Tucson shooting">Tucson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2012_Aurora_theater_shooting" title="2012 Aurora theater shooting">Aurora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sandy_Hook_Elementary_School_shooting" title="Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting">Sandy Hook</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulse_nightclub_shooting" title="Pulse nightclub shooting">Orlando</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2017_Las_Vegas_shooting" title="2017 Las Vegas shooting">Las Vegas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parkland_high_school_shooting" title="Parkland high school shooting">Parkland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2019_El_Paso_shooting" class="mw-redirect" title="2019 El Paso shooting">El Paso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uvalde_school_shooting" title="Uvalde school shooting">Uvalde</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Lives_Matter" title="Black Lives Matter">Black Lives Matter</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Obergefell_v._Hodges" title="Obergefell v. Hodges">Obergefell v. Hodges</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unite_the_Right_rally" title="Unite the Right rally">Unite the Right rally</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_States" title="COVID-19 pandemic in the United States">COVID-19 pandemic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_recession" title="COVID-19 recession">recession</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests" title="George Floyd protests">George Floyd protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/January_6_United_States_Capitol_attack" title="January 6 United States Capitol attack">January 6 insurrection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020%E2%80%932021_US_troop_withdrawal_from_Afghanistan" class="mw-redirect" title="2020–2021 US troop withdrawal from Afghanistan">Afghanistan withdrawal</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dobbs_v._Jackson_Women%27s_Health_Organization" title="Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization">Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_involvement_in_the_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" title="Foreign involvement in the Russian invasion of Ukraine">Support of Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump#Investigations,_criminal_charges,_civil_lawsuits" title="Donald Trump">Indictments of Donald Trump</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Topics</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/American_Century" title="American Century">American Century</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_antisemitism_in_the_United_States" title="History of antisemitism in the United States">Antisemitism</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Cultural_history_of_the_United_States" title="Cultural history of the United States">Cultural</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_cinema_in_the_United_States" title="History of cinema in the United States">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_history_of_the_United_States" title="Music history of the United States">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_American_newspapers" title="History of American newspapers">Newspapers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_sports_in_the_United_States" title="History of sports in the United States">Sports</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Demographic_history_of_the_United_States" title="Demographic history of the United States">Demography</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_immigration_to_the_United_States" title="History of immigration to the United States">Immigration</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_the_United_States" title="Economic history of the United States">Economy</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_banking_in_the_United_States" title="History of banking in the United States">Banking</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_the_United_States" title="History of education in the United States">Education</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_higher_education_in_the_United_States" title="History of higher education in the United States">Higher education</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/List_of_flags_of_the_United_States" title="List of flags of the United States">Flag</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_government" title="History of the United States government">Government</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_abortion_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="History of abortion in the United States">Abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_capital_punishment_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="History of capital punishment in the United States">Capital punishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_civil_rights_in_the_United_States" title="History of civil rights in the United States">Civil Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_corruption_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="History of corruption in the United States">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="History of the United States Constitution">The Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_debt_ceiling" title="History of the United States debt ceiling">Debt ceiling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_direct_democracy_in_the_United_States" title="History of direct democracy in the United States">Direct democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_United_States_foreign_policy" class="mw-redirect" title="History of United States foreign policy">Foreign policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_law_enforcement_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="History of law enforcement in the United States">Law enforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postage_stamps_and_postal_history_of_the_United_States" title="Postage stamps and postal history of the United States">Postal service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_taxation_in_the_United_States" title="History of taxation in the United States">Taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voting_rights_in_the_United_States" title="Voting rights in the United States">Voting rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_American_journalism" title="History of American journalism">Journalism</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Merchant_Marine" title="History of the United States Merchant Marine">Merchant Marine</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_States" title="Military history of the United States">Military</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Army" title="History of the United States Army">Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Marine_Corps" title="History of the United States Marine Corps">Marine Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Navy" title="History of the United States Navy">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Air_Force" title="History of the United States Air Force">Air Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Space_Force" title="History of the United States Space Force">Space Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Coast_Guard" title="History of the United States Coast Guard">Coast Guard</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Political_eras_of_the_United_States" title="Political eras of the United States">Party Systems</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Party_System" title="First Party System">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Party_System" title="Second Party System">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Party_System" title="Third Party System">Third</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Party_System" title="Fourth Party System">Fourth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifth_Party_System" title="Fifth Party System">Fifth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sixth_Party_System" title="Sixth Party System">Sixth</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_religion_in_the_United_States" title="History of religion in the United States">Religion</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Native_American_genocide_in_the_United_States" title="Native American genocide in the United States">Genocide</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">Slavery</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_sexual_slavery_in_the_United_States" title="History of sexual slavery in the United States">Sexual slavery</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Technological_and_industrial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Technological and industrial history of the United States">Technology and industry</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_agriculture_in_the_United_States" title="History of agriculture in the United States">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_history_of_the_United_States" title="Labor history of the United States">Labor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_lumber_industry_in_the_United_States" title="History of the lumber industry in the United States">Lumber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_medicine_in_the_United_States" title="History of medicine in the United States">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_rail_transportation_in_the_United_States" title="History of rail transportation in the United States">Railway</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Groups" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Groups</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/African-American_history" title="African-American history">African American</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_Asian_Americans" title="History of Asian Americans">Asian American</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Chinese_Americans" title="History of Chinese Americans">Chinese American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Filipino_Americans" title="History of Filipino Americans">Filipino American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian-American_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian-American history">Indian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Japanese_Americans" title="History of Japanese Americans">Japanese American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Korean_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Korean Americans">Korean American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Thai_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Thai Americans">Thai American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Vietnamese_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Vietnamese Americans">Vietnamese American</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/European_American#History" class="mw-redirect" title="European American">European American</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Albanian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Albanian Americans">Albanian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_English_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of English Americans">English American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Estonian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Estonian Americans">Estonian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Finnish_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Finnish Americans">Finnish American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_Americans#History" title="Irish Americans">Irish American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_American#History" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian American">Italian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Lithuanian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Lithuanian Americans">Lithuanian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Poles_in_the_United_States" title="History of Poles in the United States">Polish American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Serbian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Serbian Americans">Serbian American</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_Hispanic_and_Latino_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Hispanic and Latino Americans">Hispanic and Latino American</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Mexican_Americans" title="History of Mexican Americans">Mexican American</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_States" title="History of the Jews in the United States">Jewish American</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_Middle_Eastern_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Middle Eastern Americans">Middle Eastern American</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Egyptian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Egyptian Americans">Egyptian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iranian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Iranian Americans">Iranian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iraqi_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Iraqi Americans">Iraqi American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Lebanese_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Lebanese Americans">Lebanese American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Palestinian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Palestinian Americans">Palestinian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Saudi_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Saudi Americans">Saudi American</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="History of Native Americans in the United States">Native Americans</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_history" title="Cherokee history">Cherokee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comanche_history" title="Comanche history">Comanche</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_women_in_the_United_States" title="History of women in the United States">Women</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_history_in_the_United_States" title="LGBTQ history in the United States">LGBTQ</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_gay_men_in_the_United_States" title="History of gay men in the United States">Gay men</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_lesbianism_in_the_United_States" title="History of lesbianism in the United States">Lesbians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transgender_history_in_the_United_States" title="Transgender history in the United States">Transgender people</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Places" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Places</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Territorial_evolution_of_the_United_States" title="Territorial evolution of the United States">Territorial evolution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._states_by_date_of_admission_to_the_Union" title="List of U.S. states by date of admission to the Union">Admission to the Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_regions_of_the_United_States" title="Historical regions of the United States">Historical regions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_frontier" title="American frontier">American frontier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manifest_destiny" title="Manifest destiny">Manifest destiny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_removal" title="Indian removal">Indian removal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Regions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_England" title="History of New England">New England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Southern_United_States" title="History of the Southern United States">The South</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_west_coast_of_North_America" title="History of the west coast of North America">The West Coast</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">States</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Alabama" title="History of Alabama">Alabama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Alaska" title="History of Alaska">Alaska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Arizona" title="History of Arizona">Arizona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Arkansas" title="History of Arkansas">Arkansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_California" title="History of California">California</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Colorado" title="History of Colorado">Colorado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Connecticut" title="History of Connecticut">Connecticut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Delaware" title="History of Delaware">Delaware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Florida" title="History of Florida">Florida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="History of Georgia (U.S. state)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Hawaii" title="History of Hawaii">Hawaii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Idaho" title="History of Idaho">Idaho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Illinois" title="History of Illinois">Illinois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Indiana" title="History of Indiana">Indiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iowa" title="History of Iowa">Iowa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kansas" title="History of Kansas">Kansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kentucky" title="History of Kentucky">Kentucky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Louisiana" title="History of Louisiana">Louisiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Maine" title="History of Maine">Maine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Maryland" title="History of Maryland">Maryland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Massachusetts" title="History of Massachusetts">Massachusetts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Michigan" title="History of Michigan">Michigan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Minnesota" title="History of Minnesota">Minnesota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Mississippi" title="History of Mississippi">Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Missouri" title="History of Missouri">Missouri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Montana" title="History of Montana">Montana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Nebraska" title="History of Nebraska">Nebraska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Nevada" title="History of Nevada">Nevada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_Hampshire" title="History of New Hampshire">New Hampshire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_Jersey" title="History of New Jersey">New Jersey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_Mexico" title="History of New Mexico">New Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_York_(state)" title="History of New York (state)">New York</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_North_Carolina" title="History of North Carolina">North Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_North_Dakota" title="History of North Dakota">North Dakota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Ohio" title="History of Ohio">Ohio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Oklahoma" title="History of Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Oregon" title="History of Oregon">Oregon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Pennsylvania" title="History of Pennsylvania">Pennsylvania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Rhode_Island" title="History of Rhode Island">Rhode Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_South_Carolina" title="History of South Carolina">South Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_South_Dakota" title="History of South Dakota">South Dakota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Tennessee" title="History of Tennessee">Tennessee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Texas" title="History of Texas">Texas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Utah" title="History of Utah">Utah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Vermont" title="History of Vermont">Vermont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Virginia" title="History of Virginia">Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Washington_(state)" title="History of Washington (state)">Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_West_Virginia" title="History of West Virginia">West Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Wisconsin" title="History of Wisconsin">Wisconsin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Wyoming" title="History of Wyoming">Wyoming</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Federal District</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Washington,_D.C." title="History of Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Insular areas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_American_Samoa" title="History of American Samoa">American Samoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Guam" title="History of Guam">Guam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Northern_Mariana_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Northern Mariana Islands">Northern Mariana Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Puerto_Rico" title="History of Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Virgin_Islands" title="History of the United States Virgin Islands">U.S. Virgin Islands</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Outlying islands</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Baker_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Baker Island">Baker Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Howland_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Howland Island">Howland Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Jarvis_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Jarvis Island">Jarvis Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Johnston_Atoll" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Johnston Atoll">Johnston Atoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kingman_Reef" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Kingman Reef">Kingman Reef</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Midway_Atoll" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Midway Atoll">Midway Atoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Navassa_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Navassa Island">Navassa Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Palmyra_Atoll" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Palmyra Atoll">Palmyra Atoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Wake_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Wake Island">Wake Island</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_urban_history" title="American urban history">Urban history</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Histories_of_cities_in_the_United_States" title="Category:Histories of cities in the United States">Cities</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight: bold;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_years_in_the_United_States" title="List of years in the United States">List of years</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_United_States" title="Historiography of the United States">Historiography</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_the_United_States" title="Category:History of the United States">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:United_States" title="Portal:United States">Portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Andrew_Jackson" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Andrew_Jackson" title="Template:Andrew Jackson"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Andrew_Jackson" title="Template talk:Andrew Jackson"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Andrew_Jackson" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Andrew Jackson"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Andrew_Jackson" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Jackson" title="Andrew Jackson">Andrew Jackson</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_United_States" title="List of presidents of the United States">7th</a> <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">President of the United States</a> (1829–1837)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_senators_from_Tennessee" title="List of United States senators from Tennessee">Senator from Tennessee</a> (1797–1798, 1823–1825)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_governors_of_Florida" title="List of governors of Florida">Federal Military Commissioner of Florida</a> (1821)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_representatives_from_Tennessee" title="List of United States representatives from Tennessee">U.S. Representative</a> for <a href="/wiki/Tennessee%27s_at-large_congressional_district" title="Tennessee's at-large congressional district">Tennessee at-large</a> (1796–1797)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Life</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hanging_Rock" title="Battle of Hanging Rock">Battle of Hanging Rock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunter%27s_Hill_(Tennessee)" title="Hunter's Hill (Tennessee)">Hunter's Hill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Hermitage_(Nashville,_Tennessee)" title="The Hermitage (Nashville, Tennessee)">The Hermitage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creek_War" title="Creek War">Creek War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fort_Strother" title="Fort Strother">Fort Strother</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Talladega" title="Battle of Talladega">Battle of Talladega</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battles_of_Emuckfaw_and_Enotachopo_Creek" title="Battles of Emuckfaw and Enotachopo Creek">Battles of Emuckfaw and Enotachopo Creek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Horseshoe_Bend" title="Battle of Horseshoe Bend">Battle of Horseshoe Bend</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Fort_Jackson" title="Treaty of Fort Jackson">Treaty of Fort Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pensacola_(1814)" title="Battle of Pensacola (1814)">Battle of Pensacola (1814)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_New_Orleans" title="Battle of New Orleans">Battle of New Orleans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seminole_Wars" title="Seminole Wars">Seminole Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1824_United_States_presidential_election" title="1824 United States presidential election">1824 United States presidential election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate_Committee_on_Armed_Services" title="United States Senate Committee on Armed Services">United States Senate Committee on Armed Services</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corrupt_bargain" title="Corrupt bargain">Corrupt bargain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1828_United_States_presidential_election" title="1828 United States presidential election">1828 United States presidential election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Jackson_1828_presidential_campaign" title="Andrew Jackson 1828 presidential campaign">Andrew Jackson 1828 presidential campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coffin_Handbills" title="Coffin Handbills">Coffin Handbills</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacksonian_democracy" title="Jacksonian democracy">Jacksonian democracy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Andrew_Jackson" title="Presidency of Andrew Jackson">Presidency</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_inauguration_of_Andrew_Jackson" title="First inauguration of Andrew Jackson">First inauguration of Andrew Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tenure_of_Office_Act_(1820)" title="Tenure of Office Act (1820)">Tenure of Office Act (1820)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spoils_system" title="Spoils system">Spoils system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petticoat_affair" title="Petticoat affair">Petticoat affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kitchen_Cabinet" title="Kitchen Cabinet">Kitchen Cabinet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_removal" title="Indian removal">Indian removal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Removal_Act" title="Indian Removal Act">Indian Removal Act</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Trail of Tears</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Dancing_Rabbit_Creek" title="Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek">Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bank_War" title="Bank War">Bank War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Censure_of_Andrew_Jackson" title="Censure of Andrew Jackson">Senate censure</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banking_in_the_Jacksonian_Era" title="Banking in the Jacksonian Era">Banking in the Jacksonian Era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hard_money_(policy)" title="Hard money (policy)">Hard money</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Specie_Circular" title="Specie Circular">Specie Circular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1829_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1829 State of the Union Address">1829 State of the Union Address</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1830_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1830 State of the Union Address">1830 State of the Union Address</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1832_United_States_presidential_election" title="1832 United States presidential election">1832 United States presidential election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1832_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1832 Democratic National Convention">1832 Democratic National Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maysville_Road_veto" title="Maysville Road veto">Maysville Road veto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_inauguration_of_Andrew_Jackson" title="Second inauguration of Andrew Jackson">Second inauguration of Andrew Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nullification_crisis" title="Nullification crisis">Nullification crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tariff_of_1832" title="Tariff of 1832">Tariff of 1832</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordinance_of_Nullification" title="Ordinance of Nullification">Ordinance of Nullification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Force_Bill" title="Force Bill">Force Bill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tariff_of_1833" title="Tariff of 1833">Tariff of 1833</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pet_banks" title="Pet banks">Pet banks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1837" title="Panic of 1837">Panic of 1837</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federal_judges_appointed_by_Andrew_Jackson" title="List of federal judges appointed by Andrew Jackson">List of federal judges appointed by Andrew Jackson</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Public image</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_memorials_to_Andrew_Jackson" title="List of memorials to Andrew Jackson">List of memorials to Andrew Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statue_of_Andrew_Jackson_(U.S._Capitol)" title="Statue of Andrew Jackson (U.S. Capitol)"><i>Andrew Jackson</i> (U.S. Capitol statue)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_Andrew_the_First" title="King Andrew the First">King Andrew the First</a> (1832)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equestrian_statue_of_Andrew_Jackson_(Washington,_D.C.)" title="Equestrian statue of Andrew Jackson (Washington, D.C.)"><i>Andrew Jackson</i> (Washington D.C. and New Orleans statues)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Jack_(stamp)" title="Black Jack (stamp)">Black Jack stamp</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_President%27s_Lady" title="The President's Lady">The President's Lady</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Buccaneer_(1938_film)" title="The Buccaneer (1938 film)">The Buccaneer</a></i> (1938)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Buccaneer_(1958_film)" title="The Buccaneer (1958 film)">The Buccaneer</a></i> (1958)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Gorgeous_Hussy" title="The Gorgeous Hussy">The Gorgeous Hussy</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Remarkable_Andrew" title="The Remarkable Andrew">The Remarkable Andrew</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bloody_Bloody_Andrew_Jackson" title="Bloody Bloody Andrew Jackson">Bloody Bloody Andrew Jackson</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Man_of_Conquest" title="Man of Conquest">Man of Conquest</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USRC_Jackson_(1832)" class="mw-redirect" title="USRC Jackson (1832)">USRC <i>Jackson</i> (1832)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USS_Andrew_Jackson_(SSBN-619)" class="mw-redirect" title="USS Andrew Jackson (SSBN-619)">USS <i>Andrew Jackson</i> (SSBN-619)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USS_President_Jackson" title="USS President Jackson">USS <i>President Jackson</i></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Family</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rachel_Jackson" title="Rachel Jackson">Rachel Jackson</a> (wife)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Jackson_Donelson" title="Andrew Jackson Donelson">Andrew Jackson Donelson</a> (adopted son)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Smith_Donelson" title="Daniel Smith Donelson">Daniel Smith Donelson</a> (adopted son)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lyncoya_Jackson" title="Lyncoya Jackson">Lyncoya Jackson</a> (adopted son)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emily_Donelson" title="Emily Donelson">Emily Donelson</a> (acting First Lady)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarah_Yorke_Jackson" title="Sarah Yorke Jackson">Sarah Yorke Jackson</a> (acting First Lady)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Hutchings_(slave_trader)" title="John Hutchings (slave trader)">John Hutchings</a> (nephew)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poll_(parrot)" title="Poll (parrot)">Poll</a> (pet)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Slaves</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Jackson_and_slavery" title="Andrew Jackson and slavery">Jackson and slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Jackson_and_the_slave_trade_in_the_United_States" title="Andrew Jackson and the slave trade in the United States">Jackson as slave trader</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_(Tennessee)" title="Gilbert (Tennessee)">Gilbert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Jackson_(Tennessee)" title="Alfred Jackson (Tennessee)">Alfred Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hannah_Jackson" title="Hannah Jackson">Hannah Jackson</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/John_Quincy_Adams" title="John Quincy Adams">← John Quincy Adams</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Martin_Van_Buren" title="Martin Van Buren">Martin Van Buren →</a></b></li></ul> <ul><li><b><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" 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