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class="arxiv-result"> <div class="is-marginless"> <p class="list-title is-inline-block"><a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2408.00118">arXiv:2408.00118</a> <span> [<a href="https://arxiv.org/pdf/2408.00118">pdf</a>, <a href="https://arxiv.org/format/2408.00118">other</a>] </span> </p> <div class="tags is-inline-block"> <span class="tag is-small is-link tooltip is-tooltip-top" data-tooltip="Computation and Language">cs.CL</span> <span class="tag is-small is-grey tooltip is-tooltip-top" data-tooltip="Artificial Intelligence">cs.AI</span> </div> </div> <p class="title is-5 mathjax"> Gemma 2: Improving Open Language Models at a Practical Size </p> <p class="authors"> <span class="search-hit">Authors:</span> <a href="/search/?searchtype=author&query=Gemma+Team"> Gemma Team</a>, <a href="/search/?searchtype=author&query=Riviere%2C+M">Morgane Riviere</a>, <a href="/search/?searchtype=author&query=Pathak%2C+S">Shreya Pathak</a>, <a href="/search/?searchtype=author&query=Sessa%2C+P+G">Pier Giuseppe Sessa</a>, <a href="/search/?searchtype=author&query=Hardin%2C+C">Cassidy Hardin</a>, <a href="/search/?searchtype=author&query=Bhupatiraju%2C+S">Surya Bhupatiraju</a>, <a href="/search/?searchtype=author&query=Hussenot%2C+L">L茅onard Hussenot</a>, <a href="/search/?searchtype=author&query=Mesnard%2C+T">Thomas Mesnard</a>, <a href="/search/?searchtype=author&query=Shahriari%2C+B">Bobak Shahriari</a>, <a href="/search/?searchtype=author&query=Ram%C3%A9%2C+A">Alexandre Ram茅</a>, <a href="/search/?searchtype=author&query=Ferret%2C+J">Johan Ferret</a>, <a href="/search/?searchtype=author&query=Liu%2C+P">Peter Liu</a>, <a href="/search/?searchtype=author&query=Tafti%2C+P">Pouya Tafti</a>, <a href="/search/?searchtype=author&query=Friesen%2C+A">Abe Friesen</a>, <a href="/search/?searchtype=author&query=Casbon%2C+M">Michelle Casbon</a>, <a href="/search/?searchtype=author&query=Ramos%2C+S">Sabela Ramos</a>, <a href="/search/?searchtype=author&query=Kumar%2C+R">Ravin Kumar</a>, <a href="/search/?searchtype=author&query=Lan%2C+C+L">Charline Le Lan</a>, <a href="/search/?searchtype=author&query=Jerome%2C+S">Sammy Jerome</a>, <a href="/search/?searchtype=author&query=Tsitsulin%2C+A">Anton Tsitsulin</a>, <a href="/search/?searchtype=author&query=Vieillard%2C+N">Nino Vieillard</a>, <a href="/search/?searchtype=author&query=Stanczyk%2C+P">Piotr Stanczyk</a>, <a href="/search/?searchtype=author&query=Girgin%2C+S">Sertan Girgin</a>, <a href="/search/?searchtype=author&query=Momchev%2C+N">Nikola Momchev</a>, <a href="/search/?searchtype=author&query=Hoffman%2C+M">Matt Hoffman</a> , et al. (173 additional authors not shown) </p> <p class="abstract mathjax"> <span class="has-text-black-bis has-text-weight-semibold">Abstract</span>: <span class="abstract-short has-text-grey-dark mathjax" id="2408.00118v3-abstract-short" style="display: inline;"> In this work, we introduce Gemma 2, a new addition to the Gemma family of lightweight, state-of-the-art open models, ranging in scale from 2 billion to 27 billion parameters. In this new version, we apply several known technical modifications to the Transformer architecture, such as interleaving local-global attentions (Beltagy et al., 2020a) and group-query attention (Ainslie et al., 2023). We al… <a class="is-size-7" style="white-space: nowrap;" onclick="document.getElementById('2408.00118v3-abstract-full').style.display = 'inline'; document.getElementById('2408.00118v3-abstract-short').style.display = 'none';">▽ More</a> </span> <span class="abstract-full has-text-grey-dark mathjax" id="2408.00118v3-abstract-full" style="display: none;"> In this work, we introduce Gemma 2, a new addition to the Gemma family of lightweight, state-of-the-art open models, ranging in scale from 2 billion to 27 billion parameters. In this new version, we apply several known technical modifications to the Transformer architecture, such as interleaving local-global attentions (Beltagy et al., 2020a) and group-query attention (Ainslie et al., 2023). We also train the 2B and 9B models with knowledge distillation (Hinton et al., 2015) instead of next token prediction. The resulting models deliver the best performance for their size, and even offer competitive alternatives to models that are 2-3 times bigger. We release all our models to the community. <a class="is-size-7" style="white-space: nowrap;" onclick="document.getElementById('2408.00118v3-abstract-full').style.display = 'none'; document.getElementById('2408.00118v3-abstract-short').style.display = 'inline';">△ Less</a> </span> </p> <p class="is-size-7"><span class="has-text-black-bis has-text-weight-semibold">Submitted</span> 2 October, 2024; <span class="has-text-black-bis has-text-weight-semibold">v1</span> submitted 31 July, 2024; <span class="has-text-black-bis has-text-weight-semibold">originally announced</span> August 2024. </p> </li> <li class="arxiv-result"> <div class="is-marginless"> <p class="list-title is-inline-block"><a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2403.12324">arXiv:2403.12324</a> <span> [<a href="https://arxiv.org/pdf/2403.12324">pdf</a>, <a href="https://arxiv.org/ps/2403.12324">ps</a>, <a href="https://arxiv.org/format/2403.12324">other</a>] </span> </p> <div class="tags is-inline-block"> <span class="tag is-small is-link tooltip is-tooltip-top" data-tooltip="Information Theory">cs.IT</span> </div> </div> <p class="title is-5 mathjax"> Towards a Theory of Pragmatic Information </p> <p class="authors"> <span class="search-hit">Authors:</span> <a href="/search/?searchtype=author&query=Weinberger%2C+E+D">Edward D. Weinberger</a> </p> <p class="abstract mathjax"> <span class="has-text-black-bis has-text-weight-semibold">Abstract</span>: <span class="abstract-short has-text-grey-dark mathjax" id="2403.12324v5-abstract-short" style="display: inline;"> Standard information theory says nothing about how much meaning is conveyed by a message. We fill this gap with a rigorously justifiable, quantitative definition of ``pragmatic information'', the amount of meaning in a message relevant to a particular decision. We posit that such a message updates a random variable, $蠅$, that informs the decision. The pragmatic information of a single message is t… <a class="is-size-7" style="white-space: nowrap;" onclick="document.getElementById('2403.12324v5-abstract-full').style.display = 'inline'; document.getElementById('2403.12324v5-abstract-short').style.display = 'none';">▽ More</a> </span> <span class="abstract-full has-text-grey-dark mathjax" id="2403.12324v5-abstract-full" style="display: none;"> Standard information theory says nothing about how much meaning is conveyed by a message. We fill this gap with a rigorously justifiable, quantitative definition of ``pragmatic information'', the amount of meaning in a message relevant to a particular decision. We posit that such a message updates a random variable, $蠅$, that informs the decision. The pragmatic information of a single message is then defined as the Kulbach-Leibler divergence between the apriori and aposteriori probabilities of $蠅$; the pragmatic information of a message ensemble is the expected value of the pragmatic information of the ensemble's component messages. We justify these definitions by proving that the pragmatic information of a single message is the expected difference between the shortest binary encoding of $蠅$ under the a priori and a posteriori distributions, and that the average of the pragmatic values of individual messages, when sampled a large number of times from the ensemble, approaches its expected value. Pragmatic information is non-negative and additive for independent decisions and ``pragmatically independent'' messages. Also, pragmatic information is the information analogue of free energy: just as free energy quantifies the part of a system's total energy available to do useful work, so pragmatic information quantifies the information actually used in making a decision. We sketch 3 applications: the single play of a slot machine, a.k.a. a ``one armed bandit'', with an unknown payout probability; a characterization of the rate of biological evolution in the so-called ``quasi-species'' model; and a reformulation of the efficient market hypothesis of finance. We note the importance of the computational capacity of the receiver in each case. <a class="is-size-7" style="white-space: nowrap;" onclick="document.getElementById('2403.12324v5-abstract-full').style.display = 'none'; document.getElementById('2403.12324v5-abstract-short').style.display = 'inline';">△ Less</a> </span> </p> <p class="is-size-7"><span class="has-text-black-bis has-text-weight-semibold">Submitted</span> 20 November, 2024; <span class="has-text-black-bis has-text-weight-semibold">v1</span> submitted 18 March, 2024; <span class="has-text-black-bis has-text-weight-semibold">originally announced</span> March 2024. </p> <p class="comments is-size-7"> <span class="has-text-black-bis has-text-weight-semibold">Comments:</span> <span class="has-text-grey-dark mathjax">15 pages, no figures</span> </p> <p class="comments is-size-7"> <span class="has-text-black-bis has-text-weight-semibold">ACM Class:</span> H.1.1 </p> </li> <li class="arxiv-result"> <div class="is-marginless"> <p class="list-title is-inline-block"><a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2212.09421">arXiv:2212.09421</a> <span> [<a href="https://arxiv.org/pdf/2212.09421">pdf</a>, <a href="https://arxiv.org/format/2212.09421">other</a>] </span> </p> <div class="tags is-inline-block"> <span class="tag is-small is-link tooltip is-tooltip-top" data-tooltip="Instrumentation and Detectors">physics.ins-det</span> <span class="tag is-small is-grey tooltip is-tooltip-top" data-tooltip="Nuclear Experiment">nucl-ex</span> </div> <div class="is-inline-block" style="margin-left: 0.5rem"> <div class="tags has-addons"> <span class="tag is-dark is-size-7">doi</span> <span class="tag is-light is-size-7"><a class="" href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nima.2022.167972">10.1016/j.nima.2022.167972 <i class="fa fa-external-link" aria-hidden="true"></i></a></span> </div> </div> </div> <p class="title is-5 mathjax"> Study of a possible silicon photomultiplier based readout of the large plastic scintillator neutron detector NeuLAND </p> <p class="authors"> <span class="search-hit">Authors:</span> <a href="/search/?searchtype=author&query=Hensel%2C+T">Thomas Hensel</a>, <a href="/search/?searchtype=author&query=Weinberger%2C+D">David Weinberger</a>, <a href="/search/?searchtype=author&query=Bemmerer%2C+D">Daniel Bemmerer</a>, <a href="/search/?searchtype=author&query=Boretzky%2C+K">Konstanze Boretzky</a>, <a href="/search/?searchtype=author&query=Ga%C5%A1pari%C4%87%2C+I">Igor Ga拧pari膰</a>, <a href="/search/?searchtype=author&query=Stach%2C+D">Daniel Stach</a>, <a href="/search/?searchtype=author&query=Wagner%2C+A">Andreas Wagner</a>, <a href="/search/?searchtype=author&query=Zuber%2C+K">Kai Zuber</a> </p> <p class="abstract mathjax"> <span class="has-text-black-bis has-text-weight-semibold">Abstract</span>: <span class="abstract-short has-text-grey-dark mathjax" id="2212.09421v1-abstract-short" style="display: inline;"> The NeuLAND (New Large-Area Neutron Detector) plastic-scintillator-based time-of-flight detector for 0.1-1.6 GeV neutrons is currently under construction at the Facility for Antiproton and Ion Research (FAIR), Darmstadt, Germany. In its final configuration, NeuLAND will consist of 3000 2.7 m $\times$ 5 cm $\times$ 5 cm big plastic scintillator bars that are read out on each end by fast timing phot… <a class="is-size-7" style="white-space: nowrap;" onclick="document.getElementById('2212.09421v1-abstract-full').style.display = 'inline'; document.getElementById('2212.09421v1-abstract-short').style.display = 'none';">▽ More</a> </span> <span class="abstract-full has-text-grey-dark mathjax" id="2212.09421v1-abstract-full" style="display: none;"> The NeuLAND (New Large-Area Neutron Detector) plastic-scintillator-based time-of-flight detector for 0.1-1.6 GeV neutrons is currently under construction at the Facility for Antiproton and Ion Research (FAIR), Darmstadt, Germany. In its final configuration, NeuLAND will consist of 3000 2.7 m $\times$ 5 cm $\times$ 5 cm big plastic scintillator bars that are read out on each end by fast timing photomultipliers. Here, data from a comprehensive study of an alternative light readout scheme using silicon photomultipliers (SiPM) are reported. For this purpose, a NeuLAND bar was instrumented on each end with a SiPM-based prototype of the same geometry as a 1'' photomultiplier tube, including four 6 $\times$ 6 mm$^2$ SiPMs, amplifiers, high voltage supply, and microcontroller. Tests were carried out using the 35 MeV electron beam from the superconducting Electron Linac for beams with high Brilliance and low Emittance (ELBE) with its picosecond-level time jitter in two different modes of operation, namely parasitic mode with one electron per bunch and single-user mode with 1-60 electrons per bunch. Acqiris fast digitisers were used for data acquisition. In addition, off-beam tests using cosmic rays and the NeuLAND data acquisition scheme have been carried out. Typical time resolutions of $蟽_t\leq$ 120 ps were found for $\geq$95% efficiency for minimum ionising particles, improving on previous work at ELBE and exceeding the NeuLAND timing goal of $蟽_t$ < 150 ps. Over a range of 10-300 MeV deposited energy in the NeuLAND bar, the gain was found to deviate by $\leq$10% ($\leq$20%) from linearity for 35 mm (75 mm) SiPM pitch, respectively, satisfactory for calorimetric use of the full NeuLAND detector. The dark rate of the prototype studied was found to be lower than the expected cosmic-ray induced background in NeuLAND. <a class="is-size-7" style="white-space: nowrap;" onclick="document.getElementById('2212.09421v1-abstract-full').style.display = 'none'; document.getElementById('2212.09421v1-abstract-short').style.display = 'inline';">△ Less</a> </span> </p> <p class="is-size-7"><span class="has-text-black-bis has-text-weight-semibold">Submitted</span> 19 December, 2022; <span class="has-text-black-bis has-text-weight-semibold">originally announced</span> December 2022. </p> <p class="comments is-size-7"> <span class="has-text-black-bis has-text-weight-semibold">Comments:</span> <span class="has-text-grey-dark mathjax">Submitted to Nucl. Inst. Meth. A</span> </p> <p class="comments is-size-7"> <span class="has-text-black-bis has-text-weight-semibold">Journal ref:</span> Nucl. Inst. Meth. A 1048, 167972 (2023) </p> </li> <li class="arxiv-result"> <div class="is-marginless"> <p class="list-title is-inline-block"><a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2101.11656">arXiv:2101.11656</a> <span> [<a href="https://arxiv.org/pdf/2101.11656">pdf</a>, <a href="https://arxiv.org/format/2101.11656">other</a>] </span> </p> <div class="tags is-inline-block"> <span class="tag is-small is-link tooltip is-tooltip-top" data-tooltip="Quantitative Methods">q-bio.QM</span> <span class="tag is-small is-grey tooltip is-tooltip-top" data-tooltip="Machine Learning">cs.LG</span> <span class="tag is-small is-grey tooltip is-tooltip-top" data-tooltip="Image and Video Processing">eess.IV</span> </div> </div> <p class="title is-5 mathjax"> G-MIND: An End-to-End Multimodal Imaging-Genetics Framework for Biomarker Identification and Disease Classification </p> <p class="authors"> <span class="search-hit">Authors:</span> <a href="/search/?searchtype=author&query=Ghosal%2C+S">Sayan Ghosal</a>, <a href="/search/?searchtype=author&query=Chen%2C+Q">Qiang Chen</a>, <a href="/search/?searchtype=author&query=Pergola%2C+G">Giulio Pergola</a>, <a href="/search/?searchtype=author&query=Goldman%2C+A+L">Aaron L. Goldman</a>, <a href="/search/?searchtype=author&query=Ulrich%2C+W">William Ulrich</a>, <a href="/search/?searchtype=author&query=Berman%2C+K+F">Karen F. Berman</a>, <a href="/search/?searchtype=author&query=Blasi%2C+G">Giuseppe Blasi</a>, <a href="/search/?searchtype=author&query=Fazio%2C+L">Leonardo Fazio</a>, <a href="/search/?searchtype=author&query=Rampino%2C+A">Antonio Rampino</a>, <a href="/search/?searchtype=author&query=Bertolino%2C+A">Alessandro Bertolino</a>, <a href="/search/?searchtype=author&query=Weinberger%2C+D+R">Daniel R. Weinberger</a>, <a href="/search/?searchtype=author&query=Mattay%2C+V+S">Venkata S. Mattay</a>, <a href="/search/?searchtype=author&query=Venkataraman%2C+A">Archana Venkataraman</a> </p> <p class="abstract mathjax"> <span class="has-text-black-bis has-text-weight-semibold">Abstract</span>: <span class="abstract-short has-text-grey-dark mathjax" id="2101.11656v1-abstract-short" style="display: inline;"> We propose a novel deep neural network architecture to integrate imaging and genetics data, as guided by diagnosis, that provides interpretable biomarkers. Our model consists of an encoder, a decoder and a classifier. The encoder learns a non-linear subspace shared between the input data modalities. The classifier and the decoder act as regularizers to ensure that the low-dimensional encoding capt… <a class="is-size-7" style="white-space: nowrap;" onclick="document.getElementById('2101.11656v1-abstract-full').style.display = 'inline'; document.getElementById('2101.11656v1-abstract-short').style.display = 'none';">▽ More</a> </span> <span class="abstract-full has-text-grey-dark mathjax" id="2101.11656v1-abstract-full" style="display: none;"> We propose a novel deep neural network architecture to integrate imaging and genetics data, as guided by diagnosis, that provides interpretable biomarkers. Our model consists of an encoder, a decoder and a classifier. The encoder learns a non-linear subspace shared between the input data modalities. The classifier and the decoder act as regularizers to ensure that the low-dimensional encoding captures predictive differences between patients and controls. We use a learnable dropout layer to extract interpretable biomarkers from the data, and our unique training strategy can easily accommodate missing data modalities across subjects. We have evaluated our model on a population study of schizophrenia that includes two functional MRI (fMRI) paradigms and Single Nucleotide Polymorphism (SNP) data. Using 10-fold cross validation, we demonstrate that our model achieves better classification accuracy than baseline methods, and that this performance generalizes to a second dataset collected at a different site. In an exploratory analysis we further show that the biomarkers identified by our model are closely associated with the well-documented deficits in schizophrenia. <a class="is-size-7" style="white-space: nowrap;" onclick="document.getElementById('2101.11656v1-abstract-full').style.display = 'none'; document.getElementById('2101.11656v1-abstract-short').style.display = 'inline';">△ Less</a> </span> </p> <p class="is-size-7"><span class="has-text-black-bis has-text-weight-semibold">Submitted</span> 27 January, 2021; <span class="has-text-black-bis has-text-weight-semibold">originally announced</span> January 2021. </p> </li> <li class="arxiv-result"> <div class="is-marginless"> <p class="list-title is-inline-block"><a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2012.03545">arXiv:2012.03545</a> <span> [<a href="https://arxiv.org/pdf/2012.03545">pdf</a>, <a href="https://arxiv.org/format/2012.03545">other</a>] </span> </p> <div class="tags is-inline-block"> <span class="tag is-small is-link tooltip is-tooltip-top" data-tooltip="Materials Science">cond-mat.mtrl-sci</span> <span class="tag is-small is-grey tooltip is-tooltip-top" data-tooltip="Applied Physics">physics.app-ph</span> <span class="tag is-small is-grey tooltip is-tooltip-top" data-tooltip="Atomic Physics">physics.atom-ph</span> </div> </div> <p class="title is-5 mathjax"> Detection of light emission produced in the process of positronium formation </p> <p class="authors"> <span class="search-hit">Authors:</span> <a href="/search/?searchtype=author&query=Pietrow%2C+M">M. Pietrow</a>, <a href="/search/?searchtype=author&query=Zaleski%2C+R">R. Zaleski</a>, <a href="/search/?searchtype=author&query=Wagner%2C+A">A. Wagner</a>, <a href="/search/?searchtype=author&query=Slomski%2C+P">P. Slomski</a>, <a href="/search/?searchtype=author&query=Hirschmann%2C+E">E. Hirschmann</a>, <a href="/search/?searchtype=author&query=Krause-Rehberg%2C+R">R. Krause-Rehberg</a>, <a href="/search/?searchtype=author&query=Liedke%2C+M+O">M. O. Liedke</a>, <a href="/search/?searchtype=author&query=Butterling%2C+M">M. Butterling</a>, <a href="/search/?searchtype=author&query=Weinberger%2C+D">D. Weinberger</a> </p> <p class="abstract mathjax"> <span class="has-text-black-bis has-text-weight-semibold">Abstract</span>: <span class="abstract-short has-text-grey-dark mathjax" id="2012.03545v1-abstract-short" style="display: inline;"> The excess energy emitted during the positronium (Ps) formation in condensed matter may be released as light. Spectroscopic analysis of this light can be a new method of studying the electronic properties of materials. We report the first experimental attempt, according to our knowledge, to verify the existence of this emission process. As a result, the possibility of the emission of photons durin… <a class="is-size-7" style="white-space: nowrap;" onclick="document.getElementById('2012.03545v1-abstract-full').style.display = 'inline'; document.getElementById('2012.03545v1-abstract-short').style.display = 'none';">▽ More</a> </span> <span class="abstract-full has-text-grey-dark mathjax" id="2012.03545v1-abstract-full" style="display: none;"> The excess energy emitted during the positronium (Ps) formation in condensed matter may be released as light. Spectroscopic analysis of this light can be a new method of studying the electronic properties of materials. We report the first experimental attempt, according to our knowledge, to verify the existence of this emission process. As a result, the possibility of the emission of photons during Ps formation is within the experimental uncertainty in two different solids: an n-alkane and porous silica. However, it seems that the Ps formation on the alkane surface is not accompanied by the emission of photons with energy in the detection range of 1.6 - 3.9 eV. Various processes that can influence the energy of the photon emitted during the Ps formation are discussed to elucidate this issue. To aid future experiments, equations were developed to estimate the expected ratio of light emission events to annihilation events with the presence or absence of a photon during the Ps formation. <a class="is-size-7" style="white-space: nowrap;" onclick="document.getElementById('2012.03545v1-abstract-full').style.display = 'none'; document.getElementById('2012.03545v1-abstract-short').style.display = 'inline';">△ Less</a> </span> </p> <p class="is-size-7"><span class="has-text-black-bis has-text-weight-semibold">Submitted</span> 7 December, 2020; <span class="has-text-black-bis has-text-weight-semibold">originally announced</span> December 2020. </p> </li> <li class="arxiv-result"> <div class="is-marginless"> <p class="list-title is-inline-block"><a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1711.01134">arXiv:1711.01134</a> <span> [<a href="https://arxiv.org/pdf/1711.01134">pdf</a>] </span> </p> <div class="tags is-inline-block"> <span class="tag is-small is-link tooltip is-tooltip-top" data-tooltip="Artificial Intelligence">cs.AI</span> <span class="tag is-small is-grey tooltip is-tooltip-top" data-tooltip="Machine Learning">stat.ML</span> </div> </div> <p class="title is-5 mathjax"> Accountability of AI Under the Law: The Role of Explanation </p> <p class="authors"> <span class="search-hit">Authors:</span> <a href="/search/?searchtype=author&query=Doshi-Velez%2C+F">Finale Doshi-Velez</a>, <a href="/search/?searchtype=author&query=Kortz%2C+M">Mason Kortz</a>, <a href="/search/?searchtype=author&query=Budish%2C+R">Ryan Budish</a>, <a href="/search/?searchtype=author&query=Bavitz%2C+C">Chris Bavitz</a>, <a href="/search/?searchtype=author&query=Gershman%2C+S">Sam Gershman</a>, <a href="/search/?searchtype=author&query=O%27Brien%2C+D">David O'Brien</a>, <a href="/search/?searchtype=author&query=Scott%2C+K">Kate Scott</a>, <a href="/search/?searchtype=author&query=Schieber%2C+S">Stuart Schieber</a>, <a href="/search/?searchtype=author&query=Waldo%2C+J">James Waldo</a>, <a href="/search/?searchtype=author&query=Weinberger%2C+D">David Weinberger</a>, <a href="/search/?searchtype=author&query=Weller%2C+A">Adrian Weller</a>, <a href="/search/?searchtype=author&query=Wood%2C+A">Alexandra Wood</a> </p> <p class="abstract mathjax"> <span class="has-text-black-bis has-text-weight-semibold">Abstract</span>: <span class="abstract-short has-text-grey-dark mathjax" id="1711.01134v3-abstract-short" style="display: inline;"> The ubiquity of systems using artificial intelligence or "AI" has brought increasing attention to how those systems should be regulated. The choice of how to regulate AI systems will require care. AI systems have the potential to synthesize large amounts of data, allowing for greater levels of personalization and precision than ever before---applications range from clinical decision support to aut… <a class="is-size-7" style="white-space: nowrap;" onclick="document.getElementById('1711.01134v3-abstract-full').style.display = 'inline'; document.getElementById('1711.01134v3-abstract-short').style.display = 'none';">▽ More</a> </span> <span class="abstract-full has-text-grey-dark mathjax" id="1711.01134v3-abstract-full" style="display: none;"> The ubiquity of systems using artificial intelligence or "AI" has brought increasing attention to how those systems should be regulated. The choice of how to regulate AI systems will require care. AI systems have the potential to synthesize large amounts of data, allowing for greater levels of personalization and precision than ever before---applications range from clinical decision support to autonomous driving and predictive policing. That said, there exist legitimate concerns about the intentional and unintentional negative consequences of AI systems. There are many ways to hold AI systems accountable. In this work, we focus on one: explanation. Questions about a legal right to explanation from AI systems was recently debated in the EU General Data Protection Regulation, and thus thinking carefully about when and how explanation from AI systems might improve accountability is timely. In this work, we review contexts in which explanation is currently required under the law, and then list the technical considerations that must be considered if we desired AI systems that could provide kinds of explanations that are currently required of humans. <a class="is-size-7" style="white-space: nowrap;" onclick="document.getElementById('1711.01134v3-abstract-full').style.display = 'none'; document.getElementById('1711.01134v3-abstract-short').style.display = 'inline';">△ Less</a> </span> </p> <p class="is-size-7"><span class="has-text-black-bis has-text-weight-semibold">Submitted</span> 20 December, 2019; <span class="has-text-black-bis has-text-weight-semibold">v1</span> submitted 3 November, 2017; <span class="has-text-black-bis has-text-weight-semibold">originally announced</span> November 2017. </p> </li> <li class="arxiv-result"> <div class="is-marginless"> <p class="list-title is-inline-block"><a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1601.04603">arXiv:1601.04603</a> <span> [<a href="https://arxiv.org/pdf/1601.04603">pdf</a>, <a href="https://arxiv.org/ps/1601.04603">ps</a>, <a href="https://arxiv.org/format/1601.04603">other</a>] </span> </p> <div class="tags is-inline-block"> <span class="tag is-small is-link tooltip is-tooltip-top" data-tooltip="Instrumentation and Detectors">physics.ins-det</span> <span class="tag is-small is-grey tooltip is-tooltip-top" data-tooltip="Nuclear Experiment">nucl-ex</span> </div> <div class="is-inline-block" style="margin-left: 0.5rem"> <div class="tags has-addons"> <span class="tag is-dark is-size-7">doi</span> <span class="tag is-light is-size-7"><a class="" href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nima.2016.01.054">10.1016/j.nima.2016.01.054 <i class="fa fa-external-link" aria-hidden="true"></i></a></span> </div> </div> </div> <p class="title is-5 mathjax"> Silicon photomultiplier readout of a monolithic 270$\times$5$\times$5 cm$^3$ plastic scintillator bar for time of flight applications </p> <p class="authors"> <span class="search-hit">Authors:</span> <a href="/search/?searchtype=author&query=Reinhardt%2C+T+P">Tobias P. Reinhardt</a>, <a href="/search/?searchtype=author&query=Gohl%2C+S">Stefan Gohl</a>, <a href="/search/?searchtype=author&query=Reinicke%2C+S">Stefan Reinicke</a>, <a href="/search/?searchtype=author&query=Bemmerer%2C+D">Daniel Bemmerer</a>, <a href="/search/?searchtype=author&query=Cowan%2C+T+E">Thomas E. Cowan</a>, <a href="/search/?searchtype=author&query=Heidel%2C+K">Klaus Heidel</a>, <a href="/search/?searchtype=author&query=R%C3%B6der%2C+M">Marko R枚der</a>, <a href="/search/?searchtype=author&query=Stach%2C+D">Daniel Stach</a>, <a href="/search/?searchtype=author&query=Wagner%2C+A">Andreas Wagner</a>, <a href="/search/?searchtype=author&query=Weinberger%2C+D">David Weinberger</a>, <a href="/search/?searchtype=author&query=Zuber%2C+K">Kai Zuber</a> </p> <p class="abstract mathjax"> <span class="has-text-black-bis has-text-weight-semibold">Abstract</span>: <span class="abstract-short has-text-grey-dark mathjax" id="1601.04603v1-abstract-short" style="display: inline;"> The detection of 200-1000 MeV neutrons requires large amounts, $\sim$100 cm, of detector material because of the long nuclear interaction length of these particles. In the example of the NeuLAND neutron time-of-flight detector at FAIR, this is accomplished by using 3000 monolithic scintillator bars of 270$\times$5$\times$5 cm$^3$ size made of a fast plastic. Each bar is read out on the two long en… <a class="is-size-7" style="white-space: nowrap;" onclick="document.getElementById('1601.04603v1-abstract-full').style.display = 'inline'; document.getElementById('1601.04603v1-abstract-short').style.display = 'none';">▽ More</a> </span> <span class="abstract-full has-text-grey-dark mathjax" id="1601.04603v1-abstract-full" style="display: none;"> The detection of 200-1000 MeV neutrons requires large amounts, $\sim$100 cm, of detector material because of the long nuclear interaction length of these particles. In the example of the NeuLAND neutron time-of-flight detector at FAIR, this is accomplished by using 3000 monolithic scintillator bars of 270$\times$5$\times$5 cm$^3$ size made of a fast plastic. Each bar is read out on the two long ends, and the needed time resolution of $蟽_t$ $<$ 150 ps is reached with fast timing photomultipliers. In the present work, it is investigated whether silicon photomultiplier (SiPM) photosensors can be used instead. Experiments with a picosecond laser system were conducted to determine the timing response of the assembly made up of SiPM and preamplifier. The response of the full system including also the scintillator was studied using 30 MeV single electrons provided by the ELBE superconducting electron linac. The ELBE data were matched by a simple Monte Carlo simulation, and they were found to obey an inverse-square-root scaling law. In the electron beam tests, a time resolution of $蟽_t$ = 136 ps was reached with a pure SiPM readout, well within the design parameters for NeuLAND. <a class="is-size-7" style="white-space: nowrap;" onclick="document.getElementById('1601.04603v1-abstract-full').style.display = 'none'; document.getElementById('1601.04603v1-abstract-short').style.display = 'inline';">△ Less</a> </span> </p> <p class="is-size-7"><span class="has-text-black-bis has-text-weight-semibold">Submitted</span> 18 January, 2016; <span class="has-text-black-bis has-text-weight-semibold">originally announced</span> January 2016. </p> <p class="comments is-size-7"> <span class="has-text-black-bis has-text-weight-semibold">Comments:</span> <span class="has-text-grey-dark mathjax">12 pages, 11 figures</span> </p> <p class="comments is-size-7"> <span class="has-text-black-bis has-text-weight-semibold">Journal ref:</span> Nucl. Inst. Meth. A 816, 16 (2016) </p> </li> <li class="arxiv-result"> <div class="is-marginless"> <p class="list-title is-inline-block"><a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1503.00457">arXiv:1503.00457</a> <span> [<a href="https://arxiv.org/pdf/1503.00457">pdf</a>, <a href="https://arxiv.org/ps/1503.00457">ps</a>, <a href="https://arxiv.org/format/1503.00457">other</a>] </span> </p> <div class="tags is-inline-block"> <span class="tag is-small is-link tooltip is-tooltip-top" data-tooltip="Instrumentation and Detectors">physics.ins-det</span> <span class="tag is-small is-grey tooltip is-tooltip-top" data-tooltip="Instrumentation and Methods for Astrophysics">astro-ph.IM</span> <span class="tag is-small is-grey tooltip is-tooltip-top" data-tooltip="Nuclear Experiment">nucl-ex</span> </div> <div class="is-inline-block" style="margin-left: 0.5rem"> <div class="tags has-addons"> <span class="tag is-dark is-size-7">doi</span> <span class="tag is-light is-size-7"><a class="" href="https://doi.org/10.1140/epja/i2015-15033-0">10.1140/epja/i2015-15033-0 <i class="fa fa-external-link" aria-hidden="true"></i></a></span> </div> </div> </div> <p class="title is-5 mathjax"> Cosmic-ray induced background intercomparison with actively shielded HPGe detectors at underground locations </p> <p class="authors"> <span class="search-hit">Authors:</span> <a href="/search/?searchtype=author&query=Sz%C3%BCcs%2C+T">T. Sz眉cs</a>, <a href="/search/?searchtype=author&query=Bemmerer%2C+D">D. Bemmerer</a>, <a href="/search/?searchtype=author&query=Reinhardt%2C+T+P">T. P. Reinhardt</a>, <a href="/search/?searchtype=author&query=Schmidt%2C+K">K. Schmidt</a>, <a href="/search/?searchtype=author&query=Tak%C3%A1cs%2C+M+P">M. P. Tak谩cs</a>, <a href="/search/?searchtype=author&query=Wagner%2C+A">A. Wagner</a>, <a href="/search/?searchtype=author&query=Wagner%2C+L">L. Wagner</a>, <a href="/search/?searchtype=author&query=Weinberger%2C+D">D. Weinberger</a>, <a href="/search/?searchtype=author&query=Zuber%2C+K">K. Zuber</a> </p> <p class="abstract mathjax"> <span class="has-text-black-bis has-text-weight-semibold">Abstract</span>: <span class="abstract-short has-text-grey-dark mathjax" id="1503.00457v2-abstract-short" style="display: inline;"> The main background above 3\,MeV for in-beam nuclear astrophysics studies with $纬$-ray detectors is caused by cosmic-ray induced secondaries. The two commonly used suppression methods, active and passive shielding, against this kind of background were formerly considered only as alternatives in nuclear astrophysics experiments. In this work the study of the effects of active shielding against cosm… <a class="is-size-7" style="white-space: nowrap;" onclick="document.getElementById('1503.00457v2-abstract-full').style.display = 'inline'; document.getElementById('1503.00457v2-abstract-short').style.display = 'none';">▽ More</a> </span> <span class="abstract-full has-text-grey-dark mathjax" id="1503.00457v2-abstract-full" style="display: none;"> The main background above 3\,MeV for in-beam nuclear astrophysics studies with $纬$-ray detectors is caused by cosmic-ray induced secondaries. The two commonly used suppression methods, active and passive shielding, against this kind of background were formerly considered only as alternatives in nuclear astrophysics experiments. In this work the study of the effects of active shielding against cosmic-ray induced events at a medium deep location is performed. Background spectra were recorded with two actively shielded HPGe detectors. The experiment was located at 148\,m below the surface of the Earth in the Reiche Zeche mine in Freiberg, Germany. The results are compared to data with the same detectors at the Earth's surface, and at depths of 45\,m and 1400\,m, respectively. <a class="is-size-7" style="white-space: nowrap;" onclick="document.getElementById('1503.00457v2-abstract-full').style.display = 'none'; document.getElementById('1503.00457v2-abstract-short').style.display = 'inline';">△ Less</a> </span> </p> <p class="is-size-7"><span class="has-text-black-bis has-text-weight-semibold">Submitted</span> 24 March, 2015; <span class="has-text-black-bis has-text-weight-semibold">v1</span> submitted 2 March, 2015; <span class="has-text-black-bis has-text-weight-semibold">originally announced</span> March 2015. </p> <p class="comments is-size-7"> <span class="has-text-black-bis has-text-weight-semibold">Comments:</span> <span class="has-text-grey-dark mathjax">Minor errors corrected; final version</span> </p> <p class="comments is-size-7"> <span class="has-text-black-bis has-text-weight-semibold">Journal ref:</span> Eur. Phys. J. A (2015) 51: 33 </p> </li> <li class="arxiv-result"> <div class="is-marginless"> <p class="list-title is-inline-block"><a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1209.0729">arXiv:1209.0729</a> <span> [<a href="https://arxiv.org/pdf/1209.0729">pdf</a>, <a href="https://arxiv.org/format/1209.0729">other</a>] </span> </p> <div class="tags is-inline-block"> <span class="tag is-small is-link tooltip is-tooltip-top" data-tooltip="Neurons and Cognition">q-bio.NC</span> <span class="tag is-small is-grey tooltip is-tooltip-top" data-tooltip="Adaptation and Self-Organizing Systems">nlin.AO</span> <span class="tag is-small is-grey tooltip is-tooltip-top" data-tooltip="Data Analysis, Statistics and Probability">physics.data-an</span> </div> </div> <p class="title is-5 mathjax"> Intra- and Inter-Frequency Brain Network Structure in Health and Schizophrenia </p> <p class="authors"> <span class="search-hit">Authors:</span> <a href="/search/?searchtype=author&query=Siebenhuhner%2C+F">Felix Siebenhuhner</a>, <a href="/search/?searchtype=author&query=Weiss%2C+S+A">Shennan A. Weiss</a>, <a href="/search/?searchtype=author&query=Coppola%2C+R">Richard Coppola</a>, <a href="/search/?searchtype=author&query=Weinberger%2C+D+R">Daniel R. Weinberger</a>, <a href="/search/?searchtype=author&query=Bassett%2C+D+S">Danielle S. Bassett</a> </p> <p class="abstract mathjax"> <span class="has-text-black-bis has-text-weight-semibold">Abstract</span>: <span class="abstract-short has-text-grey-dark mathjax" id="1209.0729v1-abstract-short" style="display: inline;"> Empirical studies over the past two decades have supported the hypothesis that schizophrenia is characterized by altered connectivity patterns in functional brain networks. These alterations have been proposed as genetically-mediated diagnostic biomarkers and are thought to underlie altered cognitive functions such as working memory. In this study, we perform an extensive analysis of functional co… <a class="is-size-7" style="white-space: nowrap;" onclick="document.getElementById('1209.0729v1-abstract-full').style.display = 'inline'; document.getElementById('1209.0729v1-abstract-short').style.display = 'none';">▽ More</a> </span> <span class="abstract-full has-text-grey-dark mathjax" id="1209.0729v1-abstract-full" style="display: none;"> Empirical studies over the past two decades have supported the hypothesis that schizophrenia is characterized by altered connectivity patterns in functional brain networks. These alterations have been proposed as genetically-mediated diagnostic biomarkers and are thought to underlie altered cognitive functions such as working memory. In this study, we perform an extensive analysis of functional connectivity patterns extracted from MEG data in 14 subjects with schizophrenia and 14 healthy controls during a 2-back working memory task. We investigate uni-, bi- and multivariate properties of sensor time series by computing wavelet entropy of and correlation between time series, and by constructing binary networks of functional connectivity both within and between classical frequency bands (gamma, beta, alpha, and theta). Networks are based on the mutual information between wavelet time series, and estimated for 66 separate time windows. We observed decreases in entropy in prefrontal and lateral sensor time series and increases in connectivity strength in the schizophrenia group in comparison to the healthy controls. We identified an inverse relationship between entropy and strength across both subjects and sensors that varied over frequency bands and was more pronounced in controls than in patients. Brain network topology was altered in schizophrenia specifically in high frequency gamma and beta band networks as well as in the gamma-beta cross-frequency networks. Network topology varied over trials to a greater extent in patients than in controls, suggesting disease-associated alterations in dynamic network properties of brain function. Our results identify signatures of aberrant neurophysiological behavior in schizophrenia across uni-, bi- and multivariate scales and identify cross-frequency network architecture and network dynamics as candidate intermediate phenotypes. <a class="is-size-7" style="white-space: nowrap;" onclick="document.getElementById('1209.0729v1-abstract-full').style.display = 'none'; document.getElementById('1209.0729v1-abstract-short').style.display = 'inline';">△ Less</a> </span> </p> <p class="is-size-7"><span class="has-text-black-bis has-text-weight-semibold">Submitted</span> 4 September, 2012; <span class="has-text-black-bis has-text-weight-semibold">originally announced</span> September 2012. </p> <p class="comments is-size-7"> <span class="has-text-black-bis has-text-weight-semibold">Comments:</span> <span class="has-text-grey-dark mathjax">19 pages, 8 figures, 1 table, supplementary materials</span> </p> </li> <li class="arxiv-result"> <div class="is-marginless"> <p class="list-title is-inline-block"><a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/0903.2243">arXiv:0903.2243</a> <span> [<a href="https://arxiv.org/pdf/0903.2243">pdf</a>] </span> </p> <div class="tags is-inline-block"> <span class="tag is-small is-link tooltip is-tooltip-top" data-tooltip="Information Theory">cs.IT</span> <span class="tag is-small is-grey tooltip is-tooltip-top" data-tooltip="Portfolio Management">q-fin.PM</span> <span class="tag is-small is-grey tooltip is-tooltip-top" data-tooltip="Trading and Market Microstructure">q-fin.TR</span> </div> </div> <p class="title is-5 mathjax"> Pragmatic Information Rates, Generalizations of the Kelly Criterion, and Financial Market Efficiency </p> <p class="authors"> <span class="search-hit">Authors:</span> <a href="/search/?searchtype=author&query=Weinberger%2C+E+D">Edward D. Weinberger</a> </p> <p class="abstract mathjax"> <span class="has-text-black-bis has-text-weight-semibold">Abstract</span>: <span class="abstract-short has-text-grey-dark mathjax" id="0903.2243v4-abstract-short" style="display: inline;"> This paper is part of an ongoing investigation of "pragmatic information", defined in Weinberger (2002) as "the amount of information actually used in making a decision". Because a study of information rates led to the Noiseless and Noisy Coding Theorems, two of the most important results of Shannon's theory, we begin the paper by defining a pragmatic information rate, showing that all of the rele… <a class="is-size-7" style="white-space: nowrap;" onclick="document.getElementById('0903.2243v4-abstract-full').style.display = 'inline'; document.getElementById('0903.2243v4-abstract-short').style.display = 'none';">▽ More</a> </span> <span class="abstract-full has-text-grey-dark mathjax" id="0903.2243v4-abstract-full" style="display: none;"> This paper is part of an ongoing investigation of "pragmatic information", defined in Weinberger (2002) as "the amount of information actually used in making a decision". Because a study of information rates led to the Noiseless and Noisy Coding Theorems, two of the most important results of Shannon's theory, we begin the paper by defining a pragmatic information rate, showing that all of the relevant limits make sense, and interpreting them as the improvement in compression obtained from using the correct distribution of transmitted symbols. The first of two applications of the theory extends the information theoretic analysis of the Kelly Criterion, and its generalization, the horse race, to a series of races where the stochastic process of winning horses, payoffs, and strategies depend on some stationary process, including, but not limited to the history of previous races. If the bettor is receiving messages (side information) about the probability distribution of winners, the doubling rate of the bettor's winnings is bounded by the pragmatic information of the messages. A second application is to the question of market efficiency. An efficient market is, by definition, a market in which the pragmatic information of the "tradable past" with respect to current prices is zero. Under this definition, markets whose returns are characterized by a GARCH(1,1) process cannot be efficient. Finally, a pragmatic informational analogue to Shannon's Noisy Coding Theorem suggests that a cause of market inefficiency is that the underlying fundamentals are changing so fast that the price discovery mechanism simply cannot keep up. This may happen most readily in the run-up to a financial bubble, where investors' willful ignorance degrade the information processing capabilities of the market. <a class="is-size-7" style="white-space: nowrap;" onclick="document.getElementById('0903.2243v4-abstract-full').style.display = 'none'; document.getElementById('0903.2243v4-abstract-short').style.display = 'inline';">△ Less</a> </span> </p> <p class="is-size-7"><span class="has-text-black-bis has-text-weight-semibold">Submitted</span> 22 September, 2014; <span class="has-text-black-bis has-text-weight-semibold">v1</span> submitted 12 March, 2009; <span class="has-text-black-bis has-text-weight-semibold">originally announced</span> March 2009. </p> <p class="comments is-size-7"> <span class="has-text-black-bis has-text-weight-semibold">Comments:</span> <span class="has-text-grey-dark mathjax">Revised to clarify the text</span> </p> <p class="comments is-size-7"> <span class="has-text-black-bis has-text-weight-semibold">MSC Class:</span> 94A17; 91G80 </p> </li> <li class="arxiv-result"> <div class="is-marginless"> <p class="list-title is-inline-block"><a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/nlin/0606012">arXiv:nlin/0606012</a> <span> [<a href="https://arxiv.org/pdf/nlin/0606012">pdf</a>] </span> </p> <div class="tags is-inline-block"> <span class="tag is-small is-link tooltip is-tooltip-top" data-tooltip="Adaptation and Self-Organizing Systems">nlin.AO</span> </div> </div> <p class="title is-5 mathjax"> Pragmatic Information and Gaian Development -- First Thoughts </p> <p class="authors"> <span class="search-hit">Authors:</span> <a href="/search/?searchtype=author&query=Weinberger%2C+E+D">Edward D. Weinberger</a> </p> <p class="abstract mathjax"> <span class="has-text-black-bis has-text-weight-semibold">Abstract</span>: <span class="abstract-short has-text-grey-dark mathjax" id="nlin/0606012v1-abstract-short" style="display: inline;"> The scientific community believes in the theory of evolution with a passion that rivals that of any religious belief. This passion extends beyond the irrefutable evidence of the fossil record to the familiar claims of survival of the fittest and random mutation. Yet the theory of natural selection has, to the knowledge of the present author, never been tested against the alternative hypothesis t… <a class="is-size-7" style="white-space: nowrap;" onclick="document.getElementById('nlin/0606012v1-abstract-full').style.display = 'inline'; document.getElementById('nlin/0606012v1-abstract-short').style.display = 'none';">▽ More</a> </span> <span class="abstract-full has-text-grey-dark mathjax" id="nlin/0606012v1-abstract-full" style="display: none;"> The scientific community believes in the theory of evolution with a passion that rivals that of any religious belief. This passion extends beyond the irrefutable evidence of the fossil record to the familiar claims of survival of the fittest and random mutation. Yet the theory of natural selection has, to the knowledge of the present author, never been tested against the alternative hypothesis that evolution is, in fact, the ongoing development of a single, world-spanning super-organism. Just what kind of evidence would settle this question is not clear, so this paper is intended to begin the discussion. It does so by suggesting how a new, quantitative theory of pragmatic information, first presented in Weinberger (2002), might detect the widespread temporal and inter-species connections that a developmental view of evolution would imply. <a class="is-size-7" style="white-space: nowrap;" onclick="document.getElementById('nlin/0606012v1-abstract-full').style.display = 'none'; document.getElementById('nlin/0606012v1-abstract-short').style.display = 'inline';">△ Less</a> </span> </p> <p class="is-size-7"><span class="has-text-black-bis has-text-weight-semibold">Submitted</span> 2 June, 2006; <span class="has-text-black-bis has-text-weight-semibold">originally announced</span> June 2006. </p> </li> <li class="arxiv-result"> <div class="is-marginless"> <p class="list-title is-inline-block"><a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/nlin/0505017">arXiv:nlin/0505017</a> <span>  </span> </p> <div class="tags is-inline-block"> <span class="tag is-small is-link tooltip is-tooltip-top" data-tooltip="Chaotic Dynamics">nlin.CD</span> </div> </div> <p class="title is-5 mathjax"> Computational Complexity as a Source of Thermodynamic Irreversibility </p> <p class="authors"> <span class="search-hit">Authors:</span> <a href="/search/?searchtype=author&query=Weinberger%2C+E+D">Edward D Weinberger</a> </p> <p class="abstract mathjax"> <span class="has-text-black-bis has-text-weight-semibold">Abstract</span>: <span class="abstract-short has-text-grey-dark mathjax" id="nlin/0505017v2-abstract-short" style="display: inline;"> In spite of the fact that the Newtonian dynsmics of the underlying molecules do not seem to favor one direction of time over its opposite, the non-decreasing entropy of macroscopic physical systems provides a unique direction to 'the arrow of time'. This paper proposes that the directionality of time arises from the intrinsic computational complexity of molecular dynamics. In particular, the fol… <a class="is-size-7" style="white-space: nowrap;" onclick="document.getElementById('nlin/0505017v2-abstract-full').style.display = 'inline'; document.getElementById('nlin/0505017v2-abstract-short').style.display = 'none';">▽ More</a> </span> <span class="abstract-full has-text-grey-dark mathjax" id="nlin/0505017v2-abstract-full" style="display: none;"> In spite of the fact that the Newtonian dynsmics of the underlying molecules do not seem to favor one direction of time over its opposite, the non-decreasing entropy of macroscopic physical systems provides a unique direction to 'the arrow of time'. This paper proposes that the directionality of time arises from the intrinsic computational complexity of molecular dynamics. In particular, the following question about a hard sphere gas is proven to be Np-complete: Given a set of input signals, in which TRUE is represented by an actual sphere trajectory and FALSE is represented by a trajectory that is not followed because an input signal is not TRUE; a set of 'routing' spheres that follow the same trajectory for all choices of input signals and that collide with the signal trajectories at pre-specified points; does there exist a set of inputs that would produce a specified final configuration? The time asymmetry arises because the computational effort, and thus the actual time required to determine the final configuration from the starting configuration grows only linearly with the number of particles, N, but the computational effort required to determine the answer to the above Np-complete problem probably grows faster than any polynomial in N. We conclude by arguing that, as N approaches infinity, the resulting temporal asymmetry is sufficient to justify the molecular chaos assumption (Stosszahlansatz) used in deriving the Boltzmann equation. <a class="is-size-7" style="white-space: nowrap;" onclick="document.getElementById('nlin/0505017v2-abstract-full').style.display = 'none'; document.getElementById('nlin/0505017v2-abstract-short').style.display = 'inline';">△ Less</a> </span> </p> <p class="is-size-7"><span class="has-text-black-bis has-text-weight-semibold">Submitted</span> 11 October, 2006; <span class="has-text-black-bis has-text-weight-semibold">v1</span> submitted 7 May, 2005; <span class="has-text-black-bis has-text-weight-semibold">originally announced</span> May 2005. </p> <p class="comments is-size-7"> <span class="has-text-black-bis has-text-weight-semibold">Comments:</span> <span class="has-text-grey-dark mathjax">This paper has been withdrawn by the author</span> </p> </li> <li class="arxiv-result"> <div class="is-marginless"> <p class="list-title is-inline-block"><a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/nlin/0105030">arXiv:nlin/0105030</a> <span> [<a href="https://arxiv.org/pdf/nlin/0105030">pdf</a>] </span> </p> <div class="tags is-inline-block"> <span class="tag is-small is-link tooltip is-tooltip-top" data-tooltip="Adaptation and Self-Organizing Systems">nlin.AO</span> <span class="tag is-small is-grey tooltip is-tooltip-top" data-tooltip="Quantitative Biology">q-bio</span> </div> </div> <p class="title is-5 mathjax"> A Theory of Pragmatic Information and Its Application to the Quasispecies Model of Biological Evolution </p> <p class="authors"> <span class="search-hit">Authors:</span> <a href="/search/?searchtype=author&query=Weinberger%2C+E+D">Edward D. Weinberger</a> </p> <p class="abstract mathjax"> <span class="has-text-black-bis has-text-weight-semibold">Abstract</span>: <span class="abstract-short has-text-grey-dark mathjax" id="nlin/0105030v3-abstract-short" style="display: inline;"> "Standard" information theory says nothing about the semantic content of information. Nevertheless, applications such as evolutionary theory demand consideration of precisely this aspect of information, a need that has motivated a largely unsuccessful search for a suitable measure of an "amount of meaning". This paper represents an attempt to move beyond this impasse, based on the observation th… <a class="is-size-7" style="white-space: nowrap;" onclick="document.getElementById('nlin/0105030v3-abstract-full').style.display = 'inline'; document.getElementById('nlin/0105030v3-abstract-short').style.display = 'none';">▽ More</a> </span> <span class="abstract-full has-text-grey-dark mathjax" id="nlin/0105030v3-abstract-full" style="display: none;"> "Standard" information theory says nothing about the semantic content of information. Nevertheless, applications such as evolutionary theory demand consideration of precisely this aspect of information, a need that has motivated a largely unsuccessful search for a suitable measure of an "amount of meaning". This paper represents an attempt to move beyond this impasse, based on the observation that the meaning of a message can only be understood relative to its receiver. Positing that the semantic value of information is its usefulness in making an informed decision, we define pragmatic information as the information gain in the probability distributions of the receiver's actions, both before and after receipt of a message in some pre-defined ensemble. We then prove rigorously that our definition is the only one that satisfies obvious desiderata, such as the additivity of information from logically independent messages. This definition, when applied to the information "learned" by the time evolution of a process, defies the intuitions of the few previous researchers thinking along these lines by being monotonic in the uncertainty that remains after receipt of the message, but non-monotonic in the Shannon entropy of the input ensemble. It then follows that the pragmatic information of the genetic "messages" in an evolving population is a global Lyapunov function for Eigen's quasi-species model of biological evolution. A concluding section argues that a theory such as ours must explicitly acknowledge purposeful action, or "agency", in such diverse fields as evolutionary theory and finance. <a class="is-size-7" style="white-space: nowrap;" onclick="document.getElementById('nlin/0105030v3-abstract-full').style.display = 'none'; document.getElementById('nlin/0105030v3-abstract-short').style.display = 'inline';">△ Less</a> </span> </p> <p class="is-size-7"><span class="has-text-black-bis has-text-weight-semibold">Submitted</span> 1 July, 2003; <span class="has-text-black-bis has-text-weight-semibold">v1</span> submitted 11 May, 2001; <span class="has-text-black-bis has-text-weight-semibold">originally announced</span> May 2001. </p> <p class="comments is-size-7"> <span class="has-text-black-bis has-text-weight-semibold">Comments:</span> <span class="has-text-grey-dark mathjax">as published in BIOSYSTEMS (I fixed an error in the proof of Theorem 2)</span> </p> <p class="comments is-size-7"> <span class="has-text-black-bis has-text-weight-semibold">Journal ref:</span> A Theory of Pragmatic Information and Its Application to the Quasispecies Model of Biological Evolution, BioSystems, 66, No. 3, 105 thru 119 (2002) </p> </li> </ol> <div class="is-hidden-tablet">  <span class="help" style="display: inline-block;"><a href="https://github.com/arXiv/arxiv-search/releases">Search v0.5.6 released 2020-02-24</a>  </span> </div> </div> </main> <footer> <div class="columns is-desktop" role="navigation" aria-label="Secondary">  <div class="column"> <div class="columns"> <div class="column"> <ul class="nav-spaced"> <li><a href="https://info.arxiv.org/about">About</a></li> <li><a href="https://info.arxiv.org/help">Help</a></li> </ul> </div> <div class="column"> <ul class="nav-spaced"> <li> <svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" viewBox="0 0 512 512" class="icon filter-black" role="presentation"><title>contact arXiv</title><desc>Click here to contact arXiv</desc><path d="M502.3 190.8c3.9-3.1 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