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<span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Stem structure</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Stem_structure-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Stem structure subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Stem_structure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Dicot_stems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dicot_stems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Dicot stems</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dicot_stems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Monocot_stems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Monocot_stems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Monocot stems</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Monocot_stems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gymnosperm_stems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gymnosperm_stems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Gymnosperm stems</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gymnosperm_stems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fern_stems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fern_stems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Fern stems</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fern_stems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Relation_to_xenobiotics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Relation_to_xenobiotics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Relation to xenobiotics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Relation_to_xenobiotics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economic_importance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economic_importance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Economic importance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economic_importance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Plant stem</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 84 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-84" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">84 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stingel" title="Stingel – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Stingel" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%82_%D9%86%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="ساق نبات – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="ساق نبات" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tallo_(botanica)" title="Tallo (botanica) – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Tallo (botanica)" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarmu" title="Tarmu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Tarmu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ay mw-list-item"><a href="https://ay.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ali_lawa" title="Ali lawa – Aymara" lang="ay" hreflang="ay" data-title="Ali lawa" data-language-autonym="Aymar aru" data-language-local-name="Aymara" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aymar aru</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AF%D8%A4%D9%88%D8%AF%D9%87_(%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%82%D9%87)" title="گؤوده (ساقه) – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="گؤوده (ساقه)" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A3%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A1" title="কাণ্ড – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="কাণ্ড" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ho%C3%A2i%E2%81%BF" title="Hoâiⁿ – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Hoâiⁿ" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%86%D1%8F%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%BE" title="Сцябло – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Сцябло" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%8C%D1%86%D1%8F%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%BE" title="Сьцябло – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Сьцябло" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D1%8A%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%BE" title="Стъбло – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Стъбло" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schtengl" title="Schtengl – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Schtengl" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Boarisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internodij" title="Internodij – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Internodij" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tija" title="Tija – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Tija" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%B0_(%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0)" title="Туна (ботаника) – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Туна (ботаника)" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stonek" title="Stonek – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Stonek" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/St%C3%A6ngel" title="Stængel – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Stængel" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sprossachse" title="Sprossachse – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Sprossachse" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vars" title="Vars – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Vars" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tallo" title="Tallo – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Tallo" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tigo" title="Tigo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Tigo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zurtoin" title="Zurtoin – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Zurtoin" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%82%D9%87" title="ساقه – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="ساقه" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tige" title="Tige – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Tige" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/St%C3%A2le_(plant)" title="Stâle (plant) – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Stâle (plant)" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas" title="Gas – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Gas" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talo" title="Talo – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Talo" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A4%84%EA%B8%B0" title="줄기 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="줄기" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%91%D5%B8%D5%B2%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Ցողուն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ցողուն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE" title="तना – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="तना" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stabljika" title="Stabljika – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Stabljika" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Batang" title="Batang – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Batang" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/St%C3%B6ngull" title="Stöngull – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Stöngull" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fusto_(botanica)" title="Fusto (botanica) – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Fusto (botanica)" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%92%D7%91%D7%A2%D7%95%D7%9C" title="גבעול – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="גבעול" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Batang" title="Batang – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Batang" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%95%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%82%E0%B2%A1" title="ಕಾಂಡ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಕಾಂಡ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A6%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D" title="ღერო – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ღერო" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B0%D2%9B_(%D0%B1%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F)" title="Сабақ (биология) – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Сабақ (биология)" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tij" title="Tij – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Tij" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caulis" title="Caulis – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Caulis" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stumbrs" title="Stumbrs – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Stumbrs" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stiebas" title="Stiebas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Stiebas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sz%C3%A1r_(botanika)" title="Szár (botanika) – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Szár (botanika)" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%BE" title="Стебло – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Стебло" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%87" title="انباره – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="انباره" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مازِرونی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Batang" title="Batang – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Batang" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stengel" title="Stengel – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Stengel" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%8C%8E" title="茎 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="茎" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nap mw-list-item"><a href="https://nap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sponzillo" title="Sponzillo – Neapolitan" lang="nap" hreflang="nap" data-title="Sponzillo" data-language-autonym="Napulitano" data-language-local-name="Neapolitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Napulitano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stengel" title="Stengel – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Stengel" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stengel" title="Stengel – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Stengel" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camba_(botanica)" title="Camba (botanica) – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Camba (botanica)" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jirma" title="Jirma – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Jirma" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oromoo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poya" title="Poya – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Poya" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%81odyga" title="Łodyga – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Łodyga" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caule" title="Caule – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Caule" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tulpin%C4%83" title="Tulpină – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Tulpină" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chillki" title="Chillki – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Chillki" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C" title="Стебель – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Стебель" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szy mw-list-item"><a href="https://szy.wikipedia.org/wiki/akaway" title="akaway – Sakizaya" lang="szy" hreflang="szy" data-title="akaway" data-language-autonym="Sakizaya" data-language-local-name="Sakizaya" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sakizaya</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%ABrcelli" title="Kërcelli – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Kërcelli" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pidicuddu" title="Pidicuddu – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Pidicuddu" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_stem" title="Plant stem – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Plant stem" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BF%DA%99_(%D9%BB%D9%88%D9%BD%D9%8A_%D8%AC%D9%88)" title="ٿڙ (ٻوٽي جو) – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="ٿڙ (ٻوٽي جو)" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stonka" title="Stonka – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Stonka" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steblo" title="Steblo – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Steblo" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%BE" title="Стабло – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Стабло" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stablo_(biljka)" title="Stablo (biljka) – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Stablo (biljka)" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Varsi" title="Varsi – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Varsi" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stj%C3%A4lk" title="Stjälk – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Stjälk" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%81" title="தாவரத்தண்டு – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="தாவரத்தண்டு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age%E1%B9%AD%E1%B9%ADum_n_yim%C9%A3i" title="Ageṭṭum n yimɣi – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Ageṭṭum n yimɣi" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Taqbaylit</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%95%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%82%E0%B0%A1%E0%B0%82" title="కాండం – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="కాండం" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B3%E0%B8%95%E0%B9%89%E0%B8%99" title="ลำต้น – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ลำต้น" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0nternod" title="İnternod – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="İnternod" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%BE" title="Стебло – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Стебло" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%AA%DB%8C_%D8%AA%D9%86%D8%A7" title="نباتی تنا – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="نباتی تنا" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truzo" title="Truzo – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Truzo" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vèneto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a 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For the use of stem node in phylogenetics and cladistics, see <a href="/wiki/Phylogenetic_nomenclature" title="Phylogenetic nomenclature">Phylogenetic nomenclature</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Plant_stem" title="Special:EditPage/Plant stem">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Plant+stem%22">"Plant stem"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Plant+stem%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Plant+stem%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Plant+stem%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Plant+stem%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Plant+stem%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">March 2022</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Plant_nodes_c.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Plant_nodes_c.jpg/200px-Plant_nodes_c.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="218" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Plant_nodes_c.jpg/300px-Plant_nodes_c.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/29/Plant_nodes_c.jpg 2x" data-file-width="330" data-file-height="360" /></a><figcaption>Stem showing internode and nodes plus leaf <a href="/wiki/Petiole_(botany)" title="Petiole (botany)">petioles</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Polygonum_amphibium_(4973671699).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Polygonum_amphibium_%284973671699%29.jpg/200px-Polygonum_amphibium_%284973671699%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="267" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Polygonum_amphibium_%284973671699%29.jpg/300px-Polygonum_amphibium_%284973671699%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Polygonum_amphibium_%284973671699%29.jpg/400px-Polygonum_amphibium_%284973671699%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3240" data-file-height="4320" /></a><figcaption>This above-ground stem of <i><a href="/wiki/Polygonum" title="Polygonum">Polygonum</a></i> has lost its leaves, but is producing <a href="/wiki/Adventitious_roots" class="mw-redirect" title="Adventitious roots">adventitious roots</a> from the nodes.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Translocation_from_the_source_to_the_sink_within_the_phloem.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Translocation_from_the_source_to_the_sink_within_the_phloem.svg/220px-Translocation_from_the_source_to_the_sink_within_the_phloem.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="137" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Translocation_from_the_source_to_the_sink_within_the_phloem.svg/330px-Translocation_from_the_source_to_the_sink_within_the_phloem.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Translocation_from_the_source_to_the_sink_within_the_phloem.svg/440px-Translocation_from_the_source_to_the_sink_within_the_phloem.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="319" /></a><figcaption>Xylem and Phloem</figcaption></figure> <p>A <b>stem</b> is one of two main structural axes of a <a href="/wiki/Vascular_plant" title="Vascular plant">vascular plant</a>, the other being the <a href="/wiki/Root" title="Root">root</a>. It supports <a href="/wiki/Leaf" title="Leaf">leaves</a>, <a href="/wiki/Flower" title="Flower">flowers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fruit" title="Fruit">fruits</a>, transports water and dissolved substances between the roots and the shoots in the <a href="/wiki/Xylem" title="Xylem">xylem</a> and <a href="/wiki/Phloem" title="Phloem">phloem</a>, engages in photosynthesis, stores nutrients, and produces new living tissue.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The stem can also be called the <b>culm</b>, <b>halm</b>, <b>haulm</b>, <b>stalk</b>, or <b>thyrsus</b>. </p><p>The stem is normally divided into nodes and internodes:<sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>The nodes are the points of attachment for leaves and can hold one or more leaves. There are sometimes axillary <a href="/wiki/Bud" title="Bud">buds</a> between the stem and leaf which can grow into branches (with <a href="/wiki/Leaf" title="Leaf">leaves</a>, <a href="/wiki/Conifer_cone" title="Conifer cone">conifer cones</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Inflorescence" title="Inflorescence">flowers</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Adventitious_roots" class="mw-redirect" title="Adventitious roots">Adventitious roots</a> (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Brace_roots" title="Brace roots">brace roots</a>) may also be produced from the nodes. <a href="/wiki/Vine" title="Vine">Vines</a> may produce <a href="/wiki/Tendrils" class="mw-redirect" title="Tendrils">tendrils</a> from nodes.</li> <li>The internodes distance one node from another.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>The term "<a href="/wiki/Shoot_(botany)" title="Shoot (botany)">shoots</a>" is often confused with "stems"; "shoots" generally refers to new fresh plant growth, including both stems and other structures like leaves or flowers.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In most plants, stems are located above the soil surface, but some plants have <a href="/wiki/Underground_stem" title="Underground stem">underground stems</a>. </p><p>Stems have several main functions:<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Support for and the elevation of leaves, flowers, and fruits. The stems keep the leaves in the light and provide a place for the plant to keep its flowers and fruits.</li> <li>Transport of fluids between the roots and the shoots in the xylem and phloem.</li> <li>Storage of nutrients.</li> <li>Production of new living tissue. The normal lifespan of plant cells is one to three years. Stems have cells called <a href="/wiki/Meristem" title="Meristem">meristems</a> that annually generate new living tissue.</li> <li>Photosynthesis.</li></ul> <p>Stems have two pipe-like tissues called <a href="/wiki/Xylem" title="Xylem">xylem</a> and <a href="/wiki/Phloem" title="Phloem">phloem</a>. The xylem tissue arises from the cell facing inside and transports water by the action of <a href="/wiki/Transpiration_pull" class="mw-redirect" title="Transpiration pull">transpiration pull</a>, <a href="/wiki/Capillary_action" title="Capillary action">capillary action</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Root_pressure" title="Root pressure">root pressure</a>. The phloem tissue arises from the cell facing outside and consists of sieve tubes and their companion cells. The function of phloem tissue is to distribute food from photosynthetic tissue to other tissues. The two tissues are separated by <a href="/wiki/Cambium" title="Cambium">cambium</a>, a tissue that divides to form xylem or phloem cells. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Specialized_terms">Specialized terms</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plant_stem&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Specialized terms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Stems are often specialized for storage, asexual reproduction, protection, or <a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthesis</a>, including the following: </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Senecio_angulatus_stems.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Senecio_angulatus_stems.jpg/160px-Senecio_angulatus_stems.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="213" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Senecio_angulatus_stems.jpg/240px-Senecio_angulatus_stems.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Senecio_angulatus_stems.jpg/320px-Senecio_angulatus_stems.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1536" data-file-height="2048" /></a><figcaption>Climbing stem of <i><a href="/wiki/Senecio_angulatus" title="Senecio angulatus">Senecio angulatus</a></i>.</figcaption></figure> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_botanical_terms#A" title="Glossary of botanical terms">Acaulescent</a>: Used to describe stems in plants that appear to be stemless. Actually these stems are just extremely short, the leaves appearing to rise directly out of the ground, e.g. some <a href="/wiki/Viola_(plant)" title="Viola (plant)"><i>Viola</i></a> species.</li> <li>Arborescent: Tree with woody stems normally with a single trunk.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axillary_bud" title="Axillary bud">Axillary bud</a>: A bud which grows at the point of attachment of an older leaf with the stem. It potentially gives rise to a shoot.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Branch" title="Branch">Branched</a>: Aerial stems are described as being branched or unbranched.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bud" title="Bud">Bud</a>: An embryonic shoot with immature stem tip.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulb" title="Bulb">Bulb</a>: A short vertical underground stem with fleshy storage leaves attached, e.g. <a href="/wiki/Onion" title="Onion">onion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Daffodil" class="mw-redirect" title="Daffodil">daffodil</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tulip" title="Tulip">tulip</a>. Bulbs often function in reproduction by splitting to form new bulbs or producing small new bulbs termed bulblets. Bulbs are a combination of stem and leaves so may better be considered as leaves because the leaves make up the greater part.</li> <li>Caespitose: When stems grow in a tangled mass or clump or in low growing mats.</li> <li>Cladode (including <a href="/wiki/Phylloclade" title="Phylloclade">phylloclade</a>): A flattened stem that appears leaf-like and is specialized for photosynthesis,<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> e.g. <a href="/wiki/Cactus" title="Cactus">cactus</a> pads.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vine" title="Vine">Climbing</a>: Stems that cling or wrap around other plants or structures.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corm" title="Corm">Corm</a>: A short enlarged underground storage stem, e.g. <a href="/wiki/Taro" title="Taro">taro</a>, <a href="/wiki/Crocus" title="Crocus">crocus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gladiolus" title="Gladiolus">gladiolus</a>.</li></ul> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cucurbita_maxima_Zapallo_Plomo_semiller%C3%ADa_Costanzi_-_vine_detail_decumbent_shoot_and_tendril.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Cucurbita_maxima_Zapallo_Plomo_semiller%C3%ADa_Costanzi_-_vine_detail_decumbent_shoot_and_tendril.jpg/160px-Cucurbita_maxima_Zapallo_Plomo_semiller%C3%ADa_Costanzi_-_vine_detail_decumbent_shoot_and_tendril.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="107" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Cucurbita_maxima_Zapallo_Plomo_semiller%C3%ADa_Costanzi_-_vine_detail_decumbent_shoot_and_tendril.jpg/240px-Cucurbita_maxima_Zapallo_Plomo_semiller%C3%ADa_Costanzi_-_vine_detail_decumbent_shoot_and_tendril.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Cucurbita_maxima_Zapallo_Plomo_semiller%C3%ADa_Costanzi_-_vine_detail_decumbent_shoot_and_tendril.jpg/320px-Cucurbita_maxima_Zapallo_Plomo_semiller%C3%ADa_Costanzi_-_vine_detail_decumbent_shoot_and_tendril.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1792" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>Decumbent stem in <i><a href="/wiki/Cucurbita_maxima" title="Cucurbita maxima">Cucurbita maxima</a></i>.</figcaption></figure> <ul><li>Decumbent: A stem that lies flat on the ground and turns upwards at the ends.</li> <li>Fruticose: Stems that grow shrublike with woody like habit.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbaceous" class="mw-redirect" title="Herbaceous">Herbaceous</a>: Non woody stems which die at the end of the growing season.</li> <li>Internode: An interval between two successive nodes. It possesses the ability to elongate, either from its base or from its extremity depending on the species.</li> <li>Node: A point of attachment of a leaf or a <a href="/wiki/Twig" title="Twig">twig</a> on the stem in seed plants. A node is a very small growth zone.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedicel_(botany)" title="Pedicel (botany)">Pedicel</a>: Stems that serve as the stalk of an individual flower in an <a href="/wiki/Inflorescence" title="Inflorescence">inflorescence</a> or <a href="/wiki/Infrutescence" class="mw-redirect" title="Infrutescence">infrutescence</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peduncle_(botany)" title="Peduncle (botany)">Peduncle</a>: A stem that supports an <a href="/wiki/Inflorescence" title="Inflorescence">inflorescence</a> or a solitary flower.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorns,_spines,_and_prickles" title="Thorns, spines, and prickles">Prickle</a>: A sharpened extension of the stem's outer layers, e.g. <a href="/wiki/Rose" title="Rose">roses</a>.</li> <li><span class="anchor" id="pseudostem"></span>Pseudostem: A false stem made of the rolled bases of leaves, which may be 2 to 3 m (6 ft 7 in to 9 ft 10 in) tall, as in <a href="/wiki/Banana" title="Banana">banana</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhizome" title="Rhizome">Rhizome</a>: A horizontal underground stem that functions mainly in reproduction but also in storage, e.g. most <a href="/wiki/Fern" title="Fern">ferns</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iris_(plant)" title="Iris (plant)">iris</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Runner_(plant_part)" class="mw-redirect" title="Runner (plant part)">Runner</a>: A type of stolon, horizontally growing on top of the ground and rooting at the nodes, aids in reproduction. e.g. <a href="/wiki/Garden_strawberry" class="mw-redirect" title="Garden strawberry">garden strawberry</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Chlorophytum_comosum" title="Chlorophytum comosum">Chlorophytum comosum</a></i>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scape_(botany)" title="Scape (botany)">Scape</a>: A stem that holds flowers that comes out of the ground and has no normal leaves. <a href="/wiki/Hosta" title="Hosta">Hosta</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lily" class="mw-redirect" title="Lily">lily</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iris_(plant)" title="Iris (plant)">iris</a>, <a href="/wiki/Garlic" title="Garlic">garlic</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stolon" title="Stolon">Stolon</a>: A horizontal stem that produces rooted plantlets at its nodes and ends, forming near the surface of the ground.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorn_(botany)" class="mw-redirect" title="Thorn (botany)">Thorn</a>: A <a href="/wiki/Aerial_stem_modification" title="Aerial stem modification">modified stem</a> with a sharpened point.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuber" title="Tuber">Tuber</a>: A swollen, underground storage stem adapted for storage and reproduction, e.g. <a href="/wiki/Potato" title="Potato">potato</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woody_plant" title="Woody plant">Woody</a>: Hard textured stems with secondary xylem.</li> <li>Sapwood: A woody stem, the layer of secondary phloem that surrounds the heartwood; usually active in fluid transport</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Stem_structure">Stem structure</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plant_stem&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Stem structure"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Stele_(biology)" title="Stele (biology)">Stele (biology)</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Plant_stem" title="Special:EditPage/Plant stem">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">March 2022</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Labeledstemforposter_copy_new.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Labeledstemforposter_copy_new.jpg/300px-Labeledstemforposter_copy_new.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="238" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Labeledstemforposter_copy_new.jpg/450px-Labeledstemforposter_copy_new.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Labeledstemforposter_copy_new.jpg/600px-Labeledstemforposter_copy_new.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1300" data-file-height="1030" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Flax" title="Flax">Flax</a> stem cross-section, showing locations of underlying tissues. Ep = <a href="/wiki/Epidermis_(botany)" title="Epidermis (botany)">epidermis</a>; C = <a href="/wiki/Cortex_(botany)" title="Cortex (botany)">cortex</a>; BF = <a href="/wiki/Bast_fibre" title="Bast fibre">bast fibres</a>; P = <a href="/wiki/Phloem" title="Phloem">phloem</a>; X = <a href="/wiki/Xylem" title="Xylem">xylem</a>; Pi = <a href="/wiki/Pith" title="Pith">pith</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Stem usually consist of three tissues: <a href="/wiki/Epidermis_(botany)" title="Epidermis (botany)">dermal tissue</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ground_tissue" title="Ground tissue">ground tissue</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Vascular_tissue" title="Vascular tissue">vascular tissue</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Dermal tissue covers the outer surface of the stem and usually functions to protect the stem tissue, and control <a href="/wiki/Gas_exchange" title="Gas exchange">gas exchange</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Stems_-_Stem_Anatomy_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stems_-_Stem_Anatomy-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The predominant cells of dermal tissue are <a href="/wiki/Epidermis" title="Epidermis">epidermal cells</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Stems_-_Stem_Anatomy_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stems_-_Stem_Anatomy-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Ground tissue usually consists mainly of <a href="/wiki/Parenchyma" title="Parenchyma">parenchyma</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ground_tissue#Collenchyma" title="Ground tissue">collenchyma</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ground_tissue#Sclerenchyma" title="Ground tissue">sclerenchyma cells</a>, and they surround vascular tissue. Ground tissue is important in aiding metabolic activities (eg. <a href="/wiki/Cellular_respiration" title="Cellular respiration">respiration</a>, <a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthesis</a>, transport, storage) as well as acting as structural support and forming new <a href="/wiki/Meristem" title="Meristem">meristems</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most or all ground tissue may be lost in <a href="/wiki/Woody_plant" title="Woody plant">woody stems</a>. </p><p>Vascular tissue, consisting of <a href="/wiki/Xylem" title="Xylem">xylem</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phloem" title="Phloem">phloem</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cambium" title="Cambium">cambium</a>; provides long distance transport of <a href="/wiki/Transpiration" title="Transpiration">water</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mineral" title="Mineral">minerals</a> and <a href="/wiki/Metabolite" title="Metabolite">metabolites</a> (<a href="/wiki/Sugar" title="Sugar">sugars</a>, <a href="/wiki/Amino_acid" title="Amino acid">amino acids</a>); whilst aiding structural support and growth. The arrangement of the vascular tissues varies widely among <a href="/wiki/Flora" title="Flora">plant species</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dicot_stems">Dicot stems</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plant_stem&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Dicot stems"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Dicot" class="mw-redirect" title="Dicot">Dicot</a> stems with primary growth have <a href="/wiki/Pith" title="Pith">pith</a> in the center, with vascular bundles forming a distinct ring visible when the stem is viewed in cross section. The outside of the stem is covered with an epidermis, which is covered by a waterproof cuticle. The epidermis also may contain <a href="/wiki/Stomata" class="mw-redirect" title="Stomata">stomata</a> for gas exchange and multicellular stem hairs called <a href="/wiki/Trichomes" class="mw-redirect" title="Trichomes">trichomes</a>. A cortex consisting of <a href="/wiki/Hypodermis" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypodermis">hypodermis</a> (collenchyma cells) and <a href="/wiki/Endodermis" title="Endodermis">endodermis</a> (starch containing cells) is present above the <a href="/wiki/Pericycle" title="Pericycle">pericycle</a> and vascular bundles. </p><p>Woody dicots and many nonwoody dicots have <a href="/wiki/Secondary_growth" title="Secondary growth">secondary growth</a> originating from their lateral or secondary meristems: the <a href="/wiki/Vascular_cambium" title="Vascular cambium">vascular cambium</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Cork_cambium" title="Cork cambium">cork cambium</a> or phellogen. The vascular cambium forms between the xylem and phloem in the vascular bundles and connects to form a continuous cylinder. The vascular cambium cells divide to produce <a href="/wiki/Secondary_xylem" class="mw-redirect" title="Secondary xylem">secondary xylem</a> to the inside and <a href="/wiki/Secondary_phloem" class="mw-redirect" title="Secondary phloem">secondary phloem</a> to the outside. As the stem increases in diameter due to production of secondary xylem and secondary phloem, the cortex and epidermis are eventually destroyed. Before the cortex is destroyed, a cork cambium develops there. The cork cambium divides to produce waterproof cork cells externally and sometimes phelloderm cells internally. Those three tissues form the <a href="/wiki/Periderm" class="mw-redirect" title="Periderm">periderm</a>, which replaces the epidermis in function. Areas of loosely packed cells in the periderm that function in gas exchange are called lenticels. </p><p>Secondary <a href="/wiki/Xylem" title="Xylem">xylem</a> is commercially important as wood. The seasonal variation in growth from the vascular cambium is what creates yearly tree rings in temperate climates. Tree rings are the basis of <a href="/wiki/Dendrochronology" title="Dendrochronology">dendrochronology</a>, which dates wooden objects and associated artifacts. <a href="/wiki/Dendroclimatology" title="Dendroclimatology">Dendroclimatology</a> is the use of tree rings as a record of past climates. The aerial stem of an adult <a href="/wiki/Tree" title="Tree">tree</a> is called a <a href="/wiki/Trunk_(botany)" title="Trunk (botany)">trunk</a>. The dead, usually darker inner wood of a large diameter trunk is termed the <a href="/wiki/Heartwood" class="mw-redirect" title="Heartwood">heartwood</a> and is the result of <a href="/wiki/Tylosis_(botany)" title="Tylosis (botany)">tylosis</a>. The outer, living wood is termed the sapwood. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Monocot_stems">Monocot stems</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plant_stem&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Monocot stems"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Royal_Palm_Trunk.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Royal_Palm_Trunk.jpg/250px-Royal_Palm_Trunk.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Royal_Palm_Trunk.jpg/375px-Royal_Palm_Trunk.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Royal_Palm_Trunk.jpg/500px-Royal_Palm_Trunk.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="2304" /></a><figcaption>Stems of two <i><a href="/wiki/Roystonea_regia" title="Roystonea regia">Roystonea regia</a></i> palms showing characteristic bulge, leaf scars and fibrous roots, <a href="/wiki/Kolkata" title="Kolkata">Kolkata</a>, India</figcaption></figure> <p>Vascular bundles are present throughout the <a href="/wiki/Monocot" class="mw-redirect" title="Monocot">monocot</a> stem, although concentrated towards the outside. This differs from the dicot stem that has a ring of vascular bundles and often none in the center. The <a href="/wiki/Shoot_apex" class="mw-redirect" title="Shoot apex">shoot apex</a> in monocot stems is more elongated. Leaf sheathes grow up around it, protecting it. This is true to some extent of almost all monocots. Monocots rarely produce <a href="/wiki/Secondary_growth" title="Secondary growth">secondary growth</a> and are therefore seldom woody, with <a href="/wiki/Arecaceae" title="Arecaceae">palms</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bamboo" title="Bamboo">bamboo</a> being notable exceptions. However, many monocot stems increase in diameter via anomalous secondary growth. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gymnosperm_stems">Gymnosperm stems</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plant_stem&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Gymnosperm stems"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>All <a href="/wiki/Gymnosperm" title="Gymnosperm">gymnosperms</a> are woody plants. Their stems are similar in structure to woody dicots except that most gymnosperms produce only <a href="/wiki/Tracheid" title="Tracheid">tracheids</a> in their xylem, not the vessels found in dicots. Gymnosperm wood also often contains <a href="/wiki/Resin" title="Resin">resin</a> ducts. Woody dicots are called hardwoods, e.g. <a href="/wiki/Oak" title="Oak">oak</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maple" title="Maple">maple</a> and <a href="/wiki/Walnut" title="Walnut">walnut</a>. In contrast, softwoods are gymnosperms, such as <a href="/wiki/Pine" title="Pine">pine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spruce" title="Spruce">spruce</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fir" title="Fir">fir</a>. </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 170px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Redwood_M_D_Vaden.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The trunk of this redwood tree is its stem."><img alt="The trunk of this redwood tree is its stem." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Redwood_M_D_Vaden.jpg/200px-Redwood_M_D_Vaden.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Redwood_M_D_Vaden.jpg/300px-Redwood_M_D_Vaden.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Redwood_M_D_Vaden.jpg/400px-Redwood_M_D_Vaden.jpg 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="609" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The trunk of this <a href="/wiki/Sequoia_sempervirens" title="Sequoia sempervirens">redwood</a> tree is its stem.</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fern_stems">Fern stems</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plant_stem&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Fern stems"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Most <a href="/wiki/Fern" title="Fern">ferns</a> have rhizomes with no vertical stem. The exception is <a href="/wiki/Cyatheales" title="Cyatheales">tree ferns</a>, which have vertical stems that can grow up to about 20 metres. The stem anatomy of ferns is more complicated than that of dicots because fern stems often have one or more <a href="/wiki/Leaf_gap" title="Leaf gap">leaf gaps</a> in cross section. A leaf gap is where the vascular tissue branches off to a <a href="/wiki/Frond" title="Frond">frond</a>. In cross section, the vascular tissue does not form a complete cylinder where a leaf gap occurs. Fern stems may have <a href="/wiki/Stele_(biology)" title="Stele (biology)">solenosteles</a> or <a href="/wiki/Stele_(biology)" title="Stele (biology)">dictyosteles</a> or variations of them. Many fern stems have phloem tissue on both sides of the xylem in cross-section. </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 170px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Dicksonia_antarctica_in_Nunniong,_Australia.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Tasmanian tree fern"><img alt="Tasmanian tree fern" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Dicksonia_antarctica_in_Nunniong%2C_Australia.jpg/200px-Dicksonia_antarctica_in_Nunniong%2C_Australia.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Dicksonia_antarctica_in_Nunniong%2C_Australia.jpg/300px-Dicksonia_antarctica_in_Nunniong%2C_Australia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Dicksonia_antarctica_in_Nunniong%2C_Australia.jpg/400px-Dicksonia_antarctica_in_Nunniong%2C_Australia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1067" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Tasmanian_tree_fern" class="mw-redirect" title="Tasmanian tree fern">Tasmanian tree fern</a></div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Relation_to_xenobiotics">Relation to xenobiotics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plant_stem&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Relation to xenobiotics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Foreign chemicals such as air pollutants,<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> herbicides and pesticides can damage stem structures. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Economic_importance">Economic importance</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plant_stem&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Economic importance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Asparagus_produce-1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Asparagus_produce-1.jpg/220px-Asparagus_produce-1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Asparagus_produce-1.jpg/330px-Asparagus_produce-1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Asparagus_produce-1.jpg/440px-Asparagus_produce-1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="470" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption>White and green <a href="/wiki/Asparagus" title="Asparagus">asparagus</a> – crispy stems are the edible parts of this vegetable</figcaption></figure> <p>There are thousands of species whose stems have economic uses. Stems provide a few major staple crops such as potato and <a href="/wiki/Taro" title="Taro">taro</a>. <a href="/wiki/Sugarcane" title="Sugarcane">Sugarcane</a> stems are a major source of sugar. <a href="/wiki/Maple_sugar" title="Maple sugar">Maple sugar</a> is obtained from trunks of <a href="/wiki/Maple" title="Maple">maple</a> trees. <a href="/wiki/Vegetable" title="Vegetable">Vegetables</a> from stems are <a href="/wiki/Asparagus" title="Asparagus">asparagus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bamboo_shoot" title="Bamboo shoot">bamboo shoots</a>, cactus pads or <a href="/wiki/Nopalito" title="Nopalito">nopalitos</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kohlrabi" title="Kohlrabi">kohlrabi</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Eleocharis_dulcis" title="Eleocharis dulcis">water chestnut</a>. The spice, <a href="/wiki/Cinnamon" title="Cinnamon">cinnamon</a> is bark from a tree trunk. <a href="/wiki/Gum_arabic" title="Gum arabic">Gum arabic</a> is an important food additive obtained from the trunks of <i><a href="/wiki/Acacia_senegal" class="mw-redirect" title="Acacia senegal">Acacia senegal</a></i> trees. <a href="/wiki/Chicle" title="Chicle">Chicle</a>, the main ingredient in <a href="/wiki/Chewing_gum" title="Chewing gum">chewing gum</a>, is obtained from trunks of the chicle tree. </p><p>Medicines obtained from stems include <a href="/wiki/Quinine" title="Quinine">quinine</a> from the bark of <a href="/wiki/Cinchona" title="Cinchona">cinchona</a> trees, <a href="/wiki/Camphor" title="Camphor">camphor</a> distilled from wood of a tree in the same genus that provides <a href="/wiki/Cinnamon" title="Cinnamon">cinnamon</a>, and the muscle relaxant <a href="/wiki/Curare" title="Curare">curare</a> from the bark of tropical vines. </p><p>Wood is used in thousands of ways; it can be used to create <a href="/wiki/Building_material" title="Building material">buildings</a>, <a href="/wiki/Furniture" title="Furniture">furniture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Boat" title="Boat">boats</a>, <a href="/wiki/Airplane" title="Airplane">airplanes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wagon" title="Wagon">wagons</a>, <a href="/wiki/Car" title="Car">car</a> parts, <a href="/wiki/Musical_instrument" title="Musical instrument">musical instruments</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sports_equipment" title="Sports equipment">sports equipment</a>, <a href="/wiki/Railroad_tie" title="Railroad tie">railroad ties</a>, <a href="/wiki/Utility_pole" title="Utility pole">utility poles</a>, fence posts, <a href="/wiki/Deep_foundation" class="mw-redirect" title="Deep foundation">pilings</a>, <a href="/wiki/Toothpick" title="Toothpick">toothpicks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Match" title="Match">matches</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plywood" title="Plywood">plywood</a>, <a href="/wiki/Coffin" title="Coffin">coffins</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shake_(shingle)" class="mw-redirect" title="Shake (shingle)">shingles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Barrel" title="Barrel">barrel</a> staves, <a href="/wiki/Toy" title="Toy">toys</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tool" title="Tool">tool</a> handles, <a href="/wiki/Picture_frame" title="Picture frame">picture frames</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wood_veneer" title="Wood veneer">veneer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Charcoal" title="Charcoal">charcoal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Firewood" title="Firewood">firewood</a>. <a href="/wiki/Wood_pulp" class="mw-redirect" title="Wood pulp">Wood pulp</a> is widely used to make <a href="/wiki/Paper" title="Paper">paper</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paperboard" title="Paperboard">paperboard</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cellulose" title="Cellulose">cellulose</a> sponges, <a href="/wiki/Cellophane" title="Cellophane">cellophane</a> and some important <a href="/wiki/Plastic" title="Plastic">plastics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Textile" title="Textile">textiles</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Cellulose_acetate" title="Cellulose acetate">cellulose acetate</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rayon" title="Rayon">rayon</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bamboo" title="Bamboo">Bamboo</a> stems also have hundreds of uses, including in paper, buildings, furniture, boats, musical instruments, <a href="/wiki/Fishing_pole" class="mw-redirect" title="Fishing pole">fishing poles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Water_pipe" class="mw-redirect" title="Water pipe">water pipes</a>, plant stakes, and <a href="/wiki/Bamboo_scaffolding" class="mw-redirect" title="Bamboo scaffolding">scaffolding</a>. Trunks of palms and <a href="/wiki/Tree_fern" title="Tree fern">tree ferns</a> are often used for building. Stems of <a href="/wiki/Phragmites" title="Phragmites">reed</a> are an important building material for use in <a href="/wiki/Thatching" title="Thatching">thatching</a> in some areas. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Tannin" title="Tannin">Tannins</a> used for tanning <a href="/wiki/Leather" title="Leather">leather</a> are obtained from the wood of certain trees, such as <a href="/wiki/Quebracho_tree" title="Quebracho tree">quebracho</a>. <a href="/wiki/Cork_(material)" title="Cork (material)">Cork</a> is obtained from the bark of the <a href="/wiki/Cork_oak" class="mw-redirect" title="Cork oak">cork oak</a>. <a href="/wiki/Rubber" class="mw-redirect" title="Rubber">Rubber</a> is obtained from the trunks of <i><a href="/wiki/Hevea_brasiliensis" title="Hevea brasiliensis">Hevea brasiliensis</a>.</i> <a href="/wiki/Rattan" title="Rattan">Rattan</a>, used for furniture and baskets, is made from the stems of tropical vining palms. <a href="/wiki/Bast_fiber" class="mw-redirect" title="Bast fiber">Bast fibers</a> for textiles and rope are obtained from stems of plants like <a href="/wiki/Flax" title="Flax">flax</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hemp" title="Hemp">hemp</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jute" title="Jute">jute</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ramie" title="Ramie">ramie</a>. The earliest known paper was obtained from the stems of <a href="/wiki/Papyrus" title="Papyrus">papyrus</a> by the ancient Egyptians. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Amber" title="Amber">Amber</a> is <a href="/wiki/Fossil" title="Fossil">fossilized</a> sap from tree trunks; it is used for <a href="/wiki/Jewelry" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewelry">jewelry</a> and may contain preserved animals. Resins from conifer wood are used to produce <a href="/wiki/Turpentine" title="Turpentine">turpentine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rosin" title="Rosin">rosin</a>. Tree bark is often used as a <a href="/wiki/Mulch" title="Mulch">mulch</a> and in growing media for container plants. It also can become the natural <a href="/wiki/Habitat" title="Habitat">habitat</a> of <a href="/wiki/Lichen" title="Lichen">lichens</a>. </p><p>Some ornamental plants are grown mainly for their attractive stems, e.g.: </p> <ul><li>White bark of <a href="/wiki/Paper_birch" class="mw-redirect" title="Paper birch">paper birch</a></li> <li>Twisted branches of <a href="/wiki/Corkscrew_willow" class="mw-redirect" title="Corkscrew willow">corkscrew willow</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hazel" title="Hazel">Harry Lauder's walking stick</a> (<i>Corylus avellana</i> 'Contorta')</li> <li>Red, peeling bark of <a href="/wiki/Paperbark_maple" class="mw-redirect" title="Paperbark maple">paperbark maple</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plant_stem&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Edible_plant_stem" title="Edible plant stem">Edible plant stem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stipe_(botany)" title="Stipe (botany)">Stipe (botany)</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plant_stem&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=paVRrUmPGd0C&dq=Plant+Stems:+Physiology+and+Functional+Morphology&pg=PP1"><i>Plant Stems: Physiology and Functional Morphology</i></a>. Elsevier. 1995-07-19. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-08-053908-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-08-053908-9"><bdi>978-0-08-053908-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Plant+Stems%3A+Physiology+and+Functional+Morphology&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.date=1995-07-19&rft.isbn=978-0-08-053908-9&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpaVRrUmPGd0C%26dq%3DPlant%2BStems%3A%2BPhysiology%2Band%2BFunctional%2BMorphology%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlant+stem" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_2-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>Britannica Lessons Class VI Science The Living World</i>. Popular Prakashan. 2002. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788171549719" title="Special:BookSources/9788171549719"><bdi>9788171549719</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Britannica+Lessons+Class+VI+Science+The+Living+World&rft.pub=Popular+Prakashan&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=9788171549719&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlant+stem" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Raven, Peter H., Ray Franklin Evert, and Helena Curtis (1981). <i>Biology of Plants</i>. New York: Worth Publishers. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87901-132-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-87901-132-7">0-87901-132-7</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoebel,_K.E.v.1969" class="citation book cs1">Goebel, K.E.v. (1969) [1905]. <i>Organography of plants, especially of the Archegoniatae and Spermaphyta</i>. New York: Hofner publishing company.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Organography+of+plants%2C+especially+of+the+Archegoniatae+and+Spermaphyta&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Hofner+publishing+company&rft.date=1969&rft.au=Goebel%2C+K.E.v.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlant+stem" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_and_General_Biology/Book%3A_General_Biology_(Boundless)/30%3A_Plant_Form_and_Physiology/30.03%3A_Stems_-_Stem_Anatomy">"Stem Anatomy"</a>. <i>LibreTexts Biology</i>. 11 May 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 May</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=LibreTexts+Biology&rft.atitle=Stem+Anatomy&rft.date=2024-05-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbio.libretexts.org%2FBookshelves%2FIntroductory_and_General_Biology%2FBook%253A_General_Biology_%28Boundless%29%2F30%253A_Plant_Form_and_Physiology%2F30.03%253A_Stems_-_Stem_Anatomy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlant+stem" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Stems_-_Stem_Anatomy-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Stems_-_Stem_Anatomy_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stems_-_Stem_Anatomy_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_and_General_Biology/General_Biology_(Boundless)/30%3A_Plant_Form_and_Physiology/30.03%3A_Stems_-_Stem_Anatomy">"Stems - Stem Anatomy"</a>. <i>LibreTexts Biology</i>. 11 June 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 June</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=LibreTexts+Biology&rft.atitle=Stems+-+Stem+Anatomy&rft.date=2024-06-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbio.libretexts.org%2FBookshelves%2FIntroductory_and_General_Biology%2FGeneral_Biology_%28Boundless%29%2F30%253A_Plant_Form_and_Physiology%2F30.03%253A_Stems_-_Stem_Anatomy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlant+stem" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSimpson2019" class="citation book cs1">Simpson, Michael G. (2019). <i>Plant Systematics</i> (3rd ed.). New York City, USA: <a href="/wiki/Elsevier" title="Elsevier">Elsevier</a>. pp. <span class="nowrap">537–</span>566. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-812628-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-12-812628-8"><bdi>978-0-12-812628-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Plant+Systematics&rft.place=New+York+City%2C+USA&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E537-%3C%2Fspan%3E566&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-0-12-812628-8&rft.aulast=Simpson&rft.aufirst=Michael+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlant+stem" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: date and year (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_date_and_year" title="Category:CS1 maint: date and year">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLopezBarclay2017" class="citation book cs1">Lopez, F. B.; Barclay, G. F. (2017). <i>Pharmacognosy: Fundamentals, Applications and Strategies</i>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_the_West_Indies" title="University of the West Indies">University of the West Indies</a>: <a href="/wiki/Elsevier" title="Elsevier">Elsevier</a>. pp. <span class="nowrap">45–</span>60. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-802104-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-12-802104-0"><bdi>978-0-12-802104-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pharmacognosy%3A+Fundamentals%2C+Applications+and+Strategies&rft.place=University+of+the+West+Indies&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E45-%3C%2Fspan%3E60&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0-12-802104-0&rft.aulast=Lopez&rft.aufirst=F.+B.&rft.au=Barclay%2C+G.+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlant+stem" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">C. Michael Hogan. 2010. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.eoearth.org/article/Abiotic_factor?topic=49461">"Abiotic factor"</a>. <i>Encyclopedia of Earth</i>. Emily Monosson and C. Cleveland, eds. National Council for Science and the Environment <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130608071757/http://www.eoearth.org/article/Abiotic_factor?topic=49461">Archived</a> 2013-06-08 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Washington, D.C.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plant_stem&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSpeckBurgert2011" class="citation journal cs1">Speck, T.; Burgert, I. (2011). "Plant Stems: Functional Design and Mechanics". <i><a href="/wiki/Annual_Review_of_Materials_Research" title="Annual Review of Materials Research">Annual Review of Materials Research</a></i>. <b>41</b>: <span class="nowrap">169–</span>193. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011AnRMS..41..169S">2011AnRMS..41..169S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev-matsci-062910-100425">10.1146/annurev-matsci-062910-100425</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annual+Review+of+Materials+Research&rft.atitle=Plant+Stems%3A+Functional+Design+and+Mechanics&rft.volume=41&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E169-%3C%2Fspan%3E193&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1146%2Fannurev-matsci-062910-100425&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2011AnRMS..41..169S&rft.aulast=Speck&rft.aufirst=T.&rft.au=Burgert%2C+I.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlant+stem" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plant_stem&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span> Media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Plant_stems" class="extiw" title="commons:Plant stems">Plant stems</a> at Wikimedia Commons</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Hy4KhWRYJcs">Overview of stem anatomy</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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#C3EEC3;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_botany" title="History of botany">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_botany" title="Outline of botany">Outline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Branches_of_botany" title="Branches of botany">Subdisciplines</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaeobotany" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaeobotany">Archaeobotany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrobotany" title="Astrobotany">Astrobotany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bryology" title="Bryology">Bryology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dendrology" title="Dendrology">Dendrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnobotany" title="Ethnobotany">Ethnobotany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleobotany" title="Paleobotany">Paleobotany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phycology" title="Phycology">Phycology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytochemistry" title="Phytochemistry">Phytochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytogeography" title="Phytogeography">Phytogeography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geobotanical_prospecting" title="Geobotanical prospecting">Geobotany</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_anatomy" title="Plant anatomy">Plant anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_ecology" title="Plant ecology">Plant ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_intelligence" title="Plant intelligence">Plant intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_pathology" title="Plant pathology">Plant pathology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_physiology" title="Plant physiology">Plant physiology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">Plant</a> groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algae" title="Algae">Algae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeplastida" title="Archaeplastida">Archaeplastida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bryophyte" title="Bryophyte">Bryophyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-vascular_plant" title="Non-vascular plant">Non-vascular plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vascular_plant" title="Vascular plant">Vascular plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fern" title="Fern">Fern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lycophyte" title="Lycophyte">Lycophyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spermatophyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Spermatophyte">Spermatophytes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gymnosperm" title="Gymnosperm">Gymnosperm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flowering_plant" title="Flowering plant">Angiosperm</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant_anatomy" title="Plant anatomy">Plant anatomy</a> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plant_morphology" title="Plant morphology">Plant morphology</a><br /><span class="nobold">(<a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_plant_morphology" title="Glossary of plant morphology">glossary</a>)</span></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #D4EED4;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant_cell" title="Plant cell">Plant cells</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cell_wall" title="Cell wall">Cell wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phragmoplast" title="Phragmoplast">Phragmoplast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastid" title="Plastid">Plastid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plasmodesma" title="Plasmodesma">Plasmodesma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vacuole" title="Vacuole">Vacuole</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #D4EED4;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tissue_(biology)" title="Tissue (biology)">Tissues</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cork_cambium" title="Cork cambium">Cork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ground_tissue" title="Ground tissue">Ground tissue</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Leaf#Mesophyll" title="Leaf">Mesophyll</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meristem" title="Meristem">Meristem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Storage_organ" title="Storage organ">Storage organs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vascular_tissue" title="Vascular tissue">Vascular tissue</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vascular_bundle" title="Vascular bundle">Vascular bundle</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wood" title="Wood">Wood</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #D4EED4;;width:1%">Vegetative</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bulb" title="Bulb">Bulb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Root" title="Root">Root</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhizoid" title="Rhizoid">Rhizoid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhizome" title="Rhizome">Rhizome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shoot_(botany)" title="Shoot (botany)">Shoot</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bud" title="Bud">Bud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leaf" title="Leaf">Leaf</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cataphyll" title="Cataphyll">Cataphyll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petiole_(botany)" title="Petiole (botany)">Petiole</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sessility_(botany)" title="Sessility (botany)">Sessility</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Stem</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #D4EED4;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant_reproductive_morphology" title="Plant reproductive morphology">Reproductive</a><br />(incl. Flower)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archegonium" title="Archegonium">Archegonium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antheridium" title="Antheridium">Antheridium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stamen" title="Stamen">Androecium</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pollen" title="Pollen">Pollen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stamen" title="Stamen">Stamen</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anther" class="mw-redirect" title="Anther">Anther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stamen#Morphology_and_terminology" title="Stamen">Filament</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Staminode" title="Staminode">Staminode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tapetum_(botany)" title="Tapetum (botany)">Tapetum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flower" title="Flower">Flower</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aestivation_(botany)" title="Aestivation (botany)">Aestivation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ABC_model_of_flower_development" title="ABC model of flower development">Flower development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floral_diagram" title="Floral diagram">Floral diagram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floral_formula" title="Floral formula">Floral formula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floral_symmetry" title="Floral symmetry">Floral symmetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whorl_(botany)" title="Whorl (botany)">Whorl</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fruit" title="Fruit">Fruit</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fruit_anatomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Fruit anatomy">Anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berry_(botany)" title="Berry (botany)">Berry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capsule_(fruit)" title="Capsule (fruit)">Capsule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nut_(fruit)" title="Nut (fruit)">Nut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyrena" title="Pyrena">Pyrena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seed" title="Seed">Seed</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Seed_dispersal" title="Seed dispersal">Dispersal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endosperm" title="Endosperm">Endosperm</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gametophyte" title="Gametophyte">Gametophyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Column_(botany)" title="Column (botany)">Gynandrium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gynoecium" title="Gynoecium">Gynoecium</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carpel" class="mw-redirect" title="Carpel">Carpel</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ovary_(botany)" title="Ovary (botany)">Ovary</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Locule" title="Locule">Locule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ovule" title="Ovule">Ovule</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stigma_(botany)" title="Stigma (botany)">Stigma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Style_(botany)" title="Style (botany)">Style</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypanthium" title="Hypanthium">Hypanthium (Floral cup)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inflorescence" title="Inflorescence">Inflorescence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bract" title="Bract">Bract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedicel_(botany)" title="Pedicel (botany)">Pedicellate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raceme" title="Raceme">Raceme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umbel" title="Umbel">Umbel</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perianth" title="Perianth">Perianth</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tepal" title="Tepal">Tepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petal" title="Petal">Petal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sepal" title="Sepal">Sepal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embryo#Plant_embryos" title="Embryo">Plant embryo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Receptacle_(botany)" title="Receptacle (botany)">Receptacle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sporophyll" title="Sporophyll">Sporophyll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sporophyte" title="Sporophyte">Sporophyte</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #D4EED4;;width:1%">Surface structures</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plant_cuticle" title="Plant cuticle">Cuticle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epicuticular_wax" title="Epicuticular wax">Epicuticular wax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidermis_(botany)" title="Epidermis (botany)">Epidermis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nectar" title="Nectar">Nectar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stoma" title="Stoma">Stoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorns,_spines,_and_prickles" title="Thorns, spines, and prickles">Thorns, spines, and prickles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trichome" title="Trichome">Trichome</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant_physiology" title="Plant physiology">Plant physiology</a><br />Materials</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aleurone" title="Aleurone">Aleurone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apical_dominance" title="Apical dominance">Apical dominance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulk_movement" title="Bulk movement">Bulk flow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cellulose" title="Cellulose">Cellulose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_nutrition" title="Plant nutrition">Nutrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">Photosynthesis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chlorophyll" title="Chlorophyll">Chlorophyll</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytomelanin" title="Phytomelanin">Phytomelanin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_hormone" title="Plant hormone">Plant hormones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Respiratory_system#Plants" title="Respiratory system">Respiration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gas_exchange#Plants" title="Gas exchange">Gas Exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cellular_respiration" title="Cellular respiration">Cellular respiration</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sap" title="Sap">Sap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Starch" title="Starch">Starch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sugar" title="Sugar">Sugar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transpiration" title="Transpiration">Transpiration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turgor_pressure" title="Turgor pressure">Turgor pressure</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%">Plant growth<br />and habit</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Habit_(biology)#Structure" title="Habit (biology)">Habit</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cushion_plant" title="Cushion plant">Cushion plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosette_(botany)" title="Rosette (botany)">Rosettes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shrub" title="Shrub">Shrubs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prostrate_shrub" title="Prostrate shrub">Prostrate shrubs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subshrub" title="Subshrub">Subshrubs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Succulent_plant" title="Succulent plant">Succulent plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tree" title="Tree">Trees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vine" title="Vine">Vines</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liana" title="Liana">Lianas</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbaceous_plant" title="Herbaceous plant">Herbaceous plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secondary_growth" title="Secondary growth">Secondary growth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woody_plant" title="Woody plant">Woody plants</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant_reproduction" title="Plant reproduction">Reproduction</a> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plant_evolution" title="Plant evolution">Evolution</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Plant_ecology" title="Plant ecology">Ecology</a></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternation_of_generations" title="Alternation of generations">Alternation of generations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double_fertilization" title="Double fertilization">Double fertilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_evolutionary_developmental_biology" title="Plant evolutionary developmental biology">Evolutionary development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_history_of_plants" title="Evolutionary history of plants">Evolutionary history</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_plant_evolution" title="Timeline of plant evolution">timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora" title="Flora">Flora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germination" title="Germination">Germination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollination" title="Pollination">Pollination</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_pollination" class="mw-redirect" title="Artificial pollination">Artificial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollinator" title="Pollinator">Pollinators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollen_tube" title="Pollen tube">Pollen tube</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-pollination" title="Self-pollination">Self</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sporangium" title="Sporangium">Sporangium</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microsporangia" class="mw-redirect" title="Microsporangia">Microsporangia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microspore" title="Microspore">Microspore</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sporangium" title="Sporangium">Megasporangium</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Megaspore" title="Megaspore">Megaspore</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spore" title="Spore">Spore</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant_taxonomy" title="Plant taxonomy">Plant taxonomy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">Biological classification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Botanical_nomenclature" title="Botanical nomenclature">Botanical nomenclature</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Botanical_name" title="Botanical name">Botanical name</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Correct_name" title="Correct name">Correct name</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Author_citation_(botany)" title="Author citation (botany)">Author citation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Code_of_Nomenclature_for_algae,_fungi,_and_plants" title="International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants">International Code of Nomenclature (ICN)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Code_of_Nomenclature_for_Cultivated_Plants" title="International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants">ICN for Cultivated Plants (ICNCP)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultivated_plant_taxonomy" title="Cultivated plant taxonomy">Cultivated plant taxonomy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Citrus_taxonomy" title="Citrus taxonomy">Citrus taxonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultigen" title="Cultigen">Cultigen</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultivar" title="Cultivar">Cultivar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultivar_group" title="Cultivar group">Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grex_(horticulture)" title="Grex (horticulture)">Grex</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_plant_systematics" title="History of plant systematics">History of plant systematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbarium" title="Herbarium">Herbarium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Association_for_Plant_Taxonomy" title="International Association for Plant Taxonomy">International Association for Plant Taxonomy</a> (IAPT)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_systems_of_plant_taxonomy" title="List of systems of plant taxonomy">Plant taxonomy systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomic_rank" title="Taxonomic rank">Taxonomic rank</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%">Practice</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agronomy" title="Agronomy">Agronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floriculture" title="Floriculture">Floriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forestry" title="Forestry">Forestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horticulture" title="Horticulture">Horticulture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytochemical" title="Phytochemical">Phytochemical</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><div class="hlist"><ul><li>Lists</li><li>Related topics</li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_botanical_terms" title="Glossary of botanical terms">Botanical terms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_botanists" title="List of botanists">Botanists</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_botanists_by_author_abbreviation_(W%E2%80%93Z)" title="List of botanists by author abbreviation (W–Z)">by author abbreviation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Botanical_expeditions" title="Botanical expeditions">Botanical expeditions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_individual_trees" title="List of individual trees">Individual trees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_plants" title="Lists of plants">Plants</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background: #C3EEC3;"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" 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