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id="toc-Characteristics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Biodiversity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biodiversity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Biodiversity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Biodiversity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mixed_age" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mixed_age"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Mixed age</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mixed_age-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Canopy_openings" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Canopy_openings"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Canopy openings</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Canopy_openings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Topography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Topography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Topography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Topography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Standing_snags" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Standing_snags"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Standing snags</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Standing_snags-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Decaying_ground_layer" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Decaying_ground_layer"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.6</span> <span>Decaying ground layer</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Decaying_ground_layer-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Soil" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Soil"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.7</span> <span>Soil</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Soil-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Definitions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Definitions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Definitions</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Definitions-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Definitions subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Definitions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ecological_definitions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ecological_definitions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Ecological definitions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ecological_definitions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Stand_age_definition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Stand_age_definition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.1</span> <span>Stand age definition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Stand_age_definition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Forest_dynamics_definition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Forest_dynamics_definition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.2</span> <span>Forest dynamics definition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Forest_dynamics_definition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Social_and_cultural_definitions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social_and_cultural_definitions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Social and cultural definitions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Social_and_cultural_definitions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economic_definitions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economic_definitions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Economic definitions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economic_definitions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_definitions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_definitions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Other definitions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_definitions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Importance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Importance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Importance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Importance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ecosystem_services" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ecosystem_services"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Ecosystem services</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ecosystem_services-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Climatic_impacts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Climatic_impacts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Climatic impacts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Climatic_impacts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Logging" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Logging"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Logging</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Logging-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Management" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Management"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Management</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Management-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Locations_of_remaining_tracts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Locations_of_remaining_tracts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Locations of remaining tracts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Locations_of_remaining_tracts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Old-growth forest</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 46 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-46" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">46 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urwald" title="Urwald – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Urwald" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%BA%D8%A7%D8%A8%D8%A9_%D8%A8%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="غابة بدائية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="غابة بدائية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pra%C5%A1uma" title="Prašuma – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Prašuma" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bosc_primari" title="Bosc primari – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Bosc primari" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prales" title="Prales – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Prales" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urskov" title="Urskov – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Urskov" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prim%C3%A4rwald" title="Primärwald – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Primärwald" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%9Crgmets" title="Ürgmets – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Ürgmets" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CE%B1%CF%81%CE%B8%CE%AD%CE%BD%CE%BF_%CE%B4%CE%AC%CF%83%CE%BF%CF%82" title="Παρθένο δάσος – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Παρθένο δάσος" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-myv mw-list-item"><a href="https://myv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B5%D0%B7%D1%8D%D1%80%D1%8C%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%80%D1%8C" title="Кезэрьвирь – Erzya" lang="myv" hreflang="myv" data-title="Кезэрьвирь" data-language-autonym="Эрзянь" data-language-local-name="Erzya" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Эрзянь</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bosque_primario" title="Bosque primario – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Bosque primario" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Praarbaro" title="Praarbaro – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Praarbaro" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oihan_primario" title="Oihan primario – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Oihan primario" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%86%DA%AF%D9%84_%DA%A9%D9%87%D9%86%E2%80%8C%D8%B1%D8%B4%D8%AF" title="جنگل کهن‌رشد – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="جنگل کهن‌رشد" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/For%C3%AAt_primaire" title="Forêt primaire – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Forêt primaire" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bosque_primario" title="Bosque primario – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Bosque primario" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9B%90%EC%8B%9C%EB%A6%BC" title="원시림 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="원시림" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%A8" title="चिरकालीन वन – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="चिरकालीन वन" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pra%C5%A1uma" title="Prašuma – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Prašuma" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hutan_primer" title="Hutan primer – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Hutan primer" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foresta_vergine" title="Foresta vergine – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Foresta vergine" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%99%D7%A2%D7%A8_%D7%A8%D7%90%D7%A9%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%99" title="יער ראשוני – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="יער ראשוני" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sengir%C4%97" title="Sengirė – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Sengirė" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%90serd%C5%91" title="Őserdő – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Őserdő" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alananahary" title="Alananahary – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Alananahary" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hutan_dara" title="Hutan dara – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Hutan dara" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oerbos_(Europa)" title="Oerbos (Europa) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Oerbos (Europa)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8E%9F%E7%94%9F%E6%9E%97" title="原生林 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="原生林" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urskog" title="Urskog – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Urskog" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urskog" title="Urskog – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Urskog" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Las_pierwotny" title="Las pierwotny – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Las pierwotny" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" 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i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Old growth" redirects here. For the Dead Meadow album, see <a href="/wiki/Old_Growth_(album)" title="Old Growth (album)">Old Growth (album)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Virgin forest" redirects here. For the 1985 movie, see <a href="/wiki/Virgin_Forest" title="Virgin Forest">Virgin Forest</a>. For the 2022 movie, see <a href="/wiki/Virgin_Forest_(2022_film)" title="Virgin Forest (2022 film)">Virgin Forest (2022 film)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Biogradska_suma.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Biogradska_suma.jpg/290px-Biogradska_suma.jpg" decoding="async" width="290" height="202" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Biogradska_suma.jpg/435px-Biogradska_suma.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Biogradska_suma.jpg/580px-Biogradska_suma.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="556" /></a><figcaption>Old-growth <a href="/wiki/European_beech" class="mw-redirect" title="European beech">European beech</a> forest in <a href="/wiki/Biogradska_Gora_National_Park" class="mw-redirect" title="Biogradska Gora National Park">Biogradska Gora National Park</a>, Montenegro</figcaption></figure><p> An <b>old-growth forest</b><sup id="cite_ref-aka_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-aka-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (also referred to as <b>primary forest</b>) is a <a href="/wiki/Forest" title="Forest">forest</a> that has developed over a long period of time without <a href="/wiki/Disturbance_(ecology)" title="Disturbance (ecology)">disturbance</a>. Due to this, old-growth forests exhibit unique ecological features.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Food_and_Agriculture_Organization" title="Food and Agriculture Organization">Food and Agriculture Organization</a> of the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> defines primary forests as naturally regenerated forests of native tree species where there are no clearly visible indications of human activity and the ecological processes are not significantly disturbed. One-third (34 percent) of the world's forests are primary forests.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Old-growth features include diverse tree-related structures that provide diverse wildlife <a href="/wiki/Habitats" class="mw-redirect" title="Habitats">habitats</a> that increases the <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">biodiversity</a> of the forested <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">ecosystem</a>. Virgin or first-growth forests are old-growth forests that have never been logged. The concept of diverse tree structure includes multi-layered canopies and <a href="/wiki/Canopy_(biology)" title="Canopy (biology)">canopy</a> gaps, greatly varying tree heights and diameters, and diverse tree species and classes and sizes of woody debris.</p><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CSIRO_ScienceImage_541_Cool_Temperate_Rainforest_Tasmania.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/CSIRO_ScienceImage_541_Cool_Temperate_Rainforest_Tasmania.jpg/170px-CSIRO_ScienceImage_541_Cool_Temperate_Rainforest_Tasmania.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="249" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/CSIRO_ScienceImage_541_Cool_Temperate_Rainforest_Tasmania.jpg/255px-CSIRO_ScienceImage_541_Cool_Temperate_Rainforest_Tasmania.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/CSIRO_ScienceImage_541_Cool_Temperate_Rainforest_Tasmania.jpg/340px-CSIRO_ScienceImage_541_Cool_Temperate_Rainforest_Tasmania.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1815" data-file-height="2657" /></a><figcaption>Cool <a href="/wiki/Temperate_rainforest" title="Temperate rainforest">temperate rainforest</a> in <a href="/wiki/Tasmania" title="Tasmania">Tasmania</a>, Australia</figcaption></figure><p>As of 2020<sup class="plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update" style="display:none;"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Old-growth_forest&action=edit">[update]</a></sup>, the world has 1.11 <a href="/wiki/1000000000_(number)" class="mw-redirect" title="1000000000 (number)">billion</a> <a href="/wiki/Hectare" title="Hectare">ha</a> (2.7 billion acres) of primary forest remaining. Combined, three countries (Brazil, Canada, and Russia) host more than half (61 percent) of the world's primary forest. The area of primary forest has decreased by 81 million ha (200 million acres) since 1990, but the rate of loss more than halved in 2010–2020 compared with the previous decade.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Old-growth forests are valuable for economic reasons and for the <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_services" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecosystem services">ecosystem services</a> they provide.<sup id="cite_ref-maloof_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-maloof-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This can be a point of contention when some in the <a href="/wiki/Logging_industry" class="mw-redirect" title="Logging industry">logging industry</a> desire to harvest valuable timber from the forests, destroying the forests in the process, to generate short-term profits, while environmentalists seek to preserve the forests in their pristine state for benefits such as <a href="/wiki/Water_purification" title="Water purification">water purification</a>, <a href="/wiki/Flood_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Flood control">flood control</a>, weather stability, maintenance of biodiversity, and <a href="/wiki/Nutrient_cycling" class="mw-redirect" title="Nutrient cycling">nutrient cycling</a>. Moreover, old-growth forests are more efficient at <a href="/wiki/Sequestering_carbon" class="mw-redirect" title="Sequestering carbon">sequestering carbon</a> than newly planted forests and fast-growing <a href="/wiki/Timber_plantations" class="mw-redirect" title="Timber plantations">timber plantations</a>, thus preserving the forests is vital to <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation" title="Climate change mitigation">climate change mitigation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-mcgarvey_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mcgarvey-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-metz_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-metz-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Characteristics">Characteristics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old-growth_forest&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Characteristics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Beech_Forest.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/The_Beech_Forest.jpg/260px-The_Beech_Forest.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/The_Beech_Forest.jpg/390px-The_Beech_Forest.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/The_Beech_Forest.jpg/520px-The_Beech_Forest.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6977" data-file-height="4397" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Nothofagus_moorei" title="Nothofagus moorei">Antarctic beech</a> old growth in <a href="/wiki/Lamington_National_Park" title="Lamington National Park">Lamington National Park</a>, Queensland, Australia</figcaption></figure> <p>Old-growth forests tend to have large trees and standing dead trees, multilayered canopies with gaps that result from the deaths of individual trees, and <a href="/wiki/Coarse_woody_debris" title="Coarse woody debris">coarse woody debris</a> on the forest floor.<sup id="cite_ref-naturallywood.com_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-naturallywood.com-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The trees of old-growth forests develop distinctive attributes not seen in younger trees, such as more complex structures and deeply fissured bark that can harbor rare lichens and mosses.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A forest regenerated after a severe disturbance, such as wildfire, insect infestation, or harvesting, is often called <a href="/wiki/Second_growth_forest" class="mw-redirect" title="Second growth forest">second-growth</a> or 'regeneration' until enough time passes for the effects of the disturbance to be no longer evident. Depending on the forest, this may take from a century to several millennia. <a href="/wiki/Hardwood" title="Hardwood">Hardwood</a> forests of the eastern United States can develop old-growth characteristics in 150–500 years. In <a href="/wiki/British_Columbia" title="British Columbia">British Columbia</a>, Canada, old growth is defined as 120 to 140 years of age in the interior of the province where fire is a frequent and natural occurrence. In British Columbia's coastal <a href="/wiki/Rainforest" title="Rainforest">rainforests</a>, old growth is defined as trees more than 250 years, with some trees reaching more than 1,000 years of age.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Australia, <a href="/wiki/Eucalyptus_regnans" title="Eucalyptus regnans">eucalypt trees</a> rarely exceed 350 years of age due to frequent fire disturbance.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Forest types have very different development patterns, natural disturbances and appearances. A <a href="/wiki/Douglas-fir" class="mw-redirect" title="Douglas-fir">Douglas-fir</a> stand may grow for centuries without disturbance while an old-growth <a href="/wiki/Ponderosa_pine" class="mw-redirect" title="Ponderosa pine">ponderosa pine</a> forest requires frequent surface fires to reduce the shade-tolerant species and regenerate the canopy species.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the <a href="/wiki/Boreal_forest_of_Canada" title="Boreal forest of Canada">boreal forest of Canada</a>, catastrophic disturbances like wildfires minimize opportunities for major accumulations of dead and downed woody material and other structural legacies associated with old growth conditions.<sup id="cite_ref-Ontario.ca_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ontario.ca-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Typical characteristics of old-growth forest include the presence of older trees, minimal signs of human disturbance, mixed-age stands, presence of <a href="/wiki/Canopy_(biology)" title="Canopy (biology)">canopy</a> openings due to tree falls, <a href="/wiki/Pit-and-mound_topography" title="Pit-and-mound topography">pit-and-mound topography</a>, down wood in various stages of decay, standing snags (dead trees), multilayered canopies, intact <a href="/wiki/Soil" title="Soil">soils</a>, a healthy <a href="/wiki/Fungus" title="Fungus">fungal</a> ecosystem, and presence of indicator species.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Biodiversity">Biodiversity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old-growth_forest&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Biodiversity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Northern_Spotted_Owl.USFWS.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Northern_Spotted_Owl.USFWS.jpg/170px-Northern_Spotted_Owl.USFWS.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="252" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Northern_Spotted_Owl.USFWS.jpg/255px-Northern_Spotted_Owl.USFWS.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Northern_Spotted_Owl.USFWS.jpg/340px-Northern_Spotted_Owl.USFWS.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2262" data-file-height="3352" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Northern_spotted_owl" title="Northern spotted owl">northern spotted owl</a> primarily inhabits old-growth forests in the northern part of its range (Canada to southern <a href="/wiki/Oregon" title="Oregon">Oregon</a>) and landscapes with a mix of old and younger forest types in the southern part of its range (the <a href="/wiki/Klamath_Basin" title="Klamath Basin">Klamath region</a> and California).</figcaption></figure> <p>Old-growth forests are often <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">biologically diverse</a>, and home to many <a href="/wiki/Rare_species" title="Rare species">rare species</a>, <a href="/wiki/Threatened_species" title="Threatened species">threatened species</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Endangered_species" title="Endangered species">endangered species</a> of plants and animals, such as the <a href="/wiki/Northern_spotted_owl" title="Northern spotted owl">northern spotted owl</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marbled_murrelet" title="Marbled murrelet">marbled murrelet</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fisher_(animal)" title="Fisher (animal)">fisher</a>, making them <a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">ecologically</a> significant. Levels of <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">biodiversity</a> may be higher or lower in old-growth forests compared to that in second-growth forests, depending on specific circumstances, environmental variables, and geographic variables. Logging in old-growth forests is a contentious issue in many parts of the world. Excessive logging reduces biodiversity, affecting not only the old-growth forest itself, but also indigenous species that rely upon old-growth forest habitat.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mixed_age">Mixed age</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old-growth_forest&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Mixed age"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Old-growth_forest" title="Special:EditPage/Old-growth forest">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">December 2022</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Some forests in the old-growth stage have a mix of tree ages, due to a distinct <a href="/wiki/Regeneration_(biology)" title="Regeneration (biology)">regeneration</a> pattern for this stage. New trees regenerate at different times from each other, because each of them has a different spatial location relative to the main canopy, hence each one receives a different amount of light. The mixed age of the forest is an important criterion in ensuring that the forest is a relatively stable ecosystem in the long term. A <a href="/wiki/Climax_community" title="Climax community">climax</a> stand that is uniformly aged becomes <a href="/wiki/Senescence" title="Senescence">senescent</a> and degrades within a relatively short time to result in a new cycle of forest <a href="/wiki/Ecological_succession" title="Ecological succession">succession</a>. Thus, uniformly aged stands are less stable ecosystems. Boreal forests are more uniformly aged, as they are normally subject to frequent stand-replacing wildfires. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Canopy_openings">Canopy openings</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old-growth_forest&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Canopy openings"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Forest_canopy" class="mw-redirect" title="Forest canopy">Forest canopy</a> gaps are essential in creating and maintaining mixed-age stands.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also, some <a href="/wiki/Herbaceous_plant" title="Herbaceous plant">herbaceous plants</a> only become established in canopy openings, but persist beneath an understory. Openings are a result of tree death due to small impact disturbances such as wind, low-intensity fires, and tree diseases.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Old-growth forests are unique, usually having multiple horizontal layers of vegetation representing a variety of tree <a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">species</a>, age classes, and sizes, as well as "pit and mound" soil shape with well-established <a href="/wiki/Fungus" title="Fungus">fungal nets</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As old-growth forest is structurally diverse, it provides higher-diversity habitat than forests in other stages. Thus, sometimes higher biological diversity can be sustained in old-growth forests, or at least a biodiversity that is different from other forest stages.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Topography">Topography</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old-growth_forest&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Topography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Shennongjia_virgin_forest.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Shennongjia_virgin_forest.jpg/220px-Shennongjia_virgin_forest.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Shennongjia_virgin_forest.jpg/330px-Shennongjia_virgin_forest.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Shennongjia_virgin_forest.jpg/440px-Shennongjia_virgin_forest.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2234" data-file-height="1490" /></a><figcaption>Virgin forest about 2,500 m (8,200 ft) above sea level in <a href="/wiki/Shennongjia_Forestry_District" class="mw-redirect" title="Shennongjia Forestry District">Shennongjia Forestry District</a>, Hubei, China</figcaption></figure><p>The characteristic <a href="/wiki/Topography" title="Topography">topography</a> of much old-growth forest consists of pits and mounds. Mounds are caused by decaying fallen trees, and pits (<a href="/wiki/Tree_throw" title="Tree throw">tree throws</a>) by the roots pulled out of the ground when trees fall due to natural causes, including being pushed over by animals. Pits expose <a href="/wiki/Humus" title="Humus">humus</a>-poor, mineral-rich soil and often collect moisture and fallen leaves, forming a thick <a href="/wiki/Organic_material" class="mw-redirect" title="Organic material">organic</a> layer that is able to nurture certain types of organisms. Mounds provide a place free of leaf inundation and saturation, where other types of organisms thrive.<sup id="cite_ref-maloof_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-maloof-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Standing_snags">Standing snags</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old-growth_forest&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Standing snags"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Standing <a href="/wiki/Snag_(ecology)" title="Snag (ecology)">snags</a> provide food sources and habitat for many types of organisms. In particular, many species of dead-wood predators, such as <a href="/wiki/Woodpecker" title="Woodpecker">woodpeckers</a>, must have standing snags available for feeding. In North America, the <a href="/wiki/Spotted_owl" title="Spotted owl">spotted owl</a> is well known for needing standing snags for nesting habitat.<sup id="cite_ref-maloof_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-maloof-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Decaying_ground_layer">Decaying ground layer</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old-growth_forest&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Decaying ground layer"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hawkwoods1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Hawkwoods1.jpg/220px-Hawkwoods1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Hawkwoods1.jpg/330px-Hawkwoods1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Hawkwoods1.jpg/440px-Hawkwoods1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="787" data-file-height="522" /></a><figcaption>Downed wood replenishes <a href="/wiki/Topsoil" title="Topsoil">topsoil</a> as it decays.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:2005-09_Bia%C5%82owieski_Park_Narodowy_12.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/2005-09_Bia%C5%82owieski_Park_Narodowy_12.jpg/170px-2005-09_Bia%C5%82owieski_Park_Narodowy_12.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/2005-09_Bia%C5%82owieski_Park_Narodowy_12.jpg/255px-2005-09_Bia%C5%82owieski_Park_Narodowy_12.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/2005-09_Bia%C5%82owieski_Park_Narodowy_12.jpg/340px-2005-09_Bia%C5%82owieski_Park_Narodowy_12.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1418" data-file-height="1880" /></a><figcaption>Fungus <i><a href="/wiki/Climacocystis_borealis" title="Climacocystis borealis">Climacocystis borealis</a></i> on a tree stump in the <a href="/wiki/Bia%C5%82owie%C5%BCa_Forest" title="Białowieża Forest">Białowieża Forest</a>, one of the last largely intact primeval forests in Central Europe</figcaption></figure> <p>Fallen timber, or <a href="/wiki/Coarse_woody_debris" title="Coarse woody debris">coarse woody debris</a>, contributes <a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">carbon</a>-rich <a href="/wiki/Organic_matter" title="Organic matter">organic matter</a> directly to the <a href="/wiki/Soil" title="Soil">soil</a>, providing a substrate for <a href="/wiki/Moss" title="Moss">mosses</a>, fungi, and <a href="/wiki/Seedling" title="Seedling">seedlings</a>, and creating microhabitats by creating relief on the forest floor. In some ecosystems such as the <a href="/wiki/Temperate_rain_forest" class="mw-redirect" title="Temperate rain forest">temperate rain forest</a> of the North American <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Northwest" title="Pacific Northwest">Pacific coast</a>, fallen timber may become <a href="/wiki/Nurse_log" title="Nurse log">nurse logs</a>, providing a substrate for seedling trees.<sup id="cite_ref-maloof_5-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-maloof-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Soil">Soil</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old-growth_forest&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Soil"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Intact soils harbor many life forms that rely on them. Intact soils generally have very well-defined horizons, or <a href="/wiki/Soil_profile" class="mw-redirect" title="Soil profile">soil profiles</a>. Different organisms may need certain well-defined soil horizons to live, while many trees need well-structured soils free of disturbance to thrive. Some herbaceous plants in northern hardwood forests must have thick duff layers (which are part of the soil profile). <a href="/wiki/Fungus" title="Fungus">Fungal</a> ecosystems are essential for efficient <i><a href="/wiki/In-situ" class="mw-redirect" title="In-situ">in-situ</a></i> recycling of nutrients back into the entire ecosystem.<sup id="cite_ref-maloof_5-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-maloof-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definitions">Definitions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old-growth_forest&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Definitions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ecological_definitions">Ecological definitions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old-growth_forest&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Ecological definitions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Stand_age_definition">Stand age definition</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old-growth_forest&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Stand age definition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Stand age can also be used to categorize a forest as old-growth.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For any given geographical area, the average time since disturbance until a forest reaches the old growth stage can be determined. This method is useful, because it allows quick and objective determination of forest stage. However, this definition does not provide an explanation of forest function. It just gives a useful number to measure. So, some forests may be excluded from being categorized as old-growth even if they have old-growth attributes just because they are too young. Also, older forests can lack some old-growth attributes and be categorized as old-growth just because they are so old. The idea of using age is also problematic, because human activities can influence the forest in varied ways. For example, after the logging of 30% of the trees, less time is needed for old-growth to come back than after removal of 80% of the trees. Although depending on the species logged, the forest that comes back after a 30% harvest may consist of proportionately fewer hardwood trees than a forest logged at 80% in which the light competition by less important tree species does not inhibit the regrowth of vital hardwoods. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Forest_dynamics_definition">Forest dynamics definition</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old-growth_forest&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Forest dynamics definition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>From a <a href="/wiki/Forest_dynamics" title="Forest dynamics">forest dynamics</a> perspective, old-growth forest is in a stage that follows understory reinitiation stage.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Those stages are: </p> <ol><li>Stand-replacing: Disturbance hits the forest and kills most of the living trees.</li> <li>Stand-initiation: A population of new trees becomes established.</li> <li>Stem-exclusion: Trees grow higher and enlarge their <a href="/wiki/Canopy_(biology)" title="Canopy (biology)">canopy</a>, thus competing for the light with neighbors; light competition mortality kills slow-growing trees and reduces forest density, which allows surviving trees to increase in size. Eventually, the canopies of neighboring trees touch each other and drastically lower the amount of light that reaches lower layers. Due to that, the <a href="/wiki/Understory" title="Understory">understory</a> dies and only very <a href="/wiki/Shade-tolerant" class="mw-redirect" title="Shade-tolerant">shade-tolerant</a> species survive.</li> <li>Understory reinitiation: Trees die from low-level mortality, such as windthrow and diseases. Individual canopy gaps start to appear and more light can reach the forest floor. Hence, shade-tolerant species can establish in the understory.</li> <li>Old-growth: Main canopy trees become older and more of them die, creating even more gaps. Since the gaps appear at different times, the understory trees are at different growth stages. Furthermore, the amount of light that reaches each understory tree depends on its position relative to the gap. Thus, each understory tree grows at a different rate. The differences in establishment timing and in growth rate create a population of understory trees that is variable in size. Eventually, some understory trees grow to become as tall as the main canopy trees, thereby filling the gap. This perpetuation process is typical for the old-growth stage. This, however, does not mean that the forest will be old-growth forever. Generally, three futures for old-growth stage forest are possible: 1) The forest will be hit by a disturbance and most of the trees will die, 2) Unfavorable conditions for new trees to regenerate will occur. In this case, the old trees will die and smaller plants will create <a href="/wiki/Woodland" title="Woodland">woodland</a>, and 3) The regenerating understory trees are different species from the main canopy trees. In this case, the forest will switch back to stem-exclusion stage, but with shade-tolerant tree species. 4) The forest in an old-growth stage can be stable for centuries, but the length of this stage depends on the forest's tree composition and the climate of the area. For example, frequent natural fires do not allow <a href="/wiki/Boreal_forests" class="mw-redirect" title="Boreal forests">boreal forests</a> to be as old as coastal forests of <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Northwest" title="Pacific Northwest">western North America</a>.</li></ol> <p>Of importance is that while the stand switches from one tree community to another, the stand will not necessarily go through old-growth stage between those stages. Some tree species have a relatively open canopy. That allows more shade-tolerant tree species to establish below even before the understory reinitiation stage. The shade-tolerant trees eventually outcompete the main canopy trees in stem-exclusion stage. Therefore, the dominant tree species will change, but the forest will still be in stem-exclusion stage until the shade-tolerant species reach old-growth stage. </p><p>Tree species succession may change tree species' composition once the old-growth stage has been achieved. For example, an old boreal forest may contain some large aspen trees, which may die and be replaced by smaller balsam fir or black spruce. Consequently, the forest will switch back to understory reinitiation stage.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Using the stand dynamics definition, old-growth can be easily evaluated using structural attributes. However, in some forest ecosystems, this can lead to decisions regarding the preservation of unique stands or attributes that will disappear over the next few decades because of natural succession processes. Consequently, using stand dynamics to define old-growth forests is more accurate in forests where the species that constitute old-growth have long lifespans and succession is slow.<sup id="cite_ref-maloof_5-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-maloof-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Social_and_cultural_definitions">Social and cultural definitions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old-growth_forest&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Social and cultural definitions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Redwood_M_D_Vaden.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Redwood_M_D_Vaden.jpg/250px-Redwood_M_D_Vaden.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Redwood_M_D_Vaden.jpg/375px-Redwood_M_D_Vaden.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Redwood_M_D_Vaden.jpg/500px-Redwood_M_D_Vaden.jpg 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="609" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Redwood_tree" class="mw-redirect" title="Redwood tree">Redwood tree</a> in northern California redwood forest: According to the <a href="/wiki/National_Park_Service" title="National Park Service">National Park Service</a>, "96 percent of the original old-growth coast redwoods have been logged."<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Common cultural definitions and common denominators regarding what comprises old-growth forest, and the variables that define, constitute and embody old-growth forests include: </p> <ul><li>The forest habitat possesses relatively mature, old trees;</li> <li>The tree species present have long continuity on the same site;</li> <li>The forest itself is a <a href="/wiki/Remnant_natural_area" title="Remnant natural area">remnant natural area</a> that has not been subjected to significant disturbance by mankind, altering the appearance of the landscape and its ecosystems, has not been subjected to logging (or other types of development such as road networks or housing), and has inherently progressed per natural tendencies.</li></ul> <p>Additionally, in mountainous, temperate landscapes (such as Western North America), and specifically in areas of high-quality soil and a moist, relatively mild climate, some old-growth trees have attained notable height and girth (DBH: diameter at breast height), accompanied by notable biodiversity in terms of the species supported. Therefore, for most people, the physical size of the trees is the most recognized hallmark of old-growth forests, even though the ecologically productive areas that support such large trees often comprise only a very small portion of the total area that has been mapped as old-growth forest.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (In high-altitude, harsh climates, trees grow very slowly and thus remain at a small size. Such trees also qualify as old growth in terms of how they are mapped, but are rarely recognized by the general public as such.) </p><p>The debate over old-growth definitions has been inextricably linked with a complex range of social perceptions about <a href="/wiki/Wilderness" title="Wilderness">wilderness</a> preservation, biodiversity, aesthetics, and spirituality, as well as economic or industrial values.<sup id="cite_ref-Ontario.ca_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ontario.ca-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Economic_definitions">Economic definitions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old-growth_forest&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Economic definitions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In logging terms, old-growth stands are past the economic optimum for harvesting—usually between 80 and 150 years, depending on the species. Old-growth forests were often given harvesting priority<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (October 2023)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> because they had the most commercially valuable timber, they were considered to be at greater risk of deterioration through root rot or insect infestation, and they occupied land that could be used for more productive second-growth stands.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In some regions, old growth is not the most commercially viable timber—in British Columbia, Canada, harvesting in the coastal region is moving to younger second-growth stands.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_definitions">Other definitions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old-growth_forest&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Other definitions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A 2001 scientific symposium in Canada found that defining old growth in a scientifically meaningful, yet policy-relevant, manner presents some basic difficulties, especially if a simple, unambiguous, and rigorous scientific definition is sought. Symposium participants identified some attributes of late-successional, temperate-zone, old-growth forest types that could be considered in developing an index of "old-growthness" and for defining old-growth forests:<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><b>Structural features:</b> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Avatar_Grove_Douglas-fir_and_Redcedar.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Avatar_Grove_Douglas-fir_and_Redcedar.jpg/260px-Avatar_Grove_Douglas-fir_and_Redcedar.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Avatar_Grove_Douglas-fir_and_Redcedar.jpg/390px-Avatar_Grove_Douglas-fir_and_Redcedar.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Avatar_Grove_Douglas-fir_and_Redcedar.jpg/520px-Avatar_Grove_Douglas-fir_and_Redcedar.jpg 2x" data-file-width="650" data-file-height="433" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Avatar_Grove" class="mw-redirect" title="Avatar Grove">Avatar Grove</a> near <a href="/wiki/Port_Renfrew" title="Port Renfrew">Port Renfrew</a>, British Columbia: Giant <a href="/wiki/Douglas_fir" title="Douglas fir">Douglas firs</a> (left) and <a href="/wiki/Western_red_cedar" class="mw-redirect" title="Western red cedar">red cedars</a> (right) fill the grove.</figcaption></figure> <ul><li>Uneven or multi-aged stand structure, or several identifiable age cohorts</li> <li>Average age of dominant species approaching half the maximum longevity for species (about 150+ years for most shade-tolerant trees)</li> <li>Some old trees at close to their maximum longevity (ages of 300+ years)</li> <li>Presence of standing dead and dying trees in various stages of decay</li> <li>Fallen, coarse woody debris</li> <li>Natural regeneration of dominant tree species within canopy gaps or on decaying logs</li></ul> <p><b>Compositional features:</b> </p> <ul><li>Long-lived, shade-tolerant tree species associations (e.g., sugar maple, American beech, yellow birch, red spruce, eastern hemlock, white pine)</li></ul> <p><b>Process features:</b> </p> <ul><li>Characterized by small-scale disturbances creating gaps in the forest canopy</li> <li>A long natural rotation for catastrophic or stand-replacing disturbance (e.g., a period greater than the maximum longevity of the dominant tree species)</li> <li>Minimal evidence of human disturbance</li> <li>Final stages of stand development before a relatively steady state is reached</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Importance">Importance</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old-growth_forest&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Importance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Styx_giants,_Tasmania.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Styx_giants%2C_Tasmania.jpg/170px-Styx_giants%2C_Tasmania.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Styx_giants%2C_Tasmania.jpg/255px-Styx_giants%2C_Tasmania.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Styx_giants%2C_Tasmania.jpg/340px-Styx_giants%2C_Tasmania.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/Eucalyptus_regnans" title="Eucalyptus regnans">Eucalyptus regnans</a></i> forest in <a href="/wiki/Tasmania" title="Tasmania">Tasmania</a>, Australia</figcaption></figure> <ul><li>Old-growth forests often contain rich communities of plants and animals within the habitat due to the long period of forest stability. These varied and sometimes <a href="/wiki/Rare_species" title="Rare species">rare species</a> may depend on the unique environmental conditions created by these forests.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_15-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Old-growth forests serve as a reservoir for species, which cannot thrive or easily regenerate in younger forests, so they can be used as a baseline for research.</li> <li>Plant species that are <a href="/wiki/Native_plant" class="mw-redirect" title="Native plant">native</a> to old-growth forests may someday prove to be invaluable towards curing various human ailments, as has been realized in numerous plants in <a href="/wiki/Tropical_rainforests" class="mw-redirect" title="Tropical rainforests">tropical rainforests</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Old-growth forests also store large amounts of <a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">carbon</a> above and below the ground (either as humus, or in wet soils as <a href="/wiki/Peat" title="Peat">peat</a>). They collectively represent a very significant store of carbon. Destruction of these forests releases this carbon as <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gases" class="mw-redirect" title="Greenhouse gases">greenhouse gases</a>, and may increase the risk of global <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although old-growth forests serve as a global <a href="/wiki/Carbon_sink" title="Carbon sink">carbon dioxide sink</a>, they are not protected by international treaties, because it is generally thought that aging forests cease to accumulate carbon. However, in forests between 15 and 800 years of age, net ecosystem productivity (the net carbon balance of the forest including soils) is usually positive; old-growth forests accumulate carbon for centuries and contain large quantities of it.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ecosystem_services">Ecosystem services</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old-growth_forest&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Ecosystem services"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Old-growth forests provide <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_services" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecosystem services">ecosystem services</a> that may be far more important to society than their use as a source of raw materials. These services include making breathable air, making pure water, carbon storage, regeneration of nutrients, maintenance of soils, pest control by insectivorous bats and insects, micro- and macro-climate control, and the storage of a wide variety of genes.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Climatic_impacts">Climatic impacts</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old-growth_forest&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Climatic impacts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Deforestation_and_climate_change" title="Deforestation and climate change">Deforestation and climate change</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Morning_fog_over_Danum_Valley_(27329938517).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Morning_fog_over_Danum_Valley_%2827329938517%29.jpg/220px-Morning_fog_over_Danum_Valley_%2827329938517%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Morning_fog_over_Danum_Valley_%2827329938517%29.jpg/330px-Morning_fog_over_Danum_Valley_%2827329938517%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Morning_fog_over_Danum_Valley_%2827329938517%29.jpg/440px-Morning_fog_over_Danum_Valley_%2827329938517%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4056" data-file-height="2704" /></a><figcaption>Mist condensing over rainforest in <a href="/wiki/Danum_Valley_Conservation_Area" title="Danum Valley Conservation Area">Danum Valley Conservation Area</a>, Malaysia</figcaption></figure> <p>The effects of old-growth forests in relation to <a href="/wiki/Global_warming" class="mw-redirect" title="Global warming">global warming</a> have been addressed in various studies and journals. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Intergovernmental_Panel_on_Climate_Change" title="Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change">Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change</a> said in its <a href="/wiki/IPCC_Fourth_Assessment_Report" title="IPCC Fourth Assessment Report">2007 report</a>: "In the long term, a sustainable forest management strategy aimed at maintaining or increasing forest carbon stocks, while producing an annual sustained yield of timber, fibre, or energy from the forest, will generate the largest sustained mitigation benefit."<sup id="cite_ref-metz_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-metz-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Old-growth forests are often perceived to be in equilibrium or in a state of decay.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, evidence from analysis of carbon stored above ground and in the soil has shown old-growth forests are more productive at storing carbon than younger forests.<sup id="cite_ref-mcgarvey_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mcgarvey-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Forest harvesting has little or no effect on the amount of carbon stored in the soil,<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but other research suggests older forests that have trees of many ages, multiple layers, and little disturbance have the highest capacities for carbon storage.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As trees grow, they remove carbon from the atmosphere, and protecting these pools of carbon prevents emissions into the atmosphere. Proponents of harvesting the forest argue the carbon stored in wood is available for use as <a href="/wiki/Biomass_energy" class="mw-redirect" title="Biomass energy">biomass energy</a> (displacing fossil fuel use),<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although using biomass as a fuel produces air pollution in the form of <a href="/wiki/Carbon_monoxide" title="Carbon monoxide">carbon monoxide</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_oxide" title="Nitrogen oxide">nitrogen oxides</a>, <a href="/wiki/Volatile_organic_compound" title="Volatile organic compound">volatile organic compounds</a>, particulates, and other pollutants, in some cases at levels above those from traditional fuel sources such as coal or natural gas.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Each forest has a different potential to store carbon. For example, this potential is particularly high in the <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Northwest" title="Pacific Northwest">Pacific Northwest</a> where forests are relatively productive, trees live a long time, decomposition is relatively slow, and fires are infrequent. The differences between forests must, therefore, be taken into consideration when determining how they should be managed to store carbon.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A 2019 study projected that old-growth forests in <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia" title="Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a>, the majority of which are in <a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Malaysia" title="Malaysia">Malaysia</a>, are able to <a href="/wiki/Carbon_sequestration" title="Carbon sequestration">sequester carbon</a> or be a net emitter of greenhouse gases based on deforestation scenarios over the subsequent decades.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Old-growth forests have the potential to impact climate change, but climate change is also impacting old-growth forests. As the <a href="/wiki/Effects_of_global_warming" class="mw-redirect" title="Effects of global warming">effects of global warming</a> grow more substantial, the ability of old-growth forests to sequester carbon is affected. Climate change showed an impact on the mortality of some dominant tree species, as observed in the <a href="/wiki/Korean_pine" class="mw-redirect" title="Korean pine">Korean pine</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Climate change also showed an effect on the composition of species when forests were surveyed over a 10- and 20-year period, which may disrupt the overall productivity of the forest.<sup id="cite_ref-ecomono_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ecomono-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Logging">Logging</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old-growth_forest&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Logging"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><span class="anchor" id="Logging_in_old-growth_forests"></span><span class="anchor" id="Logging"></span> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Deforestation" title="Deforestation">Deforestation</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Deforestation#Historical_causes" title="Deforestation">Deforestation § Historical causes</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bugaboo_Giant_Stumps.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Bugaboo_Giant_Stumps.jpg/225px-Bugaboo_Giant_Stumps.jpg" decoding="async" width="225" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Bugaboo_Giant_Stumps.jpg/338px-Bugaboo_Giant_Stumps.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Bugaboo_Giant_Stumps.jpg/450px-Bugaboo_Giant_Stumps.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="506" /></a><figcaption>Old-growth <a href="/wiki/Thuja_plicata" title="Thuja plicata">red cedar</a> stump near <a href="/wiki/Port_Renfrew,_British_Columbia" class="mw-redirect" title="Port Renfrew, British Columbia">Port Renfrew, British Columbia</a></figcaption></figure> <p>According to the <a href="/wiki/World_Resources_Institute" title="World Resources Institute">World Resources Institute</a>, as of January 2009, only 21% of the original old-growth forests that once existed on Earth are remaining.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An estimated one-half of Western Europe's forests were cleared before the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and 90% of the old-growth forests that existed in the <a href="/wiki/Contiguous_United_States" title="Contiguous United States">contiguous United States</a> in the 1600s have been cleared.<sup id="cite_ref-Allan_2010_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Allan_2010-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The large trees in old-growth forests are economically valuable, and have been subject to aggressive logging throughout the world. This has led to many conflicts between logging companies and <a href="/wiki/Environmental_group" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental group">environmental groups</a>. From certain forestry perspectives, fully maintaining an old-growth forest is seen as extremely economically unproductive, as timber can only be collected from falling trees, and also potentially damaging to nearby managed groves by creating environments conducive to root rot. It may be more productive to cut the old growth down and replace the forest with a younger one.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The island of <a href="/wiki/Tasmania" title="Tasmania">Tasmania</a>, just off the southeast coast of Australia, has the largest amount of temperate old-growth <a href="/wiki/Rainforest" title="Rainforest">rainforest</a> reserves in Australia with around 1,239,000 hectares in total.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While the local <a href="/wiki/Regional_Forest_Agreement" title="Regional Forest Agreement">Regional Forest Agreement</a> (RFA) was originally designed to protect much of this natural wealth, many of the RFA old-growth forests protected in Tasmania consist of trees of little use to the timber industry. RFA old-growth and high conservation value forests that contain species highly desirable to the forestry industry have been poorly preserved. Only 22% of Tasmania's original tall-eucalypt forests managed by <a href="/wiki/Forestry_Tasmania" class="mw-redirect" title="Forestry Tasmania">Forestry Tasmania</a> have been reserved. Ten thousand hectares of tall-eucalypt RFA old-growth forest have been lost since 1996, predominantly as a result of industrial logging operations. In 2006, about 61,000 hectares of tall-eucalypt RFA old-growth forests remained unprotected.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Recent logging attempts in the <a href="/wiki/Upper_Florentine_Valley" title="Upper Florentine Valley">Upper Florentine Valley</a> have sparked a series of protests and media attention over the arrests that have taken place in this area. Additionally, <a href="/wiki/Gunns_Limited" class="mw-redirect" title="Gunns Limited">Gunns Limited</a>, the primary forestry contractor in Tasmania, has been under recent criticism by political and environmental groups over its practice of <a href="/wiki/Woodchipping_in_Australia" title="Woodchipping in Australia">woodchipping</a> timber harvested from old-growth forests.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Management">Management</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old-growth_forest&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Management"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Forest_management" title="Forest management">Forest management</a></div><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Opal_creek_old_growth_2.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Opal_creek_old_growth_2.JPG/220px-Opal_creek_old_growth_2.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Opal_creek_old_growth_2.JPG/330px-Opal_creek_old_growth_2.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Opal_creek_old_growth_2.JPG/440px-Opal_creek_old_growth_2.JPG 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Old-growth forest in the <a href="/wiki/Opal_Creek_Wilderness" title="Opal Creek Wilderness">Opal Creek Wilderness</a>, a <a href="/wiki/National_Wilderness_Preservation_System" title="National Wilderness Preservation System">wilderness area</a> located in the <a href="/wiki/Willamette_National_Forest" title="Willamette National Forest">Willamette National Forest</a> in the U.S. state of <a href="/wiki/Oregon" title="Oregon">Oregon</a>, on the border of <a href="/wiki/Mount_Hood_National_Forest" title="Mount Hood National Forest">Mount Hood National Forest</a>. It has the largest uncut watershed in Oregon.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Increased understanding of forest dynamics in the late 20th century led the scientific community to identify a need to inventory, understand, manage, and <a href="/wiki/Conservation_biology" title="Conservation biology">conserve</a> representative examples of old-growth forests with their associated characteristics and values.<sup id="cite_ref-forrex.org_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-forrex.org-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Literature around old growth and its management is inconclusive about the best way to characterize the true essence of an old-growth stand.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>A better understanding of natural systems has resulted in new ideas about forest management, such as managed natural disturbances, which should be designed to achieve the landscape patterns and habitat conditions normally maintained in <a href="/wiki/Nature" title="Nature">nature</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This coarse filter approach to biodiversity conservation recognizes ecological processes and provides for a dynamic distribution of old growth across the landscape.<sup id="cite_ref-forrex.org_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-forrex.org-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> And all seral stages—young, medium, and old—support forest biodiversity. Plants and animals rely on different forest ecosystem stages to meet their habitat needs.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Regional_Forest_Agreement" title="Regional Forest Agreement">Regional Forest Agreement</a> (RFA) attempted to prevent the <a href="/wiki/Clearfelling" class="mw-redirect" title="Clearfelling">clearfelling</a> of defined "old-growth forests". This led to struggles over what constitutes "old growth". For example, in Western Australia, the timber industry tried to limit the area of old growth in the <a href="/wiki/Karri" class="mw-redirect" title="Karri">karri</a> forests of the Southern Forests Region; this led to the creation of the <a href="/wiki/Western_Australian_Forests_Alliance" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Australian Forests Alliance">Western Australian Forests Alliance</a>, the splitting of the Liberal Government of Western Australia and the election of the <a href="/wiki/Geoff_Gallop" title="Geoff Gallop">Gallop</a> Labor Government. Old-growth forests in this region have now been placed inside <a href="/wiki/National_parks" class="mw-redirect" title="National parks">national parks</a>. A small proportion of old-growth forests also exist in South-West Australia and are protected by federal laws from logging, which has not occurred there for more than 20 years.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/British_Columbia" title="British Columbia">British Columbia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a>, old-growth forests must be maintained in each of the province's <a href="/wiki/Ecological_unit" title="Ecological unit">ecological units</a> to meet biodiversity needs.<sup id="cite_ref-naturallywood.com_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-naturallywood.com-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>, from 2001, around a quarter of the <a href="/wiki/National_forest_(United_States)" title="National forest (United States)">federal forests</a> are protected from logging. In December 2023, <a href="/wiki/Environmental_policy_of_the_Joe_Biden_administration" title="Environmental policy of the Joe Biden administration">Biden's administration</a> introduced a rule, according to which, logging is strongly limited in old growth forests, but permitted in "mature forests", representing a compromise between the logging industry and environmental activists.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Locations_of_remaining_tracts">Locations of remaining tracts</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old-growth_forest&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Locations of remaining tracts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/List_of_old-growth_forests" title="List of old-growth forests">List of old-growth forests</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Automobile_on_a_forest_road_near_Mount_Rainier_(CURTIS_98).jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Automobile_on_a_forest_road_near_Mount_Rainier_%28CURTIS_98%29.jpeg/220px-Automobile_on_a_forest_road_near_Mount_Rainier_%28CURTIS_98%29.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="270" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Automobile_on_a_forest_road_near_Mount_Rainier_%28CURTIS_98%29.jpeg/330px-Automobile_on_a_forest_road_near_Mount_Rainier_%28CURTIS_98%29.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Automobile_on_a_forest_road_near_Mount_Rainier_%28CURTIS_98%29.jpeg/440px-Automobile_on_a_forest_road_near_Mount_Rainier_%28CURTIS_98%29.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="489" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>First-growth or virgin forest near Mount Rainier, 1914</figcaption></figure> <p>In 2006, <a href="/wiki/Greenpeace" title="Greenpeace">Greenpeace</a> identified that the world's remaining <a href="/wiki/Intact_forest_landscapes" class="mw-redirect" title="Intact forest landscapes">intact forest landscapes</a> are distributed among the continents as follows:<sup id="cite_ref-intact_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-intact-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>35% in South America: The <a href="/wiki/Amazon_rainforest" title="Amazon rainforest">Amazon rainforest</a> is mainly located in Brazil, which clears a larger area of forest annually than any other country in the world.<sup id="cite_ref-GP_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GP-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>28% in North America, which harvests 10,000 km<sup>2</sup> (3,900 sq mi) of ancient forests every year. Many of the fragmented forests of southern Canada and the United States lack adequate animal travel corridors and functioning ecosystems for large mammals.<sup id="cite_ref-GP_59-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GP-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most of the remaining old-growth forests in the <a href="/wiki/Contiguous_United_States" title="Contiguous United States">contiguous United States</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alaska" title="Alaska">Alaska</a> are on <a href="/wiki/Public_land#United_States" title="Public land">public land</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Allan_2010_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Allan_2010-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>19% in <a href="/wiki/North_Asia" title="North Asia">northern Asia</a>, home to the largest boreal forest in the world<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>8% in Africa, which has lost most of its intact forest landscapes in the last 30 years. The timber industry and local governments are responsible for destroying huge areas of intact forest landscapes and continue to be the single largest threat to these areas.</li> <li>7% in South <a href="/wiki/Asia_Pacific" class="mw-redirect" title="Asia Pacific">Asia Pacific</a>, where the Paradise Forests are being destroyed faster than any other forest on Earth. Much of the large, intact forest landscapes have already been cut down, 72% in <a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a>, and 60% in <a href="/wiki/Papua_New_Guinea" title="Papua New Guinea">Papua New Guinea</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-GP_59-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GP-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Less than 3% in Europe, where more than 150 km<sup>2</sup> (58 sq mi) of intact forest landscapes are cleared every year and the last areas of the region's intact forest landscapes in <a href="/wiki/European_Russia" title="European Russia">European Russia</a> are shrinking rapidly.<sup id="cite_ref-GP_59-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GP-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the United Kingdom, they are known as <a href="/wiki/Ancient_woodland" title="Ancient woodland">ancient woodlands</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old-growth_forest&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 35em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clearcutting" title="Clearcutting">Clearcutting</a> – Forestry/logging practice in which most or all trees in an area are uniformly cut down</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cloud_forest" title="Cloud forest">Cloud forest</a> – Type of rainforest</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation-reliant_species" title="Conservation-reliant species">Conservation-reliant species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_ecology" title="Forest ecology">Forest ecology</a> – Study of interactions between the biota and environment in forests.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_migration" title="Forest migration">Forest migration</a> – movement of large seed plant dominated communities in geographical space over time<span style="display:none" class="category-wikidata-fallback-annotation">Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitat_conservation" title="Habitat conservation">Habitat conservation</a> – Management practice for protecting types of environments</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_forest_in_Central_Europe" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the forest in Central Europe">History of the forest in Central Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_logging" title="Illegal logging">Illegal logging</a> – Harvest, transportation, purchase, or sale of timber in violation of laws</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelp_forest" title="Kelp forest">Kelp forest</a> – Underwater areas highly dense with kelp</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_forest_area" title="List of countries by forest area">List of countries by forest area</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_superlative_trees" title="List of superlative trees">List of superlative trees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old-Growth_Forest_Network" title="Old-Growth Forest Network">Old-Growth Forest Network</a> – American non-profit organization</li> <li><a href="/wiki/REDD-plus" class="mw-redirect" title="REDD-plus">REDD-plus</a> – Climate change mitigation policy<span style="display:none" class="category-annotation-with-redirected-description">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_groves" class="mw-redirect" title="Sacred groves">Sacred groves</a> – Grove of trees of special religious importance to a particular culture<span style="display:none" class="category-annotation-with-redirected-description">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sky_island" title="Sky island">Sky island</a> – Geographic or environmental feature</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subalpine" class="mw-redirect" title="Subalpine">Subalpine</a> – Ecosystems found in mountains<span style="display:none" class="category-annotation-with-redirected-description">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</span> forest</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiga" title="Taiga">Taiga</a> – Biome characterized by coniferous forests</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperate_broadleaf_and_mixed_forest" class="mw-redirect" title="Temperate broadleaf and mixed forest">Temperate broadleaf and mixed forest</a> – Biome<span style="display:none" class="category-annotation-with-redirected-description">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</span><span style="display:none" class="category-spaceless-annotation">Pages displaying short descriptions with no spaces</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperate_coniferous_forest" title="Temperate coniferous forest">Temperate coniferous forest</a> – Forests found in areas with warm summers and cool winters</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_and_subtropical_coniferous_forests" title="Tropical and subtropical coniferous forests">Tropical and subtropical coniferous forests</a> – Tropical forest habitat type</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_and_subtropical_moist_broadleaf_forests" title="Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests">Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests</a> – Habitat type defined by the World Wide Fund for Nature</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woodland_management" class="mw-redirect" title="Woodland management">Woodland management</a> – Branch of forestry<span style="display:none" class="category-annotation-with-redirected-description">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</span></li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old-growth_forest&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-aka-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-aka_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sometimes considered synonymous with the terms <b>primary forest</b>, <b>virgin forest</b>, <b>late seral forest</b>, <b>primeval forest</b>, <b>first-growth forest</b>, and <b>mature forest</b>.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old-growth_forest&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFWhiteLloyd1994" class="citation journal cs1">White, David; Lloyd, Thomas (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.srs.fs.usda.gov/pubs/ja/ja_white002.pdf">"Defining Old Growth: Implications For Management"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Paper Presented at the Eighth Biennial Southern Silvicultural Research Conference, Auburn, al, Nov. L-3, 1994</i>. Eighth Biennial Southern Silvicultural Research Conference<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 November</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Paper+Presented+at+the+Eighth+Biennial+Southern+Silvicultural+Research+Conference%2C+Auburn%2C+al%2C+Nov.+L-3%2C+1994&rft.atitle=Defining+Old+Growth%3A+Implications+For+Management&rft.date=1994&rft.aulast=White&rft.aufirst=David&rft.au=Lloyd%2C+Thomas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.srs.fs.usda.gov%2Fpubs%2Fja%2Fja_white002.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld-growth+forest" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4060/ca8985en"><i>The State of the World's Forests 2020. In brief – Forests, biodiversity and people</i></a>. Rome: FAO. 2020. p. 9. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4060%2Fca8985en">10.4060/ca8985en</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-92-5-132707-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-92-5-132707-4"><bdi>978-92-5-132707-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:241416114">241416114</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+State+of+the+World%27s+Forests+2020.+In+brief+%E2%80%93+Forests%2C+biodiversity+and+people&rft.place=Rome&rft.pages=9&rft.pub=FAO&rft.date=2020&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A241416114%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4060%2Fca8985en&rft.isbn=978-92-5-132707-4&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.4060%2Fca8985en&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld-growth+forest" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020 – Key findings</i>. Rome: FAO. 2020. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4060%2Fca8753en">10.4060/ca8753en</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-92-5-132581-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-92-5-132581-0"><bdi>978-92-5-132581-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:130116768">130116768</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Global+Forest+Resources+Assessment+2020+%E2%80%93+Key+findings&rft.place=Rome&rft.pub=FAO&rft.date=2020&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A130116768%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4060%2Fca8753en&rft.isbn=978-92-5-132581-0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld-growth+forest" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-maloof-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-maloof_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-maloof_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-maloof_5-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-maloof_5-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-maloof_5-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-maloof_5-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaloof2016" class="citation book cs1">Maloof, Joan (16 November 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5ZxzDQAAQBAJ&q=old+growth+forest"><i>Nature's Temples: The Complex World of Old-Growth Forests</i></a>. Timber Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-60469-728-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-60469-728-5"><bdi>978-1-60469-728-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nature%27s+Temples%3A+The+Complex+World+of+Old-Growth+Forests&rft.pub=Timber+Press&rft.date=2016-11-16&rft.isbn=978-1-60469-728-5&rft.aulast=Maloof&rft.aufirst=Joan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5ZxzDQAAQBAJ%26q%3Dold%2Bgrowth%2Bforest&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld-growth+forest" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWirthGleixnerHeimann2009" class="citation book cs1">Wirth, Christian; Gleixner, Gerd; Heimann, Martin (7 July 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7yF89GGxNmgC&q=old+growth+forest"><i>Old-Growth Forests: Function, Fate and Value</i></a>. Springer Science & Business Media. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-92706-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-540-92706-8"><bdi>978-3-540-92706-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Old-Growth+Forests%3A+Function%2C+Fate+and+Value&rft.pub=Springer+Science+%26+Business+Media&rft.date=2009-07-07&rft.isbn=978-3-540-92706-8&rft.aulast=Wirth&rft.aufirst=Christian&rft.au=Gleixner%2C+Gerd&rft.au=Heimann%2C+Martin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7yF89GGxNmgC%26q%3Dold%2Bgrowth%2Bforest&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld-growth+forest" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-mcgarvey-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-mcgarvey_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-mcgarvey_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcGarveyThompsonEpsteinShugart2015" class="citation journal cs1">McGarvey, Jennifer; Thompson, Jonathan R.; Epstein, Howard E.; Shugart, Herman H. (1 February 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1890%2F14-1154.1">"Carbon storage in old-growth forests of the Mid-Atlantic: toward better understanding the eastern forest carbon sink"</a>. <i>Ecology</i>. <b>96</b> (2): 311–317. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015Ecol...96..311M">2015Ecol...96..311M</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1890%2F14-1154.1">10.1890/14-1154.1</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1939-9170">1939-9170</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26240851">26240851</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ecology&rft.atitle=Carbon+storage+in+old-growth+forests+of+the+Mid-Atlantic%3A+toward+better+understanding+the+eastern+forest+carbon+sink&rft.volume=96&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=311-317&rft.date=2015-02-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1890%2F14-1154.1&rft.issn=1939-9170&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26240851&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2015Ecol...96..311M&rft.aulast=McGarvey&rft.aufirst=Jennifer&rft.au=Thompson%2C+Jonathan+R.&rft.au=Epstein%2C+Howard+E.&rft.au=Shugart%2C+Herman+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1890%252F14-1154.1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld-growth+forest" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-metz-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-metz_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-metz_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090804123802/http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/wg3/ar4-wg3-chapter9.pdf">"Contribution of Working Group III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2007 B. Metz, O.R. Davidson, P.R. Bosch, R. Dave, L.A. Meyer (eds) Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/wg3/ar4-wg3-chapter9.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 4 August 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 April</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Contribution+of+Working+Group+III+to+the+Fourth+Assessment+Report+of+the+Intergovernmental+Panel+on+Climate+Change%2C+2007+B.+Metz%2C+O.R.+Davidson%2C+P.R.+Bosch%2C+R.+Dave%2C+L.A.+Meyer+%28eds%29+Cambridge+University+Press%2C+Cambridge%2C+United+Kingdom+and+New+York%2C+NY%2C+USA&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ipcc.ch%2Fpdf%2Fassessment-report%2Far4%2Fwg3%2Far4-wg3-chapter9.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld-growth+forest" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-naturallywood.com-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-naturallywood.com_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-naturallywood.com_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200408073234/https://www.naturallywood.com/uploadedFiles/General/Sustainable_Forests/BC_Forest_Diversity.pdf">"Naturally: wood British Columbia's Forest Diversity"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://naturallywood.com/uploadedFiles/General/Sustainable_Forests/BC_Forest_Diversity.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 8 April 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 April</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Naturally%3A+wood+British+Columbia%27s+Forest+Diversity&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnaturallywood.com%2FuploadedFiles%2FGeneral%2FSustainable_Forests%2FBC_Forest_Diversity.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld-growth+forest" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBolgiano1998" class="citation book cs1">Bolgiano, Chris (1998). <i>The Appalachian forest: a search for roots and renewal</i>. Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books. p. 23. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8117-0126-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-8117-0126-3"><bdi>0-8117-0126-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Appalachian+forest%3A+a+search+for+roots+and+renewal&rft.place=Mechanicsburg%2C+PA&rft.pages=23&rft.pub=Stackpole+Books&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=0-8117-0126-3&rft.aulast=Bolgiano&rft.aufirst=Chris&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld-growth+forest" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.llbc.leg.bc.ca/public/pubdocs/bcdocs/360393/old_growth.pdf">"BC Ministry of Forests 2003 Old Growth Forests"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=BC+Ministry+of+Forests+2003+Old+Growth+Forests&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.llbc.leg.bc.ca%2Fpublic%2Fpubdocs%2Fbcdocs%2F360393%2Fold_growth.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld-growth+forest" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliamsWoinarski1997" class="citation book cs1">Williams, Jann; Woinarski, John (13 November 1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ksymh8ocS5QC&q=Eucalypt+Ecology:+Individuals+to+Ecosystems&pg=PR9"><i>Eucalypt Ecology</i></a>. 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It depends. (Installment 1 of 6)"</a>. <i>New Jersey Audubon</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 September</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=New+Jersey+Audubon&rft.atitle=What+does+%E2%80%9COld-Growth%E2%80%9D+really+mean%3F+It+depends.+%28Installment+1+of+6%29&rft.date=2021-11-18&rft.aulast=Neff&rft.aufirst=Chris&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnjaudubon.org%2Fwhat-does-old-growth-really-mean-it-depends-installment-1-of-6%2F%23%3A~%3Atext%3DInstead%2C%2520old%2520growth%2520forests%2520contain%2Cin%2520upcoming%2520posts%2520%25E2%2580%2593%2520stay%2520tuned%21%26text%3DReferences%3A%2CLong%2520Grove%2C%2520Illinois%2C%25202019.%26text%3DOliver%2C%2520C.%2520D.%2C%2520and%2520Larson%2C%2C11%2520pp.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld-growth+forest" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNeff2021" class="citation web cs1">Neff, Chris (18 November 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://njaudubon.org/what-does-old-growth-really-mean-it-depends-installment-1-of-6/#:~:text=Instead,%20old%20growth%20forests%20contain,in%20upcoming%20posts%20%E2%80%93%20stay%20tuned!&text=References:,Long%20Grove,%20Illinois,%202019.&text=Oliver,%20C.%20D.,%20and%20Larson,,11%20pp.">"What does "Old-Growth" really mean? 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 September</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=New+Jersey+Audubon&rft.atitle=What+does+%E2%80%9COld-Growth%E2%80%9D+really+mean%3F+It+depends.+%28Installment+1+of+6%29&rft.date=2021-11-18&rft.aulast=Neff&rft.aufirst=Chris&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnjaudubon.org%2Fwhat-does-old-growth-really-mean-it-depends-installment-1-of-6%2F%23%3A~%3Atext%3DInstead%2C%2520old%2520growth%2520forests%2520contain%2Cin%2520upcoming%2520posts%2520%25E2%2580%2593%2520stay%2520tuned%21%26text%3DReferences%3A%2CLong%2520Grove%2C%2520Illinois%2C%25202019.%26text%3DOliver%2C%2520C.%2520D.%2C%2520and%2520Larson%2C%2C11%2520pp.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld-growth+forest" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStamets2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Paul_Stamets" title="Paul Stamets">Stamets, Paul</a> (2005). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/myceliumrunningh00stam_0/page/35"><i>Mycelium Running</i></a></span>. Ten Speed Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/myceliumrunningh00stam_0/page/35">35</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58008-579-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-58008-579-3"><bdi>978-1-58008-579-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mycelium+Running&rft.pages=35&rft.pub=Ten+Speed+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1-58008-579-3&rft.aulast=Stamets&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmyceliumrunningh00stam_0%2Fpage%2F35&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld-growth+forest" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Provincial Non-Spatial Old Growth Order. 2004. Integrated Land Management Bureau, British Columbia, Canada</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Forest Stand Dynamics. 1996. Oliver C.;Larson B.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20120701150304/http://article.pubs.nrc-cnrc.gc.ca/ppv/RPViewDoc?issn=1208-6053&volume=11&issue=S1&startPage=S99">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>"Old growth in the boreal forest: A dynamic perspective at the stand and landscape level" by Daniel Kneeshaw and Sylvie Gauthier 2003"</a>. 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Greenpeace International. 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Licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 (<a class="external text" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Global_Forest_Resources_Assessment_2020_%E2%80%93_Key_findings.pdf">license statement/permission</a>). Text taken from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fao.org/3/CA8753EN/CA8753EN.pdf"><i>Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020 Key findings</i></a>, FAO, FAO. <span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Definition_of_Free_Cultural_Works_logo_notext.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Definition_of_Free_Cultural_Works_logo_notext.svg/12px-Definition_of_Free_Cultural_Works_logo_notext.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Definition_of_Free_Cultural_Works_logo_notext.svg/18px-Definition_of_Free_Cultural_Works_logo_notext.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Definition_of_Free_Cultural_Works_logo_notext.svg/24px-Definition_of_Free_Cultural_Works_logo_notext.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="219" data-file-height="218" /></a></span> This article incorporates text from a <a href="/wiki/Free_content" title="Free content">free content</a> work. Licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 (<a class="external text" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:The_State_of_the_World%E2%80%99s_Forests_2020._In_brief.pdf">license statement/permission</a>). Text taken from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4060/ca8985en"><i>The State of the World's Forests 2020. In brief – Forests, biodiversity and people</i></a>, FAO & UNEP, FAO & UNEP. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old-growth_forest&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090409055600/http://ilmbwww.gov.bc.ca/slrp/lrmp/policiesguidelinesandassessements/oldgrowth/">Provincial Old Growth regulations of British Columbia, Canada</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091125062740/http://www.reo.gov/library/reports/old_growth_definitions.htm">Old-Growth Forest Definitions</a> from <a href="/wiki/Northwest_Forest_Plan" title="Northwest Forest Plan">U.S. Regional Ecosystem Office</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090410032849/http://www.uoregon.edu/~arronfre/pmwiki/index.php?n=Main.GoogleMapFinds">Collection of Google map links of clear cuts in or around old growth</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120310170443/http://www.fsl.orst.edu/cfer/pdfs/mang_bio.pdf">Managing for Biodiversity in Young Forests</a> – U.S. Geological Survey Biological Science Report (pdf)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130414194446/http://www.for.gov.bc.ca/hfp/sof/2010/SOF_2010_Web.pdf">The State of British Columbia’s Forests Third Edition</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111003053908/http://www.forrex.org/jem/ISS39/vol8_no1_art2.pdf">BC Journal of Ecosystems Old growth definitions and management: A literature review</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://publications.gc.ca/collections/collection_2010/nrcan/Fo113-1-59-2010-eng.pdf">Natural Resources Canada Old-growth boreal forests: unraveling the mysteries</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old-growth_forest&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output 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forests">Primeval forests</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.greenpeace.org/china/en/campaigns/forests/our-disappearing-forests">Our disappearing forests</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080924190521/http://www.greenpeace.org/china/en/campaigns/forests/our-disappearing-forests">Archived</a> 24 September 2008 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ran.org/issues/forests/">Rainforest Action Network</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ancientforest.org/">Ancient Forest Exploration & Research</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20120701150304/http://article.pubs.nrc-cnrc.gc.ca/ppv/RPViewDoc?issn=1208-6053&volume=11&issue=S1&startPage=S99">Natural Resources Canada 2003</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mnr.gov.on.ca/stdprodconsume/groups/lr/@mnr/@forests/documents/document/mnr_e000252.pdf">Old Growth Forest Definitions for Ontario</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fao.org/docrep/article/wfc/xii/0042-b1.htm">Submissions to XII World Forest Congress 2003</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dnr.state.mn.us/forests_types/oldgrowth/importance.html">Minnesota Department of Natural Resources</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190517125247/http://www.dnr.state.mn.us/forests_types/oldgrowth/importance.html">Archived</a> 17 May 2019 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" 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.navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Forestry" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night 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href="/wiki/Index_of_forestry_articles" title="Index of forestry articles">Index</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_forest_area" title="List of countries by forest area">Forest areas</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_forestry_ministries" title="List of forestry ministries">Ministries</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_forest_research_institutes" title="List of forest research institutes">Research institutes</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_forestry_universities_and_colleges" title="List of forestry universities and colleges">Colleges</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_forestry_journals" title="List of forestry journals">Journals</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Arbor_Day" title="Arbor Day">Arbor Day</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agroforestry" title="Agroforestry">Agroforestry</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Dehesa" title="Dehesa">dehesa</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analog_forestry" class="mw-redirect" title="Analog forestry">Analog forestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bamboo_cultivation" title="Bamboo cultivation">Bamboo forestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Close_to_nature_forestry" class="mw-redirect" title="Close to nature forestry">Close to nature forestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_forestry" title="Community forestry">Community forestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecoforestry" title="Ecoforestry">Ecoforestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_forestry" title="Energy forestry">Energy forestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycoforestry" title="Mycoforestry">Mycoforestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permaforestry" class="mw-redirect" title="Permaforestry">Permaforestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tree_plantation" title="Tree plantation">Plantation forestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_forestry_in_India" title="Social forestry in India">Social forestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_forestry" class="mw-redirect" title="Sustainable forestry">Sustainable forestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_forest" title="Urban forest">Urban forest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_forestry" title="Urban forestry">Urban forestry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Forest_ecology" title="Forest ecology">Ecology</a> and<br /><a href="/wiki/Forest_management" title="Forest management">management</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arboriculture" title="Arboriculture">Arboriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Controlled_burn" title="Controlled burn">Controlled burn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Debris" title="Debris">Debris</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coarse_woody_debris" title="Coarse woody debris">coarse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Driftwood" title="Driftwood">driftwood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Large_woody_debris" title="Large woody debris">large</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Log_jam" title="Log jam">log jam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slash_(logging)" title="Slash (logging)">slash</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dendrology" title="Dendrology">Dendrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_thinning" title="Ecological thinning">Ecological thinning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Even_aged_timber_management" class="mw-redirect" title="Even aged timber management">Even-aged management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_ecology" title="Fire ecology">Fire ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest" title="Forest">Forest</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Forest_dynamics" title="Forest dynamics">dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_informatics" title="Forest informatics">informatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_integrated_pest_management" title="Forest integrated pest management">IPM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_inventory" title="Forest inventory">inventory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_governance" class="mw-redirect" title="Forest governance">governance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forestry_law" title="Forestry law">law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Forest_Information_Service" title="Global Forest Information Service">Global Forest Information Service</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">old-growth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_pathology" title="Forest pathology">pathology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_protection" title="Forest protection">protection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_restoration" title="Forest restoration">restoration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secondary_forest" title="Secondary forest">secondary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_stand" title="Forest stand">stand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_transition" title="Forest transition">transition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trillion_Tree_Campaign" title="Trillion Tree Campaign">Trillion Tree Campaign</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Certified_wood" title="Certified wood">Forest certification</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tree_farm#American_Tree_Farm_System" class="mw-redirect" title="Tree farm">ATFS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CarbonFix_Standard" title="CarbonFix Standard">CFS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_Stewardship_Council#Standards,_certification_and_accreditation" title="Forest Stewardship Council">FSC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Programme_for_the_Endorsement_of_Forest_Certification" title="Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification">PEFC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_Forestry_Initiative" title="Sustainable Forestry Initiative">SFI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rainforest_Alliance#Sustainable_forestry_certification" title="Rainforest Alliance">SmartWood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woodland_Carbon_Code" title="Woodland Carbon Code">Woodland Carbon Code</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forestation" class="mw-redirect" title="Forestation">Forestation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afforestation" title="Afforestation">afforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reforestation" title="Reforestation">reforestation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_types_of_formally_designated_forests" title="List of types of formally designated forests">Formally designated</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Growth_and_yield_modelling" title="Growth and yield modelling">Growth and yield modelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horticulture" title="Horticulture">Horticulture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genetically_modified_tree" title="Genetically modified tree">GM trees</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/I-Tree" title="I-Tree">i-Tree</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urban_reforestation" title="Urban reforestation">urban</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silviculture" title="Silviculture">Silviculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_forest_management" class="mw-redirect" title="Sustainable forest management">Sustainable management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tree" title="Tree">Tree</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tree_allometry" title="Tree allometry">allometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tree_breeding" title="Tree breeding">breeding</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tree_measurement" title="Tree measurement">Tree measurement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tree_crown_measurement" title="Tree crown measurement">crown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tree_girth_measurement" title="Tree girth measurement">girth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tree_height_measurement" title="Tree height measurement">height</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tree_volume_measurement" title="Tree volume measurement">volume</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Environmental<br />topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acid_rain#Forests_and_other_vegetation" title="Acid rain">Acid rain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_sequestration" title="Carbon sequestration">Carbon sequestration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clearcutting" title="Clearcutting">Clearcutting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation" title="Deforestation">Deforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_services" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecosystem services">Ecosystem services</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_degradation" title="Forest degradation">Forest degradation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_dieback" title="Forest dieback">Forest dieback</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_fragmentation" class="mw-redirect" title="Forest fragmentation">Forest fragmentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghost_forest" title="Ghost forest">Ghost forest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Green_Wall_(Africa)" title="Great Green Wall (Africa)">Great Green Wall (Africa)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Green_Wall_(China)" title="Great Green Wall (China)">Great Green Wall (China)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_grading" title="High grading">High grading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_logging" title="Illegal logging">Illegal logging</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timber_mafia" title="Timber mafia">timber mafia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasive_species#Forestry" title="Invasive species">Invasive species</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wilding_conifer" title="Wilding conifer">wilding</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Million_Tree_Initiative" title="Million Tree Initiative">Million Tree Initiative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reducing_emissions_from_deforestation_and_forest_degradation" class="mw-redirect" title="Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation">REDD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shifting_cultivation" title="Shifting cultivation">Shifting cultivation</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Chitemene" title="Chitemene">chitemene</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slash-and-burn" title="Slash-and-burn">slash-and-burn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slash-and-char" title="Slash-and-char">slash-and-char</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Svedjebruk" class="mw-redirect" title="Svedjebruk">svedjebruk</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timber_recycling" title="Timber recycling">Timber recycling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chipko_movement" title="Chipko movement">Tree hugging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_forest_inequity" title="Urban forest inequity">Urban forest inequity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildfire" title="Wildfire">Wildfire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Wood_industry" title="Wood industry">Industries</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coppicing" title="Coppicing">Coppicing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_farming" class="mw-redirect" title="Forest farming">Forest farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_gardening" class="mw-redirect" title="Forest gardening">Forest gardening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logging" title="Logging">Logging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manufacturing" title="Manufacturing">Manufacturing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lumber" title="Lumber">lumber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plywood" title="Plywood">plywood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulp_and_paper_industry" title="Pulp and paper industry">pulp and paper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sawmill" title="Sawmill">sawmilling</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_product" title="Forest product">Products</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biochar" title="Biochar">biochar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomass" title="Biomass">biomass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charcoal" title="Charcoal">charcoal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-timber_forest_product" title="Non-timber forest product">non-timber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palm_oil" title="Palm oil">palm oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rayon" title="Rayon">rayon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_rubber" title="Natural rubber">rubber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanbark" title="Tanbark">tanbark</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_railway" title="Forest railway">Rail transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tree_farm" class="mw-redirect" title="Tree farm">Tree farm</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christmas_tree_cultivation" title="Christmas tree cultivation">Christmas trees</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wood" title="Wood">Wood</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Engineered_wood" title="Engineered wood">engineered</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wood_fuel" title="Wood fuel">fuel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahogany" title="Mahogany">mahogany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spruce-pine-fir" title="Spruce-pine-fir">spruce-pine-fir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teak" title="Teak">teak</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woodworking" title="Woodworking">Woodworking</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Green_woodworking" title="Green woodworking">green woodworking</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Occupations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Forester" title="Forester">Forester</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arborist" title="Arborist">Arborist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Log_bucking" title="Log bucking">Bucker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Choker_setter" title="Choker setter">Choker setter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_ecology" title="Forest ecology">Ecologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Felling" title="Felling">Feller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildland_firefighter" class="mw-redirect" title="Wildland firefighter">Firefighter</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Handcrew" title="Handcrew">handcrew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interagency_hotshot_crew" class="mw-redirect" title="Interagency hotshot crew">hotshot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_lookout" title="Fire lookout">lookout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smokejumper" title="Smokejumper">smokejumper</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Log_driving" title="Log driving">River driver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logging_truck" title="Logging truck">Truck driver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Log_scaler" title="Log scaler">Log scaler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lumberjack" title="Lumberjack">Lumberjack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Park_ranger" title="Park ranger">Ranger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resin_extraction" title="Resin extraction">Resin tapper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rubber_tapping" title="Rubber tapping">Rubber tapper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shingle_weaver" title="Shingle weaver">Shingle weaver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_inventory" title="Forest inventory">Timber cruiser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tree_planting" title="Tree planting">Tree planter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wood_processing" title="Wood processing">Wood process engineer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="WikiProject"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Forestry" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Forestry">WikiProject</a></b></li> <li><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="icon" 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