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<li id="toc-Historical_biography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historical_biography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Historical biography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historical_biography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Emergence_of_the_genre" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Emergence_of_the_genre"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Emergence of the genre</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Emergence_of_the_genre-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_biography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_biography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Modern biography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_biography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Recent_years" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Recent_years"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Recent years</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Recent_years-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Biographical_research" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biographical_research"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Biographical research</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Biographical_research-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Critical_issues" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Critical_issues"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.6</span> <span>Critical issues</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Critical_issues-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Book_awards" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Book_awards"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Book awards</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Book_awards-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Biography</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 134 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-134" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">134 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biografie" title="Biografie – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Biografie" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-anp mw-list-item"><a href="https://anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%80" title="जीवनी – Angika" lang="anp" hreflang="anp" data-title="जीवनी" data-language-autonym="अंगिका" data-language-local-name="Angika" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>अंगिका</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%B1%D8%A9_(%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B9_%D8%A3%D8%AF%D8%A8)" title="سيرة (نوع أدب) – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="سيرة (نوع أدب)" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biograf%C3%ADa" title="Biografía – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Biografía" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hyw mw-list-item"><a href="https://hyw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BF%D5%A5%D5%B6%D5%BD%D5%A1%D5%A3%D6%80%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%AB%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Կենսագրութիւն – Western Armenian" lang="hyw" hreflang="hyw" data-title="Կենսագրութիւն" data-language-autonym="Արեւմտահայերէն" data-language-local-name="Western Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Արեւմտահայերէն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%80%E0%A7%B1%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%80" title="জীৱনী – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="জীৱনী" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biograf%C3%ADa" title="Biografía – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Biografía" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-awa mw-list-item"><a href="https://awa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%80" title="जीवनी – Awadhi" lang="awa" hreflang="awa" data-title="जीवनी" data-language-autonym="अवधी" data-language-local-name="Awadhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>अवधी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tekovehai" title="Tekovehai – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Tekovehai" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Avañe'ẽ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioqrafiya" title="Bioqrafiya – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Bioqrafiya" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%DB%8C%D9%88%D9%82%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%81%DB%8C" title="بیوقرافی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="بیوقرافی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%80" title="জীবনী – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="জীবনী" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/To%C4%81n-k%C3%AC" title="Toān-kì – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Toān-kì" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Биография – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Биография" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%96%D1%8F%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Біяграфія – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Біяграфія" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%96%D1%8F%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Біяграфія – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Біяграфія" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%80" title="जीवनी – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="जीवनी" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>भोजपुरी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Биография – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Биография" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biografija" title="Biografija – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Biografija" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buhezskrid" title="Buhezskrid – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Buhezskrid" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Намтар – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Намтар" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Буряад</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biografia" title="Biografia – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Biografia" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sugibuhi" title="Sugibuhi – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Sugibuhi" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cebuano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biografie" title="Biografie – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Biografie" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cofiant" title="Cofiant – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Cofiant" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biografi" title="Biografi – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Biografi" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biografie" title="Biografie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Biografie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dv mw-list-item"><a href="https://dv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DE%99%DE%A6%DE%94%DE%A7%DE%8C%DE%AA%DE%82%DE%A7%DE%89%DE%A7" title="ޙަޔާތުނާމާ – Divehi" lang="dv" hreflang="dv" data-title="ޙަޔާތުނާމާ" data-language-autonym="ދިވެހިބަސް" data-language-local-name="Divehi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ދިވެހިބަސް</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dty mw-list-item"><a href="https://dty.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%80" title="जीवनी – Doteli" lang="dty" hreflang="dty" data-title="जीवनी" data-language-autonym="डोटेली" data-language-local-name="Doteli" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>डोटेली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biograafia" title="Biograafia – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Biograafia" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%92%CE%B9%CE%BF%CE%B3%CF%81%CE%B1%CF%86%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Βιογραφία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Βιογραφία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biograf%C3%ADa" title="Biografía – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Biografía" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biografio" title="Biografio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Biografio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biografia" title="Biografia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Biografia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D9%86%D8%AF%DA%AF%DB%8C%E2%80%8C%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%87" title="زندگی‌نامه – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="زندگی‌نامه" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biographie" title="Biographie – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Biographie" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biografy" title="Biografy – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Biografy" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beathaisn%C3%A9is" title="Beathaisnéis – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Beathaisnéis" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beath-eachdraidh" title="Beath-eachdraidh – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Beath-eachdraidh" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gàidhlig</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biograf%C3%ADa" title="Biografía – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Biografía" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%9C%E0%AB%80%E0%AA%B5%E0%AA%A8%E0%AA%9A%E0%AA%B0%E0%AA%BF%E0%AA%A4%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%B0" title="જીવનચરિત્ર – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="જીવનચરિત્ર" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ગુજરાતી</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A0%84%EA%B8%B0_(%EB%AC%B8%ED%95%99)" title="전기 (문학) – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="전기 (문학)" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BF%D5%A5%D5%B6%D5%BD%D5%A1%D5%A3%D6%80%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Կենսագրություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Կենսագրություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4" title="जीवनचरित – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="जीवनचरित" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%BDivotopis" title="Životopis – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Životopis" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biografio" title="Biografio – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Biografio" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biograpia" title="Biograpia – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Biograpia" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ilokano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biografi" title="Biografi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Biografi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biographia" title="Biographia – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Biographia" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zu mw-list-item"><a href="https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isichazampilo" title="Isichazampilo – Zulu" lang="zu" hreflang="zu" data-title="Isichazampilo" data-language-autonym="IsiZulu" data-language-local-name="Zulu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>IsiZulu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%86visaga" title="Ævisaga – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Ævisaga" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biografia" title="Biografia – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Biografia" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%91%D7%99%D7%95%D7%92%D7%A8%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%94" title="ביוגרפיה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="ביוגרפיה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biografi" title="Biografi – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Biografi" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C9%A9-y%C9%94%C9%94_t%C9%94m_mat%CA%8A" title="Tɩ-yɔɔ tɔm matʊ – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Tɩ-yɔɔ tɔm matʊ" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kabɩyɛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%9C%E0%B3%80%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%A8%E0%B2%9A%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%A4%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%86" title="ಜೀವನಚರಿತ್ರೆ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಜೀವನಚರಿತ್ರೆ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%91%E1%83%98%E1%83%9D%E1%83%92%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ბიოგრაფია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ბიოგრაფია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D3%A8%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%80%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%8F%D0%BD" title="Өмірбаян – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Өмірбаян" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biografia" title="Biografia – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Biografia" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biyografi" title="Biyografi – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Biyografi" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byografi" title="Byografi – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Byografi" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kriyòl gwiyannen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%AEnen%C3%AEgar%C3%AE" title="Jînenîgarî – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Jînenîgarî" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D3%A8%D0%BC%D2%AF%D1%80_%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%8F%D0%BD" title="Өмүр баян – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Өмүр баян" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lad mw-list-item"><a href="https://lad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biografiya" title="Biografiya – Ladino" lang="lad" hreflang="lad" data-title="Biografiya" data-language-autonym="Ladino" data-language-local-name="Ladino" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ladino</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BA%8A%E0%BA%B5%E0%BA%A7%E0%BA%B0%E0%BA%9B%E0%BA%B0%E0%BA%AB%E0%BA%A7%E0%BA%B1%E0%BA%94" title="ຊີວະປະຫວັດ – Lao" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" data-title="ຊີວະປະຫວັດ" data-language-autonym="ລາວ" data-language-local-name="Lao" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ລາວ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biographia" title="Biographia – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Biographia" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biogr%C4%81fija" title="Biogrāfija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Biogrāfija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biografija" title="Biografija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Biografija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biografie" title="Biografie – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Biografie" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biografia" title="Biografia – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Biografia" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89letrajz" title="Életrajz – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Életrajz" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mai mw-list-item"><a href="https://mai.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%80" title="जीवनी – Maithili" lang="mai" hreflang="mai" data-title="जीवनी" data-language-autonym="मैथिली" data-language-local-name="Maithili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मैथिली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%81" title="Животопис – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Животопис" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bi%C3%B4grafia" title="Biôgrafia – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Biôgrafia" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%9C%E0%B5%80%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%9A%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82" title="ജീവചരിത്രം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ജീവചരിത്രം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%B1%D8%A9_%D8%B4%D8%AE%D8%B5" title="سيرة شخص – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="سيرة شخص" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mnw mw-list-item"><a href="https://mnw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%A1%E1%80%90%E1%80%B9%E1%80%91%E1%80%AF%E1%80%95%E1%80%B9%E1%80%95%E1%80%90%E1%80%B9%E1%80%90%E1%80%AD" title="အတ္ထုပ္ပတ္တိ – Mon" lang="mnw" hreflang="mnw" data-title="အတ္ထုပ္ပတ္တိ" data-language-autonym="ဘာသာမန်" data-language-local-name="Mon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ဘာသာမန်</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biografi" title="Biografi – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Biografi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mni mw-list-item"><a href="https://mni.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%AF%84%EA%AF%A8%EA%AF%9F%EA%AF%81%EA%AF%A4%EA%AF%8B%EA%AF%A5%EA%AF%94%EA%AF%A4" title="ꯄꯨꯟꯁꯤꯋꯥꯔꯤ – Manipuri" lang="mni" hreflang="mni" data-title="ꯄꯨꯟꯁꯤꯋꯥꯔꯤ" data-language-autonym="ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ" data-language-local-name="Manipuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%A1%E1%80%90%E1%80%B9%E1%80%91%E1%80%AF%E1%80%95%E1%80%B9%E1%80%95%E1%80%90%E1%80%B9%E1%80%90%E1%80%AD" title="အတ္ထုပ္ပတ္တိ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="အတ္ထုပ္ပတ္တိ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biografie" title="Biografie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Biografie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%80" title="जीवनी – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="जीवनी" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%80" title="जीवनी – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="जीवनी" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाल भाषा</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BC%9D%E8%A8%98" title="伝記 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="伝記" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8" title="Биографи – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Биографи" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Нохчийн</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biografi" title="Biografi – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Biografi" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biografi" title="Biografi – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Biografi" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biografia" title="Biografia – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Biografia" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seena_jireenyaa" title="Seena jireenyaa – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Seena jireenyaa" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oromoo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biografiya" title="Biografiya – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Biografiya" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%9C%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%A8%E0%A9%80" title="ਜੀਵਨੀ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਜੀਵਨੀ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%DB%8C%D9%88%DD%A8_%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%A7%DA%BA" title="جیوݨ ناواں – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="جیوݨ ناواں" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-blk mw-list-item"><a href="https://blk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%94%E1%80%99%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8%E1%80%81%E1%80%BC%E1%80%B1%E1%80%AC%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%EA%A9%BB%E1%80%81%E1%80%9B%E1%80%AC%E1%82%8F" title="နမ်းခြောင်ꩻခရာႏ – Pa'O" lang="blk" hreflang="blk" data-title="နမ်းခြောင်ꩻခရာႏ" data-language-autonym="ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ" data-language-local-name="Pa'O" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pap mw-list-item"><a href="https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biografia" title="Biografia – Papiamento" lang="pap" hreflang="pap" data-title="Biografia" data-language-autonym="Papiamentu" data-language-local-name="Papiamento" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Papiamentu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pcd mw-list-item"><a href="https://pcd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biografe" title="Biografe – Picard" lang="pcd" hreflang="pcd" data-title="Biografe" data-language-autonym="Picard" data-language-local-name="Picard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Picard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biografia" title="Biografia – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Biografia" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biografia" title="Biografia – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Biografia" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biografie" title="Biografie – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Biografie" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rmy mw-list-item"><a href="https://rmy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biografija" title="Biografija – Vlax Romani" lang="rmy" hreflang="rmy" data-title="Biografija" data-language-autonym="Romani čhib" data-language-local-name="Vlax Romani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Romani čhib</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kawsay_qillqa" title="Kawsay qillqa – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Kawsay qillqa" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Биография – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Биография" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%80" title="जीवनी – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="जीवनी" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>संस्कृतम्</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biographies" title="Biographies – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Biographies" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jet%C3%ABshkrimi" title="Jetëshkrimi – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Jetëshkrimi" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%A0%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%AD%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%B4%E0%B6%AF%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%B1" title="චරිතාපදාන – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="චරිතාපදාන" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biography" title="Biography – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Biography" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AD_%D9%86%DA%AF%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A" title="سوانح نگاري – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="سوانح نگاري" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biografia" title="Biografia – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Biografia" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biografija" title="Biografija – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Biografija" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%98%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%85%DB%95" title="ژیاننامە – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ژیاننامە" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Биографија – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Биографија" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biografija" title="Biografija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Biografija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biografi" title="Biografi – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Biografi" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/El%C3%A4m%C3%A4kerta" title="Elämäkerta – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Elämäkerta" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biografi" title="Biografi – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Biografi" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talambuhay" title="Talambuhay – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Talambuhay" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B4%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%88_%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%81" title="வாழ்க்கை வரலாறு – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="வாழ்க்கை வரலாறு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tameddurt" title="Tameddurt – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Tameddurt" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Taqbaylit</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Биография – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Биография" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%9C%E0%B1%80%E0%B0%B5%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%A4_%E0%B0%9A%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%A4%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B0" title="జీవిత చరిత్ర – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="జీవిత చరిత్ర" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%B4" title="ชีวประวัติ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ชีวประวัติ" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Зиндагинома – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Зиндагинома" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biyografi" title="Biyografi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Biyografi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tk mw-list-item"><a href="https://tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biografi%C3%BDa" title="Biografiýa – Turkmen" lang="tk" hreflang="tk" data-title="Biografiýa" data-language-autonym="Türkmençe" data-language-local-name="Turkmen" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkmençe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%96%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Біографія – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Біографія" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AD" title="سوانح – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="سوانح" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ti%E1%BB%83u_s%E1%BB%AD" title="Tiểu sử – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Tiểu sử" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biyografeye" title="Biyografeye – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="Biyografeye" data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="Walloon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Walon</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biyograpiya" title="Biyograpiya – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Biyograpiya" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BC%A0%E8%AE%B0" title="传记 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="传记" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%91%D7%99%D7%90%D7%92%D7%A8%D7%90%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%A2" title="ביאגראפיע – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="ביאגראפיע" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%82%B3%E8%A8%98" title="傳記 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="傳記" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%82%B3%E8%A8%98" title="傳記 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="傳記" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dtp mw-list-item"><a href="https://dtp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biografi" title="Biografi – Central Dusun" lang="dtp" hreflang="dtp" data-title="Biografi" data-language-autonym="Kadazandusun" data-language-local-name="Central Dusun" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kadazandusun</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q36279#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Biography" title="View 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navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Biography_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Biography (disambiguation)">Biography (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Plutarchs_Lives_Vol_the_Third_1727.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Plutarchs_Lives_Vol_the_Third_1727.jpg/260px-Plutarchs_Lives_Vol_the_Third_1727.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="210" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Plutarchs_Lives_Vol_the_Third_1727.jpg/390px-Plutarchs_Lives_Vol_the_Third_1727.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Plutarchs_Lives_Vol_the_Third_1727.jpg/520px-Plutarchs_Lives_Vol_the_Third_1727.jpg 2x" data-file-width="972" data-file-height="785" /></a><figcaption>Third volume of a 1727 edition of <a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Lives_of_the_Noble_Greeks_and_Romans" class="mw-redirect" title="Lives of the Noble Greeks and Romans">Lives of the Noble Greeks and Romans</a></i> printed by <a href="/wiki/Jacob_Tonson" title="Jacob Tonson">Jacob Tonson</a></figcaption></figure> <p>A <b>biography</b>, or simply <b>bio</b>, is a detailed description of a person's life. It involves more than just basic facts like education, work, relationships, and death; it portrays a person's experience of these life events. Unlike a profile or <a href="/wiki/Curriculum_vitae" title="Curriculum vitae">curriculum vitae</a> (<a href="/wiki/R%C3%A9sum%C3%A9" title="Résumé">résumé</a>), a biography presents a subject's life story, highlighting various aspects of their life, including intimate details of experience, and may include an analysis of the subject's personality. </p><p>Biographical works are usually <a href="/wiki/Non-fiction" title="Non-fiction">non-fiction</a>, but fiction can also be used to portray a person's life. One in-depth form of biographical coverage is called legacy writing. Works in diverse media, from literature to film, form the <a href="/wiki/Genre" title="Genre">genre</a> known as biography. </p><p>An <b>authorized biography</b> is written with the permission, cooperation, and at times, participation of a subject or a subject's heirs. An <a href="/wiki/Unauthorized_biography" title="Unauthorized biography">unauthorized biography</a> is one written without such permission or participation. An <a href="/wiki/Autobiography" title="Autobiography">autobiography</a> is written by the person themselves, sometimes with the assistance of a collaborator or <a href="/wiki/Ghostwriter" title="Ghostwriter">ghostwriter</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div> <p>At first, biographical writings were regarded merely as a subsection of history with a focus on a particular individual of historical importance. The independent genre of biography as distinct from general history writing, began to emerge in the 18th century and reached its contemporary form at the turn of the 20th century.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKendall_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKendall-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historical_biography">Historical biography</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Einhard.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Einhard.jpg/220px-Einhard.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="228" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Einhard.jpg/330px-Einhard.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Einhard.jpg/440px-Einhard.jpg 2x" data-file-width="515" data-file-height="533" /></a><figcaption>Einhard as scribe</figcaption></figure> <p>Biography is the earliest literary genre in history. According to Egyptologist <a href="/wiki/Miriam_Lichtheim" title="Miriam Lichtheim">Miriam Lichtheim</a>, writing took its first steps toward literature in the context of the private tomb funerary inscriptions. These were commemorative biographical texts recounting the careers of deceased high royal officials.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The earliest biographical texts are from the 26th century BC. </p><p>In the 21st century BC, another famous biography was composed in Mesopotamia about <a href="/wiki/Epic_of_Gilgamesh" title="Epic of Gilgamesh">Gilgamesh</a>. <a href="/wiki/Gilgamesh_and_Aga" title="Gilgamesh and Aga">One of the five versions</a> could be historical. </p><p>From the same region a couple of centuries later, according to <a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">another famous biography</a>, departed <a href="/wiki/Abraham" title="Abraham">Abraham</a>. <a href="/wiki/Patriarchs_(Bible)" title="Patriarchs (Bible)">He and his 3 descendants</a> became subjects of ancient Hebrew biographies whether fictional or historical. </p><p>One of the earliest Roman biographers was <a href="/wiki/Cornelius_Nepos" title="Cornelius Nepos">Cornelius Nepos</a>, who published his work <i>Excellentium Imperatorum Vitae</i> ("Lives of outstanding generals") in 44 BC. Longer and more extensive biographies were written in Greek by <a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a>, in his <i><a href="/wiki/Parallel_Lives" title="Parallel Lives">Parallel Lives</a></i>, published about 80 A.D. In this work famous Greeks are paired with famous Romans, for example, the orators <a href="/wiki/Demosthenes" title="Demosthenes">Demosthenes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a>, or the generals <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a> and <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a>; some fifty biographies from the work survive. Another well-known collection of ancient biographies is <a href="/wiki/The_Twelve_Caesars" title="The Twelve Caesars"><i>De vita Caesarum</i></a> ("On the Lives of the Caesars") by <a href="/wiki/Suetonius" title="Suetonius">Suetonius</a>, written about AD 121 in the time of the emperor <a href="/wiki/Hadrian" title="Hadrian">Hadrian</a>. Meanwhile, in the eastern imperial periphery, <a href="/wiki/Gospel" title="Gospel">Gospel</a> described the life of <a href="/wiki/Jesus" title="Jesus">Jesus</a>. </p><p>In the early <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> (AD 400 to 1450), there was a decline in awareness of the <a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">classical</a> culture in Europe. During this time, the only repositories of knowledge and records of the early history in Europe were those of the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Roman Catholic Church</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hermit" title="Hermit">Hermits</a>, <a href="/wiki/Monk" title="Monk">monks</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Priest" title="Priest">priests</a> used this historic period to write biographies. Their subjects were usually restricted to the <a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">church fathers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Martyr" title="Martyr">martyrs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pope" title="Pope">popes</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Saint" title="Saint">saints</a>. Their works were meant to be inspirational to the people and vehicles for <a href="/wiki/Religious_conversion" title="Religious conversion">conversion</a> to <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> (see <a href="/wiki/Hagiography" title="Hagiography">Hagiography</a>). One significant secular example of a biography from this period is the <a href="/wiki/Vita_Karoli_Magni" title="Vita Karoli Magni">life of Charlemagne</a> by his courtier <a href="/wiki/Einhard" title="Einhard">Einhard</a>. </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Western_India" title="Western India">Medieval Western India</a>, there was a <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a> Jain literary genre of writing semi-historical biographical narratives about the lives of famous persons called <a href="/wiki/Prabandha" title="Prabandha">Prabandhas</a>. Prabandhas were written primarily by <a href="/wiki/Jainism" title="Jainism">Jain</a> scholars from the 13th century onwards and were written in colloquial Sanskrit (as opposed to <a href="/wiki/Classical_Sanskrit" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical Sanskrit">Classical Sanskrit</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The earliest collection explicitly titled <i>Prabandha-</i> is <a href="/wiki/Jinabhadra" title="Jinabhadra">Jinabhadra</a>'s <i>Prabandhavali</i> (1234 CE). </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Medieval Islamic Civilization</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> AD 750</span> to 1258), similar traditional Muslim biographies of <a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a> and other important figures in the early <a href="/wiki/History_of_Islam" title="History of Islam">history of Islam</a> began to be written, beginning the <a href="/wiki/Prophetic_biography" class="mw-redirect" title="Prophetic biography">Prophetic biography</a> tradition. Early <a href="/wiki/Biographical_dictionary" title="Biographical dictionary">biographical dictionaries</a> were published as compendia of famous Islamic personalities from the 9th century onwards. They contained more social data for a large segment of the population than other works of that period. The earliest biographical dictionaries initially focused on the lives of the <a href="/wiki/Prophets_of_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Prophets of Islam">prophets of Islam</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sahaba" class="mw-redirect" title="Sahaba">their companions</a>, with one of these early examples being <i><a href="/wiki/The_book_of_The_Major_Classes_(book)" class="mw-redirect" title="The book of The Major Classes (book)">The Book of The Major Classes</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Sa%27d_al-Baghdadi" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn Sa'd al-Baghdadi">Ibn Sa'd al-Baghdadi</a>. And then began the documentation of the lives of many other historical figures (from rulers to scholars) who lived in the medieval Islamic world.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENawas2006110_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENawas2006110-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Foxe%27s_Book_of_Martyrs_-_Frontispiece_(1761).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Foxe%27s_Book_of_Martyrs_-_Frontispiece_%281761%29.jpg/170px-Foxe%27s_Book_of_Martyrs_-_Frontispiece_%281761%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="271" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/11/Foxe%27s_Book_of_Martyrs_-_Frontispiece_%281761%29.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="250" data-file-height="398" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/John_Foxe" title="John Foxe">John Foxe</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Foxe%27s_Book_of_Martyrs" title="Foxe's Book of Martyrs">The Book of Martyrs</a></i>, was one of the earliest English-language biographies.</figcaption></figure> <p>By the late Middle Ages, biographies became less church-oriented in Europe as biographies of <a href="/wiki/Monarch" title="Monarch">kings</a>, <a href="/wiki/Knight" title="Knight">knights</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tyrant" title="Tyrant">tyrants</a> began to appear. The most famous of such biographies was <i><a href="/wiki/Le_Morte_d%27Arthur" title="Le Morte d'Arthur">Le Morte d'Arthur</a></i> by Sir <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Malory" title="Thomas Malory">Thomas Malory</a>. The book was an account of the life of the fabled <a href="/wiki/King_Arthur" title="King Arthur">King Arthur</a> and his <a href="/wiki/Knights_of_the_Round_Table" title="Knights of the Round Table">Knights of the Round Table</a>. Following Malory, the new emphasis on <a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">humanism</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> promoted a focus on secular subjects, such as artists and poets, and encouraged writing in the vernacular. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Giorgio_Vasari" title="Giorgio Vasari">Giorgio Vasari</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Lives_of_the_Most_Excellent_Painters,_Sculptors,_and_Architects" title="Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects">Lives of the Artists</a></i> (1550) was the landmark biography focusing on secular lives. Vasari made celebrities of his subjects, as the <i>Lives</i> became an early "bestseller". Two other developments are noteworthy: the development of the <a href="/wiki/Printing_press" title="Printing press">printing press</a> in the 15th century and the gradual increase in <a href="/wiki/Literacy" title="Literacy">literacy</a>. </p><p>Biographies in the English language began appearing during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Henry_VIII" title="Henry VIII">Henry VIII</a>. <a href="/wiki/John_Foxe" title="John Foxe">John Foxe</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Actes_and_Monuments" class="mw-redirect" title="Actes and Monuments">Actes and Monuments</a></i> (1563), better known as <i>Foxe's Book of Martyrs</i>, was essentially the first dictionary of the biography in Europe, followed by <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Fuller" title="Thomas Fuller">Thomas Fuller</a>'s <i>The History of the Worthies of England</i> (1662), with a distinct focus on public life. </p><p>Influential in shaping popular conceptions of pirates, <i><a href="/wiki/A_General_History_of_the_Pyrates" title="A General History of the Pyrates">A General History of the Pyrates</a></i> (1724), by Charles Johnson, is the prime source for the biographies of many well-known pirates.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJohnson2002?_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJohnson2002?-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A notable early collection of biographies of eminent men and women in the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> was <i><a href="/wiki/Biographia_Britannica" title="Biographia Britannica">Biographia Britannica</a></i> (1747–1766) edited by <a href="/wiki/William_Oldys" title="William Oldys">William Oldys</a>. </p><p> The American biography followed the English model, incorporating <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Thomas Carlyle</a>'s view that biography was a part of history. Carlyle asserted that the lives of great human beings were essential to understanding society and its institutions. While the historical impulse would remain a strong element in early American biography, American writers carved out a distinct approach. What emerged was a rather didactic form of biography, which sought to shape the individual character of a reader in the process of defining national character.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECasper1999?_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECasper1999?-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStone1982?_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStone1982?-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Emergence_of_the_genre">Emergence of the genre</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:James_Boswell_of_Auchinleck.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/James_Boswell_of_Auchinleck.jpg/220px-James_Boswell_of_Auchinleck.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="267" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/James_Boswell_of_Auchinleck.jpg/330px-James_Boswell_of_Auchinleck.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/James_Boswell_of_Auchinleck.jpg/440px-James_Boswell_of_Auchinleck.jpg 2x" data-file-width="660" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/James_Boswell" title="James Boswell">James Boswell</a> wrote what many consider to be the first modern biography, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Life_of_Samuel_Johnson" class="mw-redirect" title="The Life of Samuel Johnson">The Life of Samuel Johnson</a></i>, in 1791.</figcaption></figure> <p>The first modern biography, and a work that exerted considerable influence on the evolution of the genre, was <a href="/wiki/James_Boswell" title="James Boswell">James Boswell</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/The_Life_of_Samuel_Johnson" class="mw-redirect" title="The Life of Samuel Johnson">The Life of Samuel Johnson</a></i>, a biography of lexicographer and man-of-letters <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Johnson" title="Samuel Johnson">Samuel Johnson</a> published in 1791.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEButler2012_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEButler2012-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Reliable_sources" title="Wikipedia:Reliable sources"><span title="The material near this tag may rely on an unreliable source. (May 2020)">unreliable source?</span></a></i>]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIngramRawsonWaingrowBoswell1998319–320_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIngramRawsonWaingrowBoswell1998319–320-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETurnbull2019_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETurnbull2019-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While Boswell's personal acquaintance with his subject only began in 1763, when Johnson was 54 years old, Boswell covered the entirety of Johnson's life by means of additional research. Itself an important stage in the development of the modern <a href="/wiki/Genre" title="Genre">genre</a> of biography, it has been claimed to be the greatest biography written in the <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English language</a>. Boswell's work was unique in its level of research, which involved archival study, eye-witness accounts and interviews, its robust and attractive narrative, and its honest depiction of all aspects of Johnson's life and character – a formula which serves as the basis of biographical literature to this day.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Biographical writing generally stagnated during the 19th century – in many cases there was a reversal to the more familiar <a href="/wiki/Hagiography" title="Hagiography">hagiographical</a> method of eulogizing the dead, similar to the biographies of <a href="/wiki/Saint" title="Saint">saints</a> produced in <a href="/wiki/Medieval_era" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval era">Medieval</a> times. A distinction between mass biography and <a href="/wiki/Biography_in_literature" title="Biography in literature">literary biography</a> began to form by the middle of the century, reflecting a breach between high culture and <a href="/wiki/Middle-class" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle-class">middle-class</a> culture. However, the number of biographies in print experienced a rapid growth, thanks to an expanding reading public. This revolution in publishing made books available to a larger audience of readers. In addition, affordable <a href="/wiki/Paperback" title="Paperback">paperback</a> editions of popular biographies were published for the first time. <a href="/wiki/Periodical" class="mw-redirect" title="Periodical">Periodicals</a> began publishing a sequence of biographical sketches.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECasper1999_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECasper1999-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Autobiography" title="Autobiography">Autobiographies</a> became more popular, as with the rise of education and cheap printing, modern concepts of fame and celebrity began to develop. Autobiographies were written by authors, such as <a href="/wiki/Charles_Dickens" title="Charles Dickens">Charles Dickens</a> (who incorporated autobiographical elements in his novels) and <a href="/wiki/Anthony_Trollope" title="Anthony Trollope">Anthony Trollope</a> (his <i>Autobiography</i> appeared posthumously, quickly becoming a bestseller in <a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoberts188313_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoberts188313-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>), philosophers, such as <a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">John Stuart Mill</a>, churchmen – <a href="/wiki/John_Henry_Newman" title="John Henry Newman">John Henry Newman</a> – and entertainers – <a href="/wiki/P._T._Barnum" title="P. T. Barnum">P. T. Barnum</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern_biography">Modern biography</h3></div> <p>The sciences of <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">sociology</a> were ascendant at the turn of the 20th century and would heavily influence the new century's biographies.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStone1982_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStone1982-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The demise of the <a href="/wiki/Great_man_theory" title="Great man theory">"great man"</a> theory of history was indicative of the emerging mindset. Human behavior would be explained through <a href="/wiki/Darwinian" class="mw-redirect" title="Darwinian">Darwinian</a> theories. "Sociological" biographies conceived of their subjects' actions as the result of the environment, and tended to downplay individuality. The development of <a href="/wiki/Psychoanalysis" title="Psychoanalysis">psychoanalysis</a> led to a more penetrating and comprehensive understanding of the biographical subject, and induced biographers to give more emphasis to <a href="/wiki/Childhood" class="mw-redirect" title="Childhood">childhood</a> and <a href="/wiki/Adolescence" title="Adolescence">adolescence</a>. Clearly these psychological ideas were changing the way biographies were written, as a culture of autobiography developed, in which the telling of one's own story became a form of therapy.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECasper1999_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECasper1999-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The conventional concept of heroes and narratives of success disappeared in the obsession with psychological explorations of personality. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Eminent_Victorians_title_page.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Eminent_Victorians_title_page.jpg/170px-Eminent_Victorians_title_page.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="273" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e3/Eminent_Victorians_title_page.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="289" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/Eminent_Victorians" title="Eminent Victorians">Eminent Victorians</a></i> set the standard for 20th century biographical writing, when it was published in 1918.</figcaption></figure> <p>British critic <a href="/wiki/Lytton_Strachey" title="Lytton Strachey">Lytton Strachey</a> revolutionized the art of biographical writing with his 1918 work <i><a href="/wiki/Eminent_Victorians" title="Eminent Victorians">Eminent Victorians</a></i>, consisting of biographies of four leading figures from the <a href="/wiki/Victorian_era" title="Victorian era">Victorian era</a>: <a href="/wiki/Henry_Edward_Manning" title="Henry Edward Manning">Cardinal Manning</a>, <a href="/wiki/Florence_Nightingale" title="Florence Nightingale">Florence Nightingale</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Arnold" title="Thomas Arnold">Thomas Arnold</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Charles_George_Gordon" title="Charles George Gordon">General Gordon</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Strachey set out to breathe life into the <a href="/wiki/Victorian_era" title="Victorian era">Victorian era</a> for future generations to read. Up until this point, as Strachey remarked in the preface, Victorian biographies had been "as familiar as the <i>cortège</i> of the undertaker", and wore the same air of "slow, funereal barbarism." Strachey defied the tradition of "two fat volumes<span class="nowrap"> </span>... of undigested masses of material" and took aim at the four iconic figures. His narrative demolished the myths that had built up around these cherished national heroes, whom he regarded as no better than a "set of mouth bungled hypocrites". The book achieved worldwide fame due to its irreverent and witty style, its concise and factually accurate nature, and its artistic prose.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones2009_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones2009-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the 1920s and 1930s, biographical writers sought to capitalize on Strachey's popularity by imitating his style. This new school featured iconoclasts, scientific analysts, and fictional biographers and included <a href="/wiki/Gamaliel_Bradford_(biographer)" title="Gamaliel Bradford (biographer)">Gamaliel Bradford</a>, <a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Maurois" title="André Maurois">André Maurois</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Emil_Ludwig" title="Emil Ludwig">Emil Ludwig</a>, among others. <a href="/wiki/Robert_Graves" title="Robert Graves">Robert Graves</a> (<i>I, Claudius</i>, 1934) stood out among those following Strachey's model of "debunking biographies." The trend in <a href="/wiki/Literary_biography" class="mw-redirect" title="Literary biography">literary biography</a> was accompanied in popular biography by a sort of "celebrity voyeurism", in the early decades of the century. This latter form's appeal to readers was based on curiosity more than morality or patriotism. By <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>, cheap hard-cover reprints had become popular. The decades of the 1920s witnessed a biographical "boom." </p><p>American professional historiography gives a limited role to biography, preferring instead to emphasize deeper social and cultural influences. Political biographers historically incorporated moralizing judgments into their work, with scholarly biography being an uncommon genre before the mid-1920s. <a href="/wiki/Allan_Nevins" title="Allan Nevins">Allan Nevins</a> was a major contributor in the 1930s to the multivolume <i><a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_American_Biography" title="Dictionary of American Biography">Dictionary of American Biography</a></i>. Nevins also sponsored a series of long political biographies. Later biographers sought to show how political figures balanced power and responsibility. However, many biographers found that their subjects were not as morally pure as they originally thought, and young historians after 1960 tended to be more critical. The exception is <a href="/wiki/Robert_Remini" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Remini">Robert Remini</a> whose books on Andrew Jackson idolize its hero and fends off criticisms. The study of decision-making in politics is important for scholarly political biographers, who can take different approaches such as focusing on psychology/personality, bureaucracy/interests, fundamental ideas, or societal forces. However, most documentation favors the first approach, which emphasizes personalities. Biographers often neglect the voting blocs and legislative positions of politicians and the organizational structures of bureaucracies. A more promising approach is to locate a person's ideas through intellectual history, but this has become more difficult with the philosophical shallowness of political figures in recent times. Political biography can be frustrating and challenging to integrate with other fields of political history.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The feminist scholar <a href="/wiki/Carolyn_Gold_Heilbrun" title="Carolyn Gold Heilbrun">Carolyn Heilbrun</a> observed that women's biographies and autobiographies began to change character during the second wave of <a href="/wiki/Feminism" title="Feminism">feminist</a> activism. She cited <a href="/wiki/Nancy_Milford" title="Nancy Milford">Nancy Milford's</a> 1970 biography <i>Zelda</i>, as the "beginning of a new period of women's biography, because "[only] in 1970 were we ready to read not that <a href="/wiki/Zelda_Fitzgerald" title="Zelda Fitzgerald">Zelda</a> had destroyed <a href="/wiki/F._Scott_Fitzgerald" title="F. Scott Fitzgerald">Fitzgerald</a>, but Fitzgerald her: he had usurped her narrative." Heilbrun named 1973 as the turning point in women's autobiography, with the publication of <a href="/wiki/May_Sarton" title="May Sarton">May Sarton's</a> <i>Journal of a Solitude,</i> for that was the first instance where a woman told her life story, not as finding "beauty even in pain" and transforming "rage into spiritual acceptance," but acknowledging what had previously been forbidden to women: their pain, their rage, and their "open admission of the desire for power and control over one's life."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeilbrun198812,_13_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeilbrun198812,_13-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Recent_years">Recent years</h3></div> <p>In recent years, <a href="/wiki/Multimedia" title="Multimedia">multimedia</a> biography has become more popular than traditional literary forms. Along with documentary <a href="/wiki/Biographical_film" title="Biographical film">biographical films</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hollywood,_Los_Angeles,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="Hollywood, Los Angeles, California">Hollywood</a> produced numerous commercial films based on the lives of famous people. The popularity of these forms of biography have led to the proliferation of TV channels dedicated to biography, including <a href="/wiki/A%26E_Network" class="mw-redirect" title="A&E Network">A&E</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Biography_Channel" class="mw-redirect" title="The Biography Channel">The Biography Channel</a>, and <a href="/wiki/History_(U.S._TV_channel)" class="mw-redirect" title="History (U.S. TV channel)">The History Channel</a>. </p><p>CD-ROM and online biographies have also appeared. Unlike books and films, they often do not tell a chronological narrative: instead they are archives of many discrete media elements related to an individual person, including video clips, photographs, and text articles. Biography-Portraits were created in 2001, by the German artist <a href="/wiki/Ralph_Ueltzhoeffer" title="Ralph Ueltzhoeffer">Ralph Ueltzhoeffer</a>. Media scholar <a href="/wiki/Lev_Manovich" title="Lev Manovich">Lev Manovich</a> says that such archives exemplify the database form, allowing users to navigate the materials in many ways.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEManovich2001220_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEManovich2001220-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> General "life writing" techniques are a subject of scholarly study.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHughes2009159_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHughes2009159-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In recent years, debates have arisen as to whether all biographies are fiction, especially when authors are writing about figures from the past. President of Wolfson College at Oxford University, <a href="/wiki/Hermione_Lee" title="Hermione Lee">Hermione Lee</a> argues that all history is seen through a perspective that is the product of one's contemporary society and as a result, biographical truths are constantly shifting. So, the history biographers write about will not be the way that it happened; it will be the way they remembered it.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDerham2014_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDerham2014-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Debates have also arisen concerning the importance of space in life-writing.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERegard2003_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERegard2003-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Daniel R. Meister in 2017 argued that: </p> <dl><dd>Biography Studies is emerging as an independent discipline, especially in the Netherlands. This Dutch School of biography is moving biography studies away from the less scholarly life writing tradition and towards history by encouraging its practitioners to utilize an approach adapted from microhistory.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeister20182_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeister20182-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Biographical_research">Biographical research</h3></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Biographical_research" title="Biographical research">Biographical research</a> is defined by Miller as a research method that collects and analyses a person's whole life, or portion of a life, through the in-depth and unstructured interview, or sometimes reinforced by semi-structured interview or personal documents.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiller200315_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller200315-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is a way of viewing social life in procedural terms, rather than static terms. The information can come from "oral history, personal narrative, biography and autobiography" or "diaries, letters, memoranda and other materials".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoberts2002_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoberts2002-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The central aim of biographical research is to produce rich descriptions of persons or "conceptualise structural types of actions", which means to "understand the action logics or how persons and structures are interlinked".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZinn20043_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZinn20043-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This method can be used to understand an individual's life within its social context or understand the cultural phenomena. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Critical_issues">Critical issues</h3></div> <p>There are many largely unacknowledged pitfalls to writing good biographies, and these largely concern the relation between firstly the individual and the context, and, secondly, the private and public. Paul James writes: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The problems with such conventional biographies are manifold. Biographies usually treat the public as a reflection of the private, with the private realm being assumed to be foundational. This is strange given that biographies are most often written about public people who project a <i>persona</i>. That is, for such subjects the dominant passages of the presentation of themselves in everyday life are already formed by what might be called a 'self-biofication' process.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJames2013124_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJames2013124-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Book_awards">Book awards</h2></div> <p>Several countries offer an annual prize for writing a biography such as the: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Drainie-Taylor_Biography_Prize" title="Drainie-Taylor Biography Prize">Drainie-Taylor Biography Prize</a> – Canada</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Biography_Award" title="National Biography Award">National Biography Award</a> – Australia</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulitzer_Prize_for_Biography_or_Autobiography" class="mw-redirect" title="Pulitzer Prize for Biography or Autobiography">Pulitzer Prize for Biography or Autobiography</a> – United States</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Costa_Book_Awards" title="Costa Book Awards">Whitbread Prize for Best Biography</a> – United Kingdom</li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._R._Ackerley_Prize_for_Autobiography" class="mw-redirect" title="J. R. Ackerley Prize for Autobiography">J. R. Ackerley Prize for Autobiography</a> – United Kingdom</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prix_Goncourt_de_la_Biographie" class="mw-redirect" title="Prix Goncourt de la Biographie">Prix Goncourt de la Biographie</a> – France</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/69/P_vip.svg/28px-P_vip.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/69/P_vip.svg/41px-P_vip.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/69/P_vip.svg/55px-P_vip.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1911" data-file-height="1944" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Biography" title="Portal:Biography">Biography portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historiography" title="Historiography">Historiography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_science" title="Historiography of science">Historiography of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Historiography of the United Kingdom">Historiography of the United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_United_States" title="Historiography of the United States">Historiography of the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_biography" title="Legal biography">Legal biography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Letter_collection" title="Letter collection">Letter collection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychobiography" title="Psychobiography">Psychobiography</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKendall-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKendall_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKendall">Kendall</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Miriam Lichtheim, <a href="//archive.org/details/MiriamLichtheimAncientEgyptianLiteratureVolI/page/n1/mode/2up" class="extiw" title="iarchive:MiriamLichtheimAncientEgyptianLiteratureVolI/page/n1/mode/2up">Ancient Egyptian Literature</a>, Berkeley: University of California Press, 2006, vol I, p 3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFThaker1970" class="citation book cs1">Thaker, Jayant Premshankar (1970). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5eK7apI_l4oC"><i>Laghuprabandhasaṅgrahah</i></a>. Oriental Institute. p. 18.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Laghuprabandhasa%E1%B9%85grahah&rft.pages=18&rft.pub=Oriental+Institute&rft.date=1970&rft.aulast=Thaker&rft.aufirst=Jayant+Premshankar&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5eK7apI_l4oC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiography" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENawas2006110-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENawas2006110_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNawas2006">Nawas 2006</a>, p. 110.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJohnson2002?-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJohnson2002?_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJohnson2002">Johnson 2002</a>, p. ?.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECasper1999?-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECasper1999?_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCasper1999">Casper 1999</a>, p. ?.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStone1982?-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStone1982?_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStone1982">Stone 1982</a>, p. ?.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEButler2012-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEButler2012_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFButler2012">Butler 2012</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEIngramRawsonWaingrowBoswell1998319–320-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIngramRawsonWaingrowBoswell1998319–320_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFIngramRawsonWaingrowBoswell1998">Ingram et al. 1998</a>, pp. 319–320.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETurnbull2019-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETurnbull2019_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTurnbull2019">Turnbull 2019</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrocklehurst2013" class="citation news cs1">Brocklehurst, Steven (16 May 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-scotland-22540020">"James Boswell: The Man who Re-Invented Biography"</a>. <i>BBC News</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 February</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=James+Boswell%3A+The+Man+who+Re-Invented+Biography&rft.date=2013-05-16&rft.aulast=Brocklehurst&rft.aufirst=Steven&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.com%2Fnews%2Fuk-scotland-22540020&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiography" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECasper1999-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECasper1999_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECasper1999_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCasper1999">Casper 1999</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERoberts188313-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoberts188313_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRoberts1883">Roberts 1883</a>, p. 13.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStone1982-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStone1982_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStone1982">Stone 1982</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLevy2002" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Paul_Levy_(journalist)" title="Paul Levy (journalist)">Levy, Paul</a> (20 July 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/books/2002/jul/20/featuresreviews.guardianreview22">"A String Quartet in Four Movements"</a>. <i>The Guardian</i>. London<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 February</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=A+String+Quartet+in+Four+Movements&rft.date=2002-07-20&rft.aulast=Levy&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fbooks%2F2002%2Fjul%2F20%2Ffeaturesreviews.guardianreview22&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiography" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones2009-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones2009_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJones2009">Jones 2009</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jack P Green, ed. <i>Encyclopedia of American political history</i> (Scribner's, 1984) 1:2-4.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeilbrun198812,_13-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeilbrun198812,_13_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHeilbrun1988">Heilbrun 1988</a>, pp. 12, 13.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEManovich2001220-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEManovich2001220_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFManovich2001">Manovich 2001</a>, p. 220.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHughes2009159-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHughes2009159_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHughes2009">Hughes 2009</a>, p. 159.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDerham2014-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDerham2014_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDerham2014">Derham 2014</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERegard2003-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERegard2003_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRegard2003">Regard 2003</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeister20182-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeister20182_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMeister2018">Meister 2018</a>, p. 2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller200315-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiller200315_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMiller2003">Miller 2003</a>, p. 15.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERoberts2002-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoberts2002_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRoberts2002">Roberts 2002</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEZinn20043-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZinn20043_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFZinn2004">Zinn 2004</a>, p. 3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJames2013124-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJames2013124_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJames2013">James 2013</a>, p. 124.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFButler2012" class="citation web cs1">Butler, Paul (19 April 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141111164251/http://libraries.umw.edu/blog/2012/04/19/james-boswells-life-of-johnson-the-first-modern-biography/">"James Boswell's 'Life of Johnson': The First Modern Biography"</a>. <i>University of Mary Washington Libraries</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://libraries.umw.edu/blog/2012/04/19/james-boswells-life-of-johnson-the-first-modern-biography/">the original</a> on 11 November 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 February</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=University+of+Mary+Washington+Libraries&rft.atitle=James+Boswell%27s+%27Life+of+Johnson%27%3A+The+First+Modern+Biography&rft.date=2012-04-19&rft.aulast=Butler&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flibraries.umw.edu%2Fblog%2F2012%2F04%2F19%2Fjames-boswells-life-of-johnson-the-first-modern-biography%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiography" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCasper1999" class="citation book cs1">Casper, Scott E. (1999). <i>Constructing American Lives: Biography and Culture in Nineteenth-Century America</i>. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8078-4765-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8078-4765-7"><bdi>978-0-8078-4765-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Constructing+American+Lives%3A+Biography+and+Culture+in+Nineteenth-Century+America&rft.place=Chapel+Hill&rft.pub=University+of+North+Carolina+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-8078-4765-7&rft.aulast=Casper&rft.aufirst=Scott+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiography" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDerham2014" class="citation audio-visual cs1">Derham, Katie (2014) [First published in 2014]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://iai.tv/video/the-art-of-life"><i>The Art of Life: Are Biographies Fiction?</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(MP4)</span> (Video). <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Frears" title="Stephen Frears">Stephen Frears</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hermione_Lee" title="Hermione Lee">Hermione Lee</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ray_Monk" title="Ray Monk">Ray Monk</a>. Institute of Arts and Ideas<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 February</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Art+of+Life%3A+Are+Biographies+Fiction%3F&rft.pub=Institute+of+Arts+and+Ideas&rft.date=2014&rft.aulast=Derham&rft.aufirst=Katie&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fiai.tv%2Fvideo%2Fthe-art-of-life&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiography" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeilbrun1988" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Carolyn_Gold_Heilbrun" title="Carolyn Gold Heilbrun">Heilbrun, Carolyn G.</a> (1988). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/writingwomanslif00heilrich"><i>Writing a Woman's Life</i></a></span>. New York: W. W. Norton. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-02601-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-02601-6"><bdi>978-0-393-02601-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Writing+a+Woman%27s+Life&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=W.+W.+Norton&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0-393-02601-6&rft.aulast=Heilbrun&rft.aufirst=Carolyn+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fwritingwomanslif00heilrich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiography" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHughes2009" class="citation journal cs1">Hughes, Kathryn (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ufv.ca/jhb/Volume_5/Volume_5_Hughes.pdf">"Review of <i>Teaching Life Writing Texts</i>, ed. Miriam Fuchs and Craig Howes"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Journal of Historical Biography</i>. <b>5</b>: <span class="nowrap">159–</span>163. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1911-8538">1911-8538</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 February</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Historical+Biography&rft.atitle=Review+of+Teaching+Life+Writing+Texts%2C+ed.+Miriam+Fuchs+and+Craig+Howes&rft.volume=5&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E159-%3C%2Fspan%3E163&rft.date=2009&rft.issn=1911-8538&rft.aulast=Hughes&rft.aufirst=Kathryn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ufv.ca%2Fjhb%2FVolume_5%2FVolume_5_Hughes.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiography" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohnson2002" class="citation book cs1">Johnson, Charles (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5ou7Bm11IgEC"><i>A General History of the Robberies & Murders of the most Notorious Pirates</i></a>. London: Conway Maritime. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-85177-919-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-85177-919-0"><bdi>0-85177-919-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+General+History+of+the+Robberies+%26+Murders+of+the+most+Notorious+Pirates&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Conway+Maritime&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-85177-919-0&rft.aulast=Johnson&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5ou7Bm11IgEC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiography" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIngramRawsonWaingrowBoswell1998" class="citation journal cs1">Ingram, Allan; Rawson, Claude; Waingrow, Marshall; Boswell, James (1998). "James Boswell's 'Life of Johnson': An Edition of the Original Manuscript, in Four Volumes. Vol. 1. 1709-1765". <i>The Yearbook of English Studies</i>. <b>28</b>: <span class="nowrap">319–</span>320. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3508791">10.2307/3508791</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3508791">3508791</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Yearbook+of+English+Studies&rft.atitle=James+Boswell%27s+%27Life+of+Johnson%27%3A+An+Edition+of+the+Original+Manuscript%2C+in+Four+Volumes.+Vol.+1.+1709-1765&rft.volume=28&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E319-%3C%2Fspan%3E320&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3508791&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3508791%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Ingram&rft.aufirst=Allan&rft.au=Rawson%2C+Claude&rft.au=Waingrow%2C+Marshall&rft.au=Boswell%2C+James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiography" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJames2013" class="citation journal cs1">James, Paul (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/3231040">"Closing Reflections: Confronting Contradictions in Biographies of Nations and Peoples"</a>. <i>Humanities Research</i>. <b>19</b> (1): 124.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Humanities+Research&rft.atitle=Closing+Reflections%3A+Confronting+Contradictions+in+Biographies+of+Nations+and+Peoples&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=124&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=James&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F3231040&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiography" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJones2009" class="citation magazine cs1">Jones, Malcolm (28 October 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newsweek.com/boswell-johnson-birth-modern-biography-81357">"Boswell, Johnson, & the Birth of Modern Biography"</a>. <i>Newsweek</i>. New York. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0028-9604">0028-9604</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 January</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Newsweek&rft.atitle=Boswell%2C+Johnson%2C+%26+the+Birth+of+Modern+Biography&rft.date=2009-10-28&rft.issn=0028-9604&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=Malcolm&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.newsweek.com%2Fboswell-johnson-birth-modern-biography-81357&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiography" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKendall" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Paul_Murray_Kendall" title="Paul Murray Kendall">Kendall, Paul Murray</a>. <span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/art/biography-narrative-genre">"Biography"</a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Biography&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.aulast=Kendall&rft.aufirst=Paul+Murray&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fart%2Fbiography-narrative-genre&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiography" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLee2009" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Hermione_Lee" title="Hermione Lee">Lee, Hermione</a> (2009). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/biographyverysho0000leeh"><i>Biography: A Very Short Introduction</i></a></span>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-953354-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-953354-1"><bdi>978-0-19-953354-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Biography%3A+A+Very+Short+Introduction&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-19-953354-1&rft.aulast=Lee&rft.aufirst=Hermione&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbiographyverysho0000leeh&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiography" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFManovich2001" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Lev_Manovich" title="Lev Manovich">Manovich, Lev</a> (2001). <i>The Language of New Media</i>. Leonardo Book Series. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-63255-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-262-63255-3"><bdi>978-0-262-63255-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Language+of+New+Media&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Massachusetts&rft.series=Leonardo+Book+Series&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-262-63255-3&rft.aulast=Manovich&rft.aufirst=Lev&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiography" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeister2018" class="citation journal cs1">Meister, Daniel R. (2018). "The biographical turn and the case for historical biography". <i>History Compass</i>. <b>16</b> (1): 2. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fhic3.12436">10.1111/hic3.12436</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1478-0542">1478-0542</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=History+Compass&rft.atitle=The+biographical+turn+and+the+case+for+historical+biography&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=2&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fhic3.12436&rft.issn=1478-0542&rft.aulast=Meister&rft.aufirst=Daniel+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiography" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMiller2003" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Miller, Robert L. (2003). "Biographical Method". In Miller, Robert L.; <a href="/wiki/John_David_Brewer" title="John David Brewer">Brewer, John D.</a> (eds.). <i>The A–Z of Social Research: A Dictionary of Key Social Science Research Concepts</i>. London: Sage Publications. pp. <span class="nowrap">15–</span>17. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7619-7133-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7619-7133-7"><bdi>978-0-7619-7133-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Biographical+Method&rft.btitle=The+A%E2%80%93Z+of+Social+Research%3A+A+Dictionary+of+Key+Social+Science+Research+Concepts&rft.place=London&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E15-%3C%2Fspan%3E17&rft.pub=Sage+Publications&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-7619-7133-7&rft.aulast=Miller&rft.aufirst=Robert+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiography" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNawas2006" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Nawas, John A. (2006). "Biography and Biographical Works". In <a href="/wiki/Josef_W._Meri" title="Josef W. Meri">Meri, Josef W.</a> (ed.). <i>Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia</i>. Vol. 1. New York: Routledge. pp. <span class="nowrap">110–</span>112. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-96691-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-96691-7"><bdi>978-0-415-96691-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Biography+and+Biographical+Works&rft.btitle=Medieval+Islamic+Civilization%3A+An+Encyclopedia&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E110-%3C%2Fspan%3E112&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-415-96691-7&rft.aulast=Nawas&rft.aufirst=John+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiography" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRegard2003" class="citation conference cs1"><a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Regard" title="Frédéric Regard">Regard, Frédéric</a>, ed. (2003). <i>Mapping the Self: Space, Identity, Discourse in British Auto/Biography</i>. Saint-Étienne, France: Publications de l'Université de Saint-Étienne. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-86272269-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-86272269-6"><bdi>978-2-86272269-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.btitle=Mapping+the+Self%3A+Space%2C+Identity%2C+Discourse+in+British+Auto%2FBiography&rft.place=Saint-%C3%89tienne%2C+France&rft.pub=Publications+de+l%27Universit%C3%A9+de+Saint-%C3%89tienne&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-2-86272269-6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiography" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRines1918" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Rines, George Edwin, ed. (1918). "<a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Encyclopedia_Americana_(1918)/Biography" class="extiw" title="s:The Encyclopedia Americana (1918)/Biography">Biography</a>". <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_Americana" title="Encyclopedia Americana">Encyclopedia Americana</a></i>. Vol. 3. pp. <span class="nowrap">718–</span>719.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Biography&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+Americana&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E718-%3C%2Fspan%3E719&rft.date=1918&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiography" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoberts2002" class="citation book cs1">Roberts, Brian (2002). <i>Biographical Research</i>. Understanding Social Research. Buckingham, England: Open University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-335-20287-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-335-20287-4"><bdi>978-0-335-20287-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Biographical+Research&rft.place=Buckingham%2C+England&rft.series=Understanding+Social+Research&rft.pub=Open+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-335-20287-4&rft.aulast=Roberts&rft.aufirst=Brian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiography" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoberts1883" class="citation magazine cs1">Roberts, Charles George Douglas, ed. (6 December 1883). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/weekcanadianjour01toro">"Literary Gossip"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Week_(Canadian_magazine)" title="The Week (Canadian magazine)">The Week</a></i>. Vol. 1, no. 1. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/weekcanadianjour01toro/page/n8">13</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Week&rft.atitle=Literary+Gossip&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=13&rft.date=1883-12-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fweekcanadianjour01toro&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiography" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStone1982" class="citation book cs1">Stone, Albert E. (1982). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/autobiographical0000ston"><i>Autobiographical Occasions and Original Acts: Versions of American Identity from Henry Adams to Nate Shaw</i></a></span>. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-7845-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-7845-3"><bdi>978-0-8122-7845-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Autobiographical+Occasions+and+Original+Acts%3A+Versions+of+American+Identity+from+Henry+Adams+to+Nate+Shaw&rft.place=Philadelphia&rft.pub=University+of+Pennsylvania+Press&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=978-0-8122-7845-3&rft.aulast=Stone&rft.aufirst=Albert+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fautobiographical0000ston&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiography" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTurnbull2019" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Turnbull, Gordon (2019-10-10). <span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxforddnb.com/view/10.1093/ref:odnb/9780198614128.001.0001/odnb-9780198614128-e-2950">"Boswell, James (1740–1795), lawyer, diarist, and biographer of Samuel Johnson"</a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_National_Biography#Oxford_Dictionary_of_National_Biography" title="Dictionary of National Biography">Oxford Dictionary of National Biography</a></i> (online ed.). Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fref%3Aodnb%2F2950">10.1093/ref:odnb/2950</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-05-14</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Boswell%2C+James+%281740%E2%80%931795%29%2C+lawyer%2C+diarist%2C+and+biographer+of+Samuel+Johnson&rft.btitle=Oxford+Dictionary+of+National+Biography&rft.edition=online&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2019-10-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fref%3Aodnb%2F2950&rft.aulast=Turnbull&rft.aufirst=Gordon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxforddnb.com%2Fview%2F10.1093%2Fref%3Aodnb%2F9780198614128.001.0001%2Fodnb-9780198614128-e-2950&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiography" class="Z3988"></span> <span style="font-size:0.95em; font-size:95%; color: var( --color-subtle, #555 )">(Subscription or <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxforddnb.com/help/subscribe#public">UK public library membership</a> required.)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZinn2004" class="citation techreport cs1">Zinn, Jens O. (2004). <i>Introduction to Biographical Research</i> (Working paper 2004/4). Canterbury, England: Social Contexts and Responses to Risk Network, University of Kent.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Biographical+Research&rft.place=Canterbury%2C+England&rft.pub=Social+Contexts+and+Responses+to+Risk+Network%2C+University+of+Kent&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Zinn&rft.aufirst=Jens+O.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiography" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGosse1911" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Edmund_William_Gosse" class="mw-redirect" title="Edmund William Gosse">Gosse, Edmund William</a> (1911). <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Biography"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Biography">"Biography" </a></span>. In <a href="/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm" title="Hugh Chisholm">Chisholm, Hugh</a> (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i>. Vol. 3 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">952–</span>954.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Biography&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E952-%3C%2Fspan%3E954&rft.edition=11th&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1911&rft.aulast=Gosse&rft.aufirst=Edmund+William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiography" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSidney_Lee1911" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Sidney_Lee" title="Sidney Lee">Sidney Lee</a> (1911), <i><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Principles_of_Biography" class="extiw" title="s:Principles of Biography">Principles of Biography</a></i>, London: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>, <a href="/wiki/WDQ_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="WDQ (identifier)">Wikidata</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q107333538" class="extiw" title="d:Q107333538">Q107333538</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Principles+of+Biography&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1911&rft.au=Sidney+Lee&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiography" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSolomon2001" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Maynard_Solomon" title="Maynard Solomon">Solomon, Maynard</a> (2001). <span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/grovemusic/view/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.001.0001/omo-9781561592630-e-0000041156">"Biography"</a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Grove_Music_Online" class="mw-redirect" title="Grove Music Online">Grove Music Online</a></i>. Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fgmo%2F9781561592630.article.41156">10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.41156</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56159-263-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-56159-263-0"><bdi>978-1-56159-263-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Biography&rft.btitle=Grove+Music+Online&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fgmo%2F9781561592630.article.41156&rft.isbn=978-1-56159-263-0&rft.aulast=Solomon&rft.aufirst=Maynard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordmusiconline.com%2Fgrovemusic%2Fview%2F10.1093%2Fgmo%2F9781561592630.001.0001%2Fomo-9781561592630-e-0000041156&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiography" class="Z3988"></span> <span style="font-size:0.95em; font-size:95%; color: var( --color-subtle, #555 )">(subscription, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikipedialibrary.wmflabs.org/partners/90/">Wikilibrary</a> access, or <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/page/subscribe#public">UK public library membership</a> required)</span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p00546vf">"Biography"</a>, <i>In Our Time</i>, BBC Radio 4 discussion with Richard Holmes, Nigel Hamilton and Amanda Foreman (June 22, 2000).</li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236088147">.mw-parser-output .sister-bar{display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline;font-size:88%;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em 0 0;padding:0 2em}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;padding:0.2em 0;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px;line-height:22px}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;align-items:baseline;padding:0.2em 0;column-gap:1em;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-item{display:flex;align-items:baseline;margin:0.15em 0;min-height:24px;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-logo{width:22px;line-height:22px;margin:0 0.2em;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-link{margin:0 0.2em;text-align:left}@media screen and (max-width:960px){.mw-parser-output .sister-bar{flex-flow:column wrap;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-header{flex:0 1}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-content{flex:1;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-item{flex:0 0 20em;min-width:20em}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+link+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+style+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+.navbox-styles+.portal-bar{margin-top:-1px}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sister-bar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="noprint metadata sister-bar" role="navigation" aria-label="sister-projects"><div class="sister-bar-header"><b>Biography</b> at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects"><span id="sister-projects" style="white-space:nowrap;">sister projects</span></a>:</div><ul class="sister-bar-content"><li class="sister-bar-item"><span class="sister-bar-logo"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/19px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/29px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/38px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="391" data-file-height="391" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-bar-link"><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/Biography" class="extiw" title="wikt:Special:Search/Biography">Definitions</a></b> from Wiktionary</span></li><li class="sister-bar-item"><span class="sister-bar-logo"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/14px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/21px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/28px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-bar-link"><b><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Biographies" class="extiw" title="c:Category:Biographies">Media</a></b> from Commons</span></li><li class="sister-bar-item"><span class="sister-bar-logo"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/21px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/32px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/42px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="759" data-file-height="415" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-bar-link"><b><a href="https://en.wikinews.org/wiki/Special:Search/Biography" class="extiw" title="n:Special:Search/Biography">News</a></b> from Wikinews</span></li><li class="sister-bar-item"><span class="sister-bar-logo"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/16px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/24px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/32px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-bar-link"><b><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Biography" class="extiw" title="q:Biography">Quotations</a></b> from Wikiquote</span></li><li class="sister-bar-item"><span class="sister-bar-logo"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/18px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/28px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/36px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-bar-link"><b><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Category:Biographies" class="extiw" title="s:Category:Biographies">Texts</a></b> from Wikisource</span></li><li class="sister-bar-item"><span class="sister-bar-logo"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/19px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/29px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/38px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-bar-link"><b><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Special:Search/Biography" class="extiw" title="b:Special:Search/Biography">Textbooks</a></b> from Wikibooks</span></li><li class="sister-bar-item"><span class="sister-bar-logo"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/21px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/32px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/42px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="626" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-bar-link"><b><a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Biographies" class="extiw" title="v:Biographies">Resources</a></b> from Wikiversity</span></li><li class="sister-bar-item"><span class="sister-bar-logo"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/21px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/32px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/42px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1050" data-file-height="590" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-bar-link"><b><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q36279" class="extiw" title="d:Q36279">Data</a></b> from Wikidata</span></li></ul></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output 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rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q36279#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata2429" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q36279#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata2429" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q36279#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/832149/">FAST</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Biografie"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4006804-3">Germany</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85014152">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Biographie"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11935764v">France</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Biographie"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11935764v">BnF data</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00561319">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="biografie"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph114155&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Biografía"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&authority_id=XX558607">Spain</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000136455&P_CON_LNG=ENG">Latvia</a></span><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000054320&P_CON_LNG=ENG">2</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000075670&P_CON_LNG=ENG">3</a></span></li></ul></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007282568205171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td 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