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citation_firstpage=438; citation_lastpage=456"> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_title=Reversed item bias: an integrative model; citation_author=Weijters, B.; citation_author=Baumgartner, H.; citation_author=Schillewaert, N; citation_publication_date=2013; citation_journal_title=Psychological Methods; citation_volume=18; citation_firstpage=320; citation_lastpage=334; citation_doi=10.1037/a0032121"> <meta name="citation_abstract" content="Human–carnivore interactions are on the rise globally, and often take the form of damage to property and livelihoods, human injuries or fatalities, and retaliatory killing of carnivores. Potential conflict situations are rarely recognized early, and circumstances are often complicated by mismatches between people's perceptions and reality. Following media reports of sloth bear Melursus ursinus attacks on people, we evaluated the situation in a tourism-dominated town in southern Rajasthan, India. Using a spatially explicit survey design, we interviewed 241 residents of Mount Abu to record recent bear sightings and attacks, prevailing attitudes towards bears, and respondents’ understanding of bear ecology. We obtained independent secondary information on tourism levels and bear attacks to verify information received during interviews. We used recursive partitioning to identify factors that explained residents’ attitudes towards sloth bears, and multi-model inference to identify land cover and other features that influenced bear presence. Respondents perceived increasing bear presence and attacks, and secondary data supported these perceptions. Respondents’ insights regarding bear ecology, particularly bears being attracted by rubbish bins, were supported by multi-model inferences. Mount Abu's residents, especially women and younger men, had negative attitudes towards bears, independent of their education level or occupation. Our findings suggest a novel situation in Mount Abu, with sloth bears habitually accessing rubbish bins, which leads to increased bear–human interactions and negative attitudes among residents. We recommend immediate action focusing on waste management, which could help prevent an escalation of the situation and reduce attacks by bears that could otherwise lead to retaliatory killings."> <meta name="citation_doi" content="10.1017/S0030605320000216"> <link rel="alternate" href="/core/journals/oryx/article/vulnerable-sloth-bears-are-attracted-to-human-food-waste-a-novel-situation-in-mount-abu-town-india/BFE58C39E33FD05AFE5BBC36F36CEA1D" hreflang="en" /> <link rel="icon" href="/core/cambridge-core/public/images/favicon.ico" type="image/x-icon"/> <link rel="shortcut icon" href="/core/cambridge-core/public/images/favicon.ico" type="image/x-icon"/> <link href='//fonts.googleapis.com/css?family=Noto+Sans:400,700,400italic,700italic' rel='stylesheet' type='text/css'>  <link rel="stylesheet" href="/core/cambridge-core/public/css/app.css?version=v7.403.1"/> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="https://usage.prod.aop.cambridge.org/v1/events"> <link rel="stylesheet" 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class="breadcrumbs-wrapper__arrow" data-v-3692cf84>></span><a href="/core/journals/oryx/issue/7EB158DBC0AAF8C2C044D1E8A7A0EB2C" class="app-link app-link__text app-link--accent" data-v-63dfaf6e data-v-3692cf84><span data-v-63dfaf6e>Volume 55 Issue 5</span> </a></li><li class="page-breadcrumbs__item" data-v-3692cf84><span aria-hidden="true" class="breadcrumbs-wrapper__arrow" data-v-3692cf84>></span><span data-v-3692cf84>Vulnerable sloth bears are attracted to human food...</span></li></ul></div></div> <div class="language" data-v-3692cf84><ul class="language-switch" data-v-6b1118dd data-v-3692cf84><li aria-label="English" data-v-6b1118dd><span class="language-option current divider" data-v-6b1118dd>English</span></li><li aria-label="Français" data-v-6b1118dd><span role="button" tabindex="0" href="#" lang="fr" class="language-option" data-v-6b1118dd> Français </span></li></ul></div></div></div></div> <div class="container container__modified" data-v-01274b1d>  <div class="row" data-v-01274b1d><div role="complementary" aria-label="table of content" class="column__left" data-v-01274b1d><div class="col journal-container row" data-v-146270e8 data-v-01274b1d><img src="https://static.cambridge.org/covers/ORX_0_0_0/oryx.jpg" alt="" class="journal__image" data-v-146270e8> <a href="/core/journals/oryx" class="app-link journal__title app-link__text app-link--underlined" data-v-63dfaf6e data-v-146270e8><span class="text" data-v-63dfaf6e>Oryx </span> </a> <hr aria-hidden="true" class="separator default" data-v-7036083a data-v-146270e8></div>  <div id="toc" class="table-of-content" data-v-01274b1d><h2>Article contents</h2> <div id="toc-list-wrapper" class="table-of-content__wrapper"><ul id="toc-list" class="list"><li class="list__item"><a href="#sec0" class="list__item__link"><span class="toc-title">Abstract</span></a></li> <li class="list__item"><a href="#sec1" class="list__item__link"> <span><div class="toc-title">Introduction</div></span></a></li><li class="list__item"><a href="#sec2" class="list__item__link"> <span><div class="toc-title">Study area</div></span></a></li><li class="list__item"><a href="#sec3" class="list__item__link"> <span><div class="toc-title">Methods</div></span></a></li><li class="list__item"><a href="#sec4" class="list__item__link"> <span><div class="toc-title">Results</div></span></a></li><li class="list__item"><a href="#sec5" class="list__item__link"> <span><div class="toc-title">Discussion</div></span></a></li> <li class="list__item"><a href="#footnotes-list" class="list__item__link"><span class="toc-title">Footnotes</span></a></li> <li class="list__item"><a href="#references-list" class="list__item__link"><span class="toc-title">References</span></a></li></ul></div></div></div> <div class="column__main" data-v-01274b1d><div class="row" data-v-01274b1d><div class="column__main__left" data-v-01274b1d><div id="maincontent" class="col" data-v-862424e6 data-v-01274b1d> <hgroup data-v-862424e6><h1 data-v-862424e6>Vulnerable sloth bears are attracted to human food waste: a novel situation in Mount Abu town, India</h1> </hgroup>     <div class="row published-date" data-v-862424e6><p data-v-862424e6> Published online by Cambridge University Press: <strong data-v-862424e6>15 March 2021</strong></p></div>   <div class="contributors-details" data-v-99f6eb26 data-v-862424e6><div class="row contributors" data-v-99f6eb26><div class="col" data-v-99f6eb26><div class="row contributor-type" data-v-792406ce data-v-99f6eb26> <div class="contributor-type__contributor" data-v-792406ce><a href="/core/search?filters%5BauthorTerms%5D=Utkarsh%20Prajapati&eventCode=SE-AU" class="app-link app-link__text app-link--accent" data-v-63dfaf6e data-v-792406ce><span data-v-63dfaf6e>Utkarsh Prajapati</span> </a> <a target="_blank" href="https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5744-5578" data-test-orcid="Utkarsh Prajapati" class="app-link contributor-type__contributor__orcid app-link__icon app-link--" data-v-63dfaf6e data-v-792406ce><img src="data:image/svg+xml;base64,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" alt="Open the ORCID record for Utkarsh Prajapati" class="app-icon icon orcid" data-v-d2c09870 data-v-63dfaf6e> <span class="sr-only" data-v-63dfaf6e>[Opens in a new window]</span></a> <span data-v-792406ce>,</span></div><div class="contributor-type__contributor" data-v-792406ce><a href="/core/search?filters%5BauthorTerms%5D=Vijay%20Kumar%20Koli&eventCode=SE-AU" class="app-link app-link__text app-link--accent" data-v-63dfaf6e data-v-792406ce><span data-v-63dfaf6e>Vijay Kumar Koli</span> </a> <a target="_blank" href="https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3264-9253" data-test-orcid="Vijay Kumar Koli" class="app-link contributor-type__contributor__orcid app-link__icon app-link--" data-v-63dfaf6e data-v-792406ce><img src="data:image/svg+xml;base64,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" alt="Open the ORCID record for Vijay Kumar Koli" class="app-icon icon orcid" data-v-d2c09870 data-v-63dfaf6e> <span class="sr-only" data-v-63dfaf6e>[Opens in a new window]</span></a> <span data-v-792406ce> and</span></div><div class="contributor-type__contributor" data-v-792406ce><a href="/core/search?filters%5BauthorTerms%5D=K.%20S.%20Gopi%20Sundar&eventCode=SE-AU" class="app-link app-link__text app-link--accent" data-v-63dfaf6e data-v-792406ce><span data-v-63dfaf6e>K. S. Gopi Sundar</span> </a> <a target="_blank" href="https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3477-5691" data-test-orcid="K. S. Gopi Sundar" class="app-link contributor-type__contributor__orcid app-link__icon app-link--" data-v-63dfaf6e data-v-792406ce><img src="data:image/svg+xml;base64,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" alt="Open the ORCID record for K. S. Gopi Sundar" class="app-icon icon orcid" data-v-d2c09870 data-v-63dfaf6e> <span class="sr-only" data-v-63dfaf6e>[Opens in a new window]</span></a> <span data-v-792406ce></span></div> </div> </div> <div class="col-2 collapse-link" data-v-99f6eb26><a href="#authors-details" data-toggle="collapse" aria-expanded="false" aria-controls="authors-details" class="app-link collapsed app-link__text-icon app-link--secondary reverse" data-v-63dfaf6e data-v-99f6eb26><img src="data:image/svg+xml;base64,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" alt="" class="app-icon icon arrow-down" data-v-d2c09870 data-v-63dfaf6e><span class="text" data-v-63dfaf6e>Show author details </span> </a></div></div> <hr aria-hidden="true" class="separator default" data-v-7036083a data-v-99f6eb26> <dl id="authors-details" class="authors-details collapse" data-v-2edb8da6 data-v-99f6eb26><div data-test-author="Utkarsh Prajapati" class="row author" data-v-2edb8da6><dt class="col-12 col-sm-2 title" data-v-2edb8da6>Utkarsh Prajapati</dt> <dd class="col content d-inline d-sm-flex" data-v-2edb8da6><span class="content__title" data-v-2edb8da6>Affiliation:</span> <div class="d-sm-flex flex-column flex-sm-1 d-inline" data-v-2edb8da6><span data-v-2edb8da6><span data-v-2edb8da6>Wildlife Research Laboratory, Department of Zoology, University College of Science, Mohanlal Sukhadia University, Udaipur, Rajasthan, India</span> </span></div></dd></div><div data-test-author="Vijay Kumar Koli" class="row author" data-v-2edb8da6><dt class="col-12 col-sm-2 title" data-v-2edb8da6>Vijay Kumar Koli</dt> <dd class="col content d-inline d-sm-flex" data-v-2edb8da6><span class="content__title" data-v-2edb8da6>Affiliation:</span> <div class="d-sm-flex flex-column flex-sm-1 d-inline" data-v-2edb8da6><span data-v-2edb8da6><span data-v-2edb8da6>Wildlife Research Laboratory, Department of Zoology, University College of Science, Mohanlal Sukhadia University, Rajasthan, India</span> </span></div></dd></div><div data-test-author="K. S. Gopi Sundar" class="row author" data-v-2edb8da6><dt class="col-12 col-sm-2 title" data-v-2edb8da6>K. S. Gopi Sundar*</dt> <dd class="col content d-inline d-sm-flex" data-v-2edb8da6><span class="content__title" data-v-2edb8da6>Affiliation:</span> <div class="d-sm-flex flex-column flex-sm-1 d-inline" data-v-2edb8da6><span data-v-2edb8da6><span data-v-2edb8da6>Nature Conservation Foundation, 1311, ‘Amritha’, 12th Main, Vijayanagar 1st Stage, Mysuru570017, Karnataka, India</span> </span></div></dd></div> <div class="row" data-v-2edb8da6><dt class="col-sm-2 col-12 title" data-v-2edb8da6> * </dt> <dd class="col content" data-v-2edb8da6><div class="row" data-v-2edb8da6><div class="d-sm-flex d-inline flex-sm-1 flex-sm-wrap" data-v-2edb8da6><div class="d-inline" data-v-2edb8da6><span data-v-2edb8da6><div class="corresp">(Corresponding author) E-mail <a href="mailto:gopi@ncf-india.com">gopi@ncf-india.com</a></div></span></div></div></div></dd></div> <hr aria-hidden="true" class="separator default" data-v-7036083a data-v-2edb8da6></dl></div></div> <div id="app-tabs" class="tabs" data-v-1d90c6ce 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target="_blank" href="https://s100.copyright.com/AppDispatchServlet?publisherName=CUP&publication=ORX&title=Vulnerable%20sloth%20bears%20are%20attracted%20to%20human%20food%20waste%3A%20a%20novel%20situation%20in%20Mount%20Abu%20town%2C%20India&publicationDate=15%20March%202021&author=Utkarsh%20Prajapati%2C%20Vijay%20Kumar%20Koli%2C%20K.%20S.%20Gopi%20Sundar©right=Copyright%20%C2%A9%20The%20Author(s)%2C%202021.%20Published%20by%20Cambridge%20University%20Press%20on%20behalf%20of%20Fauna%20%26%20Flora%20International.&contentID=10.1017%2FS0030605320000216&startPage=699&endPage=707&orderBeanReset=True&volumeNum=55&issueNum=5&oa=CC-BY-NC-ND" data-test-id="buttonRightLink" class="app-link rights-link d-print-none app-link__text-icon app-link--accent" data-v-63dfaf6e data-v-92ee52a2 data-v-43a4d572><img src="/core/page-component/img/rights-icon.d4a677c.svg" alt="" class="app-icon icon rights" data-v-d2c09870 data-v-63dfaf6e><span class="text" data-v-63dfaf6e>Rights & Permissions </span> <span class="sr-only" data-v-63dfaf6e>[Opens in a new window]</span></a></div> <hr aria-hidden="true" class="separator default" data-v-7036083a></div> <div class="share-modal-overlay" style="display:none;" data-v-43a4d572></div> <div data-spy="scroll" data-target="#toc" class="scrollspy-content" data-v-43a4d572> <div id="sec0" class="col article-abstract sec" data-v-2fa8b348 data-v-43a4d572><div class="abstract-text-container" data-v-2fa8b348><div lang="en"><h2>Abstract</h2>  <div class="abstract-content"><div class="abstract" data-abstract-type="normal"><p>Human–carnivore interactions are on the rise globally, and often take the form of damage to property and livelihoods, human injuries or fatalities, and retaliatory killing of carnivores. Potential conflict situations are rarely recognized early, and circumstances are often complicated by mismatches between people's perceptions and reality. Following media reports of sloth bear <span class="italic">Melursus ursinus</span> attacks on people, we evaluated the situation in a tourism-dominated town in southern Rajasthan, India. Using a spatially explicit survey design, we interviewed 241 residents of Mount Abu to record recent bear sightings and attacks, prevailing attitudes towards bears, and respondents’ understanding of bear ecology. We obtained independent secondary information on tourism levels and bear attacks to verify information received during interviews. We used recursive partitioning to identify factors that explained residents’ attitudes towards sloth bears, and multi-model inference to identify land cover and other features that influenced bear presence. Respondents perceived increasing bear presence and attacks, and secondary data supported these perceptions. Respondents’ insights regarding bear ecology, particularly bears being attracted by rubbish bins, were supported by multi-model inferences. Mount Abu's residents, especially women and younger men, had negative attitudes towards bears, independent of their education level or occupation. Our findings suggest a novel situation in Mount Abu, with sloth bears habitually accessing rubbish bins, which leads to increased bear–human interactions and negative attitudes among residents. We recommend immediate action focusing on waste management, which could help prevent an escalation of the situation and reduce attacks by bears that could otherwise lead to retaliatory killings.</p></div></div> <hr aria-hidden="true" class="abstract-divider separator default" data-v-7036083a></div></div>   </div>  <div class="keywords" data-v-86c27100 data-v-43a4d572><h2 data-v-86c27100>Keywords</h2> <div class="row keywords__pills" data-v-86c27100><a href="/core/search?filters[keywords]=Attitudes" data-v-f0b31360 data-v-86c27100><span data-v-f0b31360 data-v-86c27100>Attitudes</span></a><a href="/core/search?filters[keywords]=human–carnivore conflict" data-v-f0b31360 data-v-86c27100><span data-v-f0b31360 data-v-86c27100>human–carnivore conflict</span></a><a href="/core/search?filters[keywords]=Melursus ursinus" data-v-f0b31360 data-v-86c27100><span data-v-f0b31360 data-v-86c27100>Melursus ursinus</span></a><a href="/core/search?filters[keywords]=Mount Abu" data-v-f0b31360 data-v-86c27100><span data-v-f0b31360 data-v-86c27100>Mount Abu</span></a><a href="/core/search?filters[keywords]=Rajasthan" data-v-f0b31360 data-v-86c27100><span data-v-f0b31360 data-v-86c27100>Rajasthan</span></a><a href="/core/search?filters[keywords]=recursive partitioning" data-v-f0b31360 data-v-86c27100><span data-v-f0b31360 data-v-86c27100>recursive partitioning</span></a><a href="/core/search?filters[keywords]=sloth bear" data-v-f0b31360 data-v-86c27100><span data-v-f0b31360 data-v-86c27100>sloth bear</span></a><a href="/core/search?filters[keywords]=waste management" data-v-f0b31360 data-v-86c27100><span data-v-f0b31360 data-v-86c27100>waste management</span></a></div> <hr aria-hidden="true" class="separator default" data-v-7036083a data-v-86c27100></div>  <dl class="article-details" data-v-6e32a161 data-v-43a4d572><div class="row" data-v-6e32a161><dt class="col-12 col-sm-3 col-md-2_5 title" data-v-6e32a161> Type </dt> <dd class="col content" data-v-6e32a161>Article</dd></div> <div class="row" data-v-6e32a161><dt class="col-12 col-sm-3 col-md-2_5 title" data-v-6e32a161> Information </dt> <dd class="col content" data-v-6e32a161><div class="content__journal" data-v-6e32a161><a href="/core/journals/oryx" class="app-link app-link__text app-link--underlined" data-v-63dfaf6e data-v-6e32a161><span class="text" data-v-63dfaf6e>Oryx </span> </a> <span data-v-6e32a161> , <a href="/core/journals/oryx/volume/A5068FE81B720308AA0ED94913BDC4A6" class="app-link app-link__text app-link--underlined" data-v-63dfaf6e data-v-6e32a161><span class="text" data-v-63dfaf6e>Volume 55 </span> </a></span> <span data-v-6e32a161> , <a href="/core/journals/oryx/issue/7EB158DBC0AAF8C2C044D1E8A7A0EB2C" class="app-link app-link__text app-link--underlined" data-v-63dfaf6e data-v-6e32a161><span class="text" data-v-63dfaf6e>Issue 5 </span> </a></span> <span data-v-6e32a161>, September 2021</span>  <span data-v-6e32a161>, pp. 699 - 707</span> </div> <div class="doi-data" data-v-6e32a161><div data-v-6e32a161>DOI: <a target="_blank" href="https://doi.org/10.1017/S0030605320000216" class="app-link app-link__text app-link--accent" data-v-63dfaf6e data-v-6e32a161><span class="text" data-v-63dfaf6e>https://doi.org/10.1017/S0030605320000216 </span> <span class="sr-only" data-v-63dfaf6e>[Opens in a new window]</span></a></div> </div>  </dd></div> <div class="row creative-commons" data-v-6e32a161><dt class="col-12 col-sm-3 col-md-2_5 creative-commons__title"> Creative Commons </dt> <dd class="col"><div class="creative-commons__content"><div class="creative-commons__icons"><img src="/core/page-component/img/license-cc-icon.e3a74ed.svg" alt="Creative Common License - CC" class="app-icon creative-commons__icon license-cc" data-v-d2c09870><img src="/core/page-component/img/license-by-icon.33e212c.svg" alt="Creative Common License - BY" class="app-icon creative-commons__icon license-by" data-v-d2c09870><img src="/core/page-component/img/license-nc-icon.78b50f1.svg" alt="Creative Common License - NC" class="app-icon creative-commons__icon license-nc" data-v-d2c09870><img src="/core/page-component/img/license-nd-icon.d1d9d24.svg" alt="Creative Common License - ND" class="app-icon creative-commons__icon license-nd" data-v-d2c09870></div> <div class="creative-commons__description">This is an Open Access article, distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives licence (<a href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/" target="_blank">http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/</a>), which permits non-commercial re-use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is unaltered and is properly cited. The written permission of Cambridge University Press must be obtained for commercial re-use or in order to create a derivative work.</div></div></dd></div>  <div class="row" data-v-6e32a161><dt class="col-12 col-sm-3 col-md-2_5 title" data-v-6e32a161> Copyright </dt> <dd class="col content" data-v-6e32a161><div data-v-6e32a161> Copyright © The Author(s), 2021. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of Fauna & Flora International. </div></dd></div></dl>  <div id="content-container" class="content-container" data-v-43a4d572><div class="content-box"><div class="article research-article NLM"> <div class="body"> <div class="sec intro" data-magellan-destination="sec1" id="sec1"><h2 class="A"> Introduction</h2> <p class="p"> The first global assessment of the 100 most important questions for biodiversity conservation included the question ‘What factors shape (in)tolerance of the presence and activities of wild animals, especially where those animals induce human–wildlife conflict?’ (Sutherland et al., <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref40"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Sutherland, Adams, Aronson, Aveling, Blackburn and Broad</span>2009</a>). As framed, the question made it clear that not only the characteristics of so-called human–wildlife conflict are important, but also the identification of conditions and animal behaviour that lead to such situations. Globally, many studies have since examined human–carnivore interactions, to identify aspects that can help reduce or eliminate negative interactions (Nyhus, <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref29"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Nyhus</span>2016</a>). Carnivores dominate in the global literature on interactions of people and wildlife, and mitigation is becoming increasingly urgent (Inskip & Zimmermann, <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref19"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Inskip and Zimmermann</span>2009</a>; Nyhus, <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref29"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Nyhus</span>2016</a>). This urgency is fuelled by damage to property, human injuries and fatalities, and retaliatory killings of species of global conservation concern (Karanth & Madhusudan, <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref26"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Karanth, Madhusudan, Terborgh, van Shaik, Rao and Davenport</span>2002</a>; Treves et al., <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref42"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Treves, Wallace, Naughton-Treves and Morales</span>2006</a>). Identification of the conditions that lead to negative interactions is often confounded by a mismatch between people's perceptions and the actual ecology and behaviour of wildlife species, and by socio-cultural aspects of conflict situations (Suryawanshi et al., <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref39"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Suryawanshi, Bhatnagar, Redpath and Mishra</span>2013</a>; Anand & Radhakrishna, <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref2"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Anand and Radhakrishna</span>2017</a>; Karanth et al., <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref27"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Karanth, Shivangi and Weinthal</span>2019</a>). The problem of potentially mismatched perceptions and realities is not easy to solve because most studies utilize questionnaire surveys of people living near, or experiencing interactions with, carnivores, thus relying extensively on people's perceptions (Treves et al., <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref42"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Treves, Wallace, Naughton-Treves and Morales</span>2006</a>; Kansky & Knight, <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref25"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Kansky and Knight</span>2014</a>). In addition, there is a paucity of studies in areas where most people are affected by negative interactions with wildlife, and on the species most frequently involved in such situations (Can et al., <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref10"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Can, D'Cruze, Garshelis, Beecham and Macdonald</span>2014</a>; Anand & Radhakrishna, <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref2"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Anand and Radhakrishna</span>2017</a>). Bears have a global distribution, with multiple species involved in negative interactions with people, thus providing an opportunity to address this issue (Can et al., <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref10"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Can, D'Cruze, Garshelis, Beecham and Macdonald</span>2014</a>).</p> <p class="p"> Bears occur on all four major continents, but literature on their ecology and interactions with humans focuses primarily on two North American species (the American black bear <em class="italic">Ursus americanus</em> and the brown bear <em class="italic">Ursus arctos</em>; Can et al., <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref10"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Can, D'Cruze, Garshelis, Beecham and Macdonald</span>2014</a>). In India, the sloth bear <em class="italic">Melursus ursinus</em>, categorized as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List (Dharaiya et al., <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref15"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Dharaiya, Bargali and Sharp</span>2016</a>), frequently attacks people. These bears cause hundreds of grievous injuries and fatalities annually (Quigley & Herrero, <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref32"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Quigley, Herrero, Woodroffe, Thirgood and Rabinowitz</span>2005</a>; Can et al., <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref10"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Can, D'Cruze, Garshelis, Beecham and Macdonald</span>2014</a>), yet few studies have addressed this problem. Habitat loss and deterioration, and the natural aggressiveness of the species, are thought to exacerbate negative interactions with humans (Islam et al., <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref20"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Islam, Uddin, Aziz, Muzaffar, Chakma and Chowdhury</span>2013</a>; Yoganand et al., <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref44"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Yoganand, Rice, Johnsingh, Johnsingh and N.</span>2013</a>). Human–sloth bear interactions have been studied in several protected areas (including buffer zones) across the species’ range, where bears encounter people from traditional communities that live in and near forests and subsist on forest resources (Bargali et al., <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref5"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Bargali, Akhtar and Chauhan</span>2005</a>; Debata et al., <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref13"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Debata, Swain, Sahu and Palei</span>2017</a>; Dhamorikar et al., <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref14"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Dhamorikar, Mehta, Bargali and Gore</span>2017</a>; Lamichhane et al., <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref28"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Lamichhane, Persoon, Leirs, Poudel, Subedi and Pokheral</span>2018</a>; Singh et al., <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref35"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Singh, Sonone and Dharaiya</span>2018</a>). Sloth bears are largely myrmecophages (ant and termite eaters) and rarely access anthropogenic food sources such as crops (Joshi et al., <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref23"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Joshi, Gershelis and Smith</span>1997</a>; Bargali et al., <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref4"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Bargali, Akhtar and Chauhan</span>2004</a>; Yoganand et al., <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref43"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Yoganand, Rice and Johnsingh</span>2005</a>). Negative interactions with humans have increased where bears live outside protected areas, and where food and cover for bears have deteriorated because of human activity (Yoganand et al., <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref44"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Yoganand, Rice, Johnsingh, Johnsingh and N.</span>2013</a>; Dharaiya et al., <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref15"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Dharaiya, Bargali and Sharp</span>2016</a>). Understanding sloth bear ecology in different conditions can inform responses when negative interactions arise (Bargali & Sharma, <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref3"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Bargali, Sharma, Sharma, Kulshreshta and Rahmani</span>2013</a>; Yoganand et al., <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref44"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Yoganand, Rice, Johnsingh, Johnsingh and N.</span>2013</a>; Can et al., <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref10"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Can, D'Cruze, Garshelis, Beecham and Macdonald</span>2014</a>; Dharaiya et al., <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref15"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Dharaiya, Bargali and Sharp</span>2016</a>).</p> <p class="p"> Following media reports of sloth bear attacks on people in the tourism-dominated town of Mount Abu in southern Rajasthan, India, we initiated a study to investigate the situation. It became evident that the situation was unique, with bears entering the town from a surrounding reserve that has the highest known density of sloth bears in the state (Bargali & Sharma, <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref3"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Bargali, Sharma, Sharma, Kulshreshta and Rahmani</span>2013</a>). As there had been no previous studies of sloth bears in Mount Abu, we aimed to obtain baseline information on the attitudes and experiences of residents who interacted with sloth bears. Our objectives were to examine the residents’ attitudes towards sloth bears, to document their knowledge of bear ecology, and to identify the causes of human–sloth bear interactions. We also evaluated independent data on attacks by bears and analysed reported sightings of bears in relation to land cover and features associated with bear ecology, to identify factors that influence bear presence in Mount Abu and to crosscheck the information obtained through the questionnaire surveys. Thus, by combining information from several sources we aimed to identify any factors contributing to negative human–bear interactions in Mount Abu, and to use these insights to help de-escalate or resolve the problem.</p> </div> <div class="sec" data-magellan-destination="sec2" id="sec2"><h2 class="A"> Study area</h2> <p class="p"> We conducted our study during January–May 2019 in Mount Abu town in southern Rajasthan, India (<a class="xref fig" href="#fig01">Fig. 1</a>). The town is located atop the world's oldest fold mountains, the Aravallis, at the highest point in the state (1,722 m altitude), and is entirely surrounded by Mount Abu Bear Sanctuary. This protected area has the highest sloth bear density in the state (Bargali & Sharma, <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref3"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Bargali, Sharma, Sharma, Kulshreshta and Rahmani</span>2013</a>). The town covers 45 km<sup class="sup">2</sup> within subtropical evergreen and subtropical wet hill forests (Champion & Seth, <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref11"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Champion and Seth</span>1968</a>). There are three distinct seasons based on temperature and rainfall: summer (March–June), monsoon (July–October) and winter (November–February). In the most recent census the resident population of the town was 22,943 (Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India, <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref30">2011</a>). Its scenic setting amid forested hills and its proximity to several popular Hindu and Jain temples make Mount Abu one of the most visited locations in the state of Rajasthan, with > 1.5 million tourists visiting annually (Ferguson & Co., <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref1">2019</a>). </p><section><div class="fig fig" data-magellan-destination="fig01" id="fig01"><div class="figure-thumb"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20210903120326321-0122:S0030605320000216:S0030605320000216_fig1.png?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image" width="950" height="1060" data-original-image="/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20210903120326321-0122:S0030605320000216:S0030605320000216_fig1.png" data-zoomable="true"></div><div class="caption"><p class="p"> </p><p class="p"><span class="label">Fig. 1</span> Location of Mount Abu town in India (inset), sampled grid cells in town, heat map of sloth bear <em class="italic">Melursus ursinus</em> sightings during the 2 years prior to the study (provided by 241 residents), major roads, locations of bear attacks (provided by the Rajasthan Forest Department) and rubbish bins.</p></div></div></section> </div> <div class="sec methods" data-magellan-destination="sec3" id="sec3"><h2 class="A"> Methods</h2> <p class="p"> We overlaid a digital boundary of Mount Abu town (Rajasthan Forest Department, <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref33">2019</a>) with a grid of 500 × 500 m cells, and visited all accessible grid cells and those with permanent human habitation. In each cell, we selected 11 people to be interviewed. To ensure that we included a variety of people across different ages, genders, occupations and educational levels, we approached potential interviewees at different locations (e.g. hotels, private houses, business establishments, schools and farmlands).</p> <div class="sec" data-magellan-destination="sec3-1" id="sec3-1"><h3 class="B"> Residents’ attitudes towards bears</h3> <p class="p"> We assessed residents’ attitudes towards sloth bears and their understanding of bear ecology using a semi-structured questionnaire with a combination of closed and open-ended questions (Supplementary Material 1). We first tested the questionnaire with 25 people to identify ambiguous or leading questions, especially when rendered in the locally spoken languages of Hindi or Rajasthani, and removed or modified any problematic questions. Respondents completing the questionnaire during the test phase were not included in subsequent interviews. We measured attitudes towards sloth bears by scoring six questions framed to determine residents’ attitudes towards bears in their area, with scores being favourable (+1), neutral (0) or negative (−1) for each question. We measured attitudes as a composite of six questions rather than one direct question because Rajasthanis generally have strongly positive attitudes towards wildlife because of religious beliefs and social norms (Karanth et al., <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref27"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Karanth, Shivangi and Weinthal</span>2019</a>), and answers to a single question would probably be biased towards existing norms. We reduced confirmation and acquiescence bias by having an equal number of positive and reverse questions and eliminated carelessness bias by administering questionnaires in person (Weijters et al., <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref45"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Weijters, Baumgartner and Schillewaert</span>2013</a>; Suárez-Alvarez et al., <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref38"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Suárez-Alvarez, Pedrosa, Lozano, García-Cueto, Cuesta and Muñiz</span>2018</a>). Open-ended questions addressed residents’ personal experiences with bears, limited to those that took place within the last 2 years, to minimize recall errors. We asked about the locations, time of day, and number of bears encountered, and locations of known attacks on people. We determined the geographical coordinates of all attack locations using a GPS. Questions also assessed respondents’ perceptions of bear ecology. We asked about respondents’ thoughts on the principal reason bears enter Mount Abu, what bears forage for, and why bears attack people. We recorded the respondents’ age, gender, education status (six categories), and occupation (nine categories), to examine whether attitudes towards sloth bears were influenced by these factors.</p> </div> <div class="sec" data-magellan-destination="sec3-2" id="sec3-2"><h3 class="B"> Secondary data on bear attacks</h3> <p class="p"> To verify respondents’ views of trends in sloth bear attacks, we collated cases of bear attacks on people documented by the Forest Department, Government of Rajasthan, and results from an online search using the phrases ‘Mount Abu’, ‘sloth bear’, and ‘attack’. We excluded social media content with poor verifiability of location and date. Using a GPS, we obtained geographical coordinates of Forest Department records for mapping.</p> </div> <div class="sec" data-magellan-destination="sec3-3" id="sec3-3"><h3 class="B"> Influence of land-cover variables on sloth bear sightings</h3> <p class="p"> Sloth bear presence is influenced by multiple variables including availability of food and water, and vegetation cover (Dharaiya et al., <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref15"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Dharaiya, Bargali and Sharp</span>2016</a>). In addition, within a town, we presumed that bear movement was limited by built-up areas but facilitated by roads. We therefore measured built-up area (m<sup class="sup">2</sup>), vegetation cover (m<sup class="sup">2</sup>), road length (m), and open water availability (m<sup class="sup">2</sup>) in each grid cell using the most recent images on <em class="italic">GoogleEarth Pro 7.3.2</em> (Google, Mountain View, USA). Because responses during the trial questionnaire suggested that sloth bears visit rubbish bins for food, we also mapped all rubbish bins. Variance inflation factors for all variables were < 4 (range 1.09–3.71), suggesting that levels of autocorrelation were acceptable, and we modelled untransformed variable measures against pooled bear sightings at the grid cell level.</p> </div> <div class="sec" data-magellan-destination="sec3-4" id="sec3-4"><h3 class="B"> Statistical analyses</h3> <p class="p"> We totalled the number of respondents providing answers to questions relating to experiences with bears, time of day when experiences occurred, primary reasons why respondents believed bears were entering Mount Abu, and why they thought bears attack people. We visualized these as descriptive bar graphs. We determined the geographical locations of all instances of bear sightings, using a GPS (n = 217), and generated a heat map using <em class="italic">QGIS 2.12.0</em> (QGIS Development Team, <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref31">2012</a>) of the number of bears sighted, to examine the spatial distribution of bear presence in Mount Abu. We also included locations of rubbish bins on this map.</p> <p class="p"> For each respondent, we calculated the mean attitude score, which varied between +1 (entirely positive attitude towards bears) and −1 (completely negative attitude towards bears). We used recursive partitioning to examine which factors (age, gender, education status, occupation) influenced residents’ attitudes towards bears. Recursive partitioning uses classification and regression trees to create binary decision trees that identify variables most important in determining the outcome of a choice (Strobl et al., <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref37"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Strobl, Malley and Tutz</span>2009</a>). We first generated a classification tree with all variables using the <em class="italic">rpart</em> package in <em class="italic">R 3.6.1</em> (Therneau & Atkinson, <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref41"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Therneau and Atkinson</span>2019</a>) to assess contributions of all variables to the measured attitudes. The resulting models were complex (Supplementary Figs 1 & 2), and we identified significant variables (P < 0.05) by generating a non-parametric conditional inference tree via recursive partitioning with the <em class="italic">R</em> package <em class="italic">party</em> (Hothorn et al., <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref18"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Hothorn, Hornik, Strobl and Zeileis</span>2019</a>) for final interpretation.</p> <p class="p"> We summed bear attack information from secondary sources and compared these data with information obtained from the residents of Mount Abu. We also included information from the city municipality on the number of vehicles entering the city annually, to visualize the scale of tourism. A Fisher's exact test of the number of seasonal attacks, provided separately by the Forest Department of Rajasthan, showed that the two data sources had similar inter-seasonal variation (P = 0.42). To assess whether bear attacks had a seasonal bias, we totalled attacks per season from both sources and performed a Pearson's <em class="italic">χ</em> <sup class="sup">2</sup> goodness-of-fit test on the pooled data.</p> <p class="p"> We independently assessed the factors most important for bear sightings using generalized additive modelling and the information-theoretic approach by regressing numbers of bear sightings per grid cell against the six short-listed variables. We used generalized additive modelling to avoid assumptions regarding linear relationships. Data on bear attacks were inadequate to run similar analyses. We created a list of a priori models, including a full model (with all variables) and a null model (assuming observed variations to be random) and used the Akaike information criterion corrected for small sample sizes (AICc) to determine the most parsimonious model. We used the <em class="italic">R</em> package <em class="italic">gam</em> for modelling (Hastie, <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref17"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Hastie</span>2018</a>) and the <em class="italic">R</em> package <em class="italic">MuMIn</em> for model selection metrics (Bartoń, <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref6"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Bartoń</span>2019</a>). We used a reduction of two AICc units to signify improvement between competing models (Burnham & Anderson, <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref9"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Burnham and Anderson</span>2002</a>). We ran full models both with the grid cell number as a spatial variable and without, to assess any potential influence of grid cell identity. There was poor support for the full model with grid cell identity (4.2 AICc units higher than the full model without grid identity; see Results), and we therefore excluded grid cell numbers in other models. We generated plots of the component smooth functions against the scale of linear predictors to assess the directionality and nature of relationships. Results of generalized additive modelling were compared against respondents’ opinions regarding factors influencing bear sightings.</p> </div> </div> <div class="sec results" data-magellan-destination="sec4" id="sec4"><h2 class="A"> Results</h2> <div class="sec" data-magellan-destination="sec4-1" id="sec4-1"><h3 class="B"> Residents’ attitudes towards bears</h3> <p class="p"> Respondents (n = 241) encountered sloth bears widely across Mount Abu (<a class="xref fig" href="#fig01">Fig. 1</a>). Residents largely had negative attitudes towards sloth bears, with considerable model complexity when all the variables were included (Supplementary Fig. 1). Considering all variables collectively, residents’ attitudes were shaped by gender and age (P < 0.001), with women and younger men (< 36 years of age) having the most negative attitudes towards bears (<a class="xref fig" href="#fig02">Fig. 2</a>). Considering other variables individually, measured attitudes showed little variation across education levels (Supplementary Fig. 2; Kruskal–Wallis <em class="italic">χ</em> <sup class="sup">2</sup><sub>5</sub> = 8.55, P = 0.13). However, attitudes varied considerably across occupations, with home-makers (all women interviewed) having the most negative attitudes, people working in a business establishment having the most positive, and farmers and students having the smallest range of attitudes scores (Supplementary Fig. 2; Kruskal–Wallis <em class="italic">χ</em> <sup class="sup">2</sup><sub>5</sub> = 24.47, P = 0.0009). No human fatalities caused by bear attacks, or retaliatory action against sloth bears, were reported. </p><section><div class="fig fig" data-magellan-destination="fig02" id="fig02"><div class="figure-thumb"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20210903120326321-0122:S0030605320000216:S0030605320000216_fig2.png?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image" width="1418" height="813" data-original-image="/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20210903120326321-0122:S0030605320000216:S0030605320000216_fig2.png" data-zoomable="true"></div><div class="caption"><p class="p"> </p><p class="p"><span class="label">Fig. 2</span> Non-parametric regression tree identifying factors affecting measured attitudes of 241 residents of Mount Abu town, Rajasthan, India towards sloth bears. Measured attitudes, with +1 indicating completely positive attitude and −1 indicating completely negative attitude towards bears, are summarized in box plots.</p></div></div></section> <p class="p"> Bear attacks on people were reported to occur most frequently on roads and were widespread across the town (<a class="xref fig" href="#fig01">Fig. 1</a>). Most residents reported increases in bear encounters and attacks within the last 2 years (<a class="xref fig" href="#fig03">Fig. 3a</a>). A majority of respondents had encountered bears in the week before being interviewed, with most encounters occurring between 18.00 and 24.00 (<a class="xref fig" href="#fig03">Fig. 3b</a>,<a class="xref fig" href="#fig03">c</a>). Most respondents believed that bears entered Mount Abu to forage on rubbish, and that access to the town was facilitated by the fact that it is surrounded by forests (<a class="xref fig" href="#fig04">Fig. 4a</a>). According to the interviewees, bears primarily seek food waste from hotels, and sweets in rubbish (<a class="xref fig" href="#fig04">Fig. 4c</a>). Respondents indicated that bears attacked when they were surprised by an encounter with people, or when they had cubs (<a class="xref fig" href="#fig04">Fig. 4b</a>). </p><section><div class="fig fig" data-magellan-destination="fig03" id="fig03"><div class="figure-thumb"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20210903120326321-0122:S0030605320000216:S0030605320000216_fig3.png?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image" width="861" height="2372" data-original-image="/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20210903120326321-0122:S0030605320000216:S0030605320000216_fig3.png" data-zoomable="true"></div><div class="caption"><p class="p"> </p><p class="p"><span class="label">Fig. 3</span> Experiences of 241 residents with sloth bears inside Mount Abu town, Rajasthan, India. Bar graphs show interviewees’ responses regarding (a) the time since bear encounters and attacks increased, (b) time since their last personal interaction with bears, and (c) the time of day they encountered bears.</p></div></div></section> <section><div class="fig fig" data-magellan-destination="fig04" id="fig04"><div class="figure-thumb"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20210903120326321-0122:S0030605320000216:S0030605320000216_fig4.png?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image" width="832" height="2359" data-original-image="/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20210903120326321-0122:S0030605320000216:S0030605320000216_fig4.png" data-zoomable="true"></div><div class="caption"><p class="p"> </p><p class="p"><span class="label">Fig. 4</span> Perceptions of 241 residents of Mount Abu town, Rajasthan, India, regarding (a) the ecology of sloth bears, particularly reasons why bears enter Mount Abu, (b) reasons why bears attack humans, and (c) what they seek in rubbish.</p></div></div></section> </div> <div class="sec" data-magellan-destination="sec4-2" id="sec4-2"><h3 class="B"> Secondary data on bear attacks</h3> <p class="p"> Forest Department records provided data on 19 attacks in 13 locations that were distributed widely across the town (<a class="xref fig" href="#fig01">Fig. 1</a>). Secondary data indicated a sharp increase in bear attacks during 2018–2019, and an exponential increase in tourism during 2016–2018 (<a class="xref fig" href="#fig05">Fig. 5</a>). There was no seasonal trend in the number of bear attacks on people (<em class="italic">χ</em> <sup class="sup">2</sup><sub>2</sub> = 2.8, P = 0.24). </p><section><div class="fig fig" data-magellan-destination="fig05" id="fig05"><div class="figure-thumb"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20210903120326321-0122:S0030605320000216:S0030605320000216_fig5.png?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image" width="730" height="1352" data-original-image="/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20210903120326321-0122:S0030605320000216:S0030605320000216_fig5.png" data-zoomable="true"></div><div class="caption"><p class="p"> </p><p class="p"><span class="label">Fig. 5</span> (a) Number of sloth bear attacks in Mount Abu town, Rajasthan, India, on humans as reported in two secondary sources, and (b) annual tourism volumes represented by the number of vehicles entering the town. Time periods follow the financial year in India (1 April–31 March).</p></div></div></section> </div> <div class="sec" data-magellan-destination="sec4-3" id="sec4-3"><h3 class="B"> Factors influencing bear sightings</h3> <p class="p"> Results of generalized additive modelling indicated the number of rubbish bins to be the most important factor affecting the number of bear sightings per grid cell (model weight = 0.955; 7.67 AICc units better than the subsequent model; <a class="xref table" href="#tab01">Table 1</a>), with a linear, positive effect (Supplementary Fig. 3). There was poor support for built-up areas affecting bear sightings (improvement of 2.8 AICc units over the null model, but worse than the full model by 19.7 AICc units; <a class="xref table" href="#tab01">Table 1</a>; Supplementary Fig. 3). The effect of road length was significant in individual models (<a class="xref table" href="#tab01">Table 1</a>), with a strong non-linear effect of bear sightings declining where road length exceeded 1,000 m (Supplementary Fig. 3). Road length did not feature in top models but adding road length to built-up area improved the model by 8.2 AICc units, suggesting that the effect was not trivial (<a class="xref table" href="#tab01">Table 1</a>). Vegetation cover and water availability did not strongly affect bear sightings, but relationships for both were non-linear, suggesting complex associations (Supplementary Fig. 3). </p><div class="table-wrap" data-magellan-destination="tab01" id="tab01"><div class="caption"><p class="p"><span class="label">Table 1</span> Multi-model statistics to assess factors affecting grid cell-level sloth bear sightings in Mount Abu town, Rajasthan, India, using generalized additive modelling. Statistics include Akaike information criteria corrected for small sample sizes (AICc), difference between the best model and the respective model (ΔAICc), and individual model weights.</p></div> <span> <div class="figure-thumb"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20210903120326321-0122:S0030605320000216:S0030605320000216_tab1.png?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image" width="472" height="306" data-original-image="/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20210903120326321-0122:S0030605320000216:S0030605320000216_tab1.png" data-zoomable="false"></div> </span> <div class="table-wrap-foot"> <div class="fn-group footnotes"> <div class="fn" data-magellan-destination="tfn1_1" id="tfn1_1"><p class="p"> *P < 0.05.</p></div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="sec discussion" data-magellan-destination="sec5" id="sec5"><h2 class="A"> Discussion</h2> <p class="p"> Sloth bear sightings in Mount Abu were ubiquitous. Most respondents had encountered bears during the week prior to our survey, suggesting that bear presence was common. Respondents’ perception that bear attacks had increased in the 2 years prior to the interviews was supported by secondary information. Secondary information also showed that bear attacks occurred across the entire town and with similar frequency across seasons. In addition, both respondents and generalized additive modelling identified rubbish bins as the primary attraction for bears. This is a novel situation; sloth bears have not previously been associated with rubbish and their regular presence inside a town with such a high footfall of tourists and residents is unprecedented. That no human fatalities have occurred despite such frequent bear–human encounters is fortunate, and the absence of retaliatory action despite the increasing number of attacks on people is remarkable.</p> <div class="sec" data-magellan-destination="sec5-1" id="sec5-1"><h3 class="B"> Respondent's attitudes and knowledge of bear ecology</h3> <p class="p"> Some of our findings match reports elsewhere, with respondents reporting encounters with bears mostly during late evenings and up to midnight, and women's attitudes towards bears being more negative than those of men (Debata et al., <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref13"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Debata, Swain, Sahu and Palei</span>2017</a>; Dhamorikar et al., <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref14"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Dhamorikar, Mehta, Bargali and Gore</span>2017</a>). Past studies included interviews with people dependent on forest produce whose activities overlapped with peak activity times of sloth bears, leading to increased interactions (Joshi et al., <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref24"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Joshi, Smith and Gershelis</span>1999</a>; Yoganand et al., <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref43"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Yoganand, Rice and Johnsingh</span>2005</a>). In Mount Abu, residents reported encountering bears when they returned home from work. That women have more negative attitudes towards sloth bears has previously been associated with their role as the primary collectors of forest produce (Dharaiya et al., <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref15"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Dharaiya, Bargali and Sharp</span>2016</a>). In Mount Abu all women interviewed were home-makers and their attitudes probably resulted from concern for their family's safety, which is common in communities that experience continuous bear presence (Røskaft et al., <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref34"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Røskaft, Händel, Bjerke and Kaltenborn</span>2007</a>). Older men had more positive attitudes towards bears, possibly because they were more used to bear presence (Johansson et al., <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref21"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Johansson, Støen and Flykt</span>2016</a>). Our analyses show that the reasons underlying residents’ attitudes towards sloth bears in Mount Abu are complex, but will nevertheless help identify groups of people whose participation will be key in planning to reduce negative interactions.</p> <p class="p"> In Mount Abu education level did not affect attitudes, with uneducated residents having similar attitudes to people with various levels of education (Supplementary Fig. 2). This is similar to other areas with conflict situations where education does not significantly influence attitudes (Baruch-Mordo et al., <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref7"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Baruch-Mordo, Breck, Wilson and Broderick</span>2011</a>). There is, however, increasing evidence that planned environmental education can help improve people's attitudes towards bears (Baruch-Mordo et al., <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref7"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Baruch-Mordo, Breck, Wilson and Broderick</span>2011</a>; Espinosa & Jacobson, <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref16"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Espinosa and Jacobson</span>2012</a>). We propose that such education programmes be developed and implemented in Mount Abu to help reduce bear attacks on people and to ensure that negative attitudes do not escalate into retaliatory action.</p> </div> <div class="sec" data-magellan-destination="sec5-2" id="sec5-2"><h3 class="B"> The utility of secondary data</h3> <p class="p"> We were unable to obtain adequate data for analysis of spatial factors associated with bear attacks on people, but visualizations suggest that roads are an important factor (<a class="xref fig" href="#fig01">Fig. 1</a>). Both respondents’ views and secondary information suggested that bear attacks, although probably increasing, are not at levels where residents or authorities are alarmed. Secondary information showed that bear attacks occurred with similar frequency across all seasons, suggesting that sloth bears occur in Mount Abu throughout the year. In contrast, sloth bear attacks inside protected areas have strong seasonal biases associated with food availability and human use of forest areas (e.g. Bargali et al., <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref5"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Bargali, Akhtar and Chauhan</span>2005</a>; Singh et al., <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref35"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Singh, Sonone and Dharaiya</span>2018</a>). In areas with increased human activity and habitat disturbance, such as along narrow habitat corridors, bear attacks did not have a seasonal bias, probably because of continued interactions with humans (Dhamorikar et al., <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref14"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Dhamorikar, Mehta, Bargali and Gore</span>2017</a>). This is similar to the situation in Mount Abu, except that the situation is reversed, with bears entering the town rather than humans entering bear habitat. Awareness programmes aiming to minimize bear–human interactions along roads during the late evening and night could help limit injuries to people, particularly as respondents indicated that attacks happened in the context of chance encounters that surprised the bears.</p> </div> <div class="sec" data-magellan-destination="sec5-3" id="sec5-3"><h3 class="B"> Factors influencing bear sightings inside Mount Abu</h3> <p class="p"> Respondents linked bear sightings to availability of rubbish rather than to other potential factors, and generalized additive modelling, which included several variables that respondents did not mention, also independently identified rubbish bins as primary attractants to bears (<a class="xref table" href="#tab01">Table 1</a>). Our analyses indicate that the response variables chosen, although novel in the study of sloth bear ecology, helped explain variations in the number of bear sightings at grid-cell level. There is growing interest in using empirically defensible methods to evaluate factors affecting the use of landscapes by sloth bears (Srivastha et al., <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref36"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Srivastha, Puri, Kumar, Jathanna and Karanth</span>2017</a>), and our study adds to this sparse literature.</p> <p class="p"> Respondents almost unequivocally suggested that food waste from hotels catering to the tourism industry attracted bears into the city. Respondents also indicated that sloth bears searched for sweet foods, similar to their habit in the wild where they seek out sugar-rich foods (e.g. honey and ripe fruits; Yoganand et al., <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref44"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Yoganand, Rice, Johnsingh, Johnsingh and N.</span>2013</a>). Multiple lines of evidence showed accessible rubbish to be the primary attractant for sloth bears in Mount Abu. Sloth bears in the wild adapt to changing conditions by shifting to different foods (Joshi et al., <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref23"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Joshi, Gershelis and Smith</span>1997</a>; Yoganand et al., <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref43"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Yoganand, Rice and Johnsingh</span>2005</a>), but our study provides the only known instance of this species foraging for human-generated rubbish within an urban area. Bears can become dependent on rubbish and may modify their behaviour in a way that can exacerbate conflict situations (Breck et al., <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref8"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Breck, Lance and Seher</span>2009</a>; Cozzi et al., <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref12"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Cozzi, Chynoweth, Kusak, Çoban, Ozgul and Şekercioğlu</span>2016</a>). It is therefore vital that a long-term solution to waste disposal in Mount Abu is found, to help alleviate, or resolve, the increasing negative interactions between people and bears. Bear-proof rubbish containers could be an effective solution and have been shown to reduce the intensity of conflict situations elsewhere (Johnson et al., <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref22"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Johnson, Lewis, Lischka and Breck</span>2018</a>).</p> </div> <div class="sec" data-magellan-destination="sec5-4" id="sec5-4"><h3 class="B"> Conservation implications</h3> <p class="p"> Our findings show the residents of Mount Abu to be reliable informants who are knowledgeable about sloth bear ecology and behaviour. They are thus likely to be attentive participants in conservation actions to help alleviate this potentially escalating conflict. We excluded hoteliers as respondents because the majority of owners were not residents of Mount Abu town, but some of the respondents worked in hotels and resorts. However, hotels are a primary stakeholder given the impact of tourism-generated rubbish. Any waste management plan will need to include hoteliers as stakeholders.</p> <p class="p"> We echo previous calls (Can et al., <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref10"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Can, D'Cruze, Garshelis, Beecham and Macdonald</span>2014</a>; Dharaiya et al., <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref15"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Dharaiya, Bargali and Sharp</span>2016</a>) for improved geographical coverage of studies on sloth bear ecology and on the attitudes of people with whom they share spaces, to facilitate a holistic understanding of how this Vulnerable species interacts with humans. It is important that, wherever possible, such studies demonstrate the reliability of measures of attitudes and other information obtained from respondents. This is essential, to ensure that factors contributing to conflict situations can be reliably identified and that conservation planning includes actions on which stakeholders can agree. Our findings could help de-escalate or eliminate the conflict situation in Mount Abu, and prevent exacerbation of the conflict and retaliation against sloth bears.</p> </div> </div> </div> <div class="back"> <div class="ack"><h2 class="A"> Acknowledgements</h2> <p class="p"> This research did not receive grants from any funding agency or commercial or not-for-profit sectors. We thank B. Kiri (District Forest Officer, Rajasthan Forest Department) for providing information on cases of conflicts involving bears registered with the department; the Mount Abu municipality for information on the number of vehicles entering the town annually; Sanjay for assistance with field work; H.S. Bargali, Y.V. Bhatnagar, K. Mehta and two anonymous reviewers for their critiques.</p> </div> <div class="notes other" data-magellan-destination="nts1" id="nts1"><h2 class="A">Author contributions</h2> <p class="p"> Study design: all authors; field work: UP; data analysis: KSGS, VKK; writing: KSGS; revisions: all authors.</p></div> <div class="notes other" data-magellan-destination="nts2" id="nts2"><h2 class="A">Conflicts of interest</h2> <p class="p"> None.</p></div> <div class="notes other" data-magellan-destination="nts3" id="nts3"><h2 class="A">Ethical standards</h2> <p class="p"> The work abided by the <em class="italic">Oryx</em> guidelines on ethical standards, and the questionnaire and study methods were approved by the Institutional Animal Ethics Committee of the Department of Zoology, Mohanlal Sukhadia University, Rajasthan, prior to the study.</p></div> </div> </div></div> <hr aria-hidden="true" class="list-divider separator default" data-v-7036083a> <div id="footnotes-list" class="circle-list"><h2>Footnotes</h2> <div data-type="footnote" class="circle-list__item"><div class="circle-list__item__indicator"></div> <div class="circle-list__item__grouped"><div class="circle-list__item__grouped__content"><div class="fn"><p>Supplementary material for this article is available at <a href="https://doi.org/10.1017/S0030605320000216">doi.org/10.1017/S0030605320000216</a></p></div></div></div></div> </div> <hr aria-hidden="true" class="list-divider separator default" data-v-7036083a> <div id="references-list" class="circle-list"><h2>References</h2> <div id="ref2" aria-flowto="reference-1-content reference-1-button" class="circle-list__item"> <div class="circle-list__item__indicator"><AppButton icon="up-circle" aria-label="Return to the reference 1 in the content" id="reference-1-button" class="circle-list__item__indicator__up"></AppButton></div> <div aria-hidden="true" data-test-hidden="true" class="circle-list__item__number"> </div> <div class="circle-list__item__grouped"><div id="reference-1-content" class="circle-list__item__grouped__content"><span class="string-name"><span class="surname">Anand</span>, <span class="given-names">S.</span></span> & <span class="string-name"><span class="surname">Radhakrishna</span>, <span class="given-names">S</span></span>. 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Measured attitudes, with +1 indicating completely positive attitude and −1 indicating completely negative attitude towards bears, are summarized in box plots.</span></span></p></div> </div></div> <hr aria-hidden="true" class="separator dashed" data-v-7036083a data-v-241a4b23></div><div data-v-241a4b23><div class="figures__item" data-v-241a4b23><div class="figures__item__image-box" data-v-241a4b23><button class="figures__ref" data-v-241a4b23> View in content </button> <img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" alt="Figure 2" data-zoomable="true" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20210903120326321-0122:S0030605320000216:S0030605320000216_fig3.png" data-enlarged-image="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20210903120326321-0122:S0030605320000216:S0030605320000216_fig3.png" class="graphic" data-v-241a4b23></div> <div data-v-241a4b23><div class="caption" data-v-241a4b23><p data-v-241a4b23><span class="label" data-v-241a4b23>Fig. 3</span> <span data-v-241a4b23><span class="p">Experiences of 241 residents with sloth bears inside Mount Abu town, Rajasthan, India. Bar graphs show interviewees’ responses regarding (a) the time since bear encounters and attacks increased, (b) time since their last personal interaction with bears, and (c) the time of day they encountered bears.</span></span></p></div> </div></div> <hr aria-hidden="true" class="separator dashed" data-v-7036083a data-v-241a4b23></div><div data-v-241a4b23><div class="figures__item" data-v-241a4b23><div class="figures__item__image-box" data-v-241a4b23><button class="figures__ref" data-v-241a4b23> View in content </button> <img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" alt="Figure 3" data-zoomable="true" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20210903120326321-0122:S0030605320000216:S0030605320000216_fig4.png" data-enlarged-image="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20210903120326321-0122:S0030605320000216:S0030605320000216_fig4.png" class="graphic" data-v-241a4b23></div> <div data-v-241a4b23><div class="caption" data-v-241a4b23><p data-v-241a4b23><span class="label" data-v-241a4b23>Fig. 4</span> <span data-v-241a4b23><span class="p">Perceptions of 241 residents of Mount Abu town, Rajasthan, India, regarding (a) the ecology of sloth bears, particularly reasons why bears enter Mount Abu, (b) reasons why bears attack humans, and (c) what they seek in rubbish.</span></span></p></div> </div></div> <hr aria-hidden="true" class="separator dashed" data-v-7036083a data-v-241a4b23></div><div data-v-241a4b23><div class="figures__item" data-v-241a4b23><div class="figures__item__image-box" data-v-241a4b23><button class="figures__ref" data-v-241a4b23> View in content </button> <img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" alt="Figure 4" data-zoomable="true" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20210903120326321-0122:S0030605320000216:S0030605320000216_fig5.png" data-enlarged-image="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20210903120326321-0122:S0030605320000216:S0030605320000216_fig5.png" class="graphic" data-v-241a4b23></div> <div data-v-241a4b23><div class="caption" data-v-241a4b23><p data-v-241a4b23><span class="label" data-v-241a4b23>Fig. 5</span> <span data-v-241a4b23><span class="p">(a) Number of sloth bear attacks in Mount Abu town, Rajasthan, India, on humans as reported in two secondary sources, and (b) annual tourism volumes represented by the number of vehicles entering the town. Time periods follow the financial year in India (1 April–31 March).</span></span></p></div> </div></div> <hr aria-hidden="true" class="separator dashed" data-v-7036083a data-v-241a4b23></div><div data-v-241a4b23><div class="figures__item" data-v-241a4b23><div class="figures__item__image-box" data-v-241a4b23><button class="figures__ref" data-v-241a4b23> View in content </button> <img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" alt="Figure 5" data-zoomable="true" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20210903120326321-0122:S0030605320000216:S0030605320000216_tab1.png" data-enlarged-image="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20210903120326321-0122:S0030605320000216:S0030605320000216_tab1.png" class="graphic" data-v-241a4b23></div> <div data-v-241a4b23><div class="caption" data-v-241a4b23><p data-v-241a4b23><span class="label" data-v-241a4b23>Table 1</span> <span data-v-241a4b23><span class="p">Multi-model statistics to assess factors affecting grid cell-level sloth bear sightings in Mount Abu town, Rajasthan, India, using generalized additive modelling. Statistics include Akaike information criteria corrected for small sample sizes (AICc), difference between the best model and the respective model (ΔAICc), and individual model weights.</span></span></p></div> </div></div> </div></div> <div id="supplementary-materials-tab" class="supplementary-materials tab-pane"><div class="materials-table"><div class="materials-table__item"><div class="materials-table__row"><img src="/core/page-component/img/pdf-icon.6d46a59.svg" alt="Supplementary material: PDF" class="app-icon materials-table__row__left-elem pdf" data-v-d2c09870> <div class="materials-table__row__main-elem"><h3 class="materials-table__row__title">Prajapati et al. supplementary material</h3> <div class="materials-table__row__description"><p>Prajapati et al. supplementary material</p></div></div> <a href="https://static.cambridge.org/content/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:article:S0030605320000216/resource/name/S0030605320000216sup001.pdf" download="" class="app-link clickable-button 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Prajapati",searchUrl:"\u002Fcore\u002Fsearch?filters%5BauthorTerms%5D=Utkarsh%20Prajapati&eventCode=SE-AU",orcidUrl:"https:\u002F\u002Forcid.org\u002F0000-0001-5744-5578"},{givenNames:"Vijay Kumar",surname:"Koli",nameStyle:z,affiliations:[{text:"Wildlife Research Laboratory, Department of Zoology, University College of Science, Mohanlal Sukhadia University, Rajasthan, India"}],isCorresponding:b,notes:a,isAnonymous:b,fullName:"Vijay Kumar Koli",searchUrl:"\u002Fcore\u002Fsearch?filters%5BauthorTerms%5D=Vijay%20Kumar%20Koli&eventCode=SE-AU",orcidUrl:"https:\u002F\u002Forcid.org\u002F0000-0003-3264-9253"},{givenNames:"K. S. Gopi",surname:"Sundar",nameStyle:z,affiliations:[{text:"Nature Conservation Foundation, 1311, ‘Amritha’, 12th Main, Vijayanagar 1st Stage, Mysuru570017, Karnataka, India"}],isCorresponding:c,notes:"\u003Cdiv class=\"corresp\"\u003E(Corresponding author) E-mail \u003Ca href=\"mailto:gopi@ncf-india.com\"\u003Egopi@ncf-india.com\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E",isAnonymous:b,fullName:"K. S. Gopi Sundar",searchUrl:"\u002Fcore\u002Fsearch?filters%5BauthorTerms%5D=K.%20S.%20Gopi%20Sundar&eventCode=SE-AU",orcidUrl:"https:\u002F\u002Forcid.org\u002F0000-0003-3477-5691"}]},translators:{contributors:[],label:"Translated by"}},collections:[],publishedDate:"15 March 2021",keywords:[{url:"\u002Fcore\u002Fsearch?filters[keywords]=Attitudes",name:"Attitudes"},{url:"\u002Fcore\u002Fsearch?filters[keywords]=human–carnivore conflict",name:"human–carnivore conflict"},{url:"\u002Fcore\u002Fsearch?filters[keywords]=Melursus ursinus",name:S},{url:"\u002Fcore\u002Fsearch?filters[keywords]=Mount Abu",name:"Mount Abu"},{url:"\u002Fcore\u002Fsearch?filters[keywords]=Rajasthan",name:"Rajasthan"},{url:"\u002Fcore\u002Fsearch?filters[keywords]=recursive partitioning",name:"recursive partitioning"},{url:"\u002Fcore\u002Fsearch?filters[keywords]=sloth bear",name:"sloth bear"},{url:"\u002Fcore\u002Fsearch?filters[keywords]=waste management",name:"waste management"}],openPracticeBadges:[],doi:{url:"https:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.1017\u002FS0030605320000216",value:"10.1017\u002FS0030605320000216"},copyright:{statement:["Copyright © The Author(s), 2021. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of Fauna & Flora International."],holder:["The Author(s)"],year:[2021]},creativeCommons:{descriptions:["This is an Open Access article, distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives licence (\u003Ca href=\"http:\u002F\u002Fcreativecommons.org\u002Flicenses\u002Fby-nc-nd\u002F4.0\u002F\" target=\"_blank\"\u003Ehttp:\u002F\u002Fcreativecommons.org\u002Flicenses\u002Fby-nc-nd\u002F4.0\u002F\u003C\u002Fa\u003E), which permits non-commercial re-use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is unaltered and is properly cited. The written permission of Cambridge University Press must be obtained for commercial re-use or in order to create a derivative work."],oaLicenseType:"CC-BY-NC-ND",licenses:["CC","BY","NC","ND"]},acceptedManuscript:b,type:"research-article",pageRange:{range:"699 - 707",firstPage:"699",lastPage:"707"},typeDescription:"Article",resultTypes:[],commentsCount:T,topicsAndSubtopics:g},journal:{id:U,title:i,titleSlug:V,mnemonic:"ORX",titleHistory:[],isFirstView:b,journalSlug:V,isCompanion:b,parentCompanionJournalName:i,associatedParentCollection:g,url:W,firstViewUrl:"\u002Fcore\u002Fjournals\u002Foryx\u002Ffirstview",coverUrl:"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fcovers\u002FORX_0_0_0\u002Foryx.jpg",submitMaterialsUrl:"\u002Fcore\u002Fjournals\u002Foryx\u002Finformation\u002Fauthor-instructions\u002Fsubmitting-your-materials",hasHistory:b,latestTitle:i,latestId:U,hasPastTitle:b,issue:{id:"7EB158DBC0AAF8C2C044D1E8A7A0EB2C",number:"5",title:"Issue 5",publishedDate:"September 2021",printPublishTimestamp:1630454400000,url:X},volume:{id:"A5068FE81B720308AA0ED94913BDC4A6",number:A,title:"Volume 55",publishedDate:"November 2021",printPublishTimestamp:1635724800000,url:"\u002Fcore\u002Fjournals\u002Foryx\u002Fvolume\u002FA5068FE81B720308AA0ED94913BDC4A6"}},abstract:{textAbstracts:[{title:"Abstract",content:"\u003Cdiv class=\"abstract\" data-abstract-type=\"normal\"\u003E\u003Cp\u003EHuman–carnivore interactions are on the rise globally, and often take the form of damage to property and livelihoods, human injuries or fatalities, and retaliatory killing of carnivores. Potential conflict situations are rarely recognized early, and circumstances are often complicated by mismatches between people's perceptions and reality. Following media reports of sloth bear \u003Cspan class=\"italic\"\u003EMelursus ursinus\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E attacks on people, we evaluated the situation in a tourism-dominated town in southern Rajasthan, India. Using a spatially explicit survey design, we interviewed 241 residents of Mount Abu to record recent bear sightings and attacks, prevailing attitudes towards bears, and respondents’ understanding of bear ecology. We obtained independent secondary information on tourism levels and bear attacks to verify information received during interviews. We used recursive partitioning to identify factors that explained residents’ attitudes towards sloth bears, and multi-model inference to identify land cover and other features that influenced bear presence. Respondents perceived increasing bear presence and attacks, and secondary data supported these perceptions. Respondents’ insights regarding bear ecology, particularly bears being attracted by rubbish bins, were supported by multi-model inferences. Mount Abu's residents, especially women and younger men, had negative attitudes towards bears, independent of their education level or occupation. Our findings suggest a novel situation in Mount Abu, with sloth bears habitually accessing rubbish bins, which leads to increased bear–human interactions and negative attitudes among residents. We recommend immediate action focusing on waste management, which could help prevent an escalation of the situation and reduce attacks by bears that could otherwise lead to retaliatory killings.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E",lang:Y}]},content:{html:"\u003Cdiv class=\"article research-article NLM\"\u003E\n\n\u003Cdiv class=\"body\"\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"sec intro\" data-magellan-destination=\"sec1\" id=\"sec1\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"A\"\u003E Introduction\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E The first global assessment of the 100 most important questions for biodiversity conservation included the question ‘What factors shape (in)tolerance of the presence and activities of wild animals, especially where those animals induce human–wildlife conflict?’ (Sutherland et al., \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref40\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Sutherland, Adams, Aronson, Aveling, Blackburn and Broad\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2009\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). As framed, the question made it clear that not only the characteristics of so-called human–wildlife conflict are important, but also the identification of conditions and animal behaviour that lead to such situations. Globally, many studies have since examined human–carnivore interactions, to identify aspects that can help reduce or eliminate negative interactions (Nyhus, \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref29\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Nyhus\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2016\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). Carnivores dominate in the global literature on interactions of people and wildlife, and mitigation is becoming increasingly urgent (Inskip & Zimmermann, \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref19\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Inskip and Zimmermann\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2009\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; Nyhus, \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref29\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Nyhus\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2016\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). This urgency is fuelled by damage to property, human injuries and fatalities, and retaliatory killings of species of global conservation concern (Karanth & Madhusudan, \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref26\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Karanth, Madhusudan, Terborgh, van Shaik, Rao and Davenport\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2002\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; Treves et al., \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref42\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Treves, Wallace, Naughton-Treves and Morales\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2006\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). Identification of the conditions that lead to negative interactions is often confounded by a mismatch between people's perceptions and the actual ecology and behaviour of wildlife species, and by socio-cultural aspects of conflict situations (Suryawanshi et al., \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref39\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Suryawanshi, Bhatnagar, Redpath and Mishra\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2013\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; Anand & Radhakrishna, \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref2\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Anand and Radhakrishna\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2017\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; Karanth et al., \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref27\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Karanth, Shivangi and Weinthal\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2019\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). The problem of potentially mismatched perceptions and realities is not easy to solve because most studies utilize questionnaire surveys of people living near, or experiencing interactions with, carnivores, thus relying extensively on people's perceptions (Treves et al., \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref42\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Treves, Wallace, Naughton-Treves and Morales\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2006\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; Kansky & Knight, \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref25\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Kansky and Knight\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2014\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). In addition, there is a paucity of studies in areas where most people are affected by negative interactions with wildlife, and on the species most frequently involved in such situations (Can et al., \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref10\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Can, D'Cruze, Garshelis, Beecham and Macdonald\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2014\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; Anand & Radhakrishna, \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref2\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Anand and Radhakrishna\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2017\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). Bears have a global distribution, with multiple species involved in negative interactions with people, thus providing an opportunity to address this issue (Can et al., \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref10\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Can, D'Cruze, Garshelis, Beecham and Macdonald\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2014\u003C\u002Fa\u003E).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E Bears occur on all four major continents, but literature on their ecology and interactions with humans focuses primarily on two North American species (the American black bear \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003EUrsus americanus\u003C\u002Fem\u003E and the brown bear \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003EUrsus arctos\u003C\u002Fem\u003E; Can et al., \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref10\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Can, D'Cruze, Garshelis, Beecham and Macdonald\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2014\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). In India, the sloth bear \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003EMelursus ursinus\u003C\u002Fem\u003E, categorized as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List (Dharaiya et al., \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref15\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Dharaiya, Bargali and Sharp\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2016\u003C\u002Fa\u003E), frequently attacks people. These bears cause hundreds of grievous injuries and fatalities annually (Quigley & Herrero, \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref32\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Quigley, Herrero, Woodroffe, Thirgood and Rabinowitz\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2005\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; Can et al., \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref10\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Can, D'Cruze, Garshelis, Beecham and Macdonald\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2014\u003C\u002Fa\u003E), yet few studies have addressed this problem. Habitat loss and deterioration, and the natural aggressiveness of the species, are thought to exacerbate negative interactions with humans (Islam et al., \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref20\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Islam, Uddin, Aziz, Muzaffar, Chakma and Chowdhury\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2013\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; Yoganand et al., \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref44\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Yoganand, Rice, Johnsingh, Johnsingh and N.\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2013\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). Human–sloth bear interactions have been studied in several protected areas (including buffer zones) across the species’ range, where bears encounter people from traditional communities that live in and near forests and subsist on forest resources (Bargali et al., \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref5\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Bargali, Akhtar and Chauhan\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2005\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; Debata et al., \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref13\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Debata, Swain, Sahu and Palei\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2017\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; Dhamorikar et al., \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref14\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Dhamorikar, Mehta, Bargali and Gore\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2017\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; Lamichhane et al., \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref28\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Lamichhane, Persoon, Leirs, Poudel, Subedi and Pokheral\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2018\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; Singh et al., \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref35\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Singh, Sonone and Dharaiya\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2018\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). Sloth bears are largely myrmecophages (ant and termite eaters) and rarely access anthropogenic food sources such as crops (Joshi et al., \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref23\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Joshi, Gershelis and Smith\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E1997\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; Bargali et al., \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref4\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Bargali, Akhtar and Chauhan\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2004\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; Yoganand et al., \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref43\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Yoganand, Rice and Johnsingh\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2005\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). Negative interactions with humans have increased where bears live outside protected areas, and where food and cover for bears have deteriorated because of human activity (Yoganand et al., \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref44\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Yoganand, Rice, Johnsingh, Johnsingh and N.\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2013\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; Dharaiya et al., \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref15\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Dharaiya, Bargali and Sharp\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2016\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). Understanding sloth bear ecology in different conditions can inform responses when negative interactions arise (Bargali & Sharma, \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref3\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Bargali, Sharma, Sharma, Kulshreshta and Rahmani\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2013\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; Yoganand et al., \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref44\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Yoganand, Rice, Johnsingh, Johnsingh and N.\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2013\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; Can et al., \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref10\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Can, D'Cruze, Garshelis, Beecham and Macdonald\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2014\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; Dharaiya et al., \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref15\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Dharaiya, Bargali and Sharp\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2016\u003C\u002Fa\u003E).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E Following media reports of sloth bear attacks on people in the tourism-dominated town of Mount Abu in southern Rajasthan, India, we initiated a study to investigate the situation. It became evident that the situation was unique, with bears entering the town from a surrounding reserve that has the highest known density of sloth bears in the state (Bargali & Sharma, \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref3\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Bargali, Sharma, Sharma, Kulshreshta and Rahmani\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2013\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). As there had been no previous studies of sloth bears in Mount Abu, we aimed to obtain baseline information on the attitudes and experiences of residents who interacted with sloth bears. Our objectives were to examine the residents’ attitudes towards sloth bears, to document their knowledge of bear ecology, and to identify the causes of human–sloth bear interactions. We also evaluated independent data on attacks by bears and analysed reported sightings of bears in relation to land cover and features associated with bear ecology, to identify factors that influence bear presence in Mount Abu and to crosscheck the information obtained through the questionnaire surveys. Thus, by combining information from several sources we aimed to identify any factors contributing to negative human–bear interactions in Mount Abu, and to use these insights to help de-escalate or resolve the problem.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"sec\" data-magellan-destination=\"sec2\" id=\"sec2\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"A\"\u003E Study area\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E We conducted our study during January–May 2019 in Mount Abu town in southern Rajasthan, India (\u003Ca class=\"xref fig\" href=\"#fig01\"\u003EFig. 1\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). The town is located atop the world's oldest fold mountains, the Aravallis, at the highest point in the state (1,722 m altitude), and is entirely surrounded by Mount Abu Bear Sanctuary. This protected area has the highest sloth bear density in the state (Bargali & Sharma, \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref3\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Bargali, Sharma, Sharma, Kulshreshta and Rahmani\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2013\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). The town covers 45 km\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E within subtropical evergreen and subtropical wet hill forests (Champion & Seth, \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref11\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Champion and Seth\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E1968\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). There are three distinct seasons based on temperature and rainfall: summer (March–June), monsoon (July–October) and winter (November–February). In the most recent census the resident population of the town was 22,943 (Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India, \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref30\"\u003E2011\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). Its scenic setting amid forested hills and its proximity to several popular Hindu and Jain temples make Mount Abu one of the most visited locations in the state of Rajasthan, with > 1.5 million tourists visiting annually (Ferguson & Co., \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref1\"\u003E2019\u003C\u002Fa\u003E).\n\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Csection\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"fig fig\" data-magellan-destination=\"fig01\" id=\"fig01\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"figure-thumb\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20210903120326321-0122:S0030605320000216:S0030605320000216_fig1.png?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image\" width=\"950\" height=\"1060\" data-original-image=\"\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20210903120326321-0122:S0030605320000216:S0030605320000216_fig1.png\" data-zoomable=\"true\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E \u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"label\"\u003EFig. 1\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E Location of Mount Abu town in India (inset), sampled grid cells in town, heat map of sloth bear \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003EMelursus ursinus\u003C\u002Fem\u003E sightings during the 2 years prior to the study (provided by 241 residents), major roads, locations of bear attacks (provided by the Rajasthan Forest Department) and rubbish bins.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fsection\u003E\n\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"sec methods\" data-magellan-destination=\"sec3\" id=\"sec3\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"A\"\u003E Methods\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E We overlaid a digital boundary of Mount Abu town (Rajasthan Forest Department, \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref33\"\u003E2019\u003C\u002Fa\u003E) with a grid of 500 × 500 m cells, and visited all accessible grid cells and those with permanent human habitation. In each cell, we selected 11 people to be interviewed. To ensure that we included a variety of people across different ages, genders, occupations and educational levels, we approached potential interviewees at different locations (e.g. hotels, private houses, business establishments, schools and farmlands).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"sec\" data-magellan-destination=\"sec3-1\" id=\"sec3-1\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"B\"\u003E Residents’ attitudes towards bears\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E We assessed residents’ attitudes towards sloth bears and their understanding of bear ecology using a semi-structured questionnaire with a combination of closed and open-ended questions (Supplementary Material 1). We first tested the questionnaire with 25 people to identify ambiguous or leading questions, especially when rendered in the locally spoken languages of Hindi or Rajasthani, and removed or modified any problematic questions. Respondents completing the questionnaire during the test phase were not included in subsequent interviews. We measured attitudes towards sloth bears by scoring six questions framed to determine residents’ attitudes towards bears in their area, with scores being favourable (+1), neutral (0) or negative (−1) for each question. We measured attitudes as a composite of six questions rather than one direct question because Rajasthanis generally have strongly positive attitudes towards wildlife because of religious beliefs and social norms (Karanth et al., \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref27\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Karanth, Shivangi and Weinthal\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2019\u003C\u002Fa\u003E), and answers to a single question would probably be biased towards existing norms. We reduced confirmation and acquiescence bias by having an equal number of positive and reverse questions and eliminated carelessness bias by administering questionnaires in person (Weijters et al., \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref45\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Weijters, Baumgartner and Schillewaert\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2013\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; Suárez-Alvarez et al., \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref38\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Suárez-Alvarez, Pedrosa, Lozano, García-Cueto, Cuesta and Muñiz\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2018\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). Open-ended questions addressed residents’ personal experiences with bears, limited to those that took place within the last 2 years, to minimize recall errors. We asked about the locations, time of day, and number of bears encountered, and locations of known attacks on people. We determined the geographical coordinates of all attack locations using a GPS. Questions also assessed respondents’ perceptions of bear ecology. We asked about respondents’ thoughts on the principal reason bears enter Mount Abu, what bears forage for, and why bears attack people. We recorded the respondents’ age, gender, education status (six categories), and occupation (nine categories), to examine whether attitudes towards sloth bears were influenced by these factors.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"sec\" data-magellan-destination=\"sec3-2\" id=\"sec3-2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"B\"\u003E Secondary data on bear attacks\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E To verify respondents’ views of trends in sloth bear attacks, we collated cases of bear attacks on people documented by the Forest Department, Government of Rajasthan, and results from an online search using the phrases ‘Mount Abu’, ‘sloth bear’, and ‘attack’. We excluded social media content with poor verifiability of location and date. Using a GPS, we obtained geographical coordinates of Forest Department records for mapping.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"sec\" data-magellan-destination=\"sec3-3\" id=\"sec3-3\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"B\"\u003E Influence of land-cover variables on sloth bear sightings\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E Sloth bear presence is influenced by multiple variables including availability of food and water, and vegetation cover (Dharaiya et al., \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref15\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Dharaiya, Bargali and Sharp\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2016\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). In addition, within a town, we presumed that bear movement was limited by built-up areas but facilitated by roads. We therefore measured built-up area (m\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E), vegetation cover (m\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E), road length (m), and open water availability (m\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E) in each grid cell using the most recent images on \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003EGoogleEarth Pro 7.3.2\u003C\u002Fem\u003E (Google, Mountain View, USA). Because responses during the trial questionnaire suggested that sloth bears visit rubbish bins for food, we also mapped all rubbish bins. Variance inflation factors for all variables were < 4 (range 1.09–3.71), suggesting that levels of autocorrelation were acceptable, and we modelled untransformed variable measures against pooled bear sightings at the grid cell level.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"sec\" data-magellan-destination=\"sec3-4\" id=\"sec3-4\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"B\"\u003E Statistical analyses\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E We totalled the number of respondents providing answers to questions relating to experiences with bears, time of day when experiences occurred, primary reasons why respondents believed bears were entering Mount Abu, and why they thought bears attack people. We visualized these as descriptive bar graphs. We determined the geographical locations of all instances of bear sightings, using a GPS (n = 217), and generated a heat map using \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003EQGIS 2.12.0\u003C\u002Fem\u003E (QGIS Development Team, \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref31\"\u003E2012\u003C\u002Fa\u003E) of the number of bears sighted, to examine the spatial distribution of bear presence in Mount Abu. We also included locations of rubbish bins on this map.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E For each respondent, we calculated the mean attitude score, which varied between +1 (entirely positive attitude towards bears) and −1 (completely negative attitude towards bears). We used recursive partitioning to examine which factors (age, gender, education status, occupation) influenced residents’ attitudes towards bears. Recursive partitioning uses classification and regression trees to create binary decision trees that identify variables most important in determining the outcome of a choice (Strobl et al., \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref37\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Strobl, Malley and Tutz\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2009\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). We first generated a classification tree with all variables using the \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Erpart\u003C\u002Fem\u003E package in \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003ER 3.6.1\u003C\u002Fem\u003E (Therneau & Atkinson, \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref41\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Therneau and Atkinson\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2019\u003C\u002Fa\u003E) to assess contributions of all variables to the measured attitudes. The resulting models were complex (Supplementary Figs 1 & 2), and we identified significant variables (P < 0.05) by generating a non-parametric conditional inference tree via recursive partitioning with the \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003ER\u003C\u002Fem\u003E package \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eparty\u003C\u002Fem\u003E (Hothorn et al., \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref18\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Hothorn, Hornik, Strobl and Zeileis\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2019\u003C\u002Fa\u003E) for final interpretation.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E We summed bear attack information from secondary sources and compared these data with information obtained from the residents of Mount Abu. We also included information from the city municipality on the number of vehicles entering the city annually, to visualize the scale of tourism. A Fisher's exact test of the number of seasonal attacks, provided separately by the Forest Department of Rajasthan, showed that the two data sources had similar inter-seasonal variation (P = 0.42). To assess whether bear attacks had a seasonal bias, we totalled attacks per season from both sources and performed a Pearson's \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eχ\u003C\u002Fem\u003E \u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E goodness-of-fit test on the pooled data.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E We independently assessed the factors most important for bear sightings using generalized additive modelling and the information-theoretic approach by regressing numbers of bear sightings per grid cell against the six short-listed variables. We used generalized additive modelling to avoid assumptions regarding linear relationships. Data on bear attacks were inadequate to run similar analyses. We created a list of a priori models, including a full model (with all variables) and a null model (assuming observed variations to be random) and used the Akaike information criterion corrected for small sample sizes (AICc) to determine the most parsimonious model. We used the \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003ER\u003C\u002Fem\u003E package \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Egam\u003C\u002Fem\u003E for modelling (Hastie, \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref17\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Hastie\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2018\u003C\u002Fa\u003E) and the \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003ER\u003C\u002Fem\u003E package \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003EMuMIn\u003C\u002Fem\u003E for model selection metrics (Bartoń, \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref6\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Bartoń\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2019\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). We used a reduction of two AICc units to signify improvement between competing models (Burnham & Anderson, \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref9\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Burnham and Anderson\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2002\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). We ran full models both with the grid cell number as a spatial variable and without, to assess any potential influence of grid cell identity. There was poor support for the full model with grid cell identity (4.2 AICc units higher than the full model without grid identity; see Results), and we therefore excluded grid cell numbers in other models. We generated plots of the component smooth functions against the scale of linear predictors to assess the directionality and nature of relationships. Results of generalized additive modelling were compared against respondents’ opinions regarding factors influencing bear sightings.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"sec results\" data-magellan-destination=\"sec4\" id=\"sec4\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"A\"\u003E Results\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"sec\" data-magellan-destination=\"sec4-1\" id=\"sec4-1\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"B\"\u003E Residents’ attitudes towards bears\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E Respondents (n = 241) encountered sloth bears widely across Mount Abu (\u003Ca class=\"xref fig\" href=\"#fig01\"\u003EFig. 1\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). Residents largely had negative attitudes towards sloth bears, with considerable model complexity when all the variables were included (Supplementary Fig. 1). Considering all variables collectively, residents’ attitudes were shaped by gender and age (P < 0.001), with women and younger men (< 36 years of age) having the most negative attitudes towards bears (\u003Ca class=\"xref fig\" href=\"#fig02\"\u003EFig. 2\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). Considering other variables individually, measured attitudes showed little variation across education levels (Supplementary Fig. 2; Kruskal–Wallis \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eχ\u003C\u002Fem\u003E \u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Csub\u003E5\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E = 8.55, P = 0.13). However, attitudes varied considerably across occupations, with home-makers (all women interviewed) having the most negative attitudes, people working in a business establishment having the most positive, and farmers and students having the smallest range of attitudes scores (Supplementary Fig. 2; Kruskal–Wallis \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eχ\u003C\u002Fem\u003E \u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Csub\u003E5\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E = 24.47, P = 0.0009). No human fatalities caused by bear attacks, or retaliatory action against sloth bears, were reported.\n\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Csection\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"fig fig\" data-magellan-destination=\"fig02\" id=\"fig02\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"figure-thumb\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20210903120326321-0122:S0030605320000216:S0030605320000216_fig2.png?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image\" width=\"1418\" height=\"813\" data-original-image=\"\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20210903120326321-0122:S0030605320000216:S0030605320000216_fig2.png\" data-zoomable=\"true\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E \u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"label\"\u003EFig. 2\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E Non-parametric regression tree identifying factors affecting measured attitudes of 241 residents of Mount Abu town, Rajasthan, India towards sloth bears. Measured attitudes, with +1 indicating completely positive attitude and −1 indicating completely negative attitude towards bears, are summarized in box plots.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fsection\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E Bear attacks on people were reported to occur most frequently on roads and were widespread across the town (\u003Ca class=\"xref fig\" href=\"#fig01\"\u003EFig. 1\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). Most residents reported increases in bear encounters and attacks within the last 2 years (\u003Ca class=\"xref fig\" href=\"#fig03\"\u003EFig. 3a\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). A majority of respondents had encountered bears in the week before being interviewed, with most encounters occurring between 18.00 and 24.00 (\u003Ca class=\"xref fig\" href=\"#fig03\"\u003EFig. 3b\u003C\u002Fa\u003E,\u003Ca class=\"xref fig\" href=\"#fig03\"\u003Ec\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). Most respondents believed that bears entered Mount Abu to forage on rubbish, and that access to the town was facilitated by the fact that it is surrounded by forests (\u003Ca class=\"xref fig\" href=\"#fig04\"\u003EFig. 4a\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). According to the interviewees, bears primarily seek food waste from hotels, and sweets in rubbish (\u003Ca class=\"xref fig\" href=\"#fig04\"\u003EFig. 4c\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). Respondents indicated that bears attacked when they were surprised by an encounter with people, or when they had cubs (\u003Ca class=\"xref fig\" href=\"#fig04\"\u003EFig. 4b\u003C\u002Fa\u003E).\n\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Csection\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"fig fig\" data-magellan-destination=\"fig03\" id=\"fig03\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"figure-thumb\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20210903120326321-0122:S0030605320000216:S0030605320000216_fig3.png?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image\" width=\"861\" height=\"2372\" data-original-image=\"\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20210903120326321-0122:S0030605320000216:S0030605320000216_fig3.png\" data-zoomable=\"true\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E \u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"label\"\u003EFig. 3\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E Experiences of 241 residents with sloth bears inside Mount Abu town, Rajasthan, India. Bar graphs show interviewees’ responses regarding (a) the time since bear encounters and attacks increased, (b) time since their last personal interaction with bears, and (c) the time of day they encountered bears.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fsection\u003E\n\u003Csection\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"fig fig\" data-magellan-destination=\"fig04\" id=\"fig04\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"figure-thumb\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20210903120326321-0122:S0030605320000216:S0030605320000216_fig4.png?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image\" width=\"832\" height=\"2359\" data-original-image=\"\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20210903120326321-0122:S0030605320000216:S0030605320000216_fig4.png\" data-zoomable=\"true\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E \u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"label\"\u003EFig. 4\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E Perceptions of 241 residents of Mount Abu town, Rajasthan, India, regarding (a) the ecology of sloth bears, particularly reasons why bears enter Mount Abu, (b) reasons why bears attack humans, and (c) what they seek in rubbish.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fsection\u003E\n\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"sec\" data-magellan-destination=\"sec4-2\" id=\"sec4-2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"B\"\u003E Secondary data on bear attacks\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E Forest Department records provided data on 19 attacks in 13 locations that were distributed widely across the town (\u003Ca class=\"xref fig\" href=\"#fig01\"\u003EFig. 1\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). Secondary data indicated a sharp increase in bear attacks during 2018–2019, and an exponential increase in tourism during 2016–2018 (\u003Ca class=\"xref fig\" href=\"#fig05\"\u003EFig. 5\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). There was no seasonal trend in the number of bear attacks on people (\u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eχ\u003C\u002Fem\u003E \u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E\u003Csub\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E = 2.8, P = 0.24).\n\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Csection\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"fig fig\" data-magellan-destination=\"fig05\" id=\"fig05\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"figure-thumb\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20210903120326321-0122:S0030605320000216:S0030605320000216_fig5.png?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image\" width=\"730\" height=\"1352\" data-original-image=\"\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20210903120326321-0122:S0030605320000216:S0030605320000216_fig5.png\" data-zoomable=\"true\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E \u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"label\"\u003EFig. 5\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E (a) Number of sloth bear attacks in Mount Abu town, Rajasthan, India, on humans as reported in two secondary sources, and (b) annual tourism volumes represented by the number of vehicles entering the town. Time periods follow the financial year in India (1 April–31 March).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fsection\u003E\n\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"sec\" data-magellan-destination=\"sec4-3\" id=\"sec4-3\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"B\"\u003E Factors influencing bear sightings\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E Results of generalized additive modelling indicated the number of rubbish bins to be the most important factor affecting the number of bear sightings per grid cell (model weight = 0.955; 7.67 AICc units better than the subsequent model; \u003Ca class=\"xref table\" href=\"#tab01\"\u003ETable 1\u003C\u002Fa\u003E), with a linear, positive effect (Supplementary Fig. 3). There was poor support for built-up areas affecting bear sightings (improvement of 2.8 AICc units over the null model, but worse than the full model by 19.7 AICc units; \u003Ca class=\"xref table\" href=\"#tab01\"\u003ETable 1\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; Supplementary Fig. 3). The effect of road length was significant in individual models (\u003Ca class=\"xref table\" href=\"#tab01\"\u003ETable 1\u003C\u002Fa\u003E), with a strong non-linear effect of bear sightings declining where road length exceeded 1,000 m (Supplementary Fig. 3). Road length did not feature in top models but adding road length to built-up area improved the model by 8.2 AICc units, suggesting that the effect was not trivial (\u003Ca class=\"xref table\" href=\"#tab01\"\u003ETable 1\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). Vegetation cover and water availability did not strongly affect bear sightings, but relationships for both were non-linear, suggesting complex associations (Supplementary Fig. 3).\n\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"table-wrap\" data-magellan-destination=\"tab01\" id=\"tab01\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"label\"\u003ETable 1\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E Multi-model statistics to assess factors affecting grid cell-level sloth bear sightings in Mount Abu town, Rajasthan, India, using generalized additive modelling. Statistics include Akaike information criteria corrected for small sample sizes (AICc), difference between the best model and the respective model (ΔAICc), and individual model weights.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003Cspan\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"figure-thumb\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20210903120326321-0122:S0030605320000216:S0030605320000216_tab1.png?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image\" width=\"472\" height=\"306\" data-original-image=\"\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20210903120326321-0122:S0030605320000216:S0030605320000216_tab1.png\" data-zoomable=\"false\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\n\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"table-wrap-foot\"\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"fn-group footnotes\"\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"fn\" data-magellan-destination=\"tfn1_1\" id=\"tfn1_1\"\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E *P < 0.05.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"sec discussion\" data-magellan-destination=\"sec5\" id=\"sec5\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"A\"\u003E Discussion\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E Sloth bear sightings in Mount Abu were ubiquitous. Most respondents had encountered bears during the week prior to our survey, suggesting that bear presence was common. Respondents’ perception that bear attacks had increased in the 2 years prior to the interviews was supported by secondary information. Secondary information also showed that bear attacks occurred across the entire town and with similar frequency across seasons. In addition, both respondents and generalized additive modelling identified rubbish bins as the primary attraction for bears. This is a novel situation; sloth bears have not previously been associated with rubbish and their regular presence inside a town with such a high footfall of tourists and residents is unprecedented. That no human fatalities have occurred despite such frequent bear–human encounters is fortunate, and the absence of retaliatory action despite the increasing number of attacks on people is remarkable.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"sec\" data-magellan-destination=\"sec5-1\" id=\"sec5-1\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"B\"\u003E Respondent's attitudes and knowledge of bear ecology\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E Some of our findings match reports elsewhere, with respondents reporting encounters with bears mostly during late evenings and up to midnight, and women's attitudes towards bears being more negative than those of men (Debata et al., \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref13\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Debata, Swain, Sahu and Palei\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2017\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; Dhamorikar et al., \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref14\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Dhamorikar, Mehta, Bargali and Gore\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2017\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). Past studies included interviews with people dependent on forest produce whose activities overlapped with peak activity times of sloth bears, leading to increased interactions (Joshi et al., \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref24\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Joshi, Smith and Gershelis\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E1999\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; Yoganand et al., \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref43\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Yoganand, Rice and Johnsingh\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2005\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). In Mount Abu, residents reported encountering bears when they returned home from work. That women have more negative attitudes towards sloth bears has previously been associated with their role as the primary collectors of forest produce (Dharaiya et al., \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref15\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Dharaiya, Bargali and Sharp\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2016\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). In Mount Abu all women interviewed were home-makers and their attitudes probably resulted from concern for their family's safety, which is common in communities that experience continuous bear presence (Røskaft et al., \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref34\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Røskaft, Händel, Bjerke and Kaltenborn\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2007\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). Older men had more positive attitudes towards bears, possibly because they were more used to bear presence (Johansson et al., \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref21\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Johansson, Støen and Flykt\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2016\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). Our analyses show that the reasons underlying residents’ attitudes towards sloth bears in Mount Abu are complex, but will nevertheless help identify groups of people whose participation will be key in planning to reduce negative interactions.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E In Mount Abu education level did not affect attitudes, with uneducated residents having similar attitudes to people with various levels of education (Supplementary Fig. 2). This is similar to other areas with conflict situations where education does not significantly influence attitudes (Baruch-Mordo et al., \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref7\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Baruch-Mordo, Breck, Wilson and Broderick\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2011\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). There is, however, increasing evidence that planned environmental education can help improve people's attitudes towards bears (Baruch-Mordo et al., \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref7\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Baruch-Mordo, Breck, Wilson and Broderick\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2011\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; Espinosa & Jacobson, \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref16\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Espinosa and Jacobson\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2012\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). We propose that such education programmes be developed and implemented in Mount Abu to help reduce bear attacks on people and to ensure that negative attitudes do not escalate into retaliatory action.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"sec\" data-magellan-destination=\"sec5-2\" id=\"sec5-2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"B\"\u003E The utility of secondary data\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E We were unable to obtain adequate data for analysis of spatial factors associated with bear attacks on people, but visualizations suggest that roads are an important factor (\u003Ca class=\"xref fig\" href=\"#fig01\"\u003EFig. 1\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). Both respondents’ views and secondary information suggested that bear attacks, although probably increasing, are not at levels where residents or authorities are alarmed. Secondary information showed that bear attacks occurred with similar frequency across all seasons, suggesting that sloth bears occur in Mount Abu throughout the year. In contrast, sloth bear attacks inside protected areas have strong seasonal biases associated with food availability and human use of forest areas (e.g. Bargali et al., \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref5\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Bargali, Akhtar and Chauhan\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2005\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; Singh et al., \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref35\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Singh, Sonone and Dharaiya\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2018\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). In areas with increased human activity and habitat disturbance, such as along narrow habitat corridors, bear attacks did not have a seasonal bias, probably because of continued interactions with humans (Dhamorikar et al., \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref14\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Dhamorikar, Mehta, Bargali and Gore\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2017\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). This is similar to the situation in Mount Abu, except that the situation is reversed, with bears entering the town rather than humans entering bear habitat. Awareness programmes aiming to minimize bear–human interactions along roads during the late evening and night could help limit injuries to people, particularly as respondents indicated that attacks happened in the context of chance encounters that surprised the bears.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"sec\" data-magellan-destination=\"sec5-3\" id=\"sec5-3\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"B\"\u003E Factors influencing bear sightings inside Mount Abu\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E Respondents linked bear sightings to availability of rubbish rather than to other potential factors, and generalized additive modelling, which included several variables that respondents did not mention, also independently identified rubbish bins as primary attractants to bears (\u003Ca class=\"xref table\" href=\"#tab01\"\u003ETable 1\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). Our analyses indicate that the response variables chosen, although novel in the study of sloth bear ecology, helped explain variations in the number of bear sightings at grid-cell level. There is growing interest in using empirically defensible methods to evaluate factors affecting the use of landscapes by sloth bears (Srivastha et al., \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref36\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Srivastha, Puri, Kumar, Jathanna and Karanth\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2017\u003C\u002Fa\u003E), and our study adds to this sparse literature.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E Respondents almost unequivocally suggested that food waste from hotels catering to the tourism industry attracted bears into the city. Respondents also indicated that sloth bears searched for sweet foods, similar to their habit in the wild where they seek out sugar-rich foods (e.g. honey and ripe fruits; Yoganand et al., \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref44\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Yoganand, Rice, Johnsingh, Johnsingh and N.\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2013\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). Multiple lines of evidence showed accessible rubbish to be the primary attractant for sloth bears in Mount Abu. Sloth bears in the wild adapt to changing conditions by shifting to different foods (Joshi et al., \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref23\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Joshi, Gershelis and Smith\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E1997\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; Yoganand et al., \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref43\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Yoganand, Rice and Johnsingh\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2005\u003C\u002Fa\u003E), but our study provides the only known instance of this species foraging for human-generated rubbish within an urban area. Bears can become dependent on rubbish and may modify their behaviour in a way that can exacerbate conflict situations (Breck et al., \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref8\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Breck, Lance and Seher\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2009\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; Cozzi et al., \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref12\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Cozzi, Chynoweth, Kusak, Çoban, Ozgul and Şekercioğlu\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2016\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). It is therefore vital that a long-term solution to waste disposal in Mount Abu is found, to help alleviate, or resolve, the increasing negative interactions between people and bears. Bear-proof rubbish containers could be an effective solution and have been shown to reduce the intensity of conflict situations elsewhere (Johnson et al., \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref22\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Johnson, Lewis, Lischka and Breck\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2018\u003C\u002Fa\u003E).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"sec\" data-magellan-destination=\"sec5-4\" id=\"sec5-4\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"B\"\u003E Conservation implications\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E Our findings show the residents of Mount Abu to be reliable informants who are knowledgeable about sloth bear ecology and behaviour. They are thus likely to be attentive participants in conservation actions to help alleviate this potentially escalating conflict. We excluded hoteliers as respondents because the majority of owners were not residents of Mount Abu town, but some of the respondents worked in hotels and resorts. However, hotels are a primary stakeholder given the impact of tourism-generated rubbish. Any waste management plan will need to include hoteliers as stakeholders.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E We echo previous calls (Can et al., \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref10\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Can, D'Cruze, Garshelis, Beecham and Macdonald\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2014\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; Dharaiya et al., \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref15\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Dharaiya, Bargali and Sharp\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2016\u003C\u002Fa\u003E) for improved geographical coverage of studies on sloth bear ecology and on the attitudes of people with whom they share spaces, to facilitate a holistic understanding of how this Vulnerable species interacts with humans. It is important that, wherever possible, such studies demonstrate the reliability of measures of attitudes and other information obtained from respondents. This is essential, to ensure that factors contributing to conflict situations can be reliably identified and that conservation planning includes actions on which stakeholders can agree. Our findings could help de-escalate or eliminate the conflict situation in Mount Abu, and prevent exacerbation of the conflict and retaliation against sloth bears.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"back\"\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"ack\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"A\"\u003E Acknowledgements\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E This research did not receive grants from any funding agency or commercial or not-for-profit sectors. We thank B. Kiri (District Forest Officer, Rajasthan Forest Department) for providing information on cases of conflicts involving bears registered with the department; the Mount Abu municipality for information on the number of vehicles entering the town annually; Sanjay for assistance with field work; H.S. Bargali, Y.V. Bhatnagar, K. Mehta and two anonymous reviewers for their critiques.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"notes other\" data-magellan-destination=\"nts1\" id=\"nts1\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"A\"\u003EAuthor contributions\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E Study design: all authors; field work: UP; data analysis: KSGS, VKK; writing: KSGS; revisions: all authors.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"notes other\" data-magellan-destination=\"nts2\" id=\"nts2\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"A\"\u003EConflicts of interest\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E None.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"notes other\" data-magellan-destination=\"nts3\" id=\"nts3\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"A\"\u003EEthical standards\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E The work abided by the \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003EOryx\u003C\u002Fem\u003E guidelines on ethical standards, and the questionnaire and study methods were approved by the Institutional Animal Ethics Committee of the Department of Zoology, Mohanlal Sukhadia University, Rajasthan, prior to the study.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\n\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E",tableOfContent:[{level:m,current:b,title:"\u003Cdiv class=\"toc-title\"\u003EIntroduction\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E",url:"sec1"},{level:m,current:b,title:"\u003Cdiv class=\"toc-title\"\u003EStudy area\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E",url:"sec2"},{level:m,current:b,title:"\u003Cdiv class=\"toc-title\"\u003EMethods\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E",url:"sec3"},{level:m,current:b,title:"\u003Cdiv class=\"toc-title\"\u003EResults\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E",url:"sec4"},{level:m,current:b,title:"\u003Cdiv class=\"toc-title\"\u003EDiscussion\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E",url:"sec5"}],footnotes:[{content:"\u003Cdiv class=\"fn\"\u003E\u003Cp\u003ESupplementary material for this article is available at \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.1017\u002FS0030605320000216\"\u003Edoi.org\u002F10.1017\u002FS0030605320000216\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E",targetId:"fns1"}],fulltextNotes:[],references:[{id:"ref2",displayNumber:a,existInContent:c,content:"\u003Cspan class=\"string-name\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"surname\"\u003EAnand\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\"given-names\"\u003ES.\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E & \u003Cspan class=\"string-name\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"surname\"\u003ERadhakrishna\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\"given-names\"\u003ES\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E. 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In \u003Cspan class=\"source\"\u003EMammals of South Asia—Volume I\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E (eds \u003Cspan class=\"string-name\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"surname\"\u003EJohnsingh\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\"given-names\"\u003EA.J.T.\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E & \u003Cspan class=\"string-name\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"surname\"\u003EN.\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\"given-names\"\u003EManjrekar\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E), pp. \u003Cspan class=\"fpage\"\u003E438\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E–\u003Cspan class=\"lpage\"\u003E456\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E. \u003Cspan class=\"publisher-name\"\u003EUniversities Press\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\"publisher-loc\"\u003EHyderabad, India\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E.\u003Ca class='ref-link' target='_blank' aria-label='Google Scholar link for Mammals of South Asia—Volume I' href=https:\u002F\u002Fscholar.google.com\u002Fscholar_lookup?title=Mammals+of+South+Asia%E2%80%94Volume+I&author=Yoganand+K.&author=Rice+C.G.&author=Johnsingh+A.J.T.&author=Johnsingh+A.J.T.&author=N.+Manjrekar&publication+year=2013&pages=438-456\u003EGoogle Scholar\u003C\u002Fa\u003E",item:[{googleScholarLink:"https:\u002F\u002Fscholar.google.com\u002Fscholar_lookup?title=Mammals+of+South+Asia%E2%80%94Volume+I&author=Yoganand+K.&author=Rice+C.G.&author=Johnsingh+A.J.T.&author=Johnsingh+A.J.T.&author=N.+Manjrekar&publication+year=2013&pages=438-456",openUrlParams:{genre:n,btitle:R,title:R,atitle:"Sloth bear Melursus ursinus",aulast:a,aufirst:a,au:a,pub:"Universities Press",date:o,spage:"438",epage:"456",doi:g,sid:e},innerRefId:"cite44",title:R,doi:g,crossRefLink:a,pubMedLink:a}]},{id:"ref45",displayNumber:a,existInContent:c,content:"\u003Cspan class=\"string-name\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"surname\"\u003EWeijters\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\"given-names\"\u003EB.\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\"string-name\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"surname\"\u003EBaumgartner\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\"given-names\"\u003EH.\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E & \u003Cspan class=\"string-name\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"surname\"\u003ESchillewaert\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\"given-names\"\u003EN\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E. 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Measured attitudes, with +1 indicating completely positive attitude and −1 indicating completely negative attitude towards bears, are summarized in box plots.\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E",thumbnailSrc:bw,enlargedSrc:bw,attrib:[]},{contentId:"fig03",label:"Fig. 3",description:"\u003Cspan class=\"p\"\u003EExperiences of 241 residents with sloth bears inside Mount Abu town, Rajasthan, India. Bar graphs show interviewees’ responses regarding (a) the time since bear encounters and attacks increased, (b) time since their last personal interaction with bears, and (c) the time of day they encountered bears.\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E",thumbnailSrc:bx,enlargedSrc:bx,attrib:[]},{contentId:"fig04",label:"Fig. 4",description:"\u003Cspan class=\"p\"\u003EPerceptions of 241 residents of Mount Abu town, Rajasthan, India, regarding (a) the ecology of sloth bears, particularly reasons why bears enter Mount Abu, (b) reasons why bears attack humans, and (c) what they seek in rubbish.\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E",thumbnailSrc:by,enlargedSrc:by,attrib:[]},{contentId:"fig05",label:"Fig. 5",description:"\u003Cspan class=\"p\"\u003E(a) Number of sloth bear attacks in Mount Abu town, Rajasthan, India, on humans as reported in two secondary sources, and (b) annual tourism volumes represented by the number of vehicles entering the town. Time periods follow the financial year in India (1 April–31 March).\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E",thumbnailSrc:bz,enlargedSrc:bz,attrib:[]},{contentId:"tab01",label:"Table 1",description:"\u003Cspan class=\"p\"\u003EMulti-model statistics to assess factors affecting grid cell-level sloth bear sightings in Mount Abu town, Rajasthan, India, using generalized additive modelling. Statistics include Akaike information criteria corrected for small sample sizes (AICc), difference between the best model and the respective model (ΔAICc), and individual model weights.\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E",thumbnailSrc:bA,enlargedSrc:bA,attrib:[]}]},pdf:{standardResolution:{fileUrl:"\u002Fcore\u002Fservices\u002Faop-cambridge-core\u002Fcontent\u002Fview\u002FBFE58C39E33FD05AFE5BBC36F36CEA1D\u002FS0030605320000216a.pdf\u002Fvulnerable-sloth-bears-are-attracted-to-human-food-waste-a-novel-situation-in-mount-abu-town-india.pdf",fileSizeInMb:.44,articleTitle:q,slugTitle:bB},highResolution:{fileUrl:"\u002Fcore\u002Fservices\u002Faop-cambridge-core\u002Fcontent\u002Fview\u002FBFE58C39E33FD05AFE5BBC36F36CEA1D\u002FS0030605320000216a_hi.pdf\u002Fvulnerable-sloth-bears-are-attracted-to-human-food-waste-a-novel-situation-in-mount-abu-town-india.pdf",fileSizeInMb:.86,articleTitle:q,slugTitle:bB},media:g},classification:[],supplementaryMaterials:[{title:"Prajapati et al. supplementary 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