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rendering errors. Please update your browser bookmarks and please use the default browser print function instead.</div></div><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Idea which departs from accepted scholarship in the field</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable plainlinks selfreference noprint">For the Wikipedia guideline, see <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Fringe_theories" title="Wikipedia:Fringe theories">Wikipedia:Fringe theories</a>.</div> <p>A <b>fringe theory</b> is an idea or a viewpoint that differs significantly from the accepted scholarship of the time within its field. Fringe theories include the models and proposals of <a href="/wiki/Fringe_science" title="Fringe science">fringe science</a>, as well as similar ideas in other areas of scholarship, such as the <a href="/wiki/Humanities" title="Humanities">humanities</a>. In a narrower sense, the term <i>fringe theory</i> is commonly used as a <a href="/wiki/Pejorative" title="Pejorative">pejorative</a>, roughly synonymous with the term <a href="/wiki/Pseudo-scholarship" title="Pseudo-scholarship">pseudo-scholarship</a>. Precise definitions that make distinctions between widely held viewpoints, fringe theories, and pseudo-scholarship are difficult to construct because of the <a href="/wiki/Demarcation_problem" title="Demarcation problem">demarcation problem</a>. Issues of <a href="/wiki/False_balance" title="False balance">false balance</a> or <a href="/wiki/False_equivalence" title="False equivalence">false equivalence</a> can occur when fringe theories are presented as being equal to widely accepted theories. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definitions">Definitions</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Circlon_periodic_table_excerpt.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Segment of the periodic table reformulated according to the fringe theory of "circlons" proposed by Jim Carter" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/3/35/Circlon_periodic_table_excerpt.jpeg/220px-Circlon_periodic_table_excerpt.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="215" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/3/35/Circlon_periodic_table_excerpt.jpeg 1.5x" data-file-width="320" data-file-height="312" /></a><figcaption>Part of the <a href="/wiki/Periodic_table" title="Periodic table">periodic table</a>, according to <a href="/wiki/Jim_Carter_(pseudoscientist)" title="Jim Carter (pseudoscientist)">Jim Carter</a>'s fringe theory</figcaption></figure> <p>Fringe theories are ideas which depart significantly from a prevailing or <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/mainstream" class="extiw" title="wikt:mainstream">mainstream</a> theory. A fringe theory is neither a majority opinion nor that of a respected minority.<sup id="cite_ref-Jasanoff_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jasanoff-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERundlett20135-88_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERundlett20135-88-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In general, the term <i>fringe theory</i> is closer to the popular understanding of the word <i>theory</i>—a <a href="/wiki/Hypothesis" title="Hypothesis">hypothesis</a> or a <a href="/wiki/Guess" class="mw-redirect" title="Guess">guess</a> or an uncertain idea—than to the concept of an established <a href="/wiki/Scientific_theory" title="Scientific theory">scientific theory</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Morrison_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Morrison-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although often used in the context of <a href="/wiki/Fringe_science" title="Fringe science">fringe science</a>, fringe theories have been discussed in fields of scholarship, such as <a href="/wiki/Biblical_criticism" title="Biblical criticism">Biblical criticism</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Collins_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Collins-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> history,<sup id="cite_ref-Joseph_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Joseph-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Fritze_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fritze-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> finance,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavidson2002125–126_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavidson2002125–126-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> law,<sup id="cite_ref-Bluestone_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bluestone-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> medicine,<sup id="cite_ref-Sabbagh_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sabbagh-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBatt1996206_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBatt1996206-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and politics.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEQuinn2012143_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQuinn2012143-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They even exist in fields of study which are themselves outside the mainstream, such as <a href="/wiki/Cryptozoology" title="Cryptozoology">cryptozoology</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShiel2013157_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShiel2013157-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Parapsychology" title="Parapsychology">parapsychology</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Stokes_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stokes-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Fringe theories meet with varying levels of academic acceptance.<sup id="cite_ref-Abrams_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Abrams-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Financial journalist <a href="/w/index.php?title=Alexander_Davidson_(financial_journalist)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Alexander Davidson (financial journalist) (page does not exist)">Alexander Davidson</a> characterized fringe theories as "peddled by a small band of staunch supporters," but not necessarily without merit.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavidson2002125–126_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavidson2002125–126-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Daniel_N._Robinson" title="Daniel N. Robinson">Daniel N. Robinson</a> described them as occupying "a limbo between the decisive dead end and the ultimately credible productive theory."<sup id="cite_ref-Robinson_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Robinson-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the term is also used <a href="/wiki/Pejorative" title="Pejorative">pejoratively</a>; advocates of fringe theories are dismissed as <a href="/wiki/Crank_(person)" title="Crank (person)">cranks</a> or crackpots who are out of touch with reality.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWertheim20114_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWertheim20114-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Timmer_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Timmer-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this sense, there is some overlap with other dismissive labels, such as <a href="/wiki/Pseudoarchaeology" title="Pseudoarchaeology">pseudoarchaeology</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Fritze_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fritze-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Magnusson_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Magnusson-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Pseudohistory" title="Pseudohistory">pseudohistory</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Fritze_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fritze-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">pseudoscience</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThursNumbers2013138_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThursNumbers2013138-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Describing ideas as fringe theories may be less pejorative than describing them as <a href="/wiki/Pseudoscholarship" class="mw-redirect" title="Pseudoscholarship">pseudoscholarship</a>;<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFritze200918_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFritze200918-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while it is unlikely that anyone would identify their own work as pseudoscience,<sup id="cite_ref-Hansson_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hansson-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Astrologer" class="mw-redirect" title="Astrologer">astrologer</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=David_Cochrane_(astrologer)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="David Cochrane (astrologer) (page does not exist)">David Cochrane</a> is "proud to be a fringe theorist."<sup id="cite_ref-Cochrane_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cochrane-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The term is also used to describe <a href="/wiki/Conspiracy_theory" title="Conspiracy theory">conspiracy theories</a>. Such theories "explain" historical or political events as the work of a powerful secret organization — "a vast, insidious, preternaturally effective international conspiratorial network," according to <a href="/wiki/Richard_Hofstadter" title="Richard Hofstadter">Richard Hofstadter</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Hofstadter_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hofstadter-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The conspirators are possessed of "almost superhuman power and cunning," as described by historian <a href="/w/index.php?title=Esther_Webman&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Esther Webman (page does not exist)">Esther Webman</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWebman20118_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWebman20118-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Margaret_Wertheim" title="Margaret Wertheim">Margaret Wertheim</a> suggested that fringe theories should be treated in a manner similar to <a href="/wiki/Outsider_art" title="Outsider art">outsider art</a>. In 2003 she curated an exhibit at the <a href="/wiki/Santa_Monica_Museum_of_Art" class="mw-redirect" title="Santa Monica Museum of Art">Santa Monica Museum of Art</a> which was dedicated to the work of pseudoscientist <a href="/wiki/Jim_Carter_(pseudoscientist)" title="Jim Carter (pseudoscientist)">Jim Carter</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWertheim201111–12,_44_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWertheim201111–12,_44-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Demarcation_problem">Demarcation problem</h3></div> <p>Wertheim wrote that a "credentialed physicist ... can generally recognize a fringe theory by sight" when it comes in the form of an eccentrically formatted manuscript.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWertheim20114_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWertheim20114-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, it is difficult to distinguish between fringe theories and respected minority theories. A workable definition of what constitutes a fringe theory may not actually be possible.<sup id="cite_ref-Jasanoff_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jasanoff-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERundlett20135-88_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERundlett20135-88-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is an aspect of the <a href="/wiki/Demarcation_problem" title="Demarcation problem">demarcation problem</a> that occurs within both <a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">science</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Humanities" title="Humanities">humanities</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHansson201364–65_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansson201364–65-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Geologist <a href="/w/index.php?title=Steven_Dutch&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Steven Dutch (page does not exist)">Steven Dutch</a> approached the demarcation problem by dividing scientific ideas into three categories: fringe, frontier, and center, based upon their adherence to scientific methodology and their level of acceptance.<sup id="cite_ref-Dutch_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dutch-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Later authors, including <a href="/w/index.php?title=Richard_Duschl&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Richard Duschl (page does not exist)">Richard Duschl</a>, expanded these categories. Under Duschl's system, a fringe theory is a mix of legitimate new ideas and pseudoscience; it awaits analysis to determine whether it will pass into the "frontier" or be rejected entirely.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEErduranDagher2013117_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEErduranDagher2013117-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mainstream_acceptance_of_fringe_theories">Mainstream acceptance of fringe theories</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Alfred_Wegener_ca.1924-30.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Alfred Wegener" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Alfred_Wegener_ca.1924-30.jpg/170px-Alfred_Wegener_ca.1924-30.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="206" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Alfred_Wegener_ca.1924-30.jpg/255px-Alfred_Wegener_ca.1924-30.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Alfred_Wegener_ca.1924-30.jpg/340px-Alfred_Wegener_ca.1924-30.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1224" data-file-height="1480" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Wegener" title="Alfred Wegener">Alfred Wegener</a> advanced the theory of continental drift, a fringe theory which was later adopted by mainstream science.</figcaption></figure> <p>Most fringe theories never become part of established scholarship.<sup id="cite_ref-Timmer_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Timmer-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rejected ideas may help to refine mainstream thought,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEUllmann-Margalit200620_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUllmann-Margalit200620-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but most outside theories are simply incorrect and have no wider impact.<sup id="cite_ref-Timmer_17-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Timmer-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nevertheless, some ideas gradually receive wider acceptance until they are no longer viewed as fringe theories, and occasionally, such theories even become the mainstream view. </p><p>A widely known example is <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Wegener" title="Alfred Wegener">Alfred Wegener</a>'s theory of <a href="/wiki/Continental_drift" title="Continental drift">continental drift</a>, which eventually served as the basis for the accepted model of <a href="/wiki/Plate_tectonics" title="Plate tectonics">plate tectonics</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Timmer_17-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Timmer-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBell2005138_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBell2005138-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other ideas that have made the transition include the <a href="/wiki/Germ_theory_of_disease" title="Germ theory of disease">germ theory of disease</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVelasquez-Manoff201340_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVelasquez-Manoff201340-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Kristian_Birkeland" title="Kristian Birkeland">Birkeland's</a> explanation of the <a href="/wiki/Aurora" title="Aurora">aurora</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJago2002270–272_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJago2002270–272-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Prion" title="Prion">prions</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Timmer_17-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Timmer-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Complexity_theory_and_organizations" title="Complexity theory and organizations">complexity theory</a> in <a href="/wiki/Project_management" title="Project management">project management</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECurleeGordon2013198_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECurleeGordon2013198-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Behavioral_finance" class="mw-redirect" title="Behavioral finance">Behavioral finance</a> was described in a 2002 journal article as "at the fringe of ... modern financial theory",<sup id="cite_ref-Leong_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Leong-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but it has since been widely applied in many fields of business.<sup id="cite_ref-Steverman_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Steverman-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Sometimes, the change is not gradual but represents a <a href="/wiki/Paradigm_shift" title="Paradigm shift">paradigm shift</a>. Writing for the <i><a href="/wiki/New_York_Law_Journal" title="New York Law Journal">New York Law Journal</a></i>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Andrew_Bluestone&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Andrew Bluestone (page does not exist)">Andrew Bluestone</a> described how a single court case in New York changed the use of an obscure <a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">common law</a> statute regarding <a href="/wiki/Attorney_misconduct" title="Attorney misconduct">attorney misconduct</a> from a "fringe theory of law" to an accepted, mainstream cause for legal action in the state.<sup id="cite_ref-Bluestone_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bluestone-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Conversely, former mainstream theories such as <a href="/wiki/Phlogiston_theory" title="Phlogiston theory">phlogiston</a> and <a href="/wiki/Luminiferous_aether" title="Luminiferous aether">luminiferous aether</a> may be <a href="/wiki/Superseded_scientific_theories" class="mw-redirect" title="Superseded scientific theories">superseded</a> and relegated to the fringe.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShermer2013220–221_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShermer2013220–221-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Such shifts between fringe theory and accepted theories are not always clear-cut. In 1963, <a href="/wiki/Reuben_Fine" title="Reuben Fine">Reuben Fine</a> wrote that mainstream psychology had adopted aspects of <a href="/wiki/Sigmund_Freud" title="Sigmund Freud">Sigmund Freud</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Psychoanalysis" title="Psychoanalysis">psychoanalysis</a> but that many students of the discipline believed psychoanalysis to be a "lunatic fringe theory which has little to do with scientific psychology,"<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFine2013228_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFine2013228-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and psychoanalysis is now generally considered discredited, according to author <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Crews" title="Frederick Crews">Frederick Crews</a> who stated, "if you consult psychology faculties in top American universities, you will find almost no one now who believes in the Freudian system of thought. As a research paradigm it's pretty much dead."<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="False_balance">False balance</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/False_balance" title="False balance">False balance</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/News_media" title="News media">news media</a> may play a role in the dissemination and popularization of fringe theories. The media sometimes reduce complex topics to two sides and frame issues in terms of an <a href="/wiki/Underdog_(term)" class="mw-redirect" title="Underdog (term)">underdog</a> challenger fighting the mainstream theory. <a href="/wiki/Biblical_studies" title="Biblical studies">Biblical scholar</a> Matthew Collins wrote that this simplification can be "both misrepresentative and misleading, especially when a far-fetched fringe theory is, in the name of neutrality and fairness, elevated to the role of equally legitimate contender."<sup id="cite_ref-Collins_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Collins-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This <a href="/wiki/False_balance" title="False balance">false equivalence</a> can become the expected media behavior. When <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i> published an article strongly supporting the mainstream scientific stance on <a href="/wiki/Thiomersal_and_vaccines" title="Thiomersal and vaccines">thiomersal and vaccines</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Harris_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Harris-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> others in the media condemned the <i>Times</i> for portraying the <a href="/wiki/Vaccines_and_autism" title="Vaccines and autism">alleged vaccine-autism connection</a> as a fringe theory, calling the article a "hit piece".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOffit2010182_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOffit2010182-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Issues of false balance also arise in education, especially in the context of the <a href="/wiki/Creation%E2%80%93evolution_controversy" class="mw-redirect" title="Creation–evolution controversy">creation–evolution controversy</a>. <a href="/wiki/Creationism" title="Creationism">Creationism</a> has been discredited as a fringe theory akin to <a href="/wiki/Lamarckism" title="Lamarckism">Lamarckism</a> or the cosmology of <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Velikovsky" title="Immanuel Velikovsky">Immanuel Velikovsky</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Worlds_in_Collision" title="Worlds in Collision">Worlds in Collision</a></i>. Because advocates of creationism want schools to present only their preferred alternative, not the entire variety of minority views, they have attempted to portray scholarship on the issue as being equally divided between only two models.<sup id="cite_ref-Edwords_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Edwords-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Wexler_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wexler-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Jasanoff-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Jasanoff_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Jasanoff_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFJasanoff1992" class="citation journal cs1">Jasanoff, Sheila (1992). 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University of Chicago Press. pp. 203–224. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-05196-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-05196-3"><bdi>978-0-226-05196-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Science+and+Pseudoscience&rft.btitle=Philosophy+of+Pseudoscience%3A+Reconsidering+the+Demarcation+Problem&rft.pages=203-224&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-226-05196-3&rft.aulast=Shermer&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFringe+theory" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShiel2013" class="citation book cs1">Shiel, Lisa A. (2013). <i>Forbidden Bigfoot: Exposing the Controversial Truth about Sasquatch, Stick Signs, UFOs, Human Origins, and the Strange Phenomena in Our Own Backyards</i>. Jacobsville Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-934631-29-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-934631-29-4"><bdi>978-1-934631-29-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Forbidden+Bigfoot%3A+Exposing+the+Controversial+Truth+about+Sasquatch%2C+Stick+Signs%2C+UFOs%2C+Human+Origins%2C+and+the+Strange+Phenomena+in+Our+Own+Backyards&rft.pub=Jacobsville+Books&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-934631-29-4&rft.aulast=Shiel&rft.aufirst=Lisa+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFringe+theory" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThursNumbers2013" class="citation book cs1">Thurs, Daniel L.; Numbers, Ronald L. (2013). "Science, Pseudoscience, and Science Falsely So-Called". In <a href="/wiki/Massimo_Pigliucci" title="Massimo Pigliucci">Pigliucci, Massimo</a>; <a href="/wiki/Maarten_Boudry" title="Maarten Boudry">Boudry, Maarten</a> (eds.). <i>Philosophy of Pseudoscience: Reconsidering the Demarcation Problem</i>. University of Chicago Press. pp. 121–144. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-05196-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-05196-3"><bdi>978-0-226-05196-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Science%2C+Pseudoscience%2C+and+Science+Falsely+So-Called&rft.btitle=Philosophy+of+Pseudoscience%3A+Reconsidering+the+Demarcation+Problem&rft.pages=121-144&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-226-05196-3&rft.aulast=Thurs&rft.aufirst=Daniel+L.&rft.au=Numbers%2C+Ronald+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFringe+theory" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUllmann-Margalit2006" class="citation book cs1">Ullmann-Margalit, Edna (2006). <i>Out of the Cave: A Philosophical Inquiry into the Dead Sea Scrolls Research</i>. Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-02223-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-02223-2"><bdi>978-0-674-02223-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Out+of+the+Cave%3A+A+Philosophical+Inquiry+into+the+Dead+Sea+Scrolls+Research&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-674-02223-2&rft.aulast=Ullmann-Margalit&rft.aufirst=Edna&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFringe+theory" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVelasquez-Manoff2013" class="citation book cs1">Velasquez-Manoff, Moises (2013) [2012]. <i>An Epidemic of Absence: A New Way of Understanding Allergies and Autoimmune Diseases</i> (Reprint ed.). Scribner. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4391-9939-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4391-9939-8"><bdi>978-1-4391-9939-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Epidemic+of+Absence%3A+A+New+Way+of+Understanding+Allergies+and+Autoimmune+Diseases&rft.edition=Reprint&rft.pub=Scribner&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-4391-9939-8&rft.aulast=Velasquez-Manoff&rft.aufirst=Moises&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFringe+theory" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWebman2011" class="citation book cs1">Webman, Esther (2011). "Introduction—hate and absurdity: the impact of <i>The Protocols of the Elders of Zion</i>". In Webman, Esther (ed.). <i>The Global Impact of the Protocols of the Elders of Zion: A Century-Old Myth</i>. Routledge Jewish Studies Series. Routledge. pp. 1–24. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-59892-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-59892-7"><bdi>978-0-415-59892-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction%E2%80%94hate+and+absurdity%3A+the+impact+of+The+Protocols+of+the+Elders+of+Zion&rft.btitle=The+Global+Impact+of+the+Protocols+of+the+Elders+of+Zion%3A+A+Century-Old+Myth&rft.series=Routledge+Jewish+Studies+Series&rft.pages=1-24&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-415-59892-7&rft.aulast=Webman&rft.aufirst=Esther&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFringe+theory" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWertheim2011" class="citation book cs1">Wertheim, Margaret (2011). <i>Physics on the Fringe: Smoke Rings, Circlons, and Alternative Theories of Everything</i>. Walker Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8027-7872-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8027-7872-7"><bdi>978-0-8027-7872-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Physics+on+the+Fringe%3A+Smoke+Rings%2C+Circlons%2C+and+Alternative+Theories+of+Everything&rft.pub=Walker+Books&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-8027-7872-7&rft.aulast=Wertheim&rft.aufirst=Margaret&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFringe+theory" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid 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4em"><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_epistemologists" title="List of epistemologists">Epistemologists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine of Hippo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Alston" title="William Alston">William Alston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Audi" title="Robert Audi">Robert Audi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._J._Ayer" title="A. J. Ayer">A. J. Ayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">George Berkeley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laurence_BonJour" title="Laurence BonJour">Laurence BonJour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilles_Deleuze" title="Gilles Deleuze">Gilles Deleuze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keith_DeRose" title="Keith DeRose">Keith DeRose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">John Dewey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Dretske" title="Fred Dretske">Fred Dretske</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Gettier" title="Edmund Gettier">Edmund Gettier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Goldman" title="Alvin Goldman">Alvin Goldman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nelson_Goodman" title="Nelson Goodman">Nelson Goodman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Grice" title="Paul Grice">Paul Grice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anil_Gupta_(philosopher)" title="Anil Gupta (philosopher)">Anil Gupta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susan_Haack" title="Susan Haack">Susan Haack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Søren Kierkegaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_D._Klein" title="Peter D. Klein">Peter Klein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saul_Kripke" title="Saul Kripke">Saul Kripke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hilary_Kornblith" title="Hilary Kornblith">Hilary Kornblith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Lewis_(philosopher)" title="David Lewis (philosopher)">David Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">G. E. Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_McDowell" title="John McDowell">John McDowell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Nozick" title="Robert Nozick">Robert Nozick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Plantinga" title="Alvin Plantinga">Alvin Plantinga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duncan_Pritchard" title="Duncan Pritchard">Duncan Pritchard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Pryor" title="James Pryor">James Pryor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hilary_Putnam" title="Hilary Putnam">Hilary Putnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">W. V. O. Quine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Reid" title="Thomas Reid">Thomas Reid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Ryle" title="Gilbert Ryle">Gilbert Ryle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilfrid_Sellars" title="Wilfrid Sellars">Wilfrid Sellars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susanna_Siegel" title="Susanna Siegel">Susanna Siegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Sosa" title="Ernest Sosa">Ernest Sosa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P._F._Strawson" title="P. F. Strawson">P. F. Strawson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timothy_Williamson" title="Timothy Williamson">Timothy Williamson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Ludwig Wittgenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Wolterstorff" title="Nicholas Wolterstorff">Nicholas Wolterstorff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_Circle" title="Vienna Circle">Vienna Circle</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_epistemologists" title="List of epistemologists">more...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Epistemological_theories" title="Category:Epistemological theories">Theories</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructivist_epistemology" class="mw-redirect" title="Constructivist epistemology">Constructivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contextualism" title="Contextualism">Contextualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_epistemology" title="Evolutionary epistemology">Evolutionary epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallibilism" title="Fallibilism">Fallibilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_epistemology" title="Feminist epistemology">Feminist epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fideism" title="Fideism">Fideism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_holism" title="Semantic holism">Holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infinitism" title="Infinitism">Infinitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Innatism" title="Innatism">Innatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Na%C3%AFve_realism" title="Naïve realism">Naïve realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Naturalized epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenalism" title="Phenomenalism">Phenomenalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reliabilism" title="Reliabilism">Reliabilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_and_indirect_realism" title="Direct and indirect realism">Representational realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism" title="Philosophical skepticism">Skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_idealism" title="Transcendental idealism">Transcendental idealism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Concepts_in_epistemology" title="Category:Concepts in epistemology">Concepts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori"><i>A priori</i> knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori"><i>A posteriori</i> knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_analysis" title="Philosophical analysis">Analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytic%E2%80%93synthetic_distinction" title="Analytic–synthetic distinction">Analytic–synthetic distinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belief" title="Belief">Belief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_sense" title="Common sense">Common sense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Descriptive_knowledge" class="mw-redirect" title="Descriptive knowledge">Descriptive knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exploratory_thought" title="Exploratory thought">Exploratory thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemic_injustice" title="Epistemic injustice">Epistemic injustice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemic_virtue" title="Epistemic virtue">Epistemic virtue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gettier_problem" title="Gettier problem">Gettier problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning">Induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internalism_and_externalism" title="Internalism and externalism">Internalism and externalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justification_(epistemology)" title="Justification (epistemology)">Justification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">Knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privileged_access" class="mw-redirect" title="Privileged access">Privileged access</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_induction" title="Problem of induction">Problem of induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_other_minds" title="Problem of other minds">Problem of other minds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">Perception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Procedural_knowledge" title="Procedural knowledge">Procedural knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proposition" title="Proposition">Proposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regress_argument" class="mw-redirect" title="Regress argument">Regress argument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simplicity" title="Simplicity">Simplicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">Truth</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Index_of_epistemology_articles" title="Index of epistemology articles">more...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_epistemology" title="Outline of epistemology">Outline of epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith_and_rationality" title="Faith and rationality">Faith and rationality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formal_epistemology" title="Formal epistemology">Formal epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaepistemology" title="Metaepistemology">Metaepistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_perception" title="Philosophy of perception">Philosophy of perception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_epistemology" title="Social epistemology">Social epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_epistemology" title="Virtue epistemology">Virtue epistemology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Epistemology" title="Category:Epistemology">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Philosophy/Epistemology" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Philosophy/Epistemology">Task Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy_stubs" title="Category:Philosophy stubs">Stubs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia_talk:WikiProject_Philosophy" title="Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Philosophy">Discussion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Pseudoscience" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Pseudoscience" title="Template:Pseudoscience"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Pseudoscience" title="Template talk:Pseudoscience"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Pseudoscience" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Pseudoscience"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Pseudoscience" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">Pseudoscience</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience" title="List of topics characterized as pseudoscience">List of topics characterized as pseudoscience</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Terminology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cargo_cult_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Cargo cult science">Cargo cult science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charlatan" title="Charlatan">Charlatan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crank_(person)" title="Crank (person)">Crank</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Fringe theory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fringe_science" title="Fringe science">Fringe science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoarchaeology" title="Pseudoarchaeology">Pseudoarchaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudohistory" title="Pseudohistory">Pseudohistory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudomathematics" title="Pseudomathematics">Pseudomathematics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Junk_science" title="Junk science">Junk science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paranormal" title="Paranormal">Paranormal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pathological_science" title="Pathological science">Pathological science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quackery" title="Quackery">Quackery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snake_oil" title="Snake oil">Snake oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superseded_theories_in_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Superseded theories in science">Superseded scientific theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/True-believer_syndrome" title="True-believer syndrome">True-believer syndrome</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Voodoo_Science" title="Voodoo Science">Voodoo Science</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience" title="List of topics characterized as pseudoscience">Topics <br />characterized as <br />pseudoscience</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Medicine</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acupuncture" title="Acupuncture">Acupuncture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aromatherapy" title="Aromatherapy">Aromatherapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adrenal_fatigue" title="Adrenal fatigue">Adrenal fatigue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_medicine" title="Alternative medicine">Alternative medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthroposophic_medicine" title="Anthroposophic medicine">Anthroposophic medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Applied_kinesiology" title="Applied kinesiology">Applied kinesiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayurveda" title="Ayurveda">Ayurveda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bates_method" title="Bates method">Bates method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biorhythm_(pseudoscience)" title="Biorhythm (pseudoscience)">Biorhythms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bloodletting" title="Bloodletting">Bloodletting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Body_memory" title="Body memory">Body memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chiropractic" title="Chiropractic">Chiropractic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromotherapy" title="Chromotherapy">Chromotherapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Correactology" title="Correactology">Correactology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryonics" title="Cryonics">Cryonics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crystal_healing" title="Crystal healing">Crystal healing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cupping_therapy" title="Cupping therapy">Cupping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detoxification_(alternative_medicine)" title="Detoxification (alternative medicine)">Detoxification</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colon_cleansing" title="Colon cleansing">Colon cleansing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doctrine_of_signatures" title="Doctrine of signatures">Doctrine of signatures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doktor_Koster%27s_Antigaspills" title="Doktor Koster's Antigaspills">Doktor Koster's Antigaspills</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ear_candling" title="Ear candling">Ear candling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_hypersensitivity" title="Electromagnetic hypersensitivity">Electromagnetic hypersensitivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_medicine" title="Energy medicine">Energy medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fad_diet" title="Fad diet">Fad diet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FasciaBlaster" title="FasciaBlaster">FasciaBlaster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germ_theory_denialism" title="Germ theory denialism">Germ theory denialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_denialism" title="HIV/AIDS denialism">HIV/AIDS denialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homeopathy" title="Homeopathy">Homeopathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humorism" title="Humorism">Humorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iridology" title="Iridology">Iridology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leaky_gut_syndrome" title="Leaky gut syndrome">Leaky gut syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lunar_effect" title="Lunar effect">Lunar effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macrobiotic_diet" title="Macrobiotic diet">Macrobiotic diet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnet_therapy" title="Magnet therapy">Magnet therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miracle_Mineral_Supplement" title="Miracle Mineral Supplement">Miracle Mineral Supplement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturopathy" title="Naturopathy">Naturopathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palmistry" title="Palmistry">Palmistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panchagavya" title="Panchagavya">Panchagavya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patent_medicine" title="Patent medicine">Patent medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phrenology" title="Phrenology">Phrenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primal_therapy" title="Primal therapy">Primal therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radionics" title="Radionics">Radionics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reiki" title="Reiki">Reiki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_medicine" title="Traditional medicine">Traditional medicine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_medicine" title="Traditional Chinese medicine">Traditional Chinese medicine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trepanning" title="Trepanning">Trepanning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vertebral_subluxation" title="Vertebral subluxation">Vertebral subluxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_turbine_syndrome" title="Wind turbine syndrome">Wind turbine syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Young_blood_transfusion" title="Young blood transfusion">Young blood transfusion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Social science</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2012_phenomenon" title="2012 phenomenon">2012 phenomenon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_astronauts" title="Ancient astronauts">Ancient astronauts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamal_Salibi#Arabian_Judah_theory" title="Kamal Salibi">Arabian Judah theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catastrophism" title="Catastrophism">Catastrophism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conspiracy_theory" title="Conspiracy theory">Conspiracy theory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/5G#Misinformation_and_controversy" title="5G">5G conspiracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/9/11_conspiracy_theories" title="9/11 conspiracy theories">9/11 conspiracy theories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemtrail_conspiracy_theory" title="Chemtrail conspiracy theory">Chemtrail conspiracy theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_denial" title="Climate change denial">Climate change denial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_misinformation" title="COVID-19 misinformation">COVID-19 misinformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moon_landing_conspiracy_theories" title="Moon landing conspiracy theories">Moon landing conspiracy theories</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conversion_therapy" title="Conversion therapy">Conversion therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generation#Generational_theory" title="Generation">Generational theory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Generationism" title="Generationism">Generationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strauss%E2%80%93Howe_generational_theory" title="Strauss–Howe generational theory">Strauss–Howe generational theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hollow_Earth" title="Hollow Earth">Hollow Earth theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigo_children" title="Indigo children">Indigo children</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japhetic_theory" title="Japhetic theory">Japhetic theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mediumship" title="Mediumship">Mediumship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_archaeology" title="Nazi archaeology">Nazi archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nibiru_cataclysm" title="Nibiru cataclysm">Nibiru cataclysm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parapsychology" title="Parapsychology">Parapsychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoarchaeology" title="Pseudoarchaeology">Pseudoarchaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudohistory" title="Pseudohistory">Pseudohistory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genocide_denial" title="Genocide denial">Genocide denial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_negationism" title="Historical negationism">Historical negationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_denial" title="Holocaust denial">Holocaust denial</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudolaw" title="Pseudolaw">Pseudolaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recovered-memory_therapy" title="Recovered-memory therapy">Recovered-memory therapy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Past_life_regression" title="Past life regression">Past life regression</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_racism" title="Scientific racism">Scientific racism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aryan_race" title="Aryan race">Aryan race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melanin_theory" title="Melanin theory">Melanin theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myers%E2%80%93Briggs_Type_Indicator" title="Myers–Briggs Type Indicator">Myers–Briggs Type Indicator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enneagram_of_Personality" title="Enneagram of Personality">Enneagram of Personality</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Physics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-gravity" title="Anti-gravity">Anti-gravity‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_fusion" title="Cold fusion">Cold fusion‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faster-than-light" title="Faster-than-light">Faster-than-light travel</a>‎</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perpetual_motion" title="Perpetual motion">Perpetual motion</a>‎</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_mysticism" title="Quantum mysticism">Quantum mysticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reactionless_drive" title="Reactionless drive">Reactionless drive</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dean_drive" title="Dean drive">Dean drive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EmDrive" title="EmDrive">EMDrive</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teleportation" title="Teleportation">Teleportation‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tractor_beam" title="Tractor beam">Tractor beam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water-fueled_car" class="mw-redirect" title="Water-fueled car">Water-fueled car</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alchemy" title="Alchemy">Alchemy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_ape_hypothesis" title="Aquatic ape hypothesis">Aquatic ape hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrology" title="Astrology">Astrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biodynamic_agriculture" title="Biodynamic agriculture">Biodynamic agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_transmutation" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological transmutation">Biological transmutation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creation_science" title="Creation science">Creation science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryptozoology" title="Cryptozoology">Cryptozoology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dianetics" title="Dianetics">Dianetics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Auditing_(Scientology)" title="Auditing (Scientology)">Auditing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dowsing" title="Dowsing">Dowsing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_voice_phenomenon" title="Electronic voice phenomenon">Electronic voice phenomenon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugenics" title="Eugenics">Eugenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Facilitated_communication" title="Facilitated communication">Facilitated communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feng_shui" title="Feng shui">Feng shui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flat_Earth" title="Flat Earth">Flat Earth theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graphology" title="Graphology">Graphology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intelligent_design" title="Intelligent design">Intelligent design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laundry_ball" title="Laundry ball">Laundry ball</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_attraction_(New_Thought)" title="Law of attraction (New Thought)">Law of attraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levitation_(paranormal)" title="Levitation (paranormal)">Levitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lysenkoism" title="Lysenkoism">Lysenkoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numerology" title="Numerology">Numerology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orgone" title="Orgone">Orgone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polygraph" title="Polygraph">Polygraph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoscientific_metrology" title="Pseudoscientific metrology">Pseudoscientific metrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rapid_prompting_method" title="Rapid prompting method">Rapid prompting method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statement_analysis" title="Statement analysis">Statement analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ufology" title="Ufology">Ufology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voice_stress_analysis" title="Voice stress analysis">Voice stress analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_memory" title="Water memory">Water memory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Promoters of<br />pseudoscience</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sucharit_Bhakdi" title="Sucharit Bhakdi">Sucharit Bhakdi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Del_Bigtree" title="Del Bigtree">Del Bigtree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Igor_and_Grichka_Bogdanoff" title="Igor and Grichka Bogdanoff">Igor and Grichka Bogdanoff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brigitte_Boisselier" title="Brigitte Boisselier">Brigitte Boisselier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhonda_Byrne" title="Rhonda Byrne">Rhonda Byrne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Charroux" title="Robert Charroux">Robert Charroux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deepak_Chopra" title="Deepak Chopra">Deepak Chopra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clonaid" title="Clonaid">Clonaid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vernon_Coleman" title="Vernon Coleman">Vernon Coleman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ignatius_L._Donnelly" title="Ignatius L. Donnelly">Ignatius L. Donnelly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaia,_Inc." title="Gaia, Inc.">Gaia, Inc.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Gerson" title="Max Gerson">Max Gerson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Gonzalez_(physician)" title="Nicholas Gonzalez (physician)">Nicholas Gonzalez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goop_(company)" title="Goop (company)">Goop (company)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graham_Hancock" title="Graham Hancock">Graham Hancock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Icke" title="David Icke">David Icke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Donald_Kelley" title="William Donald Kelley">William Donald Kelley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_F._Kennedy_Jr." title="Robert F. Kennedy Jr.">Robert F. Kennedy Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corentin_Louis_Kervran" title="Corentin Louis Kervran">Corentin Louis Kervran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Light_(newspaper)" title="The Light (newspaper)">The Light (newspaper)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mike_Lindell" title="Mike Lindell">Mike Lindell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jenny_McCarthy" title="Jenny McCarthy">Jenny McCarthy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Mercola" title="Joseph Mercola">Joseph Mercola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judy_Mikovits" title="Judy Mikovits">Judy Mikovits</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Ayush" title="Ministry of Ayush">Ministry of Ayush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodor_Morell" title="Theodor Morell">Theodor Morell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Alfred_Nieper" title="Hans Alfred Nieper">Hans Alfred Nieper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mehmet_Oz" title="Mehmet Oz">Mehmet Oz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ra%C3%ABl" title="Raël">Raël</a> (<a href="/wiki/Claude_Vorilhon" class="mw-redirect" title="Claude Vorilhon">Claude Vorilhon</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robby_Starbuck" title="Robby Starbuck">Robby Starbuck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Randolph_Stone" title="Randolph Stone">Randolph Stone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Joseph_Watson" title="Paul Joseph Watson">Paul Joseph Watson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Wakefield" title="Andrew Wakefield">Andrew Wakefield</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bogdanov_affair" title="Bogdanov affair">Bogdanov affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bourgeois_pseudoscience" title="Bourgeois pseudoscience">Bourgeois pseudoscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demarcation_problem" title="Demarcation problem">Demarcation problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">Scientific method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suppressed_research_in_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Suppressed research in the Soviet Union">Suppressed research in the Soviet Union</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Resources</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Committee_for_Skeptical_Inquiry" title="Committee for Skeptical Inquiry">Committee for Skeptical Inquiry</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cults_of_Unreason" title="Cults of Unreason">Cults of Unreason</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/An_Encyclopedia_of_Claims,_Frauds,_and_Hoaxes_of_the_Occult_and_Supernatural" title="An Encyclopedia of Claims, Frauds, and Hoaxes of the Occult and Supernatural">An Encyclopedia of Claims, Frauds, and Hoaxes of the Occult and Supernatural</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Fads_and_Fallacies_in_the_Name_of_Science" title="Fads and Fallacies in the Name of Science">Fads and Fallacies in the Name of Science</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Fortean_Times" title="Fortean Times">Fortean Times</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Randi_Educational_Foundation" title="James Randi Educational Foundation">James Randi Educational Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quackwatch" title="Quackwatch">Quackwatch</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Skeptical_Inquirer" title="Skeptical Inquirer">Skeptical Inquirer</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Demon-Haunted_World" title="The Demon-Haunted World">The Demon-Haunted World</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Natural_History_of_Quackery" class="mw-redirect" title="The Natural History of Quackery">The Natural History of Quackery</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Psychology_of_the_Occult" title="The Psychology of the Occult">The Psychology of the Occult</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Ragged_Edge_of_Science" title="The Ragged Edge of Science">The Ragged Edge of Science</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Skeptic_Encyclopedia_of_Pseudoscience" title="The Skeptic Encyclopedia of Pseudoscience">The Skeptic Encyclopedia of Pseudoscience</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Skeptic%27s_Dictionary" title="The Skeptic's Dictionary">The Skeptic's Dictionary</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; 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