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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Background"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Background</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Background-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Establishment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Establishment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Establishment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Establishment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rise" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rise"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Rise</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rise-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ptolemy_I" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ptolemy_I"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.1</span> <span>Ptolemy I</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ptolemy_I-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ptolemy_II" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ptolemy_II"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.2</span> <span>Ptolemy II</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ptolemy_II-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ptolemy_III_Euergetes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ptolemy_III_Euergetes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.3</span> <span>Ptolemy III Euergetes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ptolemy_III_Euergetes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Decline" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Decline"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Decline</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Decline-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ptolemy_IV" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ptolemy_IV"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4.1</span> <span>Ptolemy IV</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ptolemy_IV-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Great_Theban_Revolt" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Great_Theban_Revolt"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4.2</span> <span>Great Theban Revolt</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Great_Theban_Revolt-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ptolemy_V_Epiphanes_and_Ptolemy_VI_Philometor" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ptolemy_V_Epiphanes_and_Ptolemy_VI_Philometor"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4.3</span> <span>Ptolemy V Epiphanes and Ptolemy VI Philometor</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ptolemy_V_Epiphanes_and_Ptolemy_VI_Philometor-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Later_Ptolemies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Later_Ptolemies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Later Ptolemies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Later_Ptolemies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Final_years" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Final_years"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.6</span> <span>Final years</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Final_years-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Cleopatra_VII" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cleopatra_VII"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.6.1</span> <span>Cleopatra VII</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cleopatra_VII-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Roman_rule" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Roman_rule"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.6.2</span> <span>Roman rule</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Roman_rule-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Culture</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Culture-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Culture subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Art" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Art"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Art</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Art-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Religion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Society" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Society"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Society</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Society-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Coinage" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Coinage"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Coinage</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Coinage-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Military" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Military"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Military</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Military-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Military subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Military-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Army" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Army"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Army</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Army-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Navy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Navy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Navy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Navy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cities" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cities"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Cities</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Cities-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Cities subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Cities-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Naucratis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Naucratis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Naucratis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Naucratis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Alexandria" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Alexandria"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Alexandria</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Alexandria-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ptolemais" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ptolemais"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Ptolemais</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ptolemais-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Demographics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Demographics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Demographics</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Demographics-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Demographics subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Demographics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Jews" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jews"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Jews</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jews-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Arabs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arabs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Arabs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Arabs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Agriculture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Agriculture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Agriculture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Agriculture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-List_of_Ptolemaic_rulers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#List_of_Ptolemaic_rulers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>List of Ptolemaic rulers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-List_of_Ptolemaic_rulers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Ptolemaic Kingdom</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 56 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-56" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">56 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptoleme%C3%AFese_Ryk" title="Ptolemeïese Ryk – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Ptolemeïese Ryk" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%85%D9%84%D9%83%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D8%B7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="المملكة البطلمية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="المملكة البطلمية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Periodu_helen%C3%ADsticu_d%27Exiptu" title="Periodu helenísticu d'Exiptu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Periodu helenísticu d'Exiptu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%9F%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC_%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF" title="টলেমীয় রাজ্য – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="টলেমীয় রাজ্য" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemaios_%C3%94ng-kok" title="Ptolemaios Ông-kok – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Ptolemaios Ông-kok" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BD%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8B%D1%87%D0%BD%D1%8B_%D0%95%D0%B3%D1%96%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%82" title="Эліністычны Егіпет – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Эліністычны Егіпет" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%95%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%82" title="Елинистически Египет – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Елинистически Египет" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Per%C3%ADode_hel%C2%B7len%C3%ADstic_d%27Egipte" title="Període hel·lenístic d'Egipte – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Període hel·lenístic d'Egipte" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemaiovsk%C3%BD_Egypt" title="Ptolemaiovský Egypt – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Ptolemaiovský Egypt" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolem%C3%A6iske_Kongerige" title="Ptolemæiske Kongerige – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Ptolemæiske Kongerige" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemaioste_riik" title="Ptolemaioste riik – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Ptolemaioste riik" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%92%CE%B1%CF%83%CE%AF%CE%BB%CE%B5%CE%B9%CE%BF_%CF%84%CF%89%CE%BD_%CE%A0%CF%84%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%B5%CE%BC%CE%B1%CE%AF%CF%89%CE%BD" title="Βασίλειο των Πτολεμαίων – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Βασίλειο των Πτολεμαίων" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Per%C3%ADodo_helen%C3%ADstico_de_Egipto" title="Período helenístico de Egipto – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Período helenístico de Egipto" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemea_Regno" title="Ptolemea Regno – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Ptolemea Regno" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolomeotar_Erresuma" title="Ptolomeotar Erresuma – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Ptolomeotar Erresuma" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%BE%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B1%DB%8C_%D8%A8%D8%B7%D9%84%D9%85%DB%8C%D9%88%D8%B3%DB%8C" title="امپراتوری بطلمیوسی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="امپراتوری بطلمیوسی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royaume_lagide" title="Royaume lagide – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Royaume lagide" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%94%84%ED%86%A8%EB%A0%88%EB%A7%88%EC%9D%B4%EC%98%A4%EC%8A%A4_%EC%99%95%EA%B5%AD" title="프톨레마이오스 왕국 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="프톨레마이오스 왕국" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8A%D5%BF%D5%B2%D5%B8%D5%B4%D5%A5%D5%B8%D5%BD%D5%B5%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D4%B5%D5%A3%D5%AB%D5%BA%D5%BF%D5%B8%D5%BD" title="Պտղոմեոսյան Եգիպտոս – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Պտղոմեոսյան Եգիպտոս" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemejski_Egipat" title="Ptolemejski Egipat – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Ptolemejski Egipat" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kerajaan_Ptolemaik" title="Kerajaan Ptolemaik – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Kerajaan Ptolemaik" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egitto_tolemaico" title="Egitto tolemaico – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Egitto tolemaico" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%9E%D7%9C%D7%9B%D7%AA_%D7%91%D7%99%D7%AA_%D7%AA%D7%9C%D7%9E%D7%99" title="ממלכת בית תלמי – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="ממלכת בית תלמי" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9E%E1%83%A2%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%9B%E1%83%94%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%9B%E1%83%94%E1%83%A4%E1%83%9D" title="პტოლემეების სამეფო – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="პტოლემეების სამეფო" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milki_ya_Kiptolemaio" title="Milki ya Kiptolemaio – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Milki ya Kiptolemaio" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regnum_Ptolemaicum" title="Regnum Ptolemaicum – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Regnum Ptolemaicum" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemaju_valsts" title="Ptolemaju valsts – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Ptolemaju valsts" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolem%C4%97j%C5%B3_karalyst%C4%97" title="Ptolemėjų karalystė – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Ptolemėjų karalystė" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fanjakana_Pt%C3%B4lemaika" title="Fanjakana Ptôlemaika – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Fanjakana Ptôlemaika" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%89%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF" title="टॉलेमिक साम्राज्य – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="टॉलेमिक साम्राज्य" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9E%E1%83%A2%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%9B%E1%83%94%E1%83%94%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98%E1%83%A8_%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%A4%E1%83%94" title="პტოლემეეფიშ ომაფე – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="პტოლემეეფიშ ომაფე" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kerajaan_Ptolemy" title="Kerajaan Ptolemy – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Kerajaan Ptolemy" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macedonisch_Egypte_en_het_Ptoleme%C3%AFsche_Rijk" title="Macedonisch Egypte en het Ptolemeïsche Rijk – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Macedonisch Egypte en het Ptolemeïsche Rijk" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Det_ptolemeiske_konged%C3%B8mme" title="Det ptolemeiske kongedømme – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Det ptolemeiske kongedømme" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reialme_lagida" title="Reialme lagida – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Reialme lagida" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%B7%D9%86%D8%AA_%D8%A8%D8%B7%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%85%D9%88%D8%B3" title="سلطنت بطلیموس – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="سلطنت بطلیموس" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%B7%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%85%D9%88%D8%B3%D9%8A_%D9%BE%D8%A7%DA%86%D8%A7%D9%87%D9%8A" title="بطلیموسي پاچاهي – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="بطلیموسي پاچاهي" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egipt_ptolemejski" title="Egipt ptolemejski – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Egipt ptolemejski" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reino_Ptolemaico" title="Reino Ptolemaico – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Reino Ptolemaico" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regatul_Ptolemeic" title="Regatul Ptolemeic – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Regatul Ptolemeic" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BB%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%95%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%82" title="Эллинистический Египет – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Эллинистический Египет" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemajsko_kraljestvo" title="Ptolemajsko kraljestvo – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Ptolemajsko kraljestvo" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%98%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE_%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%99%D0%B5%D0%B2%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Птолемејско краљевство – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Птолемејско краљевство" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemejsko_Kraljevstvo" title="Ptolemejsko Kraljevstvo – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Ptolemejsko Kraljevstvo" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemaiosten_valtakunta" title="Ptolemaiosten valtakunta – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Ptolemaiosten valtakunta" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kahariang_Ptolemaiko" title="Kahariang Ptolemaiko – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Kahariang Ptolemaiko" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%BF_%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%87%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%81" title="தாலமி பேரரசு – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="தாலமி பேரரசு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%93%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%88%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%AD%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B5" title="ราชอาณาจักรทอเลมี – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ราชอาณาจักรทอเลมี" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemaios_Krall%C4%B1%C4%9F%C4%B1" title="Ptolemaios Krallığı – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Ptolemaios Krallığı" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BB%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BD%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%84%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%82" title="Елліністичний Єгипет – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Елліністичний Єгипет" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%B7%D9%86%D8%AA_%D8%A8%D8%B7%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%85%D9%88%D8%B3" title="سلطنت بطلیموس – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="سلطنت بطلیموس" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C6%B0%C6%A1ng_qu%E1%BB%91c_Ptolemy" title="Vương quốc Ptolemy – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Vương quốc Ptolemy" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ginhadian_Ptolemeonhon" title="Ginhadian Ptolemeonhon – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Ginhadian Ptolemeonhon" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%89%98%E5%8B%92%E5%AF%86%E7%8E%8B%E5%9B%BD" title="托勒密王国 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="托勒密王国" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%89%98%E5%8B%92%E5%AF%86%E7%8E%8B%E5%9C%8B" title="托勒密王國 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="托勒密王國" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%89%98%E5%8B%92%E5%AF%86%E7%8E%8B%E5%9C%8B" title="托勒密王國 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="托勒密王國" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q2320005#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> 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.ib-country-lang{font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-ethnic,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-religion,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-sovereignty{font-weight:normal;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fake-li{text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fake-li2{text-indent:0.5em;margin-left:1em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-website{line-height:11pt}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-map-caption3{position:relative;top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn{text-align:left;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-num{margin-left:1em}</style><table class="infobox ib-country vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above adr"><div class="fn org country-name">Ptolemaic Kingdom</div><div class="ib-country-names">Πτολεμαϊκὴ βασιλεία<br /><i>Ptolemaïkḕ basileía</i></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader">305 BC–30 BC</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><div style="padding: 0px 5px;"> <div style="padding-bottom:3px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Eagle_of_Zeus,_Ptolemaic_mint.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Eagle of Zeus[1] on a Ptolemaic coin of Ptolemaic Kingdom"><img alt="Eagle of Zeus[1] on a Ptolemaic coin of Ptolemaic Kingdom" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Eagle_of_Zeus%2C_Ptolemaic_mint.jpg/100px-Eagle_of_Zeus%2C_Ptolemaic_mint.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Eagle_of_Zeus%2C_Ptolemaic_mint.jpg/150px-Eagle_of_Zeus%2C_Ptolemaic_mint.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Eagle_of_Zeus%2C_Ptolemaic_mint.jpg/200px-Eagle_of_Zeus%2C_Ptolemaic_mint.jpg 2x" data-file-width="402" data-file-height="401" /></a></span></div> <div><a href="/wiki/Eagle_of_Zeus" title="Eagle of Zeus">Eagle of Zeus</a><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br />on a Ptolemaic coin</div> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Ptolemaic_Kingdom_III-II_century_BC_-_en.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Ptolemaic Egypt c. 235 BC. The areas in green were lost to the Seleucid Empire thirty five years later."><img alt="Ptolemaic Egypt c. 235 BC. The areas in green were lost to the Seleucid Empire thirty five years later." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Ptolemaic_Kingdom_III-II_century_BC_-_en.svg/250px-Ptolemaic_Kingdom_III-II_century_BC_-_en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="192" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Ptolemaic_Kingdom_III-II_century_BC_-_en.svg/375px-Ptolemaic_Kingdom_III-II_century_BC_-_en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Ptolemaic_Kingdom_III-II_century_BC_-_en.svg/500px-Ptolemaic_Kingdom_III-II_century_BC_-_en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2191" data-file-height="1679" /></a></span><div class="ib-country-map-caption">Ptolemaic Egypt <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 235 BC</span>. The areas in green were lost to the <a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid Empire</a> thirty five years later.</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Capital</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Common languages</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Koine_Greek" title="Koine Greek">Greek</a> (official)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_language" title="Egyptian language">Egyptian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Religion <div class="ib-country-religion"></div></th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_cult_of_Alexander_the_Great" title="Ptolemaic cult of Alexander the Great">Cult of Alexander the Great</a> within <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_religion" title="Hellenistic religion">Greco-Egyptian syncretism</a> (<a href="/wiki/State_religion" title="State religion">official</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_religion" title="Ancient Egyptian religion">Egyptian polytheism</a> (common)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_religion" title="Ancient Greek religion">Greek polytheism</a><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermeticism" title="Hermeticism">Hermeticism</a></li> <li>Local beliefs</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Government</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic</a> <a href="/wiki/Monarchy" title="Monarchy">monarchy</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><i><a href="/wiki/Basileus" title="Basileus">Basileus</a></i>/<a href="/wiki/List_of_Ptolemaic_pharaohs" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Ptolemaic pharaohs">Pharaoh</a><sup id="cite_ref-Strootman_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Strootman-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Stephens-dual_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stephens-dual-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></th><td class="infobox-data"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 305–283 BC </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_I_Soter" title="Ptolemy I Soter">Ptolemy I Soter</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(first)</span></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 51–30 BC </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Cleopatra" title="Cleopatra">Cleopatra VII</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(last)</span></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Historical era</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Classical antiquity</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• Established </div></th><td class="infobox-data">305 BC</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• Disestablished </div></th><td class="infobox-data">30 BC</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Population</th></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 150 BC </div></th><td class="infobox-data">4.9–7.5 million<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Currency</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_drachma" title="Ancient drachma">Greek Drachma</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"> <table style="width:95%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; display:inline-table;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="text-align:center; border:0; padding-bottom:0"><div id="before-after"></div> <b>Preceded by</b></td> <td style="text-align:center;border:0; padding-bottom:0;"><b>Succeeded by</b> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center; border:0;"> <table style="width:100%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Vergina_Sun_WIPO.svg/20px-Vergina_Sun_WIPO.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Vergina_Sun_WIPO.svg/30px-Vergina_Sun_WIPO.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Vergina_Sun_WIPO.svg/40px-Vergina_Sun_WIPO.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="573" data-file-height="573" /></span></span> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Macedonian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Macedonian Empire">Macedonian Empire</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></span></span> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Late_Period_of_ancient_Egypt" title="Late Period of ancient Egypt">Late Period of ancient Egypt</a> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center;border:0;"> <table style="width:92%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Roman_Egypt" title="Roman Egypt">Roman Egypt</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Vexilloid_of_the_Roman_Empire.svg/20px-Vexilloid_of_the_Roman_Empire.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Vexilloid_of_the_Roman_Empire.svg/30px-Vexilloid_of_the_Roman_Empire.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Vexilloid_of_the_Roman_Empire.svg/40px-Vexilloid_of_the_Roman_Empire.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="245" data-file-height="343" /></span></span> </td></tr> </tbody></table> 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.sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks" style="border-collapse:collapse; background:#fff2e2"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><div class="sidebar-pretitle" style="margin: -0.2em 0; font-size:69%; font-weight:normal;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_Egypt" title="Category:History of Egypt">a series</a> on the</div></th> </tr><tr> <th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:transparent; padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Egypt" title="History of Egypt">History of <span class="fn org label">Egypt</span></a></th> </tr><tr><td style="padding-bottom: 0.4em; border-bottom: 1px solid #ccc;"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:All_Gizah_Pyramids.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/All_Gizah_Pyramids.jpg/140px-All_Gizah_Pyramids.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="93" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/All_Gizah_Pyramids.jpg/210px-All_Gizah_Pyramids.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/All_Gizah_Pyramids.jpg/280px-All_Gizah_Pyramids.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4372" data-file-height="2906" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0; border-bottom:#aaa 1px solid;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Egypt" title="Prehistoric Egypt">Prehistoric Egypt</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none;background:#F2E4C3"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-left:0.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Egypt#Neolithic_to_Proto-Dynastic" title="Prehistoric Egypt">Predynastic Period</a></td><td style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap; color:#666;padding-right:0.2em;">6000–3000 BC</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0; border-bottom:#aaa 1px solid;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_ancient_Egypt" title="History of ancient Egypt">Ancient Egypt</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none;background: #E6FFF2"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-left:0.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/Early_Dynastic_Period_(Egypt)" title="Early Dynastic Period (Egypt)">Early Dynastic Period</a></td><td style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap; color:#666;padding-right:0.2em;">3150–2686 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-left:0.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/Old_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Old Kingdom of Egypt">Old Kingdom</a></td><td style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap; color:#666;padding-right:0.2em;">2686–2181 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-left:0.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/First_Intermediate_Period_of_Egypt" title="First Intermediate Period of Egypt">1st Intermediate Period</a></td><td style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap; color:#666;padding-right:0.2em;">2181–2055 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-left:0.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/Middle_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Middle Kingdom of Egypt">Middle Kingdom</a></td><td style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap; color:#666;padding-right:0.2em;">2055–1650 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-left:0.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/Second_Intermediate_Period_of_Egypt" title="Second Intermediate Period of Egypt">2nd Intermediate Period</a></td><td style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap; color:#666;padding-right:0.2em;">1650–1550 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-left:0.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/New_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="New Kingdom of Egypt">New Kingdom</a></td><td style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap; color:#666;padding-right:0.2em;">1550–1069 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-left:0.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/Third_Intermediate_Period_of_Egypt" title="Third Intermediate Period of Egypt">3rd Intermediate Period</a></td><td style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap; color:#666;padding-right:0.2em;">1069–664 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-left:0.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/Late_Period_of_ancient_Egypt" title="Late Period of ancient Egypt">Late Period</a></td><td style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap; color:#666;padding-right:0.2em;">664–332 BC</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0; border-bottom:#aaa 1px solid;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Greco-Roman Egypt</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none;background: #F2FFE6"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-left:0.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/Argead_dynasty" title="Argead dynasty">Argead dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap; color:#666;padding-right:0.2em;">332–310 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-left:0.2em;"> <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Ptolemaic dynasties</a></td><td style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap; color:#666;padding-right:0.2em;">310–30 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-left:0.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/Roman_Egypt" title="Roman Egypt">Roman and Byzantine Egypt</a></td><td style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap; color:#666;padding-right:0.2em;">30 BC–641 AD</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-left:0.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Egypt" title="Sasanian Egypt">Sasanian Egypt</a></td><td style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap; color:#666;padding-right:0.2em;">619–629</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0; border-bottom:#aaa 1px solid;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Egypt_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Egypt in the Middle Ages">Medieval Egypt</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none;background: #F2E6FF"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-left:0.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun caliphate</a></td><td style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap; color:#666;padding-right:0.2em;">641–661</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-left:0.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad caliphate</a></td><td style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap; color:#666;padding-right:0.2em;">661–750</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-left:0.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap; color:#666;padding-right:0.2em;">750–935</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-left:0.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/Tulunids" title="Tulunids">Tulunid dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap; color:#666;padding-right:0.2em;">868–905</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-left:0.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/Ikhshidid_dynasty" title="Ikhshidid dynasty">Ikhshidid dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap; color:#666;padding-right:0.2em;">935–969</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-left:0.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/Fatimid_Caliphate" title="Fatimid Caliphate">Fatimid dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap; color:#666;padding-right:0.2em;">969–1171</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-left:0.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/Ayyubid_dynasty" title="Ayyubid dynasty">Ayyubid dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap; color:#666;padding-right:0.2em;">1171–1250</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-left:0.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/Mamluk_Sultanate" title="Mamluk Sultanate">Mamluk dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap; color:#666;padding-right:0.2em;">1250–1517</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0; border-bottom:#aaa 1px solid;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">Early modern</a> Egypt</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none;background: #FFFACD"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-left:0.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Egypt" title="Ottoman Egypt">Ottoman Egypt</a></td><td style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap; color:#666;padding-right:0.2em;">1517–1867</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-left:0.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/French_campaign_in_Egypt_and_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="French campaign in Egypt and Syria">French occupation</a></td><td style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap; color:#666;padding-right:0.2em;">1798–1801</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-left:0.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/History_of_Egypt_under_the_Muhammad_Ali_dynasty" title="History of Egypt under the Muhammad Ali dynasty">Muhammad Ali dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap; color:#666;padding-right:0.2em;">1805–1953</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-left:0.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/Khedivate_of_Egypt" title="Khedivate of Egypt">Khedivate of Egypt</a></td><td style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap; color:#666;padding-right:0.2em;">1867–1914</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0; border-bottom:#aaa 1px solid;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_modern_Egypt" title="History of modern Egypt">Late Modern Egypt</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none;background: #E2EBEB"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-left:0.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/History_of_Egypt_under_the_British" title="History of Egypt under the British">British occupation</a></td><td style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap; color:#666;padding-right:0.2em;">1882–1922</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-left:0.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Egypt" title="Sultanate of Egypt">Sultanate of Egypt</a></td><td style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap; color:#666;padding-right:0.2em;">1914–1922</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-left:0.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Kingdom of Egypt">Kingdom of Egypt</a></td><td style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap; color:#666;padding-right:0.2em;">1922–1953</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-left:0.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/History_of_republican_Egypt" title="History of republican Egypt">Republic</a></td><td style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap; color:#666;padding-right:0.2em;">1953–present</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Flag_of_Egypt.svg/16px-Flag_of_Egypt.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Flag_of_Egypt.svg/24px-Flag_of_Egypt.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Flag_of_Egypt.svg/32px-Flag_of_Egypt.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Egypt" title="Portal:Egypt">Egypt portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar" style="padding-top:0;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_Egypt" title="Template:History of Egypt"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_Egypt" title="Template talk:History of Egypt"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_Egypt" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of Egypt"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>Ptolemaic Kingdom</b> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˌ/: secondary stress follows">ˌ</span><span title="'t' in 'tie'">t</span><span title="/ɒ/: 'o' in 'body'">ɒ</span><span title="'l' in 'lie'">l</span><span title="/ɪ/: 'i' in 'kit'">ɪ</span><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'m' in 'my'">m</span><span title="/eɪ/: 'a' in 'face'">eɪ</span><span title="/./: syllable break">.</span><span title="/ɪ/: 'i' in 'kit'">ɪ</span><span title="'k' in 'kind'">k</span></span>/</a></span></span>; <a href="/wiki/Koin%C4%93_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Koinē Greek language">Koinē Greek</a>: <span lang="grc">Πτολεμαϊκὴ βασιλεία</span>, <small>romanized: </small><span title="Koinē Greek-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">Ptolemaïkḕ basileía</i></span>)<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or <b>Ptolemaic Empire</b><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was an <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Ancient Greek</a> <a href="/wiki/Polity" title="Polity">polity</a> based in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Egypt</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic period</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was founded in 305 BC by the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Macedonians" title="Ancient Macedonians">Macedonian</a> general <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_I_Soter" title="Ptolemy I Soter">Ptolemy I Soter</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Diadochi" title="Diadochi">companion of Alexander the Great</a>, and ruled by the <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_dynasty" title="Ptolemaic dynasty">Ptolemaic dynasty</a> until the <a href="/wiki/Death_of_Cleopatra_VII" class="mw-redirect" title="Death of Cleopatra VII">death of Cleopatra VII</a> in 30 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Reigning for nearly three centuries, the Ptolemies were the longest and final <a href="/wiki/Dynasties_of_ancient_Egypt" title="Dynasties of ancient Egypt">dynasty of ancient Egypt</a>, heralding a distinctly new era for <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_religion" title="Hellenistic religion">religious</a> and cultural <a href="/wiki/Syncretism" title="Syncretism">syncretism</a> between Greek and Egyptian culture.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a> conquered <a href="/wiki/Thirty-first_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt">Persian-controlled Egypt</a> in 332 BC during <a href="/wiki/Wars_of_Alexander_the_Great" title="Wars of Alexander the Great">his campaigns</a> against the <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a>. <a href="/wiki/Death_of_Alexander" class="mw-redirect" title="Death of Alexander">His death</a> in 323 BC was followed by <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Alexander_the_Great" class="mw-redirect" title="Empire of Alexander the Great">rapid unraveling</a> of the Macedonian Empire amid competing claims by the <i><a href="/wiki/Diadochi" title="Diadochi">diadochi</a></i>, his closest friends and companions. Ptolemy, a <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Macedonians" title="Ancient Macedonians">Macedonian</a> who was one of Alexander's most trusted generals and confidants, <a href="/wiki/Wars_of_the_Diadochi" title="Wars of the Diadochi">won control of Egypt from his rivals</a> and declared himself its ruler.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>Note 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHölbl200022_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHölbl200022-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a>, a Greek <i><a href="/wiki/Polis" title="Polis">polis</a></i> founded by Alexander, became the capital city and a major center of Greek culture, learning, and trade for the next several centuries. Following the <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Wars" title="Syrian Wars">Syrian Wars</a> with the <a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid Empire</a>, a rival <a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Hellenistic</a> state, the Ptolemaic Kingdom expanded its territory to include eastern <a href="/wiki/Libya" title="Libya">Libya</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Sinai_Peninsula" title="Sinai Peninsula">Sinai</a>, and northern <a href="/wiki/Nubia" title="Nubia">Nubia</a>. </p><p>To legitimize their rule and gain recognition from native Egyptians, the Ptolemies adopted the local title of <i><a href="/wiki/Pharaoh" title="Pharaoh">pharaoh</a>,</i><sup id="cite_ref-:5_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> alongside the Greek title of <i><a href="/wiki/Basileus" title="Basileus">basileus</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-Strootman_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Strootman-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Stephens-dual_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stephens-dual-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and had themselves portrayed on public monuments in Egyptian style and dress; however, the monarchy otherwise rigorously maintained its Hellenistic character and traditions.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The kingdom had a complex government <a href="/wiki/Bureaucracy" title="Bureaucracy">bureaucracy</a> that exploited the country's vast economic resources to the benefit of a Greek ruling class, which dominated military, political, and economic affairs, and which rarely integrated into Egyptian society and culture. Native Egyptians maintained power over local and religious institutions, and only gradually accrued power in the bureaucracy, provided they <a href="/wiki/Hellenization" title="Hellenization">Hellenized</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_9-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Beginning with Ptolemy I's son and successor, <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_II_Philadelphus" title="Ptolemy II Philadelphus">Ptolemy II Philadelphus</a>, the Ptolemies began to adopt Egyptian customs, such as <a href="/wiki/Sibling_marriage" class="mw-redirect" title="Sibling marriage">marrying their siblings</a> per the <a href="/wiki/Osiris_myth" title="Osiris myth">Osiris myth</a> and participating in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_religion" title="Ancient Egyptian religion">Egyptian religious life</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERawles20194_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERawles20194-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> New temples were built, older ones restored, and royal patronage lavished on the priesthood. </p><p>From the mid third century BC, Ptolemaic Egypt was the wealthiest and most powerful of Alexander's <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">successor states</a>, and the leading example of Greek civilization.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_9-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Beginning in the mid second century BC, dynastic strife and a series of foreign wars weakened the kingdom, and it became increasingly reliant on the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a>. Under <a href="/wiki/Cleopatra_VII" class="mw-redirect" title="Cleopatra VII">Cleopatra VII</a>, who sought to restore Ptolemaic power, Egypt became entangled in a <a href="/wiki/Caesar%27s_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Caesar's Civil War">Roman civil war</a>, which ultimately led to its <a href="/wiki/Roman_Egypt" title="Roman Egypt">conquest by Rome</a> as the last independent <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic state</a>. <a href="/wiki/Roman_Egypt" title="Roman Egypt">Roman Egypt</a> became one of Rome's richest provinces and a center of Greek culture. Greek remained the <a href="/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca">language of government and trade</a> until the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim conquest of Egypt">Muslim conquest</a> in 641 AD. Alexandria remained one of the leading cities of the Mediterranean well into the late <a href="/wiki/Egypt_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Egypt in the Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ptolemaic_Kingdom&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Ptolemaic reign in Egypt is one of the best-documented time periods of the <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic era</a>, due to the discovery of a wealth of <a href="/wiki/Papyri" class="mw-redirect" title="Papyri">papyri</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ostracon" title="Ostracon">ostraca</a> written in <a href="/wiki/Koine_Greek" title="Koine Greek">Koine Greek</a> and <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_language" title="Egyptian language">Egyptian</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Background">Background</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ptolemaic_Kingdom&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:British_Museum_Egypt_031.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/British_Museum_Egypt_031.jpg/220px-British_Museum_Egypt_031.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="236" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/British_Museum_Egypt_031.jpg/330px-British_Museum_Egypt_031.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/British_Museum_Egypt_031.jpg/440px-British_Museum_Egypt_031.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1748" data-file-height="1876" /></a><figcaption>Ptolemy as Pharaoh of Egypt, British Museum, London</figcaption></figure> <p>In 332 BC, <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a>, King of <a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)" title="Macedonia (ancient kingdom)">Macedon</a>, conquered Egypt, which at the time was a <a href="/wiki/Satrap" title="Satrap">satrapy</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a> later called Egypt's <a href="/wiki/Thirty-first_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt">Thirty-first Dynasty</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He visited <a href="/wiki/Memphis,_Egypt" title="Memphis, Egypt">Memphis</a>, and travelled to the oracle of <a href="/wiki/Amun" title="Amun">Amun</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Siwa_Oasis" title="Siwa Oasis">Siwa Oasis</a>. The oracle declared him to be the son of Amun. </p><p>Alexander conciliated the Egyptians by the respect he showed for <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_religion" title="Ancient Egyptian religion">their religion</a>, but he appointed Macedonians to virtually all the senior posts in the country, and founded a new Greek city, <a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a>, to be the new capital. The wealth of Egypt could now be harnessed for Alexander's conquest of the rest of the Achaemenid Empire. Early in 331 BC he was ready to depart, and led his forces away to <a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenicia</a>. He left <a href="/wiki/Cleomenes_of_Naucratis" title="Cleomenes of Naucratis">Cleomenes of Naucratis</a> as the ruling <a href="/wiki/Nomarch" title="Nomarch">nomarch</a> to control Egypt in his absence. Alexander would never return to Egypt. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Establishment">Establishment</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ptolemaic_Kingdom&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Establishment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Following Alexander's death in <a href="/wiki/Babylon" title="Babylon">Babylon</a> in 323 BC,<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a <a href="/wiki/Diadochi" title="Diadochi">succession crisis</a> erupted among his generals. Initially, <a href="/wiki/Perdiccas" title="Perdiccas">Perdiccas</a> ruled the empire as regent for Alexander's half-brother Arrhidaeus, who became <a href="/wiki/Philip_III_of_Macedon" title="Philip III of Macedon">Philip III of Macedon</a>, and then as regent for both Philip III and Alexander's infant son <a href="/wiki/Alexander_IV_of_Macedon" title="Alexander IV of Macedon">Alexander IV of Macedon</a>, who had not been born at the time of his father's death. Perdiccas appointed <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_I_Soter" title="Ptolemy I Soter">Ptolemy</a>, one of Alexander's closest companions, to be <a href="/wiki/Satrap" title="Satrap">satrap</a> of Egypt. Ptolemy ruled Egypt from 323 BC, nominally in the name of the joint kings Philip III and Alexander IV. However, as Alexander the Great's empire disintegrated, Ptolemy soon established himself as ruler in his own right. Ptolemy successfully defended Egypt against an invasion by Perdiccas in 321 BC, and consolidated his position in Egypt and the surrounding areas during the <a href="/wiki/Diadochi#Wars_of_the_Diadochi_(322–301_BC)" title="Diadochi">Wars of the Diadochi</a> (322–301 BC). In 305 BC, Ptolemy took the title of <i><a href="/wiki/Basileus" title="Basileus">basileus</a></i> and <a href="/wiki/Pharaoh" title="Pharaoh">pharaoh</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Strootman_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Strootman-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Stephens-dual_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stephens-dual-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_I_Soter" title="Ptolemy I Soter">Ptolemy I Soter</a> ("Saviour"), he founded the <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_dynasty" title="Ptolemaic dynasty">Ptolemaic dynasty</a> that was to rule Egypt for nearly 300 years. </p><p>All the male rulers of the dynasty took the name Ptolemy, while princesses and female rulers preferred the names <a href="/wiki/Cleopatra" title="Cleopatra">Cleopatra</a>, Arsinoë and Berenice. The Ptolemies also adopted the Egyptian custom of marrying their sisters, with many of their line ruling jointly with their spouses, who were also of the royal house. This custom made Ptolemaic politics confusingly incestuous, and the later Ptolemies were increasingly feeble. The only <i><a href="/wiki/Basileus" title="Basileus">basilissa</a></i>-<a href="/wiki/Queen-regnant" class="mw-redirect" title="Queen-regnant">regnant</a> or female Pharaohs to officially rule on their own were <a href="/wiki/Cleopatra_II" title="Cleopatra II">Cleopatra II</a>, <a href="/wiki/Berenice_III_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Berenice III of Egypt">Berenice III</a> and <a href="/wiki/Berenice_IV_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Berenice IV of Egypt">Berenice IV</a>. <a href="/wiki/Cleopatra_V_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Cleopatra V of Egypt">Cleopatra V</a> did co-rule, but it was with another female, Berenice IV. <a href="/wiki/Cleopatra_VII" class="mw-redirect" title="Cleopatra VII">Cleopatra VII</a> officially co-ruled with <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_XIII_Theos_Philopator" title="Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator">Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_XIV_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Ptolemy XIV of Egypt">Ptolemy XIV</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_XV_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Ptolemy XV of Egypt">Ptolemy XV</a>, but effectively, she ruled Egypt alone.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The early Ptolemies did not disturb the religion or the customs of the <a href="/wiki/Egyptians" title="Egyptians">Egyptians</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They built magnificent new temples for the Egyptian gods and soon adopted the outward display of the pharaohs of old. Rulers such as <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_I_Soter" title="Ptolemy I Soter">Ptolemy I Soter</a> respected the Egyptian people and recognized the importance of their religion and traditions. During the reign of Ptolemies II and III, thousands of Macedonian veterans were rewarded with grants of farm lands, and Macedonians were planted in colonies and garrisons or settled themselves in villages throughout the country. <a href="/wiki/Upper_Egypt" title="Upper Egypt">Upper Egypt</a>, farthest from the centre of government, was less immediately affected, even though Ptolemy I established the Greek colony of <a href="/wiki/Ptolemais_Hermiou" title="Ptolemais Hermiou">Ptolemais Hermiou</a> to be its capital. But within a century, <a href="/wiki/Greeks" title="Greeks">Greek</a> influence had spread through the country and intermarriage had produced a large Greco-Egyptian educated class. Nevertheless, the Greeks always remained a privileged minority in Ptolemaic Egypt. They lived under Greek law, received a Greek education, were tried in Greek courts, and were citizens of Greek cities.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rise">Rise</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ptolemaic_Kingdom&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Rise"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ptolemy_I">Ptolemy I</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ptolemaic_Kingdom&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Ptolemy I"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Ptolemy I">Ptolemy I</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ptolemy_I_Soter_Louvre_Ma849.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Ptolemy_I_Soter_Louvre_Ma849.jpg/170px-Ptolemy_I_Soter_Louvre_Ma849.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Ptolemy_I_Soter_Louvre_Ma849.jpg/255px-Ptolemy_I_Soter_Louvre_Ma849.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Ptolemy_I_Soter_Louvre_Ma849.jpg/340px-Ptolemy_I_Soter_Louvre_Ma849.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2700" data-file-height="4050" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_art" title="Hellenistic art">Hellenistic bust</a> of <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_I_Soter" title="Ptolemy I Soter">Ptolemy I Soter</a>, 3rd century BC, now in the <a href="/wiki/Louvre" title="Louvre">Louvre</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The first part of <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Ptolemy I">Ptolemy I</a>'s reign was dominated by the <a href="/wiki/Wars_of_the_Diadochi" title="Wars of the Diadochi">Wars of the Diadochi</a> between the various <a href="/wiki/Successor_state" class="mw-redirect" title="Successor state">successor states</a> to the empire of Alexander. His first objective was to hold his position in Egypt securely, and secondly to increase his domain. Within a few years he had gained control of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Libya" title="Ancient Libya">Libya</a>, <a href="/wiki/Coele-Syria" title="Coele-Syria">Coele-Syria</a> (including <a href="/wiki/Judea" title="Judea">Judea</a>), and <a href="/wiki/Cyprus" title="Cyprus">Cyprus</a>. When <a href="/wiki/Antigonus_I_Monophthalmus" title="Antigonus I Monophthalmus">Antigonus</a>, ruler of <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a>, tried to reunite Alexander's empire, Ptolemy joined the coalition against him. In 312 BC, allied with <a href="/wiki/Seleucus_I_Nicator" title="Seleucus I Nicator">Seleucus</a>, the ruler of <a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonia</a>, he defeated <a href="/wiki/Demetrius_I_of_Macedon" class="mw-redirect" title="Demetrius I of Macedon">Demetrius</a>, the son of Antigonus, in the battle of <a href="/wiki/Gaza_City" title="Gaza City">Gaza</a>. </p><p>In 311 BC, a peace was concluded between the combatants, but in 309 BC war broke out again, and Ptolemy occupied <a href="/wiki/Corinth" title="Corinth">Corinth</a> and other parts of Greece, although he lost Cyprus <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Salamis_(306_BC)" title="Battle of Salamis (306 BC)">after a naval battle</a> in 306 BC. Antigonus then tried to invade Egypt but Ptolemy held the frontier against him. When the coalition was renewed against Antigonus in 302 BC, Ptolemy joined it, but neither he nor his army were present when Antigonus was defeated and killed at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ipsus" title="Battle of Ipsus">Ipsus</a>. He had instead taken the opportunity to secure Coele-Syria and Palestine, in breach of the agreement assigning it to Seleucus, thereby setting the scene for the future <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Wars" title="Syrian Wars">Syrian Wars</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thereafter Ptolemy tried to stay out of land wars, but he retook Cyprus in 295 BC. </p><p>Feeling the kingdom was now secure, Ptolemy shared rule with his son Ptolemy II by Queen <a href="/wiki/Berenice_I_of_Egypt" title="Berenice I of Egypt">Berenice</a> in 285 BC. He then may have devoted his retirement to writing a history of the campaigns of Alexander—which unfortunately was lost but was a principal source for the later work of <a href="/wiki/Arrian" title="Arrian">Arrian</a>. Ptolemy I died in 283 BC at the age of 84. He left a stable and well-governed kingdom to his son. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ptolemy_II">Ptolemy II</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ptolemaic_Kingdom&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Ptolemy II"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Ptolemy II">Ptolemy II</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ptolemy_II_MAN_Napoli_Inv5600.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Ptolemy_II_MAN_Napoli_Inv5600.jpg/170px-Ptolemy_II_MAN_Napoli_Inv5600.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Ptolemy_II_MAN_Napoli_Inv5600.jpg/255px-Ptolemy_II_MAN_Napoli_Inv5600.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Ptolemy_II_MAN_Napoli_Inv5600.jpg/340px-Ptolemy_II_MAN_Napoli_Inv5600.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2812" data-file-height="3750" /></a><figcaption>A bust depicting Pharaoh <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_II_Philadelphus" title="Ptolemy II Philadelphus">Ptolemy II Philadelphus</a> 309–246 BC</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_II_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Ptolemy II of Egypt">Ptolemy II Philadelphus</a>, who succeeded his father as pharaoh of Egypt in 283 BC,<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was a peaceful and cultured pharaoh, though unlike his father was no great warrior. Fortunately, Ptolemy I had left Egypt strong and prosperous; three years of campaigning in the <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Wars#First_Syrian_War_(274-271_BC._29" title="Syrian Wars">First Syrian War</a> made the Ptolemies masters of the eastern Mediterranean, controlling the <a href="/wiki/Aegean_Sea" title="Aegean Sea">Aegean</a> islands (the <a href="/wiki/Nesiotic_League" class="mw-redirect" title="Nesiotic League">Nesiotic League</a>) and the coastal districts of <a href="/wiki/Cilicia" title="Cilicia">Cilicia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pamphylia" title="Pamphylia">Pamphylia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lycia" title="Lycia">Lycia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Caria" title="Caria">Caria</a>. However, some of these territories were lost near the end of his reign as a result of the <a href="/wiki/Second_Syrian_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Syrian War">Second Syrian War</a>. In the 270s BC, Ptolemy II defeated the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kush" title="Kingdom of Kush">Kingdom of Kush</a> in war, gaining the Ptolemies free access to Kushite territory and control of important gold deposits south of Egypt known as Dodekasoinos.<sup id="cite_ref-Sudan_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sudan-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a result, the Ptolemies established hunting stations and ports as far south as <a href="/wiki/Port_Sudan" title="Port Sudan">Port Sudan</a>, from where raiding parties containing hundreds of men searched for war elephants.<sup id="cite_ref-Sudan_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sudan-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hellenistic culture would acquire an important influence on Kush at this time.<sup id="cite_ref-Sudan_24-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sudan-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Ptolemy II was an eager patron of scholarship, funding the expansion of the <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Alexandria" title="Library of Alexandria">Library of Alexandria</a> and patronising scientific research. Poets like <a href="/wiki/Callimachus" title="Callimachus">Callimachus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Theocritus" title="Theocritus">Theocritus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Apollonius_of_Rhodes" title="Apollonius of Rhodes">Apollonius of Rhodes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Posidippus_(epigrammatic_poet)" title="Posidippus (epigrammatic poet)">Posidippus</a> were provided with stipends and produced masterpieces of Hellenistic poetry, including panegyrics in honour of the Ptolemaic family. Other scholars operating under Ptolemy's aegis included the mathematician <a href="/wiki/Euclid" title="Euclid">Euclid</a> and the astronomer <a href="/wiki/Aristarchus_of_Samos" title="Aristarchus of Samos">Aristarchus</a>. Ptolemy is thought to have commissioned <a href="/wiki/Manetho" title="Manetho">Manetho</a> to compose his <i><a href="/wiki/Aegyptiaca" class="mw-redirect" title="Aegyptiaca">Aegyptiaca</a></i>, an account of Egyptian history, perhaps intended to make Egyptian culture intelligible to its new rulers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHölbl200063-65_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHölbl200063-65-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Ptolemy's first wife, <a href="/wiki/Arsinoe_I" title="Arsinoe I">Arsinoe I</a>, daughter of <a href="/wiki/Lysimachus" title="Lysimachus">Lysimachus</a>, was the mother of his legitimate children. After her repudiation he followed Egyptian custom and <a href="/wiki/Royal_intermarriage" title="Royal intermarriage">married his sister</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arsinoe_II" title="Arsinoe II">Arsinoe II</a>, beginning a practice that, while pleasing to the Egyptian population, had serious consequences in later reigns. The material and literary splendour of the Alexandrian court was at its height under Ptolemy II. <a href="/wiki/Callimachus" title="Callimachus">Callimachus</a>, keeper of the <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Alexandria" title="Library of Alexandria">Library of Alexandria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Theocritus" title="Theocritus">Theocritus</a>, and a host of other poets, glorified the Ptolemaic family. Ptolemy himself was eager to increase the library and to patronise scientific research. He spent lavishly on making Alexandria the economic, artistic and intellectual capital of the Hellenistic world. The academies and libraries of Alexandria proved vital in preserving much Greek literary heritage. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ptolemy_III_Euergetes">Ptolemy III Euergetes</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ptolemaic_Kingdom&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Ptolemy III Euergetes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_III_Euergetes" title="Ptolemy III Euergetes">Ptolemy III Euergetes</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:PtolemyIV.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/PtolemyIV.jpg/210px-PtolemyIV.jpg" decoding="async" width="210" height="207" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/PtolemyIV.jpg/315px-PtolemyIV.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/PtolemyIV.jpg/420px-PtolemyIV.jpg 2x" data-file-width="882" data-file-height="869" /></a><figcaption>Coin depicting Pharaoh <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_III_Euergetes" title="Ptolemy III Euergetes">Ptolemy III Euergetes</a>. Ptolemaic Kingdom.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_III_Euergetes" title="Ptolemy III Euergetes">Ptolemy III Euergetes</a> ("the Benefactor") succeeded his father in 246 BC. He abandoned his predecessors' policy of keeping out of the wars of the other Macedonian successor kingdoms, and began the <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Wars#Third_Syrian_War_(246-241_BC)" title="Syrian Wars">Third Syrian War</a> (246–241 BC) with the <a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid Empire</a> when his sister, <a href="/wiki/Berenice_(Seleucid_queen)" class="mw-redirect" title="Berenice (Seleucid queen)">Queen Berenice</a>, and her son were murdered in a dynastic dispute. Ptolemy marched into the heart of the Seleucid realm, as far as <a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonia</a>, while his fleets in the <a href="/wiki/Aegean_Sea" title="Aegean Sea">Aegean Sea</a> made fresh conquests as far north as <a href="/wiki/Thrace" title="Thrace">Thrace</a>. </p><p>This victory marked the zenith of the Ptolemaic power. <a href="/wiki/Seleucus_II_Callinicus" title="Seleucus II Callinicus">Seleucus II Callinicus</a> kept his throne, but Egyptian fleets controlled most of the coasts of <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a> and Greece. After this triumph Ptolemy no longer engaged actively in war, although he supported the enemies of <a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)" title="Macedonia (ancient kingdom)">Macedon</a> in Greek politics. His domestic policy differed from his father's in that he patronised the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_religion" title="Ancient Egyptian religion">native Egyptian religion</a> more liberally: he left larger traces among the Egyptian monuments. In this his reign marks the gradual Egyptianisation of the Ptolemies. </p><p>Ptolemy III continued his predecessor's sponsorship of scholarship and literature. The <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Alexandria" title="Library of Alexandria">Great Library</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Musaeum" class="mw-redirect" title="Musaeum">Musaeum</a> was supplemented by a second library built in the <a href="/wiki/Serapeum_of_Alexandria" title="Serapeum of Alexandria">Serapeum</a>. He was said to have had every book unloaded in the Alexandria docks seized and copied, returning the copies to their owners and keeping the originals for the Library.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is said that he borrowed the official manuscripts of <a href="/wiki/Aeschylus" title="Aeschylus">Aeschylus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sophocles" title="Sophocles">Sophocles</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Euripides" title="Euripides">Euripides</a> from <a href="/wiki/Athens" title="Athens">Athens</a> and forfeited the considerable deposit he paid for them in order to keep them for the Library rather than returning them. The most distinguished scholar at Ptolemy III's court was the polymath and geographer <a href="/wiki/Eratosthenes" title="Eratosthenes">Eratosthenes</a>, most noted for his remarkably accurate calculation of the <a href="/wiki/History_of_geodesy#Hellenic_world" title="History of geodesy">circumference of the world</a>. Other prominent scholars include the mathematicians <a href="/wiki/Conon_of_Samos" title="Conon of Samos">Conon of Samos</a> and <a href="/wiki/Apollonius_of_Perga" title="Apollonius of Perga">Apollonius of Perge</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHölbl200063-65_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHölbl200063-65-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Ptolemy III financed construction projects at temples across Egypt. The most significant of these was the <a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Horus_at_Edfu" class="mw-redirect" title="Temple of Horus at Edfu">Temple of Horus at Edfu</a>, one of the masterpieces of ancient Egyptian temple architecture and now the best-preserved of all Egyptian temples. Ptolemy III initiated construction on it on 23 August 237 BC. Work continued for most of the Ptolemaic dynasty; the main temple was finished in the reign of his son, Ptolemy IV, in 212 BC, and the full complex was only completed in 142 BC, during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_VIII_Physcon" title="Ptolemy VIII Physcon">Ptolemy VIII</a>, while the reliefs on the great pylon were finished in the reign of <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_XII" class="mw-redirect" title="Ptolemy XII">Ptolemy XII</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Decline">Decline</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ptolemaic_Kingdom&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Decline"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ptolemy_IV">Ptolemy IV</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ptolemaic_Kingdom&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Ptolemy IV"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_IV" class="mw-redirect" title="Ptolemy IV">Ptolemy IV</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ptolemaic-Empire_200bc.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Ptolemaic-Empire_200bc.jpg/300px-Ptolemaic-Empire_200bc.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Ptolemaic-Empire_200bc.jpg/450px-Ptolemaic-Empire_200bc.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Ptolemaic-Empire_200bc.jpg/600px-Ptolemaic-Empire_200bc.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1164" data-file-height="636" /></a><figcaption>Ptolemaic Empire in 200 BC, alongside neighboring powers.</figcaption></figure> <p>In 221 BC, Ptolemy III died and was succeeded by his son <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_IV_Philopator" title="Ptolemy IV Philopator">Ptolemy IV Philopator</a>, a weak king whose rule precipitated the decline of the Ptolemaic Kingdom. His reign was inaugurated by the murder of his mother, and he was always under the influence of <a href="/wiki/Royal_favourite" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal favourite">royal favourites</a>, who controlled the government. Nevertheless, his ministers were able to make serious preparations to meet the attacks of <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_III_the_Great" title="Antiochus III the Great">Antiochus III the Great</a> on Coele-Syria, and the great Egyptian victory of <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Raphia" title="Battle of Raphia">Raphia</a> in 217 BC secured the kingdom. A sign of the domestic weakness of his reign was the rebellions by native Egyptians that took away over half the country for over 20 years. Philopator was devoted to orgiastic religions and to literature. He married his sister <a href="/wiki/Arsinoe_III_of_Egypt" title="Arsinoe III of Egypt">Arsinoë</a>, but was ruled by his mistress Agathoclea. </p><p>Like his predecessors, Ptolemy IV presented himself as a typical Egyptian <a href="/wiki/Pharaoh" title="Pharaoh">Pharaoh</a> and actively supported the Egyptian priestly elite through donations and temple construction. Ptolemy III had introduced an important innovation in 238 BC by holding a synod of all the priests of Egypt at <a href="/wiki/Canopus" title="Canopus">Canopus</a>. Ptolemy IV continued this tradition by holding his own synod at <a href="/wiki/Memphis,_Egypt" title="Memphis, Egypt">Memphis</a> in 217 BC, after the victory celebrations of the Fourth Syrian War. The result of this synod was the <a href="/wiki/Raphia_Decree" title="Raphia Decree">Raphia Decree</a>, issued on 15 November 217 BC and preserved in three copies. Like other <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Decrees" class="mw-redirect" title="Ptolemaic Decrees">Ptolemaic decrees</a>, the decree was inscribed in <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_hieroglyphs" title="Egyptian hieroglyphs">hieroglyphs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Demotic" class="mw-redirect" title="Egyptian Demotic">Demotic</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Koine_Greek" title="Koine Greek">Koine Greek</a>. The decree records the military success of Ptolemy IV and Arsinoe III and their benefactions to the Egyptian priestly elite. Throughout, Ptolemy IV is presented as taking on the role of <a href="/wiki/Horus" title="Horus">Horus</a> who avenges his father by defeating the forces of disorder led by the god <a href="/wiki/Set_(deity)" title="Set (deity)">Set</a>. In return, the priests undertook to erect a statue group in each of their temples, depicting the god of the temple presenting a sword of victory to Ptolemy IV and Arsinoe III. A five-day festival was inaugurated in honour of the <i>Theoi Philopatores</i> and their victory. The decree thus seems to represent a successful marriage of Egyptian Pharaonic ideology and religion with the Hellenistic Greek ideology of the victorious king and his ruler cult.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHölbl2000162–4_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHölbl2000162–4-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Great_Theban_Revolt">Great Theban Revolt</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ptolemaic_Kingdom&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Great Theban Revolt"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Rosetta_Stone_decree" title="Rosetta Stone decree">Rosetta Stone decree</a></div> <p>Misrule by the Pharaoh in Alexandria led to a nearly successful revolt, led by a priest named <a href="/wiki/Hugronaphor" class="mw-redirect" title="Hugronaphor">Hugronaphor</a>. He proclaimed himself Pharaoh in 205 BC, and ruled upper Egypt until his death in 199 BC. He was succeeded by his son <a href="/wiki/Ankhmakis" class="mw-redirect" title="Ankhmakis">Ankhmakis</a>, whose forces nearly drove the Ptolemies out of the country. The revolutionary dynasty was finally defeated in 186, and a stele celebrating this event was historically significant as the famous <a href="/wiki/Rosetta_Stone" title="Rosetta Stone">Rosetta Stone</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ptolemy_V_Epiphanes_and_Ptolemy_VI_Philometor">Ptolemy V Epiphanes and Ptolemy VI Philometor</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ptolemaic_Kingdom&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Ptolemy V Epiphanes and Ptolemy VI Philometor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_V_Epiphanes" title="Ptolemy V Epiphanes">Ptolemy V Epiphanes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_VI_Philometor" title="Ptolemy VI Philometor">Ptolemy VI Philometor</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mosaic_of_Berenice_II,_Ptolemaic_Queen_and_joint_ruler_with_Ptolemy_III_of_Egypt,_Thmuis,_Egypt.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Mosaic_of_Berenice_II%2C_Ptolemaic_Queen_and_joint_ruler_with_Ptolemy_III_of_Egypt%2C_Thmuis%2C_Egypt.jpg/300px-Mosaic_of_Berenice_II%2C_Ptolemaic_Queen_and_joint_ruler_with_Ptolemy_III_of_Egypt%2C_Thmuis%2C_Egypt.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="291" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Mosaic_of_Berenice_II%2C_Ptolemaic_Queen_and_joint_ruler_with_Ptolemy_III_of_Egypt%2C_Thmuis%2C_Egypt.jpg/450px-Mosaic_of_Berenice_II%2C_Ptolemaic_Queen_and_joint_ruler_with_Ptolemy_III_of_Egypt%2C_Thmuis%2C_Egypt.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/27/Mosaic_of_Berenice_II%2C_Ptolemaic_Queen_and_joint_ruler_with_Ptolemy_III_of_Egypt%2C_Thmuis%2C_Egypt.jpg 2x" data-file-width="564" data-file-height="547" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Mosaic" title="Mosaic">mosaic</a> from <a href="/wiki/Thmuis" title="Thmuis">Thmuis</a> (<a href="/wiki/Mendes" title="Mendes">Mendes</a>), Egypt, created by the <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_art" title="Hellenistic art">Hellenistic artist</a> Sophilos (signature) in about 200 BC, now in the Greco-Roman Museum in Alexandria, Egypt; the woman depicted is Queen <a href="/wiki/Berenice_II_of_Egypt" title="Berenice II of Egypt">Berenice II</a> (who ruled jointly with her husband <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_III_Euergetes" title="Ptolemy III Euergetes">Ptolemy III Euergetes</a>) as the personification of Alexandria, with her crown showing a ship's <a href="/wiki/Prow" class="mw-redirect" title="Prow">prow</a>, while she sports an <a href="/wiki/Anchor" title="Anchor">anchor</a>-shaped <a href="/wiki/Brooch" title="Brooch">brooch</a> for her <a href="/wiki/Clothing_in_ancient_Greece" title="Clothing in ancient Greece">robes</a>, symbols of the Ptolemaic Kingdom's naval prowess and successes in the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean Sea</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_V_Epiphanes" title="Ptolemy V Epiphanes">Ptolemy V Epiphanes</a>, son of Philopator and Arsinoë, was a child when he came to the throne, and a series of regents ran the kingdom. <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_III_the_Great" title="Antiochus III the Great">Antiochus III the Great</a> of The <a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid Empire</a> and <a href="/wiki/Philip_V_of_Macedon" title="Philip V of Macedon">Philip V of Macedon</a> made a compact to seize the Ptolemaic possessions. Philip seized several islands and places in <a href="/wiki/Caria" title="Caria">Caria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thrace" title="Thrace">Thrace</a>, while the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Panium" title="Battle of Panium">battle of Panium</a> in 200 BC transferred <a href="/wiki/Coele-Syria" title="Coele-Syria">Coele-Syria</a> from Ptolemaic to Seleucid control. After this defeat Egypt formed an alliance with the rising power in the Mediterranean, <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Rome</a>. Once he reached adulthood Epiphanes became a tyrant, before his early death in 180 BC. He was succeeded by his infant son <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_VI_Philometor" title="Ptolemy VI Philometor">Ptolemy VI Philometor</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ring_with_engraved_portrait_of_Ptolemy_VI_Philometor_(3rd%E2%80%932nd_century_BCE)_-_2009.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Ring_with_engraved_portrait_of_Ptolemy_VI_Philometor_%283rd%E2%80%932nd_century_BCE%29_-_2009.jpg/170px-Ring_with_engraved_portrait_of_Ptolemy_VI_Philometor_%283rd%E2%80%932nd_century_BCE%29_-_2009.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="221" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Ring_with_engraved_portrait_of_Ptolemy_VI_Philometor_%283rd%E2%80%932nd_century_BCE%29_-_2009.jpg/255px-Ring_with_engraved_portrait_of_Ptolemy_VI_Philometor_%283rd%E2%80%932nd_century_BCE%29_-_2009.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Ring_with_engraved_portrait_of_Ptolemy_VI_Philometor_%283rd%E2%80%932nd_century_BCE%29_-_2009.jpg/340px-Ring_with_engraved_portrait_of_Ptolemy_VI_Philometor_%283rd%E2%80%932nd_century_BCE%29_-_2009.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1155" data-file-height="1499" /></a><figcaption>Ring of <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_VI_Philometor" title="Ptolemy VI Philometor">Ptolemy VI Philometor</a> as Egyptian <a href="/wiki/Pharaoh" title="Pharaoh">pharaoh</a>. <a href="/wiki/Louvre_Museum" class="mw-redirect" title="Louvre Museum">Louvre Museum</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>In 170 BC, <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_IV_Epiphanes" title="Antiochus IV Epiphanes">Antiochus IV Epiphanes</a> invaded Egypt and captured Philometor, installing him at Memphis as a puppet king. Philometor's younger brother (later <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_VIII_Physcon" title="Ptolemy VIII Physcon">Ptolemy VIII Physcon</a>) was installed as king by the Ptolemaic court in Alexandria. When Antiochus withdrew, the brothers agreed to reign jointly with their sister <a href="/wiki/Cleopatra_II_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Cleopatra II of Egypt">Cleopatra II</a>. They soon fell out, however, and quarrels between the two brothers allowed Rome to interfere and to steadily increase its influence in Egypt. Philometor eventually regained the throne. In 145 BC, he was killed in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Antioch_(145_BC)" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Antioch (145 BC)">Battle of Antioch</a>. </p><p>Throughout the 160s and 150s BC, Ptolemy VI has also reasserted Ptolemaic control over the northern part of <a href="/wiki/Nubia" title="Nubia">Nubia</a>. This achievement is heavily advertised at the Temple of <a href="/wiki/Isis" title="Isis">Isis</a> at <a href="/wiki/Philae" class="mw-redirect" title="Philae">Philae</a>, which was granted the tax revenues of the <a href="/wiki/Dodecaschoenus" class="mw-redirect" title="Dodecaschoenus">Dodecaschoenus</a> region in 157 BC. Decorations on the first pylon of the Temple of Isis at Philae emphasise the Ptolemaic claim to rule the whole of Nubia. The aforementioned inscription regarding the priests of Mandulis shows that some Nubian leaders at least were paying tribute to the Ptolemaic treasury in this period. In order to secure the region, the <i>strategos</i> of Upper Egypt, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Boethus_(strategos)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Boethus (strategos) (page does not exist)">Boethus</a>, founded two new cities, named Philometris and Cleopatra in honour of the royal couple.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-G325_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-G325-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Later_Ptolemies">Later Ptolemies</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ptolemaic_Kingdom&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Later Ptolemies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After Ptolemy VI's death a series of civil wars and feuds between the members of the Ptolemaic dynasty started and lasted for over a century. Philometor was succeeded by yet another infant, his son <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_VII_Neos_Philopator" title="Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator">Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator</a>. But Physcon soon returned, killed his young nephew, seized the throne and as Ptolemy VIII soon proved himself a cruel tyrant. On his death in 116 BC he left the kingdom to his wife <a href="/wiki/Cleopatra_III_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Cleopatra III of Egypt">Cleopatra III</a> and her son <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_IX_Lathyros" class="mw-redirect" title="Ptolemy IX Lathyros">Ptolemy IX Philometor Soter II</a>. The young king was driven out by his mother in 107 BC, who reigned jointly with Euergetes's youngest son <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_X_Alexander_I" title="Ptolemy X Alexander I">Ptolemy X Alexander I</a>. In 88 BC Ptolemy IX again returned to the throne, and retained it until his death in 80 BC. He was succeeded by <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_XI_Alexander_II" title="Ptolemy XI Alexander II">Ptolemy XI Alexander II</a>, the son of Ptolemy X. He was lynched by the Alexandrian mob after murdering his stepmother, who was also his cousin, aunt and wife. These sordid dynastic quarrels left Egypt so weakened that the country became a <i>de facto</i> protectorate of Rome, which had by now absorbed most of the Greek world. </p><p>Ptolemy XI was succeeded by a son of Ptolemy IX, <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_XII_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Ptolemy XII of Egypt">Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos</a>, nicknamed Auletes, the flute-player. By now Rome was the arbiter of Egyptian affairs, and annexed both <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Libya" title="Ancient Libya">Libya</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cyprus" title="Cyprus">Cyprus</a>. In 58 BC Auletes was driven out by the Alexandrian mob, but the Romans restored him to power three years later. He died in 51 BC, leaving the kingdom to his ten-year-old son and seventeen-year-old daughter, <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_XIII_Theos_Philopator" title="Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator">Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cleopatra_VII_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Cleopatra VII of Egypt">Cleopatra VII</a>, who reigned jointly as husband and wife. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Final_years">Final years</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ptolemaic_Kingdom&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Final years"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Cleopatra_VII">Cleopatra VII</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ptolemaic_Kingdom&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Cleopatra VII"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Cleopatra_VII" class="mw-redirect" title="Cleopatra VII">Cleopatra VII</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CleopatraVIICoin.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/CleopatraVIICoin.jpg/220px-CleopatraVIICoin.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="218" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/CleopatraVIICoin.jpg/330px-CleopatraVIICoin.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/CleopatraVIICoin.jpg/440px-CleopatraVIICoin.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1164" data-file-height="1153" /></a><figcaption>Coin of Cleopatra VII, with her image<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and a Greek inscription "<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">θεά νεωτέρα</span></span>" <i>thea neotera</i>, lit. "the younger goddess", one of Cleopatra's adopted titles.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Cleopatra_VII" class="mw-redirect" title="Cleopatra VII">Cleopatra VII</a> ascended the Egyptian throne on 22 March 51 BC upon the death of her father, Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHölbl2000231_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHölbl2000231-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> She reigned as queen "philopator" and <a href="/wiki/Pharaoh" title="Pharaoh">pharaoh</a> with various male co-regents from 51 to 30 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHölbl2000231,_248_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHölbl2000231,_248-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The demise of the Ptolemies' power coincided with the growing dominance of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a>. With one empire after another falling to Macedon and the Seleucid empire, the Ptolemies had had little choice but to ally with the Romans, a pact that lasted over 150 years. By Ptolemy XII's time, Rome had achieved a massive amount of influence over Egyptian politics and finances to the point that he declared the Roman senate the guardian of the Ptolemaic Dynasty. He had paid vast sums of Egyptian wealth and resources in tribute to the Romans in order to regain and secure his throne following the rebellion and brief coup led by his older daughters, <a href="/wiki/Cleopatra_VI_Tryphaena" class="mw-redirect" title="Cleopatra VI Tryphaena">Tryphaena</a> and <a href="/wiki/Berenice_IV" title="Berenice IV">Berenice IV</a>. Both daughters were killed in Auletes' reclaiming of his throne; Tryphaena by assassination and Berenice by execution, leaving Cleopatra VII as the oldest surviving child of Ptolemy Auletes. Traditionally, Ptolemaic royal siblings were married to one another on ascension to the throne. These marriages sometimes produced children, and other times were only a ceremonial union to consolidate political power. Ptolemy Auletes expressed his wish for Cleopatra and her brother Ptolemy XIII to marry and rule jointly in his will, in which the Roman senate was named as executor, giving Rome further control over the Ptolemies and, thereby, the fate of Egypt as a nation. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ptolemy_XII_making_offerings_to_Egyptian_Gods,_in_the_Temple_of_Hathor,_Dendera,_Egypt.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Ptolemy_XII_making_offerings_to_Egyptian_Gods%2C_in_the_Temple_of_Hathor%2C_Dendera%2C_Egypt.jpg/220px-Ptolemy_XII_making_offerings_to_Egyptian_Gods%2C_in_the_Temple_of_Hathor%2C_Dendera%2C_Egypt.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="455" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Ptolemy_XII_making_offerings_to_Egyptian_Gods%2C_in_the_Temple_of_Hathor%2C_Dendera%2C_Egypt.jpg/330px-Ptolemy_XII_making_offerings_to_Egyptian_Gods%2C_in_the_Temple_of_Hathor%2C_Dendera%2C_Egypt.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Ptolemy_XII_making_offerings_to_Egyptian_Gods%2C_in_the_Temple_of_Hathor%2C_Dendera%2C_Egypt.jpg/440px-Ptolemy_XII_making_offerings_to_Egyptian_Gods%2C_in_the_Temple_of_Hathor%2C_Dendera%2C_Egypt.jpg 2x" data-file-width="927" data-file-height="1919" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_XII" class="mw-redirect" title="Ptolemy XII">Ptolemy XII</a>, father of Cleopatra VII, making offerings to Egyptian Gods, in the Temple of Hathor, <a href="/wiki/Dendera" title="Dendera">Dendera</a>, Egypt</figcaption></figure> <p>After the death of their father, Cleopatra VII and her younger brother Ptolemy XIII inherited the throne and were married. Their marriage was only nominal, however, and their relationship soon degenerated. Cleopatra was stripped of authority and title by Ptolemy XIII's advisors, who held considerable influence over the young king. Fleeing into exile, Cleopatra attempted to raise an army to reclaim the throne. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a> left Rome for Alexandria in 48 BC in order to quell the looming civil war, as war in Egypt, which was one of Rome's greatest suppliers of grain and other expensive goods, would have had a detrimental effect on trade with Rome, especially on Rome's working-class citizens. During his stay in the Alexandrian palace, he received 22-year-old Cleopatra, allegedly carried to him in secret wrapped in a carpet. Caesar agreed to support Cleopatra's claim to the throne. Ptolemy XIII and his advisors fled the palace, turning the Egyptian forces loyal to the throne against Caesar and Cleopatra, who barricaded themselves in the palace complex until Roman reinforcements could arrive to combat the rebellion, known afterward as the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Alexandria_(47_BC)" title="Siege of Alexandria (47 BC)">Siege of Alexandria</a>. Ptolemy XIII's forces were ultimately defeated at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Nile_(47_BC)" title="Battle of the Nile (47 BC)">Battle of the Nile</a> and the king was killed in the conflict, reportedly drowning in the Nile while attempting to flee with his remaining army. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dendera_Tempel_Kleopatra_C%C3%A4sarion_04.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Dendera_Tempel_Kleopatra_C%C3%A4sarion_04.jpg/170px-Dendera_Tempel_Kleopatra_C%C3%A4sarion_04.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Dendera_Tempel_Kleopatra_C%C3%A4sarion_04.jpg/255px-Dendera_Tempel_Kleopatra_C%C3%A4sarion_04.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Dendera_Tempel_Kleopatra_C%C3%A4sarion_04.jpg/340px-Dendera_Tempel_Kleopatra_C%C3%A4sarion_04.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3134" data-file-height="4176" /></a><figcaption>Relief of Ptolemaic Queen <a href="/wiki/Cleopatra_VII" class="mw-redirect" title="Cleopatra VII">Cleopatra VII</a> and Caesarion, Dendera Temple, Egypt.</figcaption></figure> <p>In the summer of 47 BC, having married her younger brother <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_XIV" class="mw-redirect" title="Ptolemy XIV">Ptolemy XIV</a>, Cleopatra embarked with Caesar for a two-month trip along the Nile. Together, they visited <a href="/wiki/Dendara" class="mw-redirect" title="Dendara">Dendara</a>, where Cleopatra was being worshiped as pharaoh, an honor beyond Caesar's reach. They became lovers and had a son, <a href="/wiki/Caesarion" title="Caesarion">Caesarion</a>. In 45 BC, Cleopatra and Caesarion left Alexandria for Rome, where they stayed in a palace built by Caesar in their honor. </p><p>In 44 BC, Caesar was murdered in Rome by several <a href="/wiki/Roman_Senate" title="Roman Senate">Senators</a>. With his death, Rome split between supporters of <a href="/wiki/Mark_Antony" title="Mark Antony">Mark Antony</a> and <a href="/wiki/Octavian" class="mw-redirect" title="Octavian">Octavian</a>. When Mark Antony seemed to prevail, Cleopatra supported him and, shortly after, they too became lovers and eventually married in Egypt (though their marriage was never recognized by Roman law, as Antony was married to a Roman woman). Their union produced three children; the twins <a href="/wiki/Cleopatra_Selene_II" title="Cleopatra Selene II">Cleopatra Selene</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Helios" title="Alexander Helios">Alexander Helios</a>, and another son, <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_Philadelphus_(son_of_Cleopatra)" title="Ptolemy Philadelphus (son of Cleopatra)">Ptolemy Philadelphos</a>. </p><p>Mark Antony's alliance with Cleopatra angered Rome even more. Branded a power-hungry enchantress by the Romans, she was accused of seducing Antony to further her conquest of Rome. Further outrage followed at the <a href="/wiki/Donations_of_Alexandria" title="Donations of Alexandria">donations of Alexandria</a> ceremony in autumn of 34 BC in which <a href="/wiki/Tarsus_(city)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tarsus (city)">Tarsus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cyrene,_Libya" title="Cyrene, Libya">Cyrene</a>, <a href="/wiki/Crete" title="Crete">Crete</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cyprus" title="Cyprus">Cyprus</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Judea_(Roman_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Judea (Roman province)">Judaea</a> were all to be given as client monarchies to Antony's children by Cleopatra. In his will Antony expressed his desire to be buried in Alexandria, rather than taken to Rome in the event of his death, which Octavian used against Antony, sowing further dissent in the Roman populace. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:367px;max-width:367px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:162px;max-width:162px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:282px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:-0035_Altes_Museum_Portrait_Kleopatra_VII_anagoria.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/-0035_Altes_Museum_Portrait_Kleopatra_VII_anagoria.JPG/160px--0035_Altes_Museum_Portrait_Kleopatra_VII_anagoria.JPG" decoding="async" width="160" height="282" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/-0035_Altes_Museum_Portrait_Kleopatra_VII_anagoria.JPG/240px--0035_Altes_Museum_Portrait_Kleopatra_VII_anagoria.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/-0035_Altes_Museum_Portrait_Kleopatra_VII_anagoria.JPG/320px--0035_Altes_Museum_Portrait_Kleopatra_VII_anagoria.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2693" data-file-height="4752" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:201px;max-width:201px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:282px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Cleopatra_VII,_Marble,_40-30_BC,_Vatican_Museums_001.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Cleopatra_VII%2C_Marble%2C_40-30_BC%2C_Vatican_Museums_001.jpg/199px-Cleopatra_VII%2C_Marble%2C_40-30_BC%2C_Vatican_Museums_001.jpg" decoding="async" width="199" height="282" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Cleopatra_VII%2C_Marble%2C_40-30_BC%2C_Vatican_Museums_001.jpg/299px-Cleopatra_VII%2C_Marble%2C_40-30_BC%2C_Vatican_Museums_001.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Cleopatra_VII%2C_Marble%2C_40-30_BC%2C_Vatican_Museums_001.jpg/398px-Cleopatra_VII%2C_Marble%2C_40-30_BC%2C_Vatican_Museums_001.jpg 2x" data-file-width="932" data-file-height="1323" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Left image: <a href="/wiki/Cleopatra_VII" class="mw-redirect" title="Cleopatra VII">Cleopatra VII</a> bust in the <a href="/wiki/Altes_Museum" title="Altes Museum">Altes Museum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Antikensammlung_Berlin" title="Antikensammlung Berlin">Antikensammlung Berlin</a>, Roman artwork, 1st century BC<br />Right: bust of Cleopatra VII, dated 40–30 BC, <a href="/wiki/Vatican_Museums" title="Vatican Museums">Vatican Museums</a>, showing her with a 'melon' hairstyle and <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hellenistic">Hellenistic</a> royal <a href="/wiki/Diadem" title="Diadem">diadem</a> worn over her head</div></div></div></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Octavian" class="mw-redirect" title="Octavian">Octavian</a> was quick to declare war on Antony and Cleopatra while public opinion of Antony was low. Their naval forces met at <a href="/wiki/Actium" title="Actium">Actium</a>, where the forces of <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Vipsanius_Agrippa" title="Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa">Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa</a> defeated the navy of Cleopatra and Antony. Octavian waited for a year before he claimed Egypt as a Roman province. He arrived in Alexandria and easily defeated Mark Antony's remaining forces outside the city. Facing certain death at the hands of <a href="/wiki/Octavian" class="mw-redirect" title="Octavian">Octavian</a>, Antony attempted suicide by falling on his own sword, but survived briefly. He was taken by his remaining soldiers to Cleopatra, who had barricaded herself in her mausoleum, where he died soon after. </p><p>Knowing that she would be taken to Rome to be paraded in Octavian's <a href="/wiki/Roman_triumph" title="Roman triumph">triumph</a> (and likely executed thereafter), Cleopatra and her handmaidens committed suicide on 12 August 30 BC. Legend and numerous ancient sources claim that she died by way of the venomous bite of an <a href="/wiki/Asp_(reptile)" class="mw-redirect" title="Asp (reptile)">asp</a>, though others state that she used poison, or that Octavian ordered her death himself. </p><p>Caesarion, her son by Julius Caesar, nominally succeeded Cleopatra until his capture and supposed execution in the weeks after his mother's death. Cleopatra's children by Antony were spared by Octavian and given to his sister (and Antony's Roman wife) <a href="/wiki/Octavia_Minor" class="mw-redirect" title="Octavia Minor">Octavia Minor</a>, to be raised in her household. No further mention is made of Cleopatra and Antony's sons in the known historical texts of that time, but their daughter Cleopatra Selene was eventually married through arrangement by Octavian into the Mauretanian royal line, one of Rome's many client monarchies. Through Cleopatra Selene's offspring the Ptolemaic line intermarried back into the Roman nobility for centuries. </p><p>With the deaths of Cleopatra and Caesarion, the dynasty of Ptolemies and the entirety of pharaonic Egypt came to an end. Alexandria remained the capital of the country, but Egypt itself became a Roman province. Octavian became the sole ruler of Rome and began converting it into a monarchy, the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Roman_rule">Roman rule</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ptolemaic_Kingdom&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Roman rule"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Aegyptus_(Roman_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Aegyptus (Roman province)">Aegyptus (Roman province)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bust_of_Roman_Nobleman,_ca._30_B.C.E.%E2%80%93_50_C.E.,_54.51.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Bust_of_Roman_Nobleman%2C_ca._30_B.C.E.%E2%80%93_50_C.E.%2C_54.51.jpg/170px-Bust_of_Roman_Nobleman%2C_ca._30_B.C.E.%E2%80%93_50_C.E.%2C_54.51.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="219" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Bust_of_Roman_Nobleman%2C_ca._30_B.C.E.%E2%80%93_50_C.E.%2C_54.51.jpg/255px-Bust_of_Roman_Nobleman%2C_ca._30_B.C.E.%E2%80%93_50_C.E.%2C_54.51.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Bust_of_Roman_Nobleman%2C_ca._30_B.C.E.%E2%80%93_50_C.E.%2C_54.51.jpg/340px-Bust_of_Roman_Nobleman%2C_ca._30_B.C.E.%E2%80%93_50_C.E.%2C_54.51.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1195" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>Bust of Roman Nobleman, c. 30 BC – 50 AD, 54.51, <a href="/wiki/Brooklyn_Museum" title="Brooklyn Museum">Brooklyn Museum</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Under Roman rule, Egypt was governed by a prefect selected by the <a href="/wiki/Roman_emperor" title="Roman emperor">emperor</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Equestrian_(Roman)" class="mw-redirect" title="Equestrian (Roman)">Equestrian</a> class and not a governor from the Senatorial order, to prevent interference by the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Senate" title="Roman Senate">Roman Senate</a>. The main Roman interest in Egypt was always the reliable delivery of grain to the city of Rome. To this end the Roman administration made no change to the Ptolemaic system of government, although Romans replaced Greeks in the highest offices. But Greeks continued to staff most of the administrative offices and Greek remained the language of government except at the highest levels. Unlike the Greeks, the Romans did not settle in Egypt in large numbers. Culture, education and civic life largely remained Greek throughout the Roman period. The Romans, like the Ptolemies, respected and protected Egyptian religion and customs, although the cult of the Roman state and of the Emperor was gradually introduced.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2011)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Culture">Culture</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ptolemaic_Kingdom&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Culture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ptolemaic_roundel_from_a_mosaic_floor_decorated_with_a_dog_and_a_gilded_askos,_from_Alexandria,_Egypt,_c._200-150_BC.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Ptolemaic_roundel_from_a_mosaic_floor_decorated_with_a_dog_and_a_gilded_askos%2C_from_Alexandria%2C_Egypt%2C_c._200-150_BC.jpg/220px-Ptolemaic_roundel_from_a_mosaic_floor_decorated_with_a_dog_and_a_gilded_askos%2C_from_Alexandria%2C_Egypt%2C_c._200-150_BC.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Ptolemaic_roundel_from_a_mosaic_floor_decorated_with_a_dog_and_a_gilded_askos%2C_from_Alexandria%2C_Egypt%2C_c._200-150_BC.jpg/330px-Ptolemaic_roundel_from_a_mosaic_floor_decorated_with_a_dog_and_a_gilded_askos%2C_from_Alexandria%2C_Egypt%2C_c._200-150_BC.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Ptolemaic_roundel_from_a_mosaic_floor_decorated_with_a_dog_and_a_gilded_askos%2C_from_Alexandria%2C_Egypt%2C_c._200-150_BC.jpg/440px-Ptolemaic_roundel_from_a_mosaic_floor_decorated_with_a_dog_and_a_gilded_askos%2C_from_Alexandria%2C_Egypt%2C_c._200-150_BC.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="2448" /></a><figcaption>Ptolemaic <a href="/wiki/Mosaic" title="Mosaic">mosaic</a> of a dog and <i>askos</i> wine vessel from Hellenistic Egypt, dated 200–150 BC, <a href="/wiki/Greco-Roman_Museum" class="mw-redirect" title="Greco-Roman Museum">Greco-Roman Museum</a> of Alexandria, Egypt</figcaption></figure> <p>Ptolemy I, perhaps with advice from <a href="/wiki/Demetrius_of_Phalerum" title="Demetrius of Phalerum">Demetrius of Phalerum</a>, founded the <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Alexandria" title="Library of Alexandria">Library of Alexandria</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Peters_193_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Peters_193-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a research centre located in the royal sector of the city. Its scholars were housed in the same sector and funded by Ptolemaic rulers.<sup id="cite_ref-Peters_193_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Peters_193-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The chief librarian served also as the crown prince's tutor.<sup id="cite_ref-Peters_194_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Peters_194-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For the first hundred and fifty years of its existence, the library drew the top Greek scholars from all over the Hellenistic world.<sup id="cite_ref-Peters_194_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Peters_194-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was a key academic, literary and scientific centre in antiquity.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Greek_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek culture">Greek culture</a> had a long but minor presence in Egypt long before Alexander the Great founded the city of Alexandria. It began when Greek colonists, encouraged by many Pharaohs, set up the trading post of <a href="/wiki/Naucratis" title="Naucratis">Naucratis</a>. As Egypt came under foreign domination and decline, the Pharaohs depended on the Greeks as mercenaries and even advisors. When the Persians took over Egypt, Naucratis remained an important Greek port and the colonist population were used as <a href="/wiki/Mercenary" title="Mercenary">mercenaries</a> by both the rebel Egyptian princes and the Persian kings, who later gave them land grants, spreading Greek culture into the valley of the Nile. When Alexander the Great arrived, he established Alexandria on the site of the Persian fort of Rhakortis. Following Alexander's death, control passed into the hands of the Lagid (Ptolemaic) Dynasty; they built Greek cities across their empire and gave land grants across Egypt to the veterans of their many military conflicts. <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Hellenistic civilization">Hellenistic civilization</a> continued to thrive even after Rome annexed Egypt after the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Actium" title="Battle of Actium">battle of Actium</a> and did not decline until the <a href="/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests" title="Early Muslim conquests">Islamic conquests</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Art">Art</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ptolemaic_Kingdom&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Art"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Faience_Sistrum_Inscribed_with_the_Name_of_Ptolemy_I_MET_DP246588.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Faience_Sistrum_Inscribed_with_the_Name_of_Ptolemy_I_MET_DP246588.jpg/220px-Faience_Sistrum_Inscribed_with_the_Name_of_Ptolemy_I_MET_DP246588.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Faience_Sistrum_Inscribed_with_the_Name_of_Ptolemy_I_MET_DP246588.jpg/330px-Faience_Sistrum_Inscribed_with_the_Name_of_Ptolemy_I_MET_DP246588.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Faience_Sistrum_Inscribed_with_the_Name_of_Ptolemy_I_MET_DP246588.jpg/440px-Faience_Sistrum_Inscribed_with_the_Name_of_Ptolemy_I_MET_DP246588.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="4000" /></a><figcaption>Faience sistrum with head of Hathor with bovine ears from the reign of Ptolemy I. Color is intermediate between traditional Egyptian color to colors more characteristic of Ptolemaic-era faience.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Ptolemaic art was produced during the reign of the Ptolemaic Rulers (304–30 BC), and was concentrated primarily within the bounds of the Ptolemaic Empire.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At first, artworks existed separately in either the Egyptian or the Hellenistic style, but over time, these characteristics began to combine. The continuation of the Egyptian art style evidences the Ptolemies' commitment to maintaining Egyptian customs. This strategy not only helped to legitimize their rule, but also placated the general population.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Greek-style art was also created during this time and existed in parallel to the more traditional Egyptian art, which could not be altered significantly without changing its intrinsic, primarily-religious function.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Art found outside of Egypt itself, though within the Ptolemaic Kingdom, sometimes used Egyptian iconography as it had been used previously, and sometimes adapted it.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-recovered_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-recovered-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> For example, the <a href="/wiki/Faience" title="Faience">faience</a> sistrum inscribed with the name of Ptolemy has some deceptively Greek characteristics, such as the scrolls at the top. However, there are many examples of nearly identical sistrums and columns dating all the way to Dynasty 18 in the New Kingdom. It is, therefore, purely Egyptian in style. Aside from the name of the king, there are other features that specifically date this to the Ptolemaic period. Most distinctively is the color of the faience. Apple green, deep blue, and lavender-blue are the three colors most frequently used during this period, a shift from the characteristic blue of the earlier kingdoms.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This sistrum appears to be an intermediate hue, which fits with its date at the beginning of the Ptolemaic empire.<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"></p><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:392px;max-width:392px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:200px;max-width:200px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:247px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Head_Attributed_to_Arsinoe_II_MET_DT10849.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="alt text 1" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Head_Attributed_to_Arsinoe_II_MET_DT10849.jpg/198px-Head_Attributed_to_Arsinoe_II_MET_DT10849.jpg" decoding="async" width="198" height="247" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Head_Attributed_to_Arsinoe_II_MET_DT10849.jpg/297px-Head_Attributed_to_Arsinoe_II_MET_DT10849.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Head_Attributed_to_Arsinoe_II_MET_DT10849.jpg/396px-Head_Attributed_to_Arsinoe_II_MET_DT10849.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2978" data-file-height="3722" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Head Attributed to <a href="/wiki/Arsinoe_II" title="Arsinoe II">Arsinoe II</a>, depicted as an Egyptian divinity</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:188px;max-width:188px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:247px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Marble_head_of_a_Ptolemaic_queen_MET_DP333700.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="alt text 2" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Marble_head_of_a_Ptolemaic_queen_MET_DP333700.jpg/186px-Marble_head_of_a_Ptolemaic_queen_MET_DP333700.jpg" decoding="async" width="186" height="248" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Marble_head_of_a_Ptolemaic_queen_MET_DP333700.jpg/279px-Marble_head_of_a_Ptolemaic_queen_MET_DP333700.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Marble_head_of_a_Ptolemaic_queen_MET_DP333700.jpg/372px-Marble_head_of_a_Ptolemaic_queen_MET_DP333700.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="4000" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Marble Head of a Ptolemaic Queen</div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Two depictions of Arsinoe II. The left is in the more traditional Egyptian style, and the right is in a more Hellenistic style.</div></div></div></div> <p>During the reign of Ptolemy II, Arsinoe II was deified either as stand-alone goddesses or as a personification of another divine figure and given their own sanctuaries and festivals in association to both Egyptian and Hellenistic gods (such as Isis of Egypt and Hera of Greece).<sup id="cite_ref-:2_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, Head Attributed to Arsinoe II deified her as an Egyptian goddess. However, the Marble head of a Ptolemaic queen deified Arsinoe II as Hera.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_46-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Coins from this period also show Arsinoe II with a diadem that is solely worn by goddesses and deified royal women.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kom_Ombo_Tempel_10.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Kom_Ombo_Tempel_10.jpg/220px-Kom_Ombo_Tempel_10.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Kom_Ombo_Tempel_10.jpg/330px-Kom_Ombo_Tempel_10.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Kom_Ombo_Tempel_10.jpg/440px-Kom_Ombo_Tempel_10.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4419" data-file-height="3314" /></a><figcaption>Relief from the temple of Kom Ombo depicting Ptolemy VIII receiving the <i>sed</i> symbol from Horus.<sup id="cite_ref-Gay._2008_236_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gay._2008_236-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure><p>The Statuette of Arsinoe II was created c. 150–100 BC, well after her death, as a part of her own specific posthumous cult which was started by her husband Ptolemy II. The figure also exemplifies the fusing of Greek and Egyptian art. Although the backpillar and the goddess's striding pose is distinctively Egyptian, the cornucopia she holds and her hairstyle are both Greek in style. The rounded eyes, prominent lips, and overall youthful features show Greek influence as well.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:KomOmbo2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/KomOmbo2.jpg/220px-KomOmbo2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="181" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/KomOmbo2.jpg/330px-KomOmbo2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/KomOmbo2.jpg/440px-KomOmbo2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="726" data-file-height="597" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Kom_Ombo" title="Temple of Kom Ombo">Temple of Kom Ombo</a> constructed in Upper Egypt in 180–47 BC by the Ptolemies and modified by the Romans. It is a double temple with two sets of structures dedicated to two separate deities. </figcaption></figure> <p>Despite the unification of Greek and Egyptian elements in the intermediate Ptolemaic period, the Ptolemaic Kingdom also featured prominent temple construction as a continuation of developments based on Egyptian art tradition from the <a href="/wiki/Thirtieth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Thirtieth Dynasty of Egypt">Thirtieth Dynasty</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Gay._2008_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gay._2008-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such behavior expanded the rulers' social and political capital and demonstrated their loyalty toward Egyptian deities, to the satisfaction of the local people.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Temples remained very <a href="/wiki/New_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="New Kingdom of Egypt">New Kingdom</a> and <a href="/wiki/Late_Period_of_ancient_Egypt" title="Late Period of ancient Egypt">Late Period</a> Egyptian in style though resources were oftentimes provided by foreign powers.<sup id="cite_ref-Gay._2008_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gay._2008-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Temples were models of the cosmic world with basic plans retaining the pylon, open court, <a href="/wiki/Hypostyle" title="Hypostyle">hypostyle halls</a>, and dark and centrally located sanctuary.<sup id="cite_ref-Gay._2008_50-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gay._2008-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, ways of presenting text on columns and reliefs became formal and rigid during the Ptolemaic Dynasty. Scenes were often framed with textual inscriptions, with a higher text to image ratio than seen previously during the <a href="/wiki/New_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="New Kingdom of Egypt">New Kingdom</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Gay._2008_50-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gay._2008-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, a relief in the temple of Kom Ombo is separated from other scenes by two vertical columns of texts. The figures in the scenes are smooth, rounded, and high relief, a style continued throughout the 30th Dynasty. The relief represents the interaction between the Ptolemaic kings and the Egyptian deities, which legitimized their rule in Egypt .<sup id="cite_ref-Gay._2008_236_48-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gay._2008_236-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In Ptolemaic art, the idealism seen in the art of previous dynasties continues, with some alterations. Women are portrayed as more youthful, and men begin to be portrayed in a range from idealistic to realistic.<sup id="cite_ref-recovered_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-recovered-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:2_46-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An example of realistic portrayal is the Berlin Green Head, which shows the non-idealistic facial features with vertical lines above the bridge of the nose, lines at the corners of the eyes and between the nose and the mouth.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The influence of Greek art was shown in an emphasis on the face that was not previously present in Egyptian art and incorporation of Greek elements into an Egyptian setting: individualistic hairstyles, the oval face, "round [and] deeply set" eyes, and the small, tucked mouth closer to the nose.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Early portraits of the Ptolemies featured large and radiant eyes in association to the rulers' divinity as well as general notions of abundance.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Religion">Religion</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ptolemaic_Kingdom&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Religion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ArsinoeII.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/ArsinoeII.jpg/220px-ArsinoeII.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="217" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/ArsinoeII.jpg/330px-ArsinoeII.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/ArsinoeII.jpg/440px-ArsinoeII.jpg 2x" data-file-width="882" data-file-height="869" /></a><figcaption>Gold coin with visage of <a href="/wiki/Arsinoe_II" title="Arsinoe II">Arsinoe II</a> wearing divine diadem</figcaption></figure> <p>When <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_I_Soter" title="Ptolemy I Soter">Ptolemy I Soter</a> made himself king of Egypt, he created a new god, <a href="/wiki/Serapis" title="Serapis">Serapis</a>, to garner support from both Greeks and Egyptians. Serapis was the patron god of Ptolemaic Egypt, combining the Egyptian gods Apis and Osiris with the Greek deities Zeus, Hades, <a href="/wiki/Asclepius" title="Asclepius">Asklepios</a>, Dionysos, and Helios; he had powers over fertility, the sun, funerary rites, and medicine. His growth and popularity reflected a deliberate policy by the Ptolemaic state, and was characteristic of the dynasty's use of Egyptian religion to legitimize their rule and strengthen their control. </p><p>The cult of Serapis included the worship of the new Ptolemaic line of pharaohs; the newly established Hellenistic capital of Alexandria supplanted Memphis as the preeminent religious city. Ptolemy I also promoted the <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_cult_of_Alexander_the_Great" title="Ptolemaic cult of Alexander the Great">cult of the deified Alexander</a>, who became the state god of the Ptolemaic kingdom. Many rulers also promoted individual cults of personality, including celebrations at Egyptian temples. </p><p>Because the monarchy remained staunchly Hellenistic, despite otherwise co-opting Egyptian faith traditions, religion during this period was highly syncretic. The wife of <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_II_Philadelphus" title="Ptolemy II Philadelphus">Ptolemy II</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arsinoe_II" title="Arsinoe II">Arsinoe II</a>, was often depicted in the form of the Greek goddess <a href="/wiki/Aphrodite" title="Aphrodite">Aphrodite</a>, but she wore the crown of lower Egypt, with ram's horns, ostrich feathers, and other traditional Egyptian indicators of royalty and/or deification; she wore the vulture headdress only on the religious portion of a relief. <a href="/wiki/Cleopatra" title="Cleopatra">Cleopatra VII</a>, the last of the Ptolemaic line, was often depicted with characteristics of the goddess <a href="/wiki/Isis" title="Isis">Isis</a>; she usually had either a small throne as her headdress or the more traditional sun disk between two horns.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Reflecting Greek preferences, the traditional table for offerings disappeared from reliefs during the Ptolemaic period, while male gods were no longer portrayed with tails, so as to make them more human-like in accordance with the Hellenistic tradition. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Greek_-_Allegorical_Group_of_Triumphant_Ptolemy_-_Walters_541050_-_Three_Quarter.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Greek_-_Allegorical_Group_of_Triumphant_Ptolemy_-_Walters_541050_-_Three_Quarter.jpg/170px-Greek_-_Allegorical_Group_of_Triumphant_Ptolemy_-_Walters_541050_-_Three_Quarter.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="204" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Greek_-_Allegorical_Group_of_Triumphant_Ptolemy_-_Walters_541050_-_Three_Quarter.jpg/255px-Greek_-_Allegorical_Group_of_Triumphant_Ptolemy_-_Walters_541050_-_Three_Quarter.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Greek_-_Allegorical_Group_of_Triumphant_Ptolemy_-_Walters_541050_-_Three_Quarter.jpg/340px-Greek_-_Allegorical_Group_of_Triumphant_Ptolemy_-_Walters_541050_-_Three_Quarter.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1501" data-file-height="1799" /></a><figcaption>Bronze allegorical group of a Ptolemy (identifiable by his <a href="/wiki/Diadem" title="Diadem">diadem</a>) overcoming an adversary, in <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_art" title="Hellenistic art">Hellenistic style</a>, <i>ca</i> early 2nd century BC (<a href="/wiki/Walters_Art_Museum" title="Walters Art Museum">Walters Art Museum</a>)</figcaption></figure> <p>Nevertheless, the Ptolemies remained generally supportive of the Egyptian religion, which always remained key to their legitimacy. Egyptian priests and other religious authorities enjoyed royal patronage and support, more or less retaining their historical privileged status. Temples remained the focal point of social, economic, and cultural life; the first three reigns of the dynasty were characterized by rigorous temple building, including the completion of projects left over from the previous dynasty; many older or neglected structures were restored or enhanced.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Ptolemies generally adhered to traditional architectural styles and motifs. In many respects, the Egyptian religion thrived: temples became centers of learning and literature in the traditional Egyptian style.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_57-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The worship of Isis and Horus became more popular, as did the practice of offering animal mummies. </p><p>Memphis, while no longer the center of power, became the second city after Alexandria, and enjoyed considerable influence; its High Priests of <a href="/wiki/Ptah" title="Ptah">Ptah</a>, an ancient Egyptian creator god, held considerable sway among the priesthood and even with the Ptolemaic kings. <a href="/wiki/Saqqara" title="Saqqara">Saqqara</a>, the city's necropolis, was a leading center of worship of Apis bull, which had become integrated into the national mythos. The Ptolemies also lavished attention on Hermopolis, the cult center of Thoth, building a Hellenistic-style temple in his honor. Thebes continued to be a major religious center and home to a powerful priesthood; it also enjoyed royal development, namely of the Karnak complex devoted to the Osiris and <a href="/wiki/Khonsu" title="Khonsu">Khonsu</a>. The city's temples and communities prosperous, while a new Ptolemaic style of cemeteries were built.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_57-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A common <a href="/wiki/Stele" title="Stele">stele</a> that appears during the Ptolemaic Dynasty is the <a href="/wiki/Cippus" title="Cippus">cippus</a>, a type of religious object produced for the purpose of protecting individuals. These magical stelae were made of various materials such as limestone, chlorite schist, and metagreywacke, and were connected with matters of health and safety. <a href="/wiki/Horus_on_the_Crocodiles" title="Horus on the Crocodiles">Horus on the Crocodiles</a> cippi during the Ptolemaic Period generally featured the child form of the Egyptian god Horus, Horpakhered (or <a href="/wiki/Harpocrates" title="Harpocrates">Harpocrates</a>). This portrayal refers to the myth of Horus triumphing over dangerous animals in the marshes of Khemmis with magic power (also known as <a href="/wiki/Akhmim" title="Akhmim">Akhmim</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Society">Society</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ptolemaic_Kingdom&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Society"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Applique_in_faience_per_tempietti_in_legno,_XXX_dinastia,_torso_di_re_380-342_ac..JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Applique_in_faience_per_tempietti_in_legno%2C_XXX_dinastia%2C_torso_di_re_380-342_ac..JPG/170px-Applique_in_faience_per_tempietti_in_legno%2C_XXX_dinastia%2C_torso_di_re_380-342_ac..JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="254" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Applique_in_faience_per_tempietti_in_legno%2C_XXX_dinastia%2C_torso_di_re_380-342_ac..JPG/255px-Applique_in_faience_per_tempietti_in_legno%2C_XXX_dinastia%2C_torso_di_re_380-342_ac..JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Applique_in_faience_per_tempietti_in_legno%2C_XXX_dinastia%2C_torso_di_re_380-342_ac..JPG/340px-Applique_in_faience_per_tempietti_in_legno%2C_XXX_dinastia%2C_torso_di_re_380-342_ac..JPG 2x" data-file-width="792" data-file-height="1182" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_faience" title="Egyptian faience">Egyptian faience</a> torso of a king, for an applique on wood</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Etched_carnelian_beads_Egypt_Ptolemaic_Period,_London,_Petrie_Museum_of_Egyptian_Archaeology_UC51264_(detail).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Etched_carnelian_beads_Egypt_Ptolemaic_Period%2C_London%2C_Petrie_Museum_of_Egyptian_Archaeology_UC51264_%28detail%29.jpg/220px-Etched_carnelian_beads_Egypt_Ptolemaic_Period%2C_London%2C_Petrie_Museum_of_Egyptian_Archaeology_UC51264_%28detail%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Etched_carnelian_beads_Egypt_Ptolemaic_Period%2C_London%2C_Petrie_Museum_of_Egyptian_Archaeology_UC51264_%28detail%29.jpg/330px-Etched_carnelian_beads_Egypt_Ptolemaic_Period%2C_London%2C_Petrie_Museum_of_Egyptian_Archaeology_UC51264_%28detail%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Etched_carnelian_beads_Egypt_Ptolemaic_Period%2C_London%2C_Petrie_Museum_of_Egyptian_Archaeology_UC51264_%28detail%29.jpg/440px-Etched_carnelian_beads_Egypt_Ptolemaic_Period%2C_London%2C_Petrie_Museum_of_Egyptian_Archaeology_UC51264_%28detail%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2595" data-file-height="1180" /></a><figcaption>Characteristic Indian <a href="/wiki/Etched_carnelian_bead" class="mw-redirect" title="Etched carnelian bead">etched carnelian bead</a>, found in Ptolemaic Period excavations at <a href="/wiki/Saft_el-Hinna" title="Saft el-Hinna">Saft el Henna</a>. This is a marker of <a href="/wiki/Indo-Roman_trade_relations" title="Indo-Roman trade relations">trade relations with India</a>. <a href="/wiki/Petrie_Museum" class="mw-redirect" title="Petrie Museum">Petrie Museum</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Ptolemaic Egypt was highly stratified in terms of both class and language. More than any previous foreign rulers, the Ptolemies retained or co-opted many aspects of the Egyptian social order, using Egyptian religion, traditions, and political structures to increase their own power and wealth. </p><p>As before, peasant farmers remained the vast majority of the population, while agricultural land and produce were owned directly by the state, temple, or <a href="/wiki/Nobility" title="Nobility">noble family</a> that owned the land. Macedonians and other <a href="/wiki/Greeks" title="Greeks">Greeks</a> now formed the new upper classes, replacing the old native aristocracy. A complex state bureaucracy was established to manage and extract Egypt's vast wealth for the benefit of the Ptolemies and the landed gentry. </p><p>Greeks held virtually all the political and economic power, while native Egyptians generally occupied only the lower posts; over time, Egyptians who spoke Greek were able to advance further and many individuals identified as "Greek" were of Egyptian descent. Eventually, a bilingual and bicultural social class emerged in Ptolemaic Egypt.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Priests and other religious officials remained overwhelmingly Egyptian, and continued to enjoy royal patronage and social prestige, as the Ptolemies' relied on the Egyptian faith to legitimize their rule and placate the populace. </p><p>Although Egypt was a prosperous kingdom, with the Ptolemies lavishing patronage through religious monuments and public works, the native population enjoyed few benefits; wealth and power remained overwhelmingly in the hands of Greeks. Subsequently, uprising and social unrest were frequent, especially by the early third century BC. Egyptian nationalism reached a peak in the reign of <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_IV_Philopator" title="Ptolemy IV Philopator">Ptolemy IV Philopator</a> (221–205 BC), when a succession of native self-proclaimed "pharaoh" gained control over one district. This was only curtailed nineteen years later when <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_V_Epiphanes" title="Ptolemy V Epiphanes">Ptolemy V Epiphanes</a> (205–181 BC) succeeded in subduing them, though underlying grievances were never extinguished, and riots erupted again later in the dynasty. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ptolemy_V_Bronze_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Ptolemaic bronze coin from Ptolemy V" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Ptolemy_V_Bronze_1.jpg/220px-Ptolemy_V_Bronze_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="111" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Ptolemy_V_Bronze_1.jpg/330px-Ptolemy_V_Bronze_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Ptolemy_V_Bronze_1.jpg/440px-Ptolemy_V_Bronze_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="968" data-file-height="487" /></a><figcaption>Example of a large Ptolemaic bronze coin minted during the reign of Ptolemy V.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Coinage">Coinage</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ptolemaic_Kingdom&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Coinage"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_coinage" title="Ptolemaic coinage">Ptolemaic coinage</a></div> <p>Ptolemaic Egypt produced extensive series of coinage in gold, silver and bronze. These included issues of large coins in all three metals, most notably gold <i>penta<a href="/wiki/Drachm" class="mw-redirect" title="Drachm">drachm</a></i> and <i>octadrachm</i>, and silver <i><a href="/wiki/Tetradrachm" title="Tetradrachm">tetradrachm</a></i>, <i>decadrachm</i> and <i>pentakaidecadrachm</i>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2010)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Military">Military</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ptolemaic_Kingdom&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Military"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The military of Ptolemaic Egypt is considered to have been one of the best of the Hellenistic period, benefiting from the kingdom's vast resources and its ability to adapt to changing circumstances.<sup id="cite_ref-Fischer-Bovet_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fischer-Bovet-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Ptolemaic military initially served a defensive purpose, primarily against competing <i>diadochi</i> claimants and rival Hellenistic states like the Seleucid Empire. By the reign of <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_III_Euergetes" title="Ptolemy III Euergetes">Ptolemy III</a> (246 to 222 BC), its role was more imperialistic, helping extend Ptolemaic control or influence over Cyrenaica, <a href="/wiki/Coele-Syria" title="Coele-Syria">Coele-Syria</a>, and Cyprus, as well as over cities in Anatolia, southern Thrace, the Aegean islands, and Crete. The military expanded and secured these territories while continuing its primary function of protecting Egypt; its main garrisons were in Alexandria, <a href="/wiki/Pelusium" title="Pelusium">Pelusium</a> in the Delta, and <a href="/wiki/Elephantine" title="Elephantine">Elephantine</a> in Upper Egypt. The Ptolemies also relied on the military to assert and maintain their control over Egypt, often by virtue of their presence. Soldiers served in several units of the royal guard and were mobilized against uprisings and dynastic usurpers, both of which became increasingly common. Members of the army, such as the <i><a href="/wiki/Machimoi" title="Machimoi">machimoi</a></i> (low ranking native soldiers) were sometimes recruited as guards for officials, or even to help enforce tax collection.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Army">Army</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ptolemaic_Kingdom&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Army"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_army" title="Ptolemaic army">Ptolemaic army</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:NileMosaicOfPalestrinaSoldiers.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/NileMosaicOfPalestrinaSoldiers.jpg/248px-NileMosaicOfPalestrinaSoldiers.jpg" decoding="async" width="248" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/NileMosaicOfPalestrinaSoldiers.jpg/372px-NileMosaicOfPalestrinaSoldiers.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/NileMosaicOfPalestrinaSoldiers.jpg/496px-NileMosaicOfPalestrinaSoldiers.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="628" /></a><figcaption>Hellenistic soldiers in <a href="/wiki/Tunic" title="Tunic">tunic</a>, 100 BC, detail of the <a href="/wiki/Nile_mosaic_of_Palestrina" title="Nile mosaic of Palestrina">Nile mosaic of Palestrina</a>.</figcaption></figure><p>The Ptolemies maintained a standing army throughout their reign, made up of both professional soldiers (including mercenaries) and recruits. From the very beginning the Ptolemaic army demonstrated considerable resourcefulness and adaptability. In his fight for control over Egypt, Ptolemy I had relied on a combination of imported Greek troops, mercenaries, native Egyptians, and even prisoners of war.<sup id="cite_ref-Fischer-Bovet_61-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fischer-Bovet-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The army was characterized by its diversity and maintained records of its troops' national origins, or <i>patris.</i><sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition to Egypt itself, soldiers were recruited from Macedonia, Cyrenaica (modern Libya), mainland Greece, the Aegean, Asia Minor, and Thrace; overseas territories were often garrisoned with local soldiers.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By the second and first centuries BC, increasing warfare and expansion, coupled with reduced Greek immigration, led to increasing reliance on native Egyptians; however, Greeks retained the higher ranks of royal guards, officers, and generals.<sup id="cite_ref-Fischer-Bovet_61-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fischer-Bovet-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Though present in the military from its founding, native troops were sometimes looked down upon and distrusted due to their reputation for disloyalty and tendency to aid local revolts;<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> however, they were well regarded as fighters, and beginning with the reforms of Ptolemy V in the early third century BC, they appeared more frequently as officers and cavalrymen.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Egyptian soldiers also enjoyed a socioeconomic status higher than the average native.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>To obtain reliable and loyal soldiers, the Ptolemies developed several strategies that leveraged their ample financial resources and even Egypt's historical reputation for wealth; royal propaganda could be evidenced in a line by the poet <a href="/wiki/Theocritus" title="Theocritus">Theocritus</a>, "Ptolemy is the best paymaster a free man could have".<sup id="cite_ref-Fischer-Bovet_61-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fischer-Bovet-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mercenaries were paid a salary (<i>misthos</i>) of cash and grain rations; an infantryman in the third century BC earned about one <a href="/wiki/Ancient_drachma" title="Ancient drachma">silver drachma</a> daily. This attracted recruits from across the eastern Mediterranean, who were sometimes referred to <i>misthophoroi xenoi</i> — literally "foreigners paid with a salary". By the second and first century BC, <i>misthophoroi</i> were mainly recruited within Egypt, notably among the Egyptian population. Soldiers were also given land grants called <i>kleroi</i>, whose size varied according to the military rank and unit, as well as <i>stathmoi,</i> or residences, which were sometimes in the home of local inhabitants; men who settled in Egypt through these grants were known as <i>cleruchs</i>. At least from about 230 BC, these land grants were provided to <i>machimoi</i>, lower ranking infantry usually of Egyptian origin, who received smaller lots comparable to traditional land allotments in Egypt.<sup id="cite_ref-Fischer-Bovet_61-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fischer-Bovet-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Kleroi</i> grants could be extensive: a cavalryman could receive at least 70 <i>arouras</i> of land, equal to about 178,920 square metres, and as much as 100 arouras; infantrymen could expect 30 or 25 arouras and <i>machimoi</i> at least five auroras, considered enough for one family.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The lucrative nature of military service under the Ptolemies appeared to have been effective at ensuring loyalty. Few mutinies and revolts are recorded, and even rebellious troops would be placated with land grants and other incentives.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As in other <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hellenistic">Hellenistic</a> states, the Ptolemaic army inherited the doctrines and organization of Macedonia, albeit with some variations over time.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The core of the army consisted of cavalry and infantry; as under Alexander, cavalry played a larger role both numerically and tactically, while the <a href="/wiki/Macedonian_phalanx" title="Macedonian phalanx">Macedonian phalanx</a> served as the primary infantry formation. The multiethnic nature of the Ptolemaic army was an official organizational principle: soldiers were evidently trained and utilized based on their national origin; Cretans generally served as archers, Libyans as heavy infantry, and Thracians as cavalry.<sup id="cite_ref-Fischer-Bovet_61-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fischer-Bovet-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similarly, units were grouped and equipped based on ethnicity. Nevertheless, different nationalities were trained to fight together, and most officers were of Greek or Macedonian origin, which allowed for a degree of cohesion and coordination. Military leadership and the figure of the king and queen were central for ensuring unity and morale among multiethnic troops; at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Raphia" title="Battle of Raphia">battle of Raphia</a>, the presence of Ptolemy was reportedly critical in maintaining and boosting the fighting spirit of both Greek and Egyptian soldiers.<sup id="cite_ref-Fischer-Bovet_61-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fischer-Bovet-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Navy">Navy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ptolemaic_Kingdom&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Navy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_navy" title="Ptolemaic navy">Ptolemaic navy</a></div> <p>The Ptolemaic Kingdom was considered a major naval power in the eastern Mediterranean.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some modern historians characterize Egypt during this period as a <a href="/wiki/Thalassocracy" title="Thalassocracy">thalassocracy</a>, owing to its innovation of "traditional styles of Mediterranean sea power", which allowed its rulers to "exert power and influence in unprecedented ways".<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With territories and vassals spread across the eastern Mediterranean, including <a href="/wiki/Cyprus" title="Cyprus">Cyprus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Crete" title="Crete">Crete</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Aegean_Sea" title="Aegean Sea">Aegean</a> islands, and <a href="/wiki/Thrace" title="Thrace">Thrace</a>, the Ptolemies required a large navy to defend against enemies like the <a href="/wiki/Seleucids" class="mw-redirect" title="Seleucids">Seleucids</a> and <a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)" title="Macedonia (ancient kingdom)">Macedonians</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Ptolemaic navy also protected the kingdom's lucrative maritime trade and engaged in antipiracy measures, including along the Nile.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Like the army, the origins and traditions of the Ptolemaic navy were rooted in the wars following the death of Alexander in 320 BC. Various <i>diadochi</i> competed for naval supremacy over the Aegean and eastern Mediterranean,<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Ptolemy I">Ptolemy I</a> founded the navy to help defend Egypt and consolidate his control against invading rivals.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He and his immediate successors turned to developing the navy to project power overseas, rather than build a land empire in Greece or <a href="/wiki/Asia-Minor" class="mw-redirect" title="Asia-Minor">Asia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Notwithstanding an early crushing defeat at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Salamis_(306_BC)" title="Battle of Salamis (306 BC)">Battle of Salamis</a> in 306 BC, the Ptolemaic navy became the dominant <a href="/wiki/Maritime_force" class="mw-redirect" title="Maritime force">maritime force</a> in the Aegean and eastern Mediterranean for the next several decades. <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Ptolemy II">Ptolemy II</a> maintained his father's policy of making Egypt the preeminent naval power in the region; during his reign (283 to 246 BC), the Ptolemaic navy became the largest in the <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hellenistic">Hellenistic</a> world and had some of the largest warships ever built in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient world">antiquity</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-auto_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The navy reached its height following the victory of Ptolemy II during the <a href="/wiki/First_Syrian_War" class="mw-redirect" title="First Syrian War">First Syrian War</a> (274–271 BC), succeeding in repelling both Seleucid and Macedonian control of the eastern Mediterranean and the Aegean.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the subsequent <a href="/wiki/Chremonidean_War" title="Chremonidean War">Chremonidean War</a>, the Ptolemaic navy succeeded in <a href="/wiki/Naval_blockade" class="mw-redirect" title="Naval blockade">blockading</a> Macedonia and containing its imperial ambitions to mainland Greece.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Beginning with the <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Wars#Second_Syrian_War_(260–253_BC)" title="Syrian Wars">Second Syrian War (260–253 BC)</a>, the navy suffered a series of defeats and declined in military importance, which coincided with the loss of Egypt's overseas possessions and the erosion of its maritime hegemony. The navy was relegated primarily to a protective and antipiracy role for the next two centuries, until its partial revival under Cleopatra VII, who sought to restore Ptolemaic naval supremacy amid the rise of Rome as a major Mediterranean power.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Egyptian naval forces took part in the decisive <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Actium" title="Battle of Actium">battle of Actium</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Last_war_of_the_Roman_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Last war of the Roman Republic">final war of the Roman Republic</a>, but once again suffered a defeat that culminated with the end of Ptolemaic rule. </p><p>At its apex under Ptolemy II, the Ptolemaic navy may have had as many as 336 warships,<sup id="cite_ref-Muhs_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Muhs-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with Ptolemy II reportedly having at his disposal more than 4,000 ships (including transports and allied vessels).<sup id="cite_ref-Muhs_82-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Muhs-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Maintaining a fleet of this size would have been costly, and reflected the vast wealth and resources of the kingdom.<sup id="cite_ref-Muhs_82-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Muhs-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The main naval bases were at <a href="/wiki/Alexandria,_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexandria, Egypt">Alexandria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nea_Paphos" class="mw-redirect" title="Nea Paphos">Nea Paphos</a> in <a href="/wiki/Cyprus" title="Cyprus">Cyprus</a>. The navy operated throughout the eastern Mediterranean, <a href="/wiki/Aegean_Sea" title="Aegean Sea">Aegean Sea</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Levantine_Sea" title="Levantine Sea">Levantine Sea</a>, and along the <a href="/wiki/Nile" title="Nile">Nile</a>, patrolling as far as the <a href="/wiki/Red_Sea" title="Red Sea">Red Sea</a> towards the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Accordingly, naval forces were divided into four fleets: the Alexandrian,<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Aegean,<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Red Sea,<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Nile River.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cities">Cities</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ptolemaic_Kingdom&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Cities"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ptolemaic_and_Roman_Egypt.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Ptolemaic_and_Roman_Egypt.jpg/228px-Ptolemaic_and_Roman_Egypt.jpg" decoding="async" width="228" height="340" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Ptolemaic_and_Roman_Egypt.jpg/342px-Ptolemaic_and_Roman_Egypt.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Ptolemaic_and_Roman_Egypt.jpg/456px-Ptolemaic_and_Roman_Egypt.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2959" data-file-height="4409" /></a><figcaption>Detailed map of the Ptolemaic Egypt.</figcaption></figure> <p>While ruling <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Ptolemaic Dynasty">Ptolemaic Dynasty</a> built many <a href="/wiki/Greeks" title="Greeks">Greek</a> settlements throughout their Empire, to either <a href="/wiki/Hellenize" class="mw-redirect" title="Hellenize">Hellenize</a> new conquered peoples or reinforce the area. Egypt had only three main Greek cities—<a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Naucratis" title="Naucratis">Naucratis</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ptolemais_Hermiou" title="Ptolemais Hermiou">Ptolemais</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Naucratis">Naucratis</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ptolemaic_Kingdom&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Naucratis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Naucratis" title="Naucratis">Naucratis</a></div> <p>Of the three Greek cities, Naucratis, although its commercial importance was reduced with the founding of Alexandria, continued in a quiet way its life as a Greek city-state. During the interval between the death of Alexander and Ptolemy's assumption of the style of king, it even issued an autonomous coinage. And the number of Greek men of letters during the Ptolemaic and Roman period, who were citizens of Naucratis, proves that in the sphere of Hellenic culture Naucratis held to its traditions. Ptolemy II bestowed his care upon Naucratis. He built a large structure of limestone, about 100 metres (330 ft) long and 18 metres (59 ft) wide, to fill up the broken entrance to the great <a href="/wiki/Temenos" title="Temenos">Temenos</a>; he strengthened the great block of chambers in the Temenos, and re-established them. At the time when Sir <a href="/wiki/Flinders_Petrie" title="Flinders Petrie">Flinders Petrie</a> wrote the words just quoted<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2016)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> the great Temenos was identified with the Hellenion. But Mr. Edgar has recently pointed out that the building connected with it was an Egyptian temple, not a Greek building.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2016)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Naucratis, therefore, in spite of its general Hellenic character, had an Egyptian element. That the city flourished in Ptolemaic times "we may see by the quantity of imported amphorae, of which the handles stamped at Rhodes and elsewhere are found so abundantly." The Zeno papyri show that it was the chief port of call on the inland voyage from Memphis to Alexandria, as well as a stopping-place on the land-route from Pelusium to the capital. It was attached, in the administrative system, to the Saïte nome. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Alexandria">Alexandria</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ptolemaic_Kingdom&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Alexandria"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Alexander_the_Great,_100_B.C.E._%E2%80%93_100_C.E.,_54.162.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Alexander_the_Great%2C_100_B.C.E._%E2%80%93_100_C.E.%2C_54.162.jpg/170px-Alexander_the_Great%2C_100_B.C.E._%E2%80%93_100_C.E.%2C_54.162.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="245" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Alexander_the_Great%2C_100_B.C.E._%E2%80%93_100_C.E.%2C_54.162.jpg/255px-Alexander_the_Great%2C_100_B.C.E._%E2%80%93_100_C.E.%2C_54.162.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Alexander_the_Great%2C_100_B.C.E._%E2%80%93_100_C.E.%2C_54.162.jpg/340px-Alexander_the_Great%2C_100_B.C.E._%E2%80%93_100_C.E.%2C_54.162.jpg 2x" data-file-width="796" data-file-height="1146" /></a><figcaption>Alexander the Great, 356–323 BC <a href="/wiki/Brooklyn_Museum" title="Brooklyn Museum">Brooklyn Museum</a></figcaption></figure> <p>A major Mediterranean port of Egypt, in ancient times and still today, <a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a> was founded in 331 BC by <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a>. According to Plutarch, the Alexandrians believed that Alexander the Great's motivation to build the city was his wish to "found a large and populous Greek city that should bear his name." Located 30 kilometres (19 mi) west of the Nile's westernmost mouth, the city was immune to the silt deposits that persistently choked harbors along the river. Alexandria became the capital of the Hellenized Egypt of King Ptolemy I (reigned 323–283 BC). Under the wealthy Ptolemaic Dynasty, the city soon surpassed Athens as the cultural center of the <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenic world</a>. </p><p>Laid out on a grid pattern, Alexandria occupied a stretch of land between the sea to the north and Lake Mareotis to the south; a man-made causeway, over three-quarters of a mile long, extended north to the sheltering island of <a href="/wiki/Lighthouse_of_Alexandria" title="Lighthouse of Alexandria">Pharos</a>, thus forming a double harbor, east and west. On the east was the main harbor, called the Great Harbor; it faced the city's chief buildings, including the royal palace and the famous Library and Museum. At the Great Harbor's mouth, on an outcropping of Pharos, stood the <a href="/wiki/Lighthouse" title="Lighthouse">lighthouse</a>, built c. 280 BC. Now vanished, the lighthouse was reckoned as one of the <a href="/wiki/Seven_Wonders_of_the_Ancient_World" title="Seven Wonders of the Ancient World">Seven Wonders of the World</a> for its unsurpassed height (perhaps 140 metres or 460 ft); it was a square, fenestrated tower, topped with a metal fire basket and a statue of Zeus the Savior. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Library" title="Library">Library</a>, at that time the largest in the world, contained several hundred thousand volumes and housed and employed scholars and poets. A similar scholarly complex was the Museum (Mouseion, "hall of the Muses"). During Alexandria's brief literary golden period, c. 280–240 BC, the Library subsidized three poets—<a href="/wiki/Callimachus" title="Callimachus">Callimachus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Apollonius_of_Rhodes" title="Apollonius of Rhodes">Apollonius of Rhodes</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Theocritus" title="Theocritus">Theocritus</a>—whose work now represents the best of Hellenistic literature. Among other thinkers associated with the Library or other Alexandrian patronage were the mathematician <a href="/wiki/Euclid" title="Euclid">Euclid</a> (c. 300 BC), the inventor <a href="/wiki/Archimedes" title="Archimedes">Archimedes</a> (287 BC – c. 212 BC), and the polymath <a href="/wiki/Eratosthenes" title="Eratosthenes">Eratosthenes</a> (c. 225 BC).<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Cosmopolitan and flourishing, Alexandria possessed a varied population of Greeks, Egyptians and other Oriental peoples, including a sizable minority of Jews, who had their own city quarter. Periodic conflicts occurred between Jews and ethnic <a href="/wiki/Greeks" title="Greeks">Greeks</a>. According to Strabo, Alexandria had been inhabited during Polybius' lifetime by local Egyptians, foreign mercenaries and the tribe of the Alexandrians, whose origin and customs Polybius identified as Greek. </p><p> The city enjoyed a calm political history under the Ptolemies. It passed, with the rest of Egypt, into Roman hands in 30 BC, and became the second city of the Roman Empire.</p><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:NileMosaicOfPalestrina.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/NileMosaicOfPalestrina.jpg/170px-NileMosaicOfPalestrina.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="235" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/NileMosaicOfPalestrina.jpg/255px-NileMosaicOfPalestrina.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/NileMosaicOfPalestrina.jpg/340px-NileMosaicOfPalestrina.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1196" data-file-height="1653" /></a><figcaption>A detail of the <a href="/wiki/Nile_mosaic_of_Palestrina" title="Nile mosaic of Palestrina">Nile mosaic of Palestrina</a>, showing Ptolemaic Egypt c. 100 BC</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ptolemais">Ptolemais</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ptolemaic_Kingdom&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Ptolemais"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ptolemais_Hermiou" title="Ptolemais Hermiou">Ptolemais Hermiou</a></div> <p>The second Greek city founded after the conquest of Egypt was <a href="/wiki/Ptolemais_Hermiou" title="Ptolemais Hermiou">Ptolemais</a>, 400 miles (640 km) up the <a href="/wiki/Nile" title="Nile">Nile</a>, where there was a native village called Psoï, in the nome called after the ancient Egyptian city of <a href="/wiki/Thinis" title="Thinis">Thinis</a>. If Alexandria perpetuated the name and cult of the great Alexander, Ptolemais was to perpetuate the name and cult of the founder of the Ptolemaic time. Framed in by the barren hills of the <a href="/wiki/Nile_Valley" class="mw-redirect" title="Nile Valley">Nile Valley</a> and the Egyptian sky, here a Greek city arose, with its public buildings and temples and theatre, no doubt exhibiting the regular architectural forms associated with <a href="/wiki/Greek_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek culture">Greek culture</a>, with a citizen-body Greek in blood, and the institutions of a Greek city. If there is some doubt whether Alexandria possessed a council and assembly, there is none in regard to Ptolemais. It was more possible for the kings to allow a measure of self-government to a people removed at that distance from the ordinary residence of the court. We have still, inscribed on stone, decrees passed in the assembly of the people of Ptolemais, couched in the regular forms of <a href="/wiki/Greek_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek culture">Greek</a> political tradition: It seemed good to the boule and to the demos: Hermas son of Doreon, of the deme Megisteus, was the proposer: Whereas the prytaneis who were colleagues with Dionysius the son of Musaeus in the 8th year, etc. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Demographics">Demographics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ptolemaic_Kingdom&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Demographics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Thureophoroi_CROPPED.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Thureophoroi_CROPPED.jpg/220px-Thureophoroi_CROPPED.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="359" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Thureophoroi_CROPPED.jpg/330px-Thureophoroi_CROPPED.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3a/Thureophoroi_CROPPED.jpg 2x" data-file-width="405" data-file-height="660" /></a><figcaption>A stele of Dioskourides, dated 2nd century BC, showing a Ptolemaic <i><a href="/wiki/Thureophoroi" class="mw-redirect" title="Thureophoroi">thureophoros</a></i> soldier. It is a characteristic example of the "Romanization" of the <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_army" title="Ptolemaic army">Ptolemaic army</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The Ptolemaic Kingdom was diverse and cosmopolitan. Beginning under <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_I_Soter" title="Ptolemy I Soter">Ptolemy I Soter</a>, Macedonians and other Greeks were given land grants and allowed to settle with their families, encouraging tens of thousands of Greek mercenaries and soldiers to immigrate where they became a landed class of royal soldiers.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Greeks soon became the dominant elite; native <a href="/wiki/Egyptians" title="Egyptians">Egyptians</a>, though always the majority, generally occupied lower posts in the Ptolemaic government. Over time, the Greeks in Egypt became somewhat homogenized and the cultural distinctions between immigrants from different regions of Greece became blurred.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many <a href="/wiki/Jews" title="Jews">Jews</a> were imported from neighboring <a href="/wiki/Judea" title="Judea">Judea</a> by the thousands for being renowned fighters, also establishing an important community. Other foreign groups settled from across the ancient world, usually as <i>cleruchs</i> who had been granted land in exchange for military service. </p><p>Of the many foreign groups who had come to settle in Egypt, the Greeks were the most privileged. They were partly spread as allotment-holders over the country, forming social groups, in the country towns and villages, side by side with the native population, partly gathered in the three Greek cities, the old <a href="/wiki/Naucratis" title="Naucratis">Naucratis</a>, founded before 600 BC (in the interval of Egyptian independence after the expulsion of the Assyrians and before the coming of the Persians), and the two new cities, <a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a> by the sea, and <a href="/wiki/Ptolemais_Hermiou" title="Ptolemais Hermiou">Ptolemais</a> in Upper Egypt. Alexander and his Seleucid successors founded many Greek cities all over their dominions. </p><p>Greek culture was so much bound up with the life of the city-state that any king who wanted to present himself to the world as a genuine champion of Hellenism had to do something in this direction, but the king of Egypt, ambitious to shine as a Hellene, would find Greek cities, with their republican tradition and aspirations to independence, inconvenient elements in a country that lent itself, as no other did, to bureaucratic centralization. The Ptolemies therefore limited the number of Greek city-states in Egypt to Alexandria, Ptolemais, and Naucratis. </p><p>Outside of Egypt, the Ptolemies exercised control over Greek cities in Cyrenaica, Cyprus, and on the coasts and islands of the Aegean, but they were smaller than Greek <i>poleis</i> in Egypt. There were indeed country towns with names such as Ptolemais, Arsinoe, and Berenice, in which Greek communities existed with a certain social life and there were similar groups of Greeks in many of the old Egyptian towns, but they were not communities with the political forms of a city-state. Yet if they had no place of political assembly, they often had their own gymnasium, the essential sign of Hellenism, serving something of the purpose of a university for the young men. Far up the Nile at Ombi a gymnasium of the local Greeks was found in 136–135 BC, which passed resolutions and corresponded with the king. Also, in 123 BC, when there was trouble in Upper Egypt between the towns of Crocodilopolis and Hermonthis, the negotiators sent from Crocodilopolis were the young men attached to the gymnasium, who, according to the Greek tradition, ate bread and salt with the negotiators from the other town. All the Greek dialects of the Greek world gradually became assimilated in the Koine Greek dialect that was the common language of the Hellenistic world. Generally, the Greeks of Ptolemaic Egypt felt like representatives of a higher civilization but were curious about the native culture of Egypt. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:StatueOfHorSonOfTutu.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/StatueOfHorSonOfTutu.png/170px-StatueOfHorSonOfTutu.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="284" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/StatueOfHorSonOfTutu.png/255px-StatueOfHorSonOfTutu.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/StatueOfHorSonOfTutu.png/340px-StatueOfHorSonOfTutu.png 2x" data-file-width="1224" data-file-height="2046" /></a><figcaption>Ptolemaic Era bust of a man, circa 300–250 BC, <a href="/wiki/Altes_Museum" title="Altes Museum">Altes Museum</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Jews">Jews</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ptolemaic_Kingdom&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Jews"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Jews who lived in Egypt had originally immigrated from the <a href="/wiki/Southern_Levant" title="Southern Levant">Southern Levant</a>. Within a few generations the Jews spoke Greek, the dominant language of Egypt at the time, and not the <a href="/wiki/Hebrew" class="mw-redirect" title="Hebrew">Hebrew</a> or <a href="/wiki/Aramaic" title="Aramaic">Aramaic</a> of the first immigrants.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Jewish legend the <a href="/wiki/Septuagint" title="Septuagint">Septuagint</a>, the Greek translation of the Jewish scriptures, was written by seventy-two Jewish translators for Ptolemy II.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> That is confirmed by historian <a href="/wiki/Flavius_Josephus" class="mw-redirect" title="Flavius Josephus">Flavius Josephus</a>, who writes that Ptolemy, desirous to collect every book in the habitable earth, applied <a href="/wiki/Demetrius_Phalereus" class="mw-redirect" title="Demetrius Phalereus">Demetrius Phalereus</a> to the task of organizing an effort with the Jewish high priests to translate the Jewish books of the Law for his library.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Josephus thus places the origins of the Septuagint in the 3rd century BC, when Demetrius and Ptolemy II lived. According to one Jewish legend, the seventy wrote their translations independently from memory, and the resultant works were identical at every letter. However, Josephus states they worked together arguing over the translation and finished the work in 72 days. Josephus goes into great detail on the elaborate preparations and regal treatment of the 70 elders of the tribes of Israel chosen to accomplish the task in his Antiquities of the Jews Book 12, chapter 2, which is dedicated to the description of this famous event.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Arabs">Arabs</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ptolemaic_Kingdom&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Arabs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1990, more than 2,000 papyri written by <a href="/wiki/Zeno_of_Caunus" class="mw-redirect" title="Zeno of Caunus">Zeno of Caunus</a> from the time of <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_II_Philadelphus" title="Ptolemy II Philadelphus">Ptolemy II Philadelphus</a> were discovered, which contained at least 19 references to Arabs in the area between the <a href="/wiki/Nile" title="Nile">Nile</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Red_Sea" title="Red Sea">Red Sea</a>, and mentioned their jobs as police officers in charge of "ten person units", and some others were mentioned as shepherds.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Arabs" title="Arabs">Arabs</a> in Ptolemaic Egypt and Syria raided and attacked both sides of the conflict between the Ptolemaic Kingdom and its enemies.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Agriculture">Agriculture</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ptolemaic_Kingdom&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Agriculture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The early Ptolemies increased cultivatable land through <a href="/wiki/Irrigation" title="Irrigation">irrigation</a> and land reclamation. The Ptolemies drained the marshes of the <a href="/wiki/Faiyum" title="Faiyum">Faiyum</a> to create a new province of cultivatable land.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They also introduced crops such as <a href="/wiki/Durum_wheat" title="Durum wheat">durum wheat</a> and intensified the production of goods such as wool. Wine production increased dramatically during the Ptolemaic period, as the new Greek ruling class greatly preferred wine to the beer traditionally produced in Egypt. Vines from regions like <a href="/wiki/Crete" title="Crete">Crete</a> were planted in Egypt in an attempt to produce Greek wines.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="List_of_Ptolemaic_rulers">List of Ptolemaic rulers</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ptolemaic_Kingdom&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: List of Ptolemaic rulers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/List_of_Ptolemaic_rulers" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Ptolemaic rulers">List of Ptolemaic rulers</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ptolemaic_Kingdom&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output 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<li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Greeks" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-Greeks">Indo-Greeks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Pontus" title="Kingdom of Pontus">Kingdom of Pontus</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ptolemaic_Kingdom&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Scholars also argue that the kingdom was founded in 304 BC because of different use of calendars: Ptolemy crowned himself in 304 BC on the ancient Egyptian calendar but in 305 BC on the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Macedonian_calendar" title="Ancient Macedonian calendar">ancient Macedonian calendar</a>; to resolve the issue, the year 305/4 was counted as the first year of Ptolemaic Kingdom in <a href="/wiki/Demotic_(Egyptian)" title="Demotic (Egyptian)">Demotic</a> <a href="/wiki/Papyri" class="mw-redirect" title="Papyri">papyri</a>.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ptolemaic_Kingdom&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Buraselis, Stefanou and Thompson ed; <i>The Ptolemies, the Sea and the Nile: Studies in Waterborne Power.</i>, (Cambridge University Press, 2013), 10.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFR._C._C._Law1979" class="citation book cs1">R. C. C. Law (1979). "North Africa in the Hellenistic and Roman Periods, 323 BC to AD 305". In J. D. Fage (ed.). <i>The Cambridge History of Africa, Vol. 2</i>. Cambridge University Press. p. 154. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCHOL9780521215923.005">10.1017/CHOL9780521215923.005</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781139054560" title="Special:BookSources/9781139054560"><bdi>9781139054560</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=North+Africa+in+the+Hellenistic+and+Roman+Periods%2C+323+BC+to+AD+305&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Africa%2C+Vol.+2&rft.pages=154&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1979&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FCHOL9780521215923.005&rft.isbn=9781139054560&rft.au=R.+C.+C.+Law&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APtolemaic+Kingdom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Strootman-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Strootman_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Strootman_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Strootman_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStrootman2009" class="citation journal cs1">Strootman, R. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dspace.library.uu.nl/bitstream/handle/1874/386645/The_Hellenistic_royal_court.pdf?sequence=1">"The Hellenistic royal court"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Mnemosyne</i>. <b>62</b> (1): 168. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F156852509X340291">10.1163/156852509X340291</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/1874%2F386645">1874/386645</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154234093">154234093</a>. <q>... the Ptolemies were inaugurated as basileus in Alexandria and as pharaoh in Memphis ...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Mnemosyne&rft.atitle=The+Hellenistic+royal+court&rft.volume=62&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=168&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F1874%2F386645&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A154234093%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F156852509X340291&rft.aulast=Strootman&rft.aufirst=R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdspace.library.uu.nl%2Fbitstream%2Fhandle%2F1874%2F386645%2FThe_Hellenistic_royal_court.pdf%3Fsequence%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APtolemaic+Kingdom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Stephens-dual-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Stephens-dual_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stephens-dual_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stephens-dual_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStephens2003" class="citation book cs1">Stephens, S. A. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZG6YiRRzPTkC"><i>Seeing double: intercultural poetics in Ptolemaic Alexandria</i></a>. Hellenistic Culture and Society. Vol. 37. University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780520927384" title="Special:BookSources/9780520927384"><bdi>9780520927384</bdi></a>. <q>... their role continue to be dual—<i>basileus</i> to the Greek population; pharaoh to the Egyptian ...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Seeing+double%3A+intercultural+poetics+in+Ptolemaic+Alexandria&rft.series=Hellenistic+Culture+and+Society&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=9780520927384&rft.aulast=Stephens&rft.aufirst=S.+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZG6YiRRzPTkC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APtolemaic+Kingdom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSteven_Snape2019" class="citation web cs1">Steven Snape (16 March 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://brewminate.com/estimating-population-in-ancient-egypt/">"Estimating Population in Ancient Egypt"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 January</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Estimating+Population+in+Ancient+Egypt&rft.date=2019-03-16&rft.au=Steven+Snape&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbrewminate.com%2Festimating-population-in-ancient-egypt%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APtolemaic+Kingdom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Diodorus_Siculus" title="Diodorus Siculus">Diodorus Siculus</a>, <i>Bibliotheca historica</i>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Diodorus_Siculus/18A*.html#21">18.21.9</a>, (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Diod.+18.21.9&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2008.01.0541">original</a>)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHölbl2001" class="citation book cs1">Hölbl, G. (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dEiydV7c3w4C"><i>A history of the Ptolemaic empire</i></a>. Psychology Press. p. 1. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780415234894" title="Special:BookSources/9780415234894"><bdi>9780415234894</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+history+of+the+Ptolemaic+empire&rft.pages=1&rft.pub=Psychology+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=9780415234894&rft.aulast=H%C3%B6lbl&rft.aufirst=G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DdEiydV7c3w4C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APtolemaic+Kingdom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNardo2009" class="citation book cs1">Nardo, Don (13 March 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0H5mDwAAQBAJ"><i>Ancient Greece</i></a>. Greenhaven Publishing LLC. p. 162. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7377-4624-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7377-4624-2"><bdi>978-0-7377-4624-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Greece&rft.pages=162&rft.pub=Greenhaven+Publishing+LLC&rft.date=2009-03-13&rft.isbn=978-0-7377-4624-2&rft.aulast=Nardo&rft.aufirst=Don&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0H5mDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APtolemaic+Kingdom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:5-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:5_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_9-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_9-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_9-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/ancient-Egypt">"Ancient Egypt – Macedonian and Ptolemaic Egypt (332–30 bce)"</a>. <i>Encyclopedia Britannica</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 June</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclopedia+Britannica&rft.atitle=Ancient+Egypt+%E2%80%93+Macedonian+and+Ptolemaic+Egypt+%28332%E2%80%9330+bce%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fplace%2Fancient-Egypt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APtolemaic+Kingdom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRutherford2016" class="citation book cs1">Rutherford, Ian (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fhuHCwAAQBAJ"><i>Greco-Egyptian Interactions: Literature, Translation, and Culture, 500 BCE-300 CE</i></a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-965612-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-965612-7"><bdi>978-0-19-965612-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Greco-Egyptian+Interactions%3A+Literature%2C+Translation%2C+and+Culture%2C+500+BCE-300+CE&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0-19-965612-7&rft.aulast=Rutherford&rft.aufirst=Ian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DfhuHCwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APtolemaic+Kingdom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobins2008" class="citation book cs1">Robins, Gay (2008). <i>The Art of Ancient Egypt</i> (Revised ed.). United States: Harvard University Press. p. 10. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-03065-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-03065-7"><bdi>978-0-674-03065-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Art+of+Ancient+Egypt&rft.place=United+States&rft.pages=10&rft.edition=Revised&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-674-03065-7&rft.aulast=Robins&rft.aufirst=Gay&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APtolemaic+Kingdom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHölbl200022-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHölbl200022_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHölbl2000">Hölbl 2000</a>, p. 22.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERawles20194-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERawles20194_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRawles2019">Rawles 2019</a>, p. 4.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBagnall2004" class="citation book cs1">Bagnall, Director of the Institute for the Study of the Ancient World Roger S. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5ig4uQC20_IC"><i>Egypt from Alexander to the Early Christians: An Archaeological and Historical Guide</i></a>. 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Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. p. 236. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780674030657" title="Special:BookSources/9780674030657"><bdi>9780674030657</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/191732570">191732570</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+art+of+ancient+Egypt&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pages=236&rft.edition=Rev.&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F191732570&rft.isbn=9780674030657&rft.aulast=Robins&rft.aufirst=Gay&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APtolemaic+Kingdom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/545764">"Statuette of Arsinoe II for her Posthumous Cult | Ptolemaic Period | The Met"</a>. <i>The Metropolitan Museum of Art, i.e. The Met Museum</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 May</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Army+and+Egyptian+Temple+Building+Under+the+Ptolemies&rft.series=Princeton%2FStanford+Working+Papers+in+Classics&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Fischer-Bovet&rft.aufirst=Christelle&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.princeton.edu%2F~pswpc%2Fpdfs%2Ffischer-bovet%2F100702.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APtolemaic+Kingdom" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_bot:_original_URL_status_unknown" title="Category:CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Citation error. See inline comment how to fix. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability"><span title="This ref was deleted Special:Diff/956495533 by a bug in VisualEditor and later identified by a bot. The original cite can be found at Special:Permalink/956495513 (or in a rev close to it) as cite #26 - find and verify the cite and replace this template with it (2). User:GreenC_bot/Job_18 (September 2023)">verification needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Citation error. See inline comment how to fix. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability"><span title="This ref was deleted Special:Diff/956495533 by a bug in VisualEditor and later identified by a bot. The original cite can be found at Special:Permalink/956495513 (or in a rev close to it) as cite #27 - find and verify the cite and replace this template with it (2). User:GreenC_bot/Job_18 (September 2023)">verification needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTörök2011" class="citation book cs1">Török, László (2011). <i>Hellenizing art in ancient Nubia, 300 BC-AD 250, and its Egyptian models : a study in "acculturation"</i>. 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"Horus on the Crocodiles". <i>Journal of Near Eastern Studies</i>. <b>6</b> (1): 43–52. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F370811">10.1086/370811</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/542233">542233</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161676438">161676438</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Near+Eastern+Studies&rft.atitle=Horus+on+the+Crocodiles&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=43-52&rft.date=1947&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A161676438%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F542233%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F370811&rft.aulast=Seele&rft.aufirst=Keith+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APtolemaic+Kingdom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBingen2007" class="citation book cs1">Bingen, Jean (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pZbM_fpG_PQC&q=bilingual"><i>Hellenistic Egypt: Monarchy, Society, Economy, Culture</i></a>. University of California Press. p. 12. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-25141-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-25141-0"><bdi>978-0-520-25141-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hellenistic+Egypt%3A+Monarchy%2C+Society%2C+Economy%2C+Culture&rft.pages=12&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-520-25141-0&rft.aulast=Bingen&rft.aufirst=Jean&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpZbM_fpG_PQC%26q%3Dbilingual&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APtolemaic+Kingdom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Fischer-Bovet-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Fischer-Bovet_61-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fischer-Bovet_61-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fischer-Bovet_61-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fischer-Bovet_61-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fischer-Bovet_61-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fischer-Bovet_61-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fischer-Bovet_61-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFischer-Bovet2015" class="citation book cs1">Fischer-Bovet, Christelle (4 March 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199935390.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199935390-e-75">"The Ptolemaic Army"</a>. <i>Oxford Handbook Topics in Classical Studies</i>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780199935390.013.75">10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199935390.013.75</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-993539-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-993539-0"><bdi>978-0-19-993539-0</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 June</span> 2020</span> – via Oxford Handbooks Online.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Ptolemaic+Army&rft.btitle=Oxford+Handbook+Topics+in+Classical+Studies&rft.date=2015-03-04&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780199935390.013.75&rft.isbn=978-0-19-993539-0&rft.aulast=Fischer-Bovet&rft.aufirst=Christelle&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordhandbooks.com%2Fview%2F10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780199935390.001.0001%2Foxfordhb-9780199935390-e-75&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APtolemaic+Kingdom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Christelle Fischer-Bovet, "Egyptian Warriors: The Machimoi of Herodotus and the Ptolemaic Army," <i>Classical Quarterly</i> 63 (2013): 209–236, 222–223; P.Tebt. I 121, with Andrew Monson, "Late Ptolemaic Capitation Taxes and the Poll Tax in Roman Egypt," <i>Bulletin of the American Society of Papyrologists</i> 51 (2014): 127–160, 134.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sean Lesquier, <i>Les institutions militaires de l'Egypte sous les Lagides</i> (Paris: Ernest Leroux, 1911);</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Roger S. Bagnall, "The Origins of Ptolemaic Cleruchs," <i>Bulletin of the American Society of Papyrology</i> 21 (1984): 7–20, 16–18</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Heinz Heinen, <i>Heer und Gesellschaft im Ptolemäerreich</i>, in <i>Vom hellenistischen Osten zum römischen Westen: Ausgewählte Schriften zur Alten Geschichte</i>. Steiner, Stuttgart 2006, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-515-08740-0" title="Special:BookSources/3-515-08740-0">3-515-08740-0</a>, pp. 61–84</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Crawford, <i>Kerkeosiris,</i> Table IV, 155–159; Edmond Van 't Dack, "Sur l'évolution des institutions militaires lagides," in <i>Armées et fiscalité dans le monde antique. Actes du colloque national, Paris, 14–16 octobre 1976</i> (Paris: Editions du Centre national de la recherche scientifique, 1977): 87 and note 1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Christelle Fischer-Bovet (2013), "Egyptian warriors: the <i>Machimoi</i> of Herodotus and the Ptolemaic Army". <i>The Classical Quarterly</i> 63 (01), <b>p. 225</b>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:10.1017/S000983881200064X</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dorothy J. Crawford, <i>Kerkeosiris: An Egyptian village in the Ptolemaic period</i> (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1971) estimated that a family could live on 5 arouras; see P.Tebt. I 56 (Kerkeosiris, late second century BC).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Michel M. Austin, <i>The Hellenistic World from Alexander to the Roman Conquest: A Selection of Ancient Sources in Translation</i> (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006) #283, l. 20.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nick Sekunda, "Military Forces. A. Land Forces," in <i>The Cambridge History of Greek and Roman Warfare</i> (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Arthur MacCartney Shepard, Sea Power in Ancient History: The Story of the Navies of Classic Greece and Rome (Boston: Little, Brown, and Co., 1924), 128.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">James Harrison McKinney, <i>Novel Ptolemaic naval power: Arsinoë II, Ptolemy II, and Cleopatra VII's innovative thalassocracies,</i> Whitman College, <b>p. 2</b>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://arminda.whitman.edu/theses/415">https://arminda.whitman.edu/theses/415</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thucydides, The History of the Peloponnesian War, 5.34.6–7 & 9.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=86MaBQAAQBAJ&dq=ptolemaic+navy&pg=PA6">The Ptolemies, the Sea and the Nile: Studies in Waterborne Power</a>,</i> edited by Kostas Buraselis, Mary Stefanou, Dorothy J. Thompson, Cambridge University Press, <b>pp. 12–13</b>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Robinson. pp.79–94.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGera1998" class="citation book cs1">Gera, Dov (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KDaM1XPv3zYC&q=The+Ptolemaic+Navy&pg=PA211"><i>Judaea and Mediterranean Politics: 219 to 161 B.C.E.</i></a> Leiden, Netherlands.: BRILL. p. 211. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004094413" title="Special:BookSources/9789004094413"><bdi>9789004094413</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Judaea+and+Mediterranean+Politics%3A+219+to+161+B.C.E.&rft.place=Leiden%2C+Netherlands.&rft.pages=211&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=9789004094413&rft.aulast=Gera&rft.aufirst=Dov&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKDaM1XPv3zYC%26q%3DThe%2BPtolemaic%2BNavy%26pg%3DPA211&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APtolemaic+Kingdom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Robinson. pp.79-94.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-auto_78-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Robinson, Carlos. Francis. (2019). "Queen Arsinoë II, the Maritime Aphrodite and Early Ptolemaic Ruler Cult". Chapter: Naval Power, the Ptolemies and the Maritime Aphrodite. pp.79–94. A thesis submitted for the degree of Master of Philosophy. University of Queensland, Australia.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMuhs2016" class="citation book cs1">Muhs, Brian (2 August 2016). "7:The Ptolemaic Period (332–30 BCE)". <i>The Ancient Egyptian economy, 3000–30 BCE</i>. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781107113367" title="Special:BookSources/9781107113367"><bdi>9781107113367</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=7%3AThe+Ptolemaic+Period+%28332%E2%80%9330+BCE%29&rft.btitle=The+Ancient+Egyptian+economy%2C+3000%E2%80%9330+BCE&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+England&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2016-08-02&rft.isbn=9781107113367&rft.aulast=Muhs&rft.aufirst=Brian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APtolemaic+Kingdom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rickard.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">James Harrison McKinney, <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arminda.whitman.edu/theses/415">Novel Ptolemaic naval power: Arsinoë II, Ptolemy II, and Cleopatra VII's innovative thalassocracies</a>,</i> Whitman College, <b>p. 75</b>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Muhs-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Muhs_82-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Muhs_82-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Muhs_82-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Muhs.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFischer-Bovet2014" class="citation book cs1">Fischer-Bovet, Christelle (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=z0sHAwAAQBAJ&q=Ptolemaic+Navy&pg=PA58"><i>Army and Society in Ptolemaic Egypt</i></a>. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. pp. 58–59. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781107007758" title="Special:BookSources/9781107007758"><bdi>9781107007758</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Army+and+Society+in+Ptolemaic+Egypt&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+England&rft.pages=58-59&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9781107007758&rft.aulast=Fischer-Bovet&rft.aufirst=Christelle&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dz0sHAwAAQBAJ%26q%3DPtolemaic%2BNavy%26pg%3DPA58&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APtolemaic+Kingdom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMuhs2016" class="citation book cs1">Muhs, Brian (2 August 2016). "7:The Ptolemaic Period (332–30 BCE)". <i>The Ancient Egyptian economy, 3000–30 BCE</i>. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781107113367" title="Special:BookSources/9781107113367"><bdi>9781107113367</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=7%3AThe+Ptolemaic+Period+%28332%E2%80%9330+BCE%29&rft.btitle=The+Ancient+Egyptian+economy%2C+3000%E2%80%9330+BCE&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+England&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2016-08-02&rft.isbn=9781107113367&rft.aulast=Muhs&rft.aufirst=Brian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APtolemaic+Kingdom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFConstantakopoulou2017" class="citation book cs1">Constantakopoulou, Christy (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6H8yDwAAQBAJ&q=ptolemaic+aegean+fleet&pg=PA48"><i>Aegean Interactions: Delos and Its Networks in the Third Century</i></a>. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. p. 48. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780198787273" title="Special:BookSources/9780198787273"><bdi>9780198787273</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aegean+Interactions%3A+Delos+and+Its+Networks+in+the+Third+Century&rft.place=Oxford%2C+England&rft.pages=48&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=9780198787273&rft.aulast=Constantakopoulou&rft.aufirst=Christy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6H8yDwAAQBAJ%26q%3Dptolemaic%2Baegean%2Bfleet%26pg%3DPA48&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APtolemaic+Kingdom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSidebotham2019" class="citation book cs1">Sidebotham, Steven E. (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Tw6LDwAAQBAJ&q=Ptolemaic+Navy%2C+Red+Sea+Fleet&pg=PA52"><i>Berenike and the Ancient Maritime Spice Route</i></a>. Berkeley, California, United States.: University of California Press. p. 52. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780520303386" title="Special:BookSources/9780520303386"><bdi>9780520303386</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Berenike+and+the+Ancient+Maritime+Spice+Route&rft.place=Berkeley%2C+California%2C+United+States.&rft.pages=52&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=9780520303386&rft.aulast=Sidebotham&rft.aufirst=Steven+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DTw6LDwAAQBAJ%26q%3DPtolemaic%2BNavy%252C%2BRed%2BSea%2BFleet%26pg%3DPA52&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APtolemaic+Kingdom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKruse2013" class="citation journal cs1">Kruse, Thomas (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/10630877">"The Nile Police in the Ptolemaic Period", in: K. Buraselis – M. Stefanou – D.J. Thompson (Hg.), The Ptolemies, the Sea and the Nile. Studies in Waterborne Power, Cambridge 2013, 172–184"</a>. <i>academia.edu</i>. Cambridge University Press: 172–185<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 October</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=academia.edu&rft.atitle=The+Nile+Police+in+the+Ptolemaic+Period%22%2C+in%3A+K.+Buraselis+%E2%80%93+M.+Stefanou+%E2%80%93+D.J.+Thompson+%28Hg.%29%2C+The+Ptolemies%2C+the+Sea+and+the+Nile.+Studies+in+Waterborne+Power%2C+Cambridge+2013%2C+172%E2%80%93184.&rft.pages=172-185&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Kruse&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F10630877&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APtolemaic+Kingdom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Phillips, Heather A., <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://unllib.unl.edu/LPP/phillips.htm">"The Great Library of Alexandria?". Library Philosophy and Practice, August 2010</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120418191647/http://unllib.unl.edu/LPP/phillips.htm">Archived</a> 2012-04-18 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClarysseThompson2006" class="citation book cs1">Clarysse, Willy; Thompson, Dorothy J. (12 June 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=53PED9gNMTgC&q=ethnic+identity"><i>Counting the People in Hellenistic Egypt: Volume 2, Historical Studies</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 140. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-83839-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-83839-9"><bdi>978-0-521-83839-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Counting+the+People+in+Hellenistic+Egypt%3A+Volume+2%2C+Historical+Studies&rft.pages=140&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2006-06-12&rft.isbn=978-0-521-83839-9&rft.aulast=Clarysse&rft.aufirst=Willy&rft.au=Thompson%2C+Dorothy+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D53PED9gNMTgC%26q%3Dethnic%2Bidentity&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APtolemaic+Kingdom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChauveau2000" class="citation book cs1">Chauveau, Michel (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/42578681"><i>Egypt in the age of Cleopatra : history and society under the Ptolemies</i></a>. Cornell University Press. p. 34. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8014-3597-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-8014-3597-8"><bdi>0-8014-3597-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/42578681">42578681</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Egypt+in+the+age+of+Cleopatra+%3A+history+and+society+under+the+Ptolemies&rft.pages=34&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F42578681&rft.isbn=0-8014-3597-8&rft.aulast=Chauveau&rft.aufirst=Michel&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fworldcat.org%2Foclc%2F42578681&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APtolemaic+Kingdom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Solomon_Grayzel" title="Solomon Grayzel">Solomon Grayzel</a>, <i>A History of the Jews</i>, <a href="/wiki/The_Jewish_Publication_Society_of_America" class="mw-redirect" title="The Jewish Publication Society of America">The Jewish Publication Society of America</a>, Philadelphia, 1968, p. 45: "The third generation... understood very little, if any, Hebrew or Aramaic. Their native tongue was Greek."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Solomon_Grayzel" title="Solomon Grayzel">Solomon Grayzel</a>, <i>A History of the Jews</i>, <a href="/wiki/The_Jewish_Publication_Society_of_America" class="mw-redirect" title="The Jewish Publication Society of America">The Jewish Publication Society of America</a>, Philadelphia, 1968, p. 46: "The Jews of Egypt looked upon the translation of the Bible into Greek as such an important event that they surrounded it later with a halo of legend... The story is told... by a certain Aristeas of Alexandria, that the second Ptolemy... sent ambassadors to the high priest in Jerusalem, and asked that a copy of these books be sent to him along with men capable of rendering them into Greek. The high priest did so, sending seventy-two... scribes and a copy of the Torah."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Flavius Josephus "Antiquities of the Jews" Book 12 Ch. 2</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Antiquities of the Jews, Flavius Josephus, Book 12;chapter2</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Arabs in Antiquity: Their History from the Assyrians to the Umayyads, Prof. Jan Retso, Page: 301</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>A History of the Arabs in the Sudan: The inhabitants of the northern Sudan before the time of the Islamic invasions. The progress of the Arab tribes through Egypt. The Arab tribes of the Sudan at the present day</i>, <a href="/wiki/John_Pentland_Mahaffy" title="John Pentland Mahaffy">Sir Harold Alfred MacMichael</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>, 1922, Page: 7</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">History of Egypt, <a href="/wiki/John_Pentland_Mahaffy" title="John Pentland Mahaffy">Sir John Pentland Mahaffy</a>, p. 20-21</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKing2018" class="citation web cs1">King, Arienne (25 July 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1256/the-economy-of-ptolemaic-egypt/">"The Economy of Ptolemaic Egypt"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/World_History_Encyclopedia" title="World History Encyclopedia">World History Encyclopedia</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 June</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=World+History+Encyclopedia&rft.atitle=The+Economy+of+Ptolemaic+Egypt&rft.date=2018-07-25&rft.aulast=King&rft.aufirst=Arienne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldhistory.org%2Farticle%2F1256%2Fthe-economy-of-ptolemaic-egypt%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APtolemaic+Kingdom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFvon_Reden2006" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">von Reden, Sitta (2006). "The Ancient Economy and Ptolemaic Egypt". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/14445928"><i>Ancient Economies, Modern Methodologies</i></a>. Vol. 12 of Pragmateiai Series. Edipuglia. pp. 161–177.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Ancient+Economy+and+Ptolemaic+Egypt&rft.btitle=Ancient+Economies%2C+Modern+Methodologies&rft.pages=161-177&rft.pub=Edipuglia&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=von+Reden&rft.aufirst=Sitta&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F14445928&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APtolemaic+Kingdom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ptolemaic_Kingdom&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurstein2007" class="citation book cs1">Burstein, Stanley Meyer (1 December 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KSonyiReFY8C"><i>The Reign of Cleopatra</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Oklahoma_Press" title="University of Oklahoma Press">University of Oklahoma Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0806138718" title="Special:BookSources/978-0806138718"><bdi>978-0806138718</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 April</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Reign+of+Cleopatra&rft.pub=University+of+Oklahoma+Press&rft.date=2007-12-01&rft.isbn=978-0806138718&rft.aulast=Burstein&rft.aufirst=Stanley+Meyer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKSonyiReFY8C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APtolemaic+Kingdom" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFletcher2008" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Joann_Fletcher" title="Joann Fletcher">Fletcher, Joann</a> (2008), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Tcg4AgAAQBAJ"><i>Cleopatra the Great: The Woman Behind the Legend</i></a>, New York: Harper, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-06-058558-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-06-058558-7"><bdi>978-0-06-058558-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cleopatra+the+Great%3A+The+Woman+Behind+the+Legend&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Harper&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-06-058558-7&rft.aulast=Fletcher&rft.aufirst=Joann&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DTcg4AgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APtolemaic+Kingdom" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrabbe2008" class="citation book cs1">Grabbe, L. L. (2008). <i>A History of the Jews and Judaism in the Second Temple Period. Volume 2 – The Coming of the Greeks: The Early Hellenistic Period (335 – 175 BC)</i>. T&T Clark. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-567-03396-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-567-03396-3"><bdi>978-0-567-03396-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Jews+and+Judaism+in+the+Second+Temple+Period.+Volume+2+%E2%80%93+The+Coming+of+the+Greeks%3A+The+Early+Hellenistic+Period+%28335+%E2%80%93+175+BC%29&rft.pub=T%26T+Clark&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-567-03396-3&rft.aulast=Grabbe&rft.aufirst=L.+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APtolemaic+Kingdom" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrainger2010" class="citation book cs1">Grainger, John D. (2010). <i>The Syrian Wars</i>. Brill. pp. 281–328. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004180505" title="Special:BookSources/9789004180505"><bdi>9789004180505</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Syrian+Wars&rft.pages=281-328&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=9789004180505&rft.aulast=Grainger&rft.aufirst=John+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APtolemaic+Kingdom" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHölbl2000" class="citation book cs1">Hölbl, Günther (2000). <i>A History of the Ptolemaic Empire</i>. Translated by Saavedra, Tina. Routledge.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Ptolemaic+Empire&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=H%C3%B6lbl&rft.aufirst=G%C3%BCnther&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APtolemaic+Kingdom" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeters1970" class="citation book cs1">Peters, F. E. (1970). <i>The Harvest of Hellenism</i>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Simon_%26_Schuster" title="Simon & Schuster">Simon & Schuster</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Harvest+of+Hellenism&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=1970&rft.aulast=Peters&rft.aufirst=F.+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APtolemaic+Kingdom" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRawles2019" class="citation book cs1">Rawles, Richard (2019). <i>Callimachus</i>. Bloomsbury Academic.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Callimachus&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Academic&rft.date=2019&rft.aulast=Rawles&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APtolemaic+Kingdom" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ptolemaic_Kingdom&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBingenBagnall2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jean_Bingen" title="Jean Bingen">Bingen, Jean</a>; <a href="/wiki/Roger_S._Bagnall" title="Roger S. Bagnall">Bagnall, Roger S.</a> (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pZbM_fpG_PQC"><i>Hellenistic Egypt: monarchy, society, economy, culture</i></a>. Hellenistic culture and society. Berkeley: <a href="/wiki/University_of_California_Press" title="University of California Press">University of California Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-25141-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-25141-0"><bdi>978-0-520-25141-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/72702291">72702291</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hellenistic+Egypt%3A+monarchy%2C+society%2C+economy%2C+culture&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.series=Hellenistic+culture+and+society&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F72702291&rft.isbn=978-0-520-25141-0&rft.aulast=Bingen&rft.aufirst=Jean&rft.au=Bagnall%2C+Roger+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpZbM_fpG_PQC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APtolemaic+Kingdom" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBowman1996" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alan_Bowman_(classicist)" title="Alan Bowman (classicist)">Bowman, Alan K.</a> (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vePG331dopIC"><i>Egypt After the Pharaohs, 332 BC-AD 642: From Alexander to the Arab Conquest</i></a> (2. ed.). Berkeley, Calif.: <a href="/wiki/University_of_California_Press" title="University of California Press">University of California Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-20531-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-20531-4"><bdi>978-0-520-20531-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Egypt+After+the+Pharaohs%2C+332+BC-AD+642%3A+From+Alexander+to+the+Arab+Conquest&rft.place=Berkeley%2C+Calif.&rft.edition=2.&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-520-20531-4&rft.aulast=Bowman&rft.aufirst=Alan+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvePG331dopIC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APtolemaic+Kingdom" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChauveau2000" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michel_Chauveau" title="Michel Chauveau">Chauveau, Michel</a> (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=a5U-8b-fVNgC"><i>Egypt in the age of Cleopatra: history and society under the Ptolemies</i></a>. Cornell paperbacks. Translated by <a href="/wiki/David_Lorton" title="David Lorton">Lorton, David</a>. Ithaca ; London: <a href="/wiki/Cornell_University_Press" title="Cornell University Press">Cornell University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-8576-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-8576-3"><bdi>978-0-8014-8576-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Egypt+in+the+age+of+Cleopatra%3A+history+and+society+under+the+Ptolemies&rft.place=Ithaca+%3B+London&rft.series=Cornell+paperbacks&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-8014-8576-3&rft.aulast=Chauveau&rft.aufirst=Michel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Da5U-8b-fVNgC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APtolemaic+Kingdom" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEllis1992" class="citation book cs1">Ellis, Simon (1992). Adams, Barbara G. (ed.). <i>Graeco-Roman Egypt</i>. Shire Egyptology. Princes Risborough: <a href="/wiki/Shire_Publications" class="mw-redirect" title="Shire Publications">Shire Publications</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7478-0158-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7478-0158-0"><bdi>978-0-7478-0158-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Graeco-Roman+Egypt&rft.place=Princes+Risborough&rft.series=Shire+Egyptology&rft.pub=Shire+Publications&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-7478-0158-0&rft.aulast=Ellis&rft.aufirst=Simon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APtolemaic+Kingdom" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohannsen2023" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Johannsen, Ole (2023). <i>Imperialer Wandel und ptolemäischer Imperialismus in Syrien: Konnektivität, Konkurrenz und Kooperation</i>. Antike Imperien (in German). Paderborn: <a href="/wiki/Verlag_Ferdinand_Sch%C3%B6ningh" title="Verlag Ferdinand Schöningh">Brill Schöningh</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-506-79037-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-506-79037-8"><bdi>978-3-506-79037-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Imperialer+Wandel+und+ptolem%C3%A4ischer+Imperialismus+in+Syrien%3A+Konnektivit%C3%A4t%2C+Konkurrenz+und+Kooperation&rft.place=Paderborn&rft.series=Antike+Imperien&rft.pub=Brill+Sch%C3%B6ningh&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=978-3-506-79037-8&rft.aulast=Johannsen&rft.aufirst=Ole&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APtolemaic+Kingdom" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLloyd2003" class="citation book cs1">Lloyd, Alan Brian (2003). "The Ptolemaic Period (332–30 BC)". In <a href="/wiki/Ian_Shaw_(Egyptologist)" title="Ian Shaw (Egyptologist)">Shaw, Ian</a> (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-h4gJAlx8o0C"><i>The Oxford history of ancient Egypt</i></a> (New ed.). Oxford ; New York: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. pp. 395–421. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-280458-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-280458-7"><bdi>978-0-19-280458-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Ptolemaic+Period+%28332%E2%80%9330+BC%29&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+history+of+ancient+Egypt&rft.place=Oxford+%3B+New+York&rft.pages=395-421&rft.edition=New&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-19-280458-7&rft.aulast=Lloyd&rft.aufirst=Alan+Brian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-h4gJAlx8o0C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APtolemaic+Kingdom" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStephens2003" class="citation book cs1">Stephens, Susan A. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=L2wlDQAAQBAJ"><i>Seeing double: intercultural poetics in Ptolemaic Alexandria</i></a>. Hellenistic culture and society. Berkeley [u.a]: <a href="/wiki/University_of_California_Press" title="University of California Press">University of California Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-22973-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-22973-0"><bdi>978-0-520-22973-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Seeing+double%3A+intercultural+poetics+in+Ptolemaic+Alexandria&rft.place=Berkeley+%5Bu.a%5D&rft.series=Hellenistic+culture+and+society&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-520-22973-0&rft.aulast=Stephens&rft.aufirst=Susan+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DL2wlDQAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APtolemaic+Kingdom" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLampela1998" class="citation book cs1">Lampela, Anssi (1998). <i>Rome and the Ptolemies of Egypt: the development of their political relations, 273-80 B.C</i>. Commentationes humanarum litterarum. Helsinki: <a href="/wiki/Societas_Scientiarum_Fennica" class="mw-redirect" title="Societas Scientiarum Fennica">Societas Scientiarum Fennica</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-951-653-295-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-951-653-295-3"><bdi>978-951-653-295-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rome+and+the+Ptolemies+of+Egypt%3A+the+development+of+their+political+relations%2C+273-80+B.C&rft.place=Helsinki&rft.series=Commentationes+humanarum+litterarum&rft.pub=Societas+Scientiarum+Fennica&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-951-653-295-3&rft.aulast=Lampela&rft.aufirst=Anssi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APtolemaic+Kingdom" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFManning2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Manning_(historian)" title="Joseph Manning (historian)">Manning, Joseph Gilbert</a> (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=u3Af7KM4EQcC"><i>The last pharaohs: Egypt under the Ptolemies, 305-30 BC</i></a>. Princeton: <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-14262-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-14262-3"><bdi>978-0-691-14262-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+last+pharaohs%3A+Egypt+under+the+Ptolemies%2C+305-30+BC&rft.place=Princeton&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-691-14262-3&rft.aulast=Manning&rft.aufirst=Joseph+Gilbert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Du3Af7KM4EQcC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APtolemaic+Kingdom" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a 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href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120324082551/http://www.unc.edu/awmc/downloads/aegyptusPtolSml.jpg">Map of Ptolemaic Egypt, circa 270 BC</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output 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title="Thrace" alt="Thrace" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Peloponnesus" coords="329,200,448,224" title="Peloponnesus" alt="Peloponnesus" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Greece" coords="319,153,458,177" title="Greece" alt="Greece" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Macedon" coords="346,106,431,130" title="Macedon" alt="Macedon" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Regent" coords="349,59,428,83" title="Regent" alt="Regent" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Macedon" coords="319,12,458,36" title="Macedon" alt="Macedon" /></map><img usemap="#timeline_9u2ei0t32zr07v5dwfbuw6ktr86qvp6" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/timeline/9u2ei0t32zr07v5dwfbuw6ktr86qvp6.png" /></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Hellenistic_rulers" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Hellenistic_rulers" title="Template:Hellenistic rulers"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Hellenistic_rulers" title="Template talk:Hellenistic rulers"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Hellenistic_rulers" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Hellenistic rulers"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Hellenistic_rulers" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic</a> rulers</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center"><a href="/wiki/Argead_dynasty" title="Argead dynasty">Argeads</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_Macedon" title="Philip II of Macedon">Philip II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander III the Great</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_III_of_Macedon" title="Philip III of Macedon">Philip III Arrhidaeus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_IV_of_Macedon" title="Alexander IV of Macedon">Alexander IV</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center"><a href="/wiki/Antipatrid_dynasty" title="Antipatrid dynasty">Antipatrids</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cassander" title="Cassander">Cassander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_IV_of_Macedon" title="Philip IV of Macedon">Philip IV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_V_of_Macedon" title="Alexander V of Macedon">Alexander V</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antipater_II_of_Macedon" class="mw-redirect" title="Antipater II of Macedon">Antipater II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antipater_Etesias" title="Antipater Etesias">Antipater Etesias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sosthenes_of_Macedon" title="Sosthenes of Macedon">Sosthenes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center"><a href="/wiki/Antigonid_dynasty" title="Antigonid dynasty">Antigonids</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antigonus_I_Monophthalmus" title="Antigonus I Monophthalmus">Antigonus I Monophthalmus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demetrius_I_of_Macedon" class="mw-redirect" title="Demetrius I of Macedon">Demetrius I Poliorcetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antigonus_II_Gonatas" title="Antigonus II Gonatas">Antigonus II Gonatas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demetrius_II_Aetolicus" title="Demetrius II Aetolicus">Demetrius II Aetolicus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antigonus_III_Doson" title="Antigonus III Doson">Antigonus III Doson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_V_of_Macedon" title="Philip V of Macedon">Philip V</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perseus_of_Macedon" title="Perseus of Macedon">Perseus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andriscus" title="Andriscus">Philip VI</a> (pretender)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Ptolemies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_I_Soter" title="Ptolemy I Soter">Ptolemy I Soter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_Keraunos" class="mw-redirect" title="Ptolemy Keraunos">Ptolemy Keraunos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_II_Philadelphus" title="Ptolemy II Philadelphus">Ptolemy II Philadelphus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_III_Euergetes" title="Ptolemy III Euergetes">Ptolemy III Euergetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_IV_Philopator" title="Ptolemy IV Philopator">Ptolemy IV Philopator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_V_Epiphanes" title="Ptolemy V Epiphanes">Ptolemy V Epiphanes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleopatra_I_Syra" title="Cleopatra I Syra">Cleopatra I Syra</a> (regent)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_VI_Philometor" title="Ptolemy VI Philometor">Ptolemy VI Philometor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_VII_Neos_Philopator" title="Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator">Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleopatra_II_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Cleopatra II of Egypt">Cleopatra II Philometor Soter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_VIII_Physcon" title="Ptolemy VIII Physcon">Ptolemy VIII Physcon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleopatra_III_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Cleopatra III of Egypt">Cleopatra III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_IX_Lathyros" class="mw-redirect" title="Ptolemy IX Lathyros">Ptolemy IX Lathyros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_X_Alexander_I" title="Ptolemy X Alexander I">Ptolemy X Alexander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berenice_III_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Berenice III of Egypt">Berenice III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_XI_Alexander_II" title="Ptolemy XI Alexander II">Ptolemy XI Alexander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_XII_Auletes" title="Ptolemy XII Auletes">Ptolemy XII Auletes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleopatra_VI" title="Cleopatra VI">Cleopatra VI Tryphaena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berenice_IV" title="Berenice IV">Berenice IV Epiphanea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_XIII_Theos_Philopator" title="Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator">Ptolemy XIII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_XIV_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Ptolemy XIV of Egypt">Ptolemy XIV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleopatra" title="Cleopatra">Cleopatra VII Philopator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caesarion" title="Caesarion">Ptolemy XV Caesarion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center"><a href="/wiki/Kings_of_Cyrene" class="mw-redirect" title="Kings of Cyrene">Monarchs of Cyrene</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Magas_of_Cyrene" title="Magas of Cyrene">Magas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berenice_II_of_Egypt" title="Berenice II of Egypt">Berenice II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demetrius_the_Fair" title="Demetrius the Fair">Demetrius the Fair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_VIII_Physcon" title="Ptolemy VIII Physcon">Ptolemy VIII Physcon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_Apion" title="Ptolemy Apion">Ptolemy Apion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleopatra_Selene_II" title="Cleopatra Selene II">Cleopatra Selene II</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center"><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucids</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Seleucus_I_Nicator" title="Seleucus I Nicator">Seleucus I Nicator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antiochus_I_Soter" title="Antiochus I Soter">Antiochus I Soter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antiochus_II_Theos" title="Antiochus II Theos">Antiochus II Theos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucus_II_Callinicus" title="Seleucus II Callinicus">Seleucus II Callinicus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucus_III_Ceraunus" title="Seleucus III Ceraunus">Seleucus III Ceraunus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antiochus_III_the_Great" title="Antiochus III the Great">Antiochus III the Great</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucus_IV_Philopator" title="Seleucus IV Philopator">Seleucus IV Philopator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antiochus_IV_Epiphanes" title="Antiochus IV Epiphanes">Antiochus IV Epiphanes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antiochus_V_Eupator" title="Antiochus V Eupator">Antiochus V Eupator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demetrius_I_Soter" title="Demetrius I Soter">Demetrius I Soter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Balas" title="Alexander Balas">Alexander I Balas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demetrius_II_Nicator" title="Demetrius II Nicator">Demetrius II Nicator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antiochus_VI_Dionysus" title="Antiochus VI Dionysus">Antiochus VI Dionysus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diodotus_Tryphon" title="Diodotus Tryphon">Diodotus Tryphon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antiochus_VII_Sidetes" title="Antiochus VII Sidetes">Antiochus VII Sidetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_II_Zabinas" title="Alexander II Zabinas">Alexander II Zabinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleopatra_Thea" title="Cleopatra Thea">Cleopatra Thea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucus_V_Philometor" title="Seleucus V Philometor">Seleucus V Philometor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antiochus_VIII_Grypus" title="Antiochus VIII Grypus">Antiochus VIII Grypus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antiochus_IX_Cyzicenus" title="Antiochus IX Cyzicenus">Antiochus IX Cyzicenus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucus_VI_Epiphanes" title="Seleucus VI Epiphanes">Seleucus VI Epiphanes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antiochus_X_Eusebes" title="Antiochus X Eusebes">Antiochus X Eusebes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antiochus_XI_Epiphanes" title="Antiochus XI Epiphanes">Antiochus XI Epiphanes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demetrius_III_Eucaerus" title="Demetrius III Eucaerus">Demetrius III Eucaerus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_I_Philadelphus" title="Philip I Philadelphus">Philip I Philadelphus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antiochus_XII_Dionysus" title="Antiochus XII Dionysus">Antiochus XII Dionysus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleopatra_Selene_of_Syria" title="Cleopatra Selene of Syria">Cleopatra Selene I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antiochus_XIII_Asiaticus" title="Antiochus XIII Asiaticus">Antiochus XIII Asiaticus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_II_Philoromaeus" title="Philip II Philoromaeus">Philip II Philoromaeus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center"><a href="/wiki/Lysimachus" title="Lysimachus">Lysimachids</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lysimachus" title="Lysimachus">Lysimachus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_Epigonos" title="Ptolemy Epigonos">Ptolemy Epigonos</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center"><a href="/wiki/Attalid_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Attalid dynasty">Attalids</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philetaerus" title="Philetaerus">Philetaerus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eumenes_I" title="Eumenes I">Eumenes I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attalus_I" title="Attalus I">Attalus I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eumenes_II" title="Eumenes II">Eumenes II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attalus_II_Philadelphus" title="Attalus II Philadelphus">Attalus II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attalus_III" title="Attalus III">Attalus III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eumenes_III" title="Eumenes III">Eumenes III</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center"><a href="/wiki/Greco-Bactrian_Kingdom" title="Greco-Bactrian Kingdom">Greco-Bactrians</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diodotus_I" title="Diodotus I">Diodotus I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diodotus_II" title="Diodotus II">Diodotus II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthydemus_I" title="Euthydemus I">Euthydemus I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demetrius_I_of_Bactria" title="Demetrius I of Bactria">Demetrius I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthydemus_II" title="Euthydemus II">Euthydemus II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antimachus_I" title="Antimachus I">Antimachus I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pantaleon" title="Pantaleon">Pantaleon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agathocles_of_Bactria" title="Agathocles of Bactria">Agathocles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demetrius_II_of_India" title="Demetrius II of India">Demetrius II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eucratides_I" title="Eucratides I">Eucratides I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato_of_Bactria" title="Plato of Bactria">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eucratides_II" title="Eucratides II">Eucratides II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heliocles_I" title="Heliocles I">Heliocles I</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center"><a href="/wiki/Indo-Greek_Kingdom" title="Indo-Greek Kingdom">Indo-Greeks</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Demetrius_I_of_Bactria" title="Demetrius I of Bactria">Demetrius I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antimachus_I" title="Antimachus I">Antimachus I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pantaleon" title="Pantaleon">Pantaleon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agathocles_of_Bactria" title="Agathocles of Bactria">Agathocles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apollodotus_I" title="Apollodotus I">Apollodotus I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demetrius_II_of_India" title="Demetrius II of India">Demetrius II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antimachus_II" title="Antimachus II">Antimachus II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menander_I" title="Menander I">Menander I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoilos_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Zoilos I">Zoilos I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agathokleia" class="mw-redirect" title="Agathokleia">Agathokleia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lysias_Anicetus" title="Lysias Anicetus">Lysias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strato_I" title="Strato I">Strato I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antialcidas" title="Antialcidas">Antialcidas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heliokles_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Heliokles II">Heliokles II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyxenos_Epiphanes_Soter" class="mw-redirect" title="Polyxenos Epiphanes Soter">Polyxenos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demetrius_III_Aniketos" title="Demetrius III Aniketos">Demetrius III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philoxenus_Anicetus" title="Philoxenus Anicetus">Philoxenus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diomedes_Soter" title="Diomedes Soter">Diomedes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amyntas_Nikator" class="mw-redirect" title="Amyntas Nikator">Amyntas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epander" title="Epander">Epander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theophilos_(king)" class="mw-redirect" title="Theophilos (king)">Theophilos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peukolaos" class="mw-redirect" title="Peukolaos">Peukolaos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thraso" title="Thraso">Thraso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicias_(Indo-Greek_king)" title="Nicias (Indo-Greek king)">Nicias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menander_II" title="Menander II">Menander II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artemidoros" class="mw-redirect" title="Artemidoros">Artemidoros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermaeus" title="Hermaeus">Hermaeus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archebius" title="Archebius">Archebius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telephos_Euergetes" class="mw-redirect" title="Telephos Euergetes">Telephos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apollodotus_II" title="Apollodotus II">Apollodotus II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippostratos" class="mw-redirect" title="Hippostratos">Hippostratos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dionysios_Soter" class="mw-redirect" title="Dionysios Soter">Dionysios</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoilos_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Zoilos II">Zoilos II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apollophanes" title="Apollophanes">Apollophanes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strato_II" title="Strato II">Strato II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strato_III" title="Strato III">Strato III</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center"><a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_Bithynia" title="List of rulers of Bithynia">Monarchs of Bithynia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boteiras_of_Bithynia" title="Boteiras of Bithynia">Boteiras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bas_of_Bithynia" title="Bas of Bithynia">Bas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zipoetes_I_of_Bithynia" title="Zipoetes I of Bithynia">Zipoetes I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicomedes_I_of_Bithynia" title="Nicomedes I of Bithynia">Nicomedes I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zipoetes_II_of_Bithynia" title="Zipoetes II of Bithynia">Zipoetes II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etazeta_of_Bithynia" title="Etazeta of Bithynia">Etazeta</a> (regent)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ziaelas_of_Bithynia" title="Ziaelas of Bithynia">Ziaelas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prusias_I_of_Bithynia" title="Prusias I of Bithynia">Prusias I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prusias_II_of_Bithynia" title="Prusias II of Bithynia">Prusias II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicomedes_II_of_Bithynia" title="Nicomedes II of Bithynia">Nicomedes II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicomedes_III_of_Bithynia" title="Nicomedes III of Bithynia">Nicomedes III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicomedes_IV_of_Bithynia" title="Nicomedes IV of Bithynia">Nicomedes IV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socrates_Chrestus" title="Socrates Chrestus">Socrates Chrestus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center"><a href="/wiki/List_of_kings_of_Pontus" class="mw-redirect" title="List of kings of Pontus">Monarchs of Pontus</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mithridates_I_of_Pontus" title="Mithridates I of Pontus">Mithridates I Ctistes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ariobarzanes_of_Pontus" title="Ariobarzanes of Pontus">Ariobarzanes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mithridates_II_of_Pontus" title="Mithridates II of Pontus">Mithridates II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mithridates_III_of_Pontus" title="Mithridates III of Pontus">Mithridates III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharnaces_I_of_Pontus" title="Pharnaces I of Pontus">Pharnaces I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mithridates_IV_of_Pontus" title="Mithridates IV of Pontus">Mithridates IV Philopator Philadephos</a> with <a href="/wiki/Laodice_(sister-wife_of_Mithridates_IV_of_Pontus)" title="Laodice (sister-wife of Mithridates IV of Pontus)">Laodice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mithridates_V_of_Pontus" class="mw-redirect" title="Mithridates V of Pontus">Mithridates V Euergetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mithridates_VI_Eupator" title="Mithridates VI Eupator">Mithridates VI Eupator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharnaces_II_of_Pontus" title="Pharnaces II of Pontus">Pharnaces II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Darius_of_Pontus" title="Darius of Pontus">Darius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arsaces_of_Pontus" title="Arsaces of Pontus">Arsaces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polemon_I_of_Pontus" title="Polemon I of Pontus">Polemon I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pythodorida_of_Pontus" class="mw-redirect" title="Pythodorida of Pontus">Pythodorida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polemon_II_of_Pontus" title="Polemon II of Pontus">Polemon II</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center"><a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_Commagene" class="mw-redirect" title="List of rulers of Commagene">Monarchs of Commagene</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemaeus_of_Commagene" title="Ptolemaeus of Commagene">Ptolemaeus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sames_II_Theosebes_Dikaios" title="Sames II Theosebes Dikaios">Sames II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mithridates_I_Callinicus" title="Mithridates I Callinicus">Mithridates I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antiochus_I_Theos_of_Commagene" class="mw-redirect" title="Antiochus I Theos of Commagene">Antiochus I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mithridates_II_of_Commagene" title="Mithridates II of Commagene">Mithridates II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antiochus_II_of_Commagene" title="Antiochus II of Commagene">Antiochus II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mithridates_III_of_Commagene" title="Mithridates III of Commagene">Mithridates III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antiochus_III_of_Commagene" title="Antiochus III of Commagene">Antiochus III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antiochus_IV_of_Commagene" title="Antiochus IV of Commagene">Antiochus IV</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center"><a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_Cappadocia" class="mw-redirect" title="List of rulers of Cappadocia">Monarchs of Cappadocia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ariarathes_I_of_Cappadocia" title="Ariarathes I of Cappadocia">Ariarathes I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ariarathes_II_of_Cappadocia" title="Ariarathes II of Cappadocia">Ariarathes II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ariamnes_of_Cappadocia" class="mw-redirect" title="Ariamnes of Cappadocia">Ariamnes II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ariarathes_III_of_Cappadocia" title="Ariarathes III of Cappadocia">Ariarathes III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ariarathes_IV_of_Cappadocia" title="Ariarathes IV of Cappadocia">Ariarathes IV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ariarathes_V_of_Cappadocia" title="Ariarathes V of Cappadocia">Ariarathes V</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orophernes_of_Cappadocia" title="Orophernes of Cappadocia">Orophernes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ariarathes_VI_of_Cappadocia" title="Ariarathes VI of Cappadocia">Ariarathes VI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ariarathes_VII_of_Cappadocia" title="Ariarathes VII of Cappadocia">Ariarathes VII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ariarathes_VIII_of_Cappadocia" title="Ariarathes VIII of Cappadocia">Ariarathes VIII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ariarathes_IX_of_Cappadocia" title="Ariarathes IX of Cappadocia">Ariarathes IX</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ariobarzanes_I_of_Cappadocia" title="Ariobarzanes I of Cappadocia">Ariobarzanes I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ariobarzanes_II_of_Cappadocia" title="Ariobarzanes II of Cappadocia">Ariobarzanes II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ariobarzanes_III_of_Cappadocia" title="Ariobarzanes III of Cappadocia">Ariobarzanes III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ariarathes_X_of_Cappadocia" title="Ariarathes X of Cappadocia">Ariarathes X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archelaus_of_Cappadocia" title="Archelaus of Cappadocia">Archelaus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center"><a href="/wiki/Bosporan_Kingdom" title="Bosporan Kingdom">Monarchs of the<br />Cimmerian Bosporus</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paerisades_I" title="Paerisades I">Paerisades I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satyros_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Satyros II">Satyros II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prytanis_of_Bosporus" title="Prytanis of Bosporus">Prytanis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eumelos_of_Bosporus" class="mw-redirect" title="Eumelos of Bosporus">Eumelos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spartokos_III" class="mw-redirect" title="Spartokos III">Spartokos III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hygiainon" class="mw-redirect" title="Hygiainon">Hygiainon</a> (regent)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paerisades_II" title="Paerisades II">Paerisades II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spartokos_IV" class="mw-redirect" title="Spartokos IV">Spartokos IV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leukon_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Leukon II">Leukon II</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spartokos_V&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Spartokos V (page does not exist)">Spartokos V</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BA_V" class="extiw" title="ru:Спарток V">ru</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamasarye_Philoteknos" class="mw-redirect" title="Kamasarye Philoteknos">Kamasarye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paerisades_III" title="Paerisades III">Paerisades III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paerisades_IV_Philometor" title="Paerisades IV Philometor">Paerisades IV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paerisades_V" title="Paerisades V">Paerisades V</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mithridates_VI_of_Pontus" class="mw-redirect" title="Mithridates VI of Pontus">Mithridates I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharnaces_II_of_Pontus" title="Pharnaces II of Pontus">Pharnaces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asander_(Bosporan_king)" class="mw-redirect" title="Asander (Bosporan king)">Asander</a> with <a href="/wiki/Dynamis_(Bosporan_queen)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dynamis (Bosporan queen)">Dynamis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mithridates_I_of_the_Bosporus" class="mw-redirect" title="Mithridates I of the Bosporus">Mithridates II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asander_(Bosporan_king)" class="mw-redirect" title="Asander (Bosporan king)">Asander</a> with <a href="/wiki/Dynamis_(Bosporan_queen)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dynamis (Bosporan queen)">Dynamis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scribonius_(Bosporan_usurper)" title="Scribonius (Bosporan usurper)">Scribonius</a>'s attempted rule with <a href="/wiki/Dynamis_(Bosporan_queen)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dynamis (Bosporan queen)">Dynamis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynamis_(Bosporan_queen)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dynamis (Bosporan queen)">Dynamis</a> with <a href="/wiki/Polemon_I_of_Pontus" title="Polemon I of Pontus">Polemon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polemon_I_of_Pontus" title="Polemon I of Pontus">Polemon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiberius_Julius_Aspurgus" class="mw-redirect" title="Tiberius Julius Aspurgus">Aspurgus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gepaepyris" title="Gepaepyris">Gepaepyris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiberius_Julius_Mithridates" title="Tiberius Julius Mithridates">Mithridates III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiberius_Julius_Cotys_I" title="Tiberius Julius Cotys I">Cotys I</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center"><a href="/wiki/List_of_the_kings_of_Epirus" class="mw-redirect" title="List of the kings of Epirus">Monarchs of Epirus</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Admetus_of_Epirus" title="Admetus of Epirus">Admetus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tharrhypas" title="Tharrhypas">Tharrhypas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcetas_I_of_Epirus" title="Alcetas I of Epirus">Alcetas I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoptolemus_I_of_Epirus" title="Neoptolemus I of Epirus">Neoptolemus I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arybbas" class="mw-redirect" title="Arybbas">Arybbas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_I_of_Epirus" title="Alexander I of Epirus">Alexander I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aeacides_of_Epirus" title="Aeacides of Epirus">Aeacides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoptolemus_II_of_Epirus" title="Neoptolemus II of Epirus">Neoptolemus II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcetas_II_of_Epirus" title="Alcetas II of Epirus">Alcetas II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyrrhus_of_Epirus" title="Pyrrhus of Epirus">Pyrrhus I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_II_of_Epirus" title="Alexander II of Epirus">Alexander II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olympias_II_of_Epirus" title="Olympias II of Epirus">Olympias II</a> (regent)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyrrhus_II_of_Epirus" title="Pyrrhus II of Epirus">Pyrrhus II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_of_Epirus" title="Ptolemy of Epirus">Ptolemy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyrrhus_III_of_Epirus" title="Pyrrhus III of Epirus">Pyrrhus III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deidamia_II_of_Epirus" title="Deidamia II of Epirus">Deidamia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>Hellenistic rulers were preceded by <a href="/wiki/Template:Hellenistic_satraps" title="Template:Hellenistic satraps">Hellenistic satraps</a> in most of their territories.</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Empires" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Empires" title="Template:Empires"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Empires" title="Template talk:Empires"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Empires" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Empires"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Empires" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Empire" title="Empire">Empires</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_history" title="Ancient history">Ancient</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Colonies_in_antiquity" title="Colonies in antiquity">colonies</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkadian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Kingdom of Armenia (disambiguation)">Armenian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urartu" title="Urartu">Urartu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satrapy_of_Armenia" title="Satrapy of Armenia">Orontid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_(antiquity)" title="Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)">Ancient</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyrian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Assyrian_Empire" title="Middle Assyrian Empire">Middle Assyrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Babylonian_Empire" title="Old Babylonian Empire">Old Babylonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kassites" title="Kassites">Kassite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Empire" title="Chinese Empire">Chinese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Qin_dynasty" title="Qin dynasty">Qin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(266%E2%80%93420)" title="Jin dynasty (266–420)">Jin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%CA%BFmt" title="Dʿmt">Dʿmt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Egyptian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Old Kingdom of Egypt">Old Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Middle Kingdom of Egypt">Middle Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="New Kingdom of Egypt">New Kingdom</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goguryeo" title="Goguryeo">Goguryeo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harsha" title="Harsha">Harsha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)#Empire" title="Macedonia (ancient kingdom)">Macedonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Ptolemaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Bactrian_Kingdom" title="Greco-Bactrian Kingdom">Bactrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Greek_Kingdom" title="Indo-Greek Kingdom">Indo-Greek</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hittites" title="Hittites">Hittite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Huns" title="History of the Huns">Hunnic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hephthalites" title="Hephthalites">White</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiongnu" title="Xiongnu">Xiongnu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Persian Empire (disambiguation)">Iranian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Median_kingdom" title="Median kingdom">Median</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kush" title="Kingdom of Kush">Kush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kushan_Empire" title="Kushan Empire">Kushan</a></li> <li>Magadha <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haryanka_dynasty" title="Haryanka dynasty">Haryanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaishunaga_dynasty" title="Shaishunaga dynasty">Shaishunaga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanda_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanda Empire">Nanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurya_Empire" title="Maurya Empire">Maurya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shunga_Empire" title="Shunga Empire">Shunga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gupta_Empire" title="Gupta Empire">Gupta</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenician</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Carthage" title="Ancient Carthage">Carthaginian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Eastern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satavahana_dynasty" title="Satavahana dynasty">Satavahana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Dynasty_of_Ur" title="Third Dynasty of Ur">Neo-Sumerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xianbei" title="Xianbei">Xianbei</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rouran_Khaganate" title="Rouran Khaganate">Rouran</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Post-classical_history" title="Post-classical history">Post-classical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Angevin_Empire" title="Angevin Empire">Angevin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Aragon" title="Crown of Aragon">Aragonese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Kingdom of Armenia (disambiguation)">Armenian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bagratid_Armenia" title="Bagratid Armenia">Bagratid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Vaspurakan" title="Kingdom of Vaspurakan">Vaspurakan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Artsakh" title="Kingdom of Artsakh">Artsakh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_Kingdom_of_Cilicia" title="Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia">Cilician</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zakarid_Armenia" title="Zakarid Armenia">Zakarid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayyubid_dynasty" title="Ayyubid dynasty">Ayyubid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_Empire" title="Aztec Empire">Aztec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Benin" title="Kingdom of Benin">Benin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanem%E2%80%93Bornu_Empire#Shift_of_the_Sayfuwa_court_from_Kanem_to_Bornu" title="Kanem–Bornu Empire">Bornu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruneian_Sultanate_(1368%E2%80%931888)" title="Bruneian Sultanate (1368–1888)">Bruneian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Bulgarian Empire (disambiguation)">Bulgarian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Bulgarian_Empire" title="First Bulgarian Empire">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Bulgarian_Empire" title="Second Bulgarian Empire">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Burmese Empire (disambiguation)">Burmese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pagan_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Pagan Kingdom">First</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calakmul" title="Calakmul">Calakmul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate">Caliphate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fatimid_Caliphate" title="Fatimid Caliphate">Fatimid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chalukya_dynasty" title="Chalukya dynasty">Chalukya</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Chalukya_Empire" title="Western Chalukya Empire">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Chalukyas" title="Eastern Chalukyas">Eastern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Empire" title="Chinese Empire">Chinese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sui_dynasty" title="Sui dynasty">Sui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liao_dynasty" title="Liao dynasty">Liao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(1115%E2%80%931234)" title="Jin dynasty (1115–1234)">Jīn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chola_Empire" title="Chola Empire">Chola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Empire" title="Ethiopian Empire">Ethiopian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aksum" title="Kingdom of Aksum">Aksum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zagwe_dynasty" title="Zagwe dynasty">Zagwe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Empire" title="Ethiopian Empire">Solomonic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Genoese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Georgia" title="Kingdom of Georgia">Georgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garabito_Empire" title="Garabito Empire">Huetar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inca_Empire" title="Inca Empire">Inca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tripartite_Struggle" title="Tripartite Struggle">Kannauj</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pala_Empire" title="Pala Empire">Pala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gurjara-Pratihara_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty">Gurjara-Pratihara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rashtrakuta_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Rashtrakuta Empire">Rashtrakuta</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Persian Empire (disambiguation)">Iranian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tahirid_dynasty" title="Tahirid dynasty">Tahirid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saffarid_dynasty" title="Saffarid dynasty">Saffarid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samanid_Empire" title="Samanid Empire">Samanid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buyid_dynasty" title="Buyid dynasty">Buyid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Japan" title="History of Japan">Japanese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yamato_period" title="Yamato period">Yamato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamakura_shogunate" title="Kamakura shogunate">Kamakura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashikaga_shogunate" title="Ashikaga shogunate">Muromachi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tokugawa_shogunate" title="Tokugawa shogunate">Edo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanem%E2%80%93Bornu_Empire" title="Kanem–Bornu Empire">Kanem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khmer_Empire" title="Khmer Empire">Khmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_Empire" title="Latin Empire">Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Lithuania" title="History of Lithuania">Lithuanian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Lithuania" title="Grand Duchy of Lithuania">Grand Duchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Commonwealth</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Majapahit" title="Majapahit">Majapahit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mali_Empire" title="Mali Empire">Mali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_Horde" title="Golden Horde">Golden Horde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chagatai_Khanate" title="Chagatai Khanate">Chagatai Khanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ilkhanate" title="Ilkhanate">Ilkhanate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Morocco" title="History of Morocco">Moroccan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Idrisid_dynasty" title="Idrisid dynasty">Idrisid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Almoravid_dynasty" title="Almoravid dynasty">Almoravid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Almohad_Caliphate" title="Almohad Caliphate">Almohad</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norgesveldet" class="mw-redirect" title="Norgesveldet">Norwegian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Sea_Empire" title="North Sea Empire">North Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oyo_Empire" title="Oyo Empire">Oyo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Poland" title="History of Poland">Polish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Poland" title="Kingdom of Poland">Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Commonwealth</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenization_in_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Hellenization in the Byzantine Empire">Hellenic</a> <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Nicaea" title="Empire of Nicaea">Nicaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Thessalonica" title="Empire of Thessalonica">Thessalonica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Trebizond" title="Empire of Trebizond">Trebizond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Despotate_of_Epirus" title="Despotate of Epirus">Epirus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Despotate_of_the_Morea" title="Despotate of the Morea">Morea</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romano-Germanic_culture" title="Romano-Germanic culture">Romano-Germanic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carolingian_Empire" title="Carolingian Empire">Carolingian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_Empire" title="Serbian Empire">Serbian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singhasari" title="Singhasari">Singhasari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Songhai_Empire" title="Songhai Empire">Songhai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Srivijaya" title="Srivijaya">Srivijaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Empire" title="Tibetan Empire">Tibetan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tikal" title="Tikal">Tikal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiwanaku_Empire" title="Tiwanaku Empire">Tiwanaku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toltec_Empire" title="Toltec Empire">Toltec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turco-Persian_tradition" title="Turco-Persian tradition">Turco-Persian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ghaznavids" title="Ghaznavids">Ghaznavid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seljuk_Empire" title="Seljuk Empire">Great Seljuk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khwarazmian_Empire" title="Khwarazmian Empire">Khwarezmian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timurid_Empire" title="Timurid Empire">Timurid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6kt%C3%BCrks" title="Göktürks">Turkic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Turkic_Khaganate" title="First Turkic Khaganate">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Western Turkic Khaganate">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Eastern Turkic Khaganate">Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Second Turkic Khaganate">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%C3%BCrgesh" title="Türgesh">Türgesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uyghur_Khaganate" title="Uyghur Khaganate">Uighur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyrgyz_Khaganate" title="Kyrgyz Khaganate">Kyrgyz</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Venetian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BA%A1i_Vi%E1%BB%87t" title="Đại Việt">Vietnamese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C4%90inh_dynasty" title="Đinh dynasty">Dinh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_L%C3%AA_dynasty" title="Early Lê dynasty">Early Le</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%BD_dynasty" title="Lý dynasty">Ly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tr%E1%BA%A7n_dynasty" title="Trần dynasty">Tran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H%E1%BB%93_dynasty" title="Hồ dynasty">Ho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Later_Tr%E1%BA%A7n_dynasty" title="Later Trần dynasty">Later Tran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AA_dynasty" title="Lê dynasty">Later Le</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vijayanagara_Empire" title="Vijayanagara Empire">Vijayanagara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghana_Empire" title="Ghana Empire">Wagadou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wari_Empire" title="Wari Empire">Wari</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Modern_era" title="Modern era">Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Durrani_Empire" title="Durrani Empire">Afghan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashanti_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashanti Empire">Ashanti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austrian_Empire" title="Austrian Empire">Austrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austria-Hungary" title="Austria-Hungary">Austro-Hungarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Brazil" title="Empire of Brazil">Brazilian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Burmese Empire (disambiguation)">Burmese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Toungoo_Empire" title="First Toungoo Empire">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konbaung_dynasty" title="Konbaung dynasty">Third</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_African_Empire" title="Central African Empire">Central African</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Empire" title="Chinese Empire">Chinese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_China_(1915%E2%80%931916)" title="Empire of China (1915–1916)">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchukuo" title="Manchukuo">Manchukuo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_imperialism" title="Chinese imperialism">Contemporary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Empire" title="Ethiopian Empire">Ethiopian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Haiti" title="History of Haiti">Haitian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Empire_of_Haiti" title="First Empire of Haiti">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Empire_of_Haiti" title="Second Empire of Haiti">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_France" title="History of France">French</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_French_Empire" title="First French Empire">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_French_Empire" title="Second French Empire">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Germany" title="History of Germany">German</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Raj" title="British Raj">Indian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Persian_culture" title="Indo-Persian culture">Indo-Persian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sikh_Empire" title="Sikh Empire">Sikh</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_peoples" title="Iranian peoples">Iranian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Safavid_Iran" title="Safavid Iran">Safavid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afsharid_Iran" title="Afsharid Iran">Afsharid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zand_dynasty" title="Zand dynasty">Zand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qajar_Iran" title="Qajar Iran">Qajar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pahlavi_dynasty" title="Pahlavi dynasty">Pahlavi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Empire" title="Korean Empire">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maratha_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Maratha Empire">Maratha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Mexico" title="History of Mexico">Mexican</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Mexican_Empire" title="First Mexican Empire">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Mexican_Empire" title="Second Mexican Empire">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Yuan" title="Northern Yuan">Mongol</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oirat_Confederation" title="Oirat Confederation">Oirat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khoshut_Khanate" title="Khoshut Khanate">Khoshut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dzungar_Khanate" title="Dzungar Khanate">Dzungar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalmyk_Khanate" title="Kalmyk Khanate">Kalmyk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bogd_Khanate_of_Mongolia" title="Bogd Khanate of Mongolia">Bogd</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Morocco" title="History of Morocco">Moroccan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Saadi_Sultanate" title="Saadi Sultanate">Saadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alawi_Sultanate" title="Alawi Sultanate">'Alawi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Russia" title="History of Russia">Russian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tsardom_of_Russia" title="Tsardom of Russia">Tsarist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Imperial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_imperialism#Contemporary_Russian_imperialism" title="Russian imperialism">Contemporary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sokoto_Caliphate" title="Sokoto Caliphate">Sokoto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Somalia" title="History of Somalia">Somali</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Isaaq_Sultanate" title="Isaaq Sultanate">Isaaq</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tu%CA%BBi_Tonga_Empire" title="Tuʻi Tonga Empire">Tongan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BA%A1i_Vi%E1%BB%87t" title="Đại Việt">Vietnamese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/M%E1%BA%A1c_dynasty" title="Mạc dynasty">Mạc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revival_L%C3%AA_dynasty" title="Revival Lê dynasty">Revival Lê</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%C3%A2y_S%C6%A1n_dynasty" title="Tây Sơn dynasty">Tay Sơn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nguy%E1%BB%85n_dynasty" title="Nguyễn dynasty">Dainam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Vietnam" title="Empire of Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Colonial" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Colonial_empire" title="Colonial empire">Colonial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_imperialism" title="American imperialism">American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgian_colonial_empire" title="Belgian colonial empire">Belgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_overseas_possessions" title="English overseas possessions">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Scottish colonization of the Americas">Scottish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Empire" title="Chinese Empire">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_overseas_colonies" title="Danish overseas colonies">Danish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_colonial_empire" title="Dutch colonial empire">Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_colonial_empire" title="French colonial empire">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_colonial_empire" title="German colonial empire">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Empire" title="Italian Empire">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_colonial_empire" title="Japanese colonial empire">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omani_Empire" title="Omani Empire">Omani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Curonian_colonisation" title="Curonian colonisation">Couronian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_overseas_colonies" title="Swedish overseas colonies">Swedish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_empires" title="List of empires">Empires</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_empires" title="List of largest empires">largest</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_great_powers" title="List of ancient great powers">Ancient great powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_medieval_great_powers" title="List of medieval great powers">Medieval great powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_modern_great_powers" title="List of modern great powers">Modern great powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_colonialism" title="History of colonialism">European colonialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_empires" class="mw-redirect" title="African empires">African empires</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>"Empire" as a description of foreign policy <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_imperialism" title="American imperialism">American Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_empire" title="Soviet empire">Soviet empire</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2320005#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2320005#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2320005#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85041288">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" 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