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id="toc-Standard_form" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Standard_form"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Standard form</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Standard_form-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_forms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_forms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Other forms</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_forms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Other_additive_forms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_additive_forms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.1</span> <span>Other additive forms</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_additive_forms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_subtractive_forms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_subtractive_forms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.2</span> <span>Other subtractive forms</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_subtractive_forms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Non-standard_variants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Non-standard_variants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.3</span> <span>Non-standard variants</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Non-standard_variants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Non-numeric_combinations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Non-numeric_combinations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.4</span> <span>Non-numeric combinations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Non-numeric_combinations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Zero" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Zero"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Zero</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Zero-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fractions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fractions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Fractions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fractions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Large_numbers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Large_numbers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Large numbers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Large_numbers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Apostrophus" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Apostrophus"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5.1</span> <span><i>Apostrophus</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Apostrophus-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vinculum" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vinculum"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5.2</span> <span><i>Vinculum</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vinculum-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Origin" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Origin"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Origin</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Origin-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Origin subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Origin-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Etruscan_numerals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Etruscan_numerals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Etruscan numerals</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Etruscan_numerals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_Roman_numerals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_Roman_numerals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Early Roman numerals</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_Roman_numerals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Classical_Roman_numerals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classical_Roman_numerals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Classical Roman numerals</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Classical_Roman_numerals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Use_in_the_Middle_Ages_and_Renaissance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Use_in_the_Middle_Ages_and_Renaissance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Use in the Middle Ages and Renaissance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Use_in_the_Middle_Ages_and_Renaissance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_use" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_use"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Modern use</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Modern_use-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Modern use subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Modern_use-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Specific_disciplines" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Specific_disciplines"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Specific disciplines</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Specific_disciplines-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_use_in_European_languages_other_than_English" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_use_in_European_languages_other_than_English"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Modern use in European languages other than English</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_use_in_European_languages_other_than_English-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Unicode" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Unicode"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Unicode</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Unicode-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Roman numerals</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 111 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-111" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">111 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romeinse_syfers" title="Romeinse syfers – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Romeinse syfers" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A3%D8%B1%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%85_%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="أرقام رومانية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="أرقام رومانية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hyw mw-list-item"><a href="https://hyw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%80%D5%BC%D5%B8%D5%BE%D5%B4%D5%A7%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%A9%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%B7%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80" title="Հռովմէական թուանշաններ – Western Armenian" lang="hyw" hreflang="hyw" data-title="Հռովմէական թուանշաններ" data-language-autonym="Արեւմտահայերէն" data-language-local-name="Western Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Արեւմտահայերէն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numberaci%C3%B3n_romana" title="Numberación romana – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Numberación romana" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rr%C3%B3ma_papapyku%C3%A9ra" title="Rróma papapykuéra – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Rróma papapykuéra" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Avañe'ẽ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rum_r%C9%99q%C9%99ml%C9%99ri" title="Rum rəqəmləri – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Rum rəqəmləri" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85%DB%8C_%D8%A7%D8%B9%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%AF" title="رومی اعداد – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="رومی اعداد" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ban mw-list-item"><a href="https://ban.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilangan_Romawi" title="Wilangan Romawi – Balinese" lang="ban" hreflang="ban" data-title="Wilangan Romawi" data-language-autonym="Basa Bali" data-language-local-name="Balinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Basa Bali</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8_%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%96%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BE" title="রোমান সংখ্যা – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="রোমান সংখ্যা" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%B4-m%C3%A1_s%C3%B2%CD%98-j%C4%AB" title="Lô-má sò͘-jī – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Lô-má sò͘-jī" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%BC_%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%84%D1%80%D2%99%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8B" title="Рим цифрҙары – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Рим цифрҙары" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D1%8B%D0%BC%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%81%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8D%D0%BC%D0%B0_%D0%B7%D0%BB%D1%96%D1%87%D1%8D%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8F" title="Рымская сістэма злічэння – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Рымская сістэма злічэння" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D1%8B%D0%BC%D1%81%D0%BA%D1%96%D1%8F_%D0%BB%D1%96%D1%87%D0%B1%D1%8B" title="Рымскія лічбы – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Рымскія лічбы" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%BC%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%84%D1%80%D0%B8" title="Римски цифри – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Римски цифри" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bo mw-list-item"><a href="https://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%A2%E0%BD%BC%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%98%E0%BD%A0%E0%BD%B2%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A8%E0%BD%84%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%80%E0%BD%B2%E0%BC%8D" title="རོ་མའི་ཨང་ཀི། – Tibetan" lang="bo" hreflang="bo" data-title="རོ་མའི་ཨང་ཀི།" data-language-autonym="བོད་ཡིག" data-language-local-name="Tibetan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>བོད་ཡིག</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rimski_brojevi" title="Rimski brojevi – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Rimski brojevi" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niveradur_roman" title="Niveradur roman – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Niveradur roman" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numeraci%C3%B3_romana" title="Numeració romana – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Numeració romana" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%BC_%D1%88%D1%83%D1%82_%D0%B9%C4%95%D1%80%D0%BA%D0%B8" title="Рим шут йĕрки – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Рим шут йĕрки" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%98%C3%ADmsk%C3%A9_%C4%8D%C3%ADslice" title="Římské číslice – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Římské číslice" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_rhifolion_Rhufeinig" title="System rhifolion Rhufeinig – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="System rhifolion Rhufeinig" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romertal" title="Romertal – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Romertal" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%B6mische_Zahlschrift" title="Römische Zahlschrift – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Römische Zahlschrift" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rooma_numbrid" title="Rooma numbrid – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Rooma numbrid" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A1%CF%89%CE%BC%CE%B1%CF%8A%CE%BA%CE%BF%CE%AF_%CE%B1%CF%81%CE%B9%CE%B8%CE%BC%CE%BF%CE%AF" title="Ρωμαϊκοί αριθμοί – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ρωμαϊκοί αριθμοί" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eml mw-list-item"><a href="https://eml.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%B9mer_rom%C3%A0%E1%B9%85" title="Nùmer romàṅ – Emiliano-Romagnolo" lang="egl" hreflang="egl" data-title="Nùmer romàṅ" data-language-autonym="Emiliàn e rumagnòl" data-language-local-name="Emiliano-Romagnolo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Emiliàn e rumagnòl</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numeraci%C3%B3n_romana" title="Numeración romana – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Numeración romana" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romaj_ciferoj" title="Romaj ciferoj – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Romaj ciferoj" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erromatar_zenbakera" title="Erromatar zenbakera – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Erromatar zenbakera" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B9%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%AF_%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85%DB%8C" title="اعداد رومی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="اعداد رومی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Num%C3%A9ration_romaine" title="Numération romaine – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Numération romaine" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romeinske_sifers" title="Romeinske sifers – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Romeinske sifers" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uimhir_R%C3%B3mh%C3%A1nach" title="Uimhir Rómhánach – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Uimhir Rómhánach" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earrooyn_Raueagh" title="Earrooyn Raueagh – Manx" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Earrooyn Raueagh" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="Manx" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaelg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numeraci%C3%B3n_romana" title="Numeración romana – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Numeración romana" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%A1%9C%EB%A7%88_%EC%88%AB%EC%9E%90" title="로마 숫자 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="로마 숫자" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%80%D5%BC%D5%B8%D5%B4%D5%A5%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%A9%D5%BE%D5%A5%D6%80" title="Հռոմեական թվեր – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Հռոմեական թվեր" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%96%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%95" title="रोमन संख्यांक – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="रोमन संख्यांक" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rimske_brojke" title="Rimske brojke – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Rimske brojke" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romana_cifri" title="Romana cifri – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Romana cifri" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angka_Romawi" title="Angka Romawi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Angka Romawi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numeration_roman" title="Numeration roman – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Numeration roman" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%B3mverskir_t%C3%B6lustafir" title="Rómverskir tölustafir – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Rómverskir tölustafir" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistema_di_numerazione_romano" title="Sistema di numerazione romano – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Sistema di numerazione romano" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A1%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%95%D7%AA" title="ספרות רומיות – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="ספרות רומיות" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%8B%E0%B2%AE%E0%B2%A8%E0%B3%8D_%E0%B2%85%E0%B2%82%E0%B2%95%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%97%E0%B2%B3%E0%B3%81" title="ರೋಮನ್ ಅಂಕಿಗಳು – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ರೋಮನ್ ಅಂಕಿಗಳು" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98_%E1%83%AA%E1%83%98%E1%83%A4%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%98" title="რომაული ციფრები – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="რომაული ციფრები" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%BC_%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8B" title="Рим сандары – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Рим сандары" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Namba_za_Kiroma" title="Namba za Kiroma – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Namba za Kiroma" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hejmar%C3%AAn_rom%C3%AE" title="Hejmarên romî – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Hejmarên romî" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%BC_%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%84%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8B" title="Рим цифралары – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Рим цифралары" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numeri_Romani" title="Numeri Romani – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Numeri Romani" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romie%C5%A1u_skait%C4%BCi" title="Romiešu skaitļi – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Romiešu skaitļi" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A9imesch_Zuelen" title="Réimesch Zuelen – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Réimesch Zuelen" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rom%C4%97ni%C5%A1ki_skai%C4%8Diai" title="Romėniški skaičiai – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Romėniški skaičiai" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numeros_roman" title="Numeros roman – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Numeros roman" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%B3mai_sz%C3%A1m%C3%ADr%C3%A1s" title="Római számírás – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Római számírás" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%BC%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%98%D0%BA%D0%B8" title="Римски бројки – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Римски бројки" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%AE%E0%B5%BB_%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%82%E0%B4%96%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%AE%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%A6%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%82" title="റോമൻ സംഖ്യാസമ്പ്രദായം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="റോമൻ സംഖ്യാസമ്പ്രദായം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%95" title="रोमन अंक – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="रोमन अंक" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D9%85%D8%B1_%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%89" title="نمر رومانى – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="نمر رومانى" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angka_Rumi" title="Angka Rumi – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Angka Rumi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numera%C3%A7on_romana" title="Numeraçon romana – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Numeraçon romana" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Mirandés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%BE%D0%BC_%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%84%D1%80" title="Ром цифр – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Ром цифр" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%9B%E1%80%B1%E1%80%AC%E1%80%99%E1%80%80%E1%80%AD%E1%80%94%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8%E1%80%82%E1%80%8F%E1%80%94%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8%E1%80%99%E1%80%BB%E1%80%AC%E1%80%B8" title="ရောမကိန်းဂဏန်းများ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ရောမကိန်းဂဏန်းများ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romeinse_cijfers" title="Romeinse cijfers – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Romeinse cijfers" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%99%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%96%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE" title="रोमन सङ्ख्या – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="रोमन सङ्ख्या" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%AD%E3%83%BC%E3%83%9E%E6%95%B0%E5%AD%97" title="ローマ数字 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ローマ数字" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%B6%C3%B6msk_taal" title="Röömsk taal – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Röömsk taal" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nordfriisk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romertall" title="Romertall – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Romertall" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romartal" title="Romartal – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Romartal" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nrm mw-list-item"><a href="https://nrm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chiffes_romaines" title="Chiffes romaines – Norman" lang="nrf" hreflang="nrf" data-title="Chiffes romaines" data-language-autonym="Nouormand" data-language-local-name="Norman" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nouormand</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numeracion_romana" title="Numeracion romana – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Numeracion romana" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rim_raqamlari" title="Rim raqamlari – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Rim raqamlari" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B0%E0%A9%8B%E0%A8%AE%E0%A8%A8_%E0%A8%85%E0%A9%B0%E0%A8%95" title="ਰੋਮਨ ਅੰਕ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਰੋਮਨ ਅੰਕ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%B6%C3%B6msche_Tallen" title="Röömsche Tallen – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Röömsche Tallen" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rzymski_system_zapisywania_liczb" title="Rzymski system zapisywania liczb – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Rzymski system zapisywania liczb" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numera%C3%A7%C3%A3o_romana" title="Numeração romana – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Numeração romana" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa mw-list-item"><a href="https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rim_cifrleri" title="Rim cifrleri – Kara-Kalpak" lang="kaa" hreflang="kaa" data-title="Rim cifrleri" data-language-autonym="Qaraqalpaqsha" data-language-local-name="Kara-Kalpak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Qaraqalpaqsha</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cifre_romane" title="Cifre romane – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Cifre romane" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%BC%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%84%D1%80%D1%8B" title="Римские цифры – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Римские цифры" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sm mw-list-item"><a href="https://sm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuainumera_o_Roma" title="Fuainumera o Roma – Samoan" lang="sm" hreflang="sm" data-title="Fuainumera o Roma" data-language-autonym="Gagana Samoa" data-language-local-name="Samoan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gagana Samoa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_numerals" title="Roman numerals – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Roman numerals" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nso mw-list-item"><a href="https://nso.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lebadi_la_roma" title="Lebadi la roma – Northern Sotho" lang="nso" hreflang="nso" data-title="Lebadi la roma" data-language-autonym="Sesotho sa Leboa" data-language-local-name="Northern Sotho" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sesotho sa Leboa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numrat_romak%C3%AB" title="Numrat romakë – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Numrat romakë" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistema_di_numirazzioni_rumanu" title="Sistema di numirazzioni rumanu – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Sistema di numirazzioni rumanu" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%9D%E0%B6%B8%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%94_%E0%B7%83%E0%B6%82%E0%B6%9B%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%8F" title="රෝමානු සංඛ්‍යා – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="රෝමානු සංඛ්‍යා" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_numerals" title="Roman numerals – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Roman numerals" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%ADmska_%C4%8D%C3%ADslica" title="Rímska číslica – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Rímska číslica" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rimske_%C5%A1tevilke" title="Rimske številke – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Rimske številke" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%BC%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%98%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B8" title="Римски бројеви – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Римски бројеви" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rimski_brojevi" title="Rimski brojevi – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Rimski brojevi" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roomalaiset_numerot" title="Roomalaiset numerot – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Roomalaiset numerot" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romerska_siffror" title="Romerska siffror – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Romerska siffror" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanong_numero" title="Romanong numero – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Romanong numero" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%89%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8B%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%88_%E0%AE%8E%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%8D" title="உரோமை எண்ணுருக்கள் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="உரோமை எண்ணுருக்கள்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-shi mw-list-item"><a href="https://shi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Izwal_n_Yi%E1%B9%9Bmmuyn" title="Izwal n Yiṛmmuyn – Tachelhit" lang="shi" hreflang="shi" data-title="Izwal n Yiṛmmuyn" data-language-autonym="Taclḥit" data-language-local-name="Tachelhit" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Taclḥit</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%A7%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%82%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%99" title="ตัวเลขโรมัน – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ตัวเลขโรมัน" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roma_rakamlar%C4%B1" title="Roma rakamları – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Roma rakamları" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%BC%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0_%D1%87%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8F" title="Римська система числення – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Римська система числення" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85%D9%86_%D8%A7%D8%B9%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%AF" title="رومن اعداد – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="رومن اعداد" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug mw-list-item"><a href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%89%D9%85_%D8%B1%DB%95%D9%82%DB%95%D9%85%D9%84%D9%89%D8%B1%D9%89" title="رىم رەقەملىرى – Uyghur" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" data-title="رىم رەقەملىرى" data-language-autonym="ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche" data-language-local-name="Uyghur" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numarasion_romana" title="Numarasion romana – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Numarasion romana" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vèneto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%E1%BB%91_La_M%C3%A3" title="Số La Mã – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Số La Mã" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%BE%85%E9%A6%AC%E6%95%B8%E5%AD%97" title="羅馬數字 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="羅馬數字" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>文言</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romano_nga_ihap" title="Romano nga ihap – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Romano nga ihap" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%BD%97%E9%A9%AC%E6%95%B0%E5%AD%97" title="罗马数字 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="罗马数字" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%99%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%A9%D7%A2_%D7%A6%D7%90%D7%9C" title="רוימישע צאל – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="רוימישע צאל" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%BE%85%E9%A6%AC%E6%95%B8%E5%AD%97" title="羅馬數字 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="羅馬數字" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reqem%C3%AA_Romenan" title="Reqemê Romenan – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Reqemê Romenan" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Zazaki" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Zazaki</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%BD%97%E9%A9%AC%E6%95%B0%E5%AD%97" title="罗马数字 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="罗马数字" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" 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class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Hindu%E2%80%93Arabic_numeral_system" title="Hindu–Arabic numeral system">Hindu–Arabic numerals</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_numerals" title="Arabic numerals">Western Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Arabic_numerals" title="Eastern Arabic numerals">Eastern Arabic</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bengali_numerals" title="Bengali numerals">Bengali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Devanagari_numerals" title="Devanagari numerals">Devanagari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gujarati_numerals" title="Gujarati numerals">Gujarati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gurmukhi_numerals" class="mw-redirect" title="Gurmukhi numerals">Gurmukhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odia_numerals" title="Odia numerals">Odia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinhala_numerals" title="Sinhala numerals">Sinhala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamil_numerals" title="Tamil numerals">Tamil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malayalam_numerals" title="Malayalam numerals">Malayalam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telugu_script#Numerals" title="Telugu script">Telugu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kannada_script#Numerals" title="Kannada script">Kannada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dzongkha_numerals" title="Dzongkha numerals">Dzongkha</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_numerals" title="Tibetan numerals">Tibetan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balinese_numerals" title="Balinese numerals">Balinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_numerals" title="Burmese numerals">Burmese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Javanese_numerals" title="Javanese numerals">Javanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khmer_numerals" title="Khmer numerals">Khmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lao_script#Numerals" title="Lao script">Lao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongolian_numerals" title="Mongolian numerals">Mongolian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sundanese_numerals" title="Sundanese numerals">Sundanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thai_numerals" title="Thai numerals">Thai</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">East Asian systems</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <dl><dt>Contemporary</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_numerals" title="Chinese numerals">Chinese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Suzhou_numerals" title="Suzhou numerals">Suzhou</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hokkien_numerals" title="Hokkien numerals">Hokkien</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_numerals" title="Japanese numerals">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_numerals" title="Korean numerals">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_numerals" title="Vietnamese numerals">Vietnamese</a></li></ul> <hr /> <dl><dt>Historic</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Counting_rods" title="Counting rods">Counting rods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tangut_numerals" title="Tangut numerals">Tangut</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Other systems</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_ancient_numeral_systems" title="History of ancient numeral systems">History</a></li></ul> <hr /> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Ancient_history" title="Ancient history">Ancient</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_cuneiform_numerals" title="Babylonian cuneiform numerals">Babylonian</a></li></ul> <hr /> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Post-classical_history" title="Post-classical history">Post-classical</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cistercian_numerals" title="Cistercian numerals">Cistercian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_numerals" title="Maya numerals">Mayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muisca_numerals" title="Muisca numerals">Muisca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pentadic_numerals" title="Pentadic numerals">Pentadic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quipu" title="Quipu">Quipu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rumi_Numeral_Symbols" title="Rumi Numeral Symbols">Rumi</a></li></ul> <hr /> <dl><dt>Contemporary</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_syllabary#Numerals" title="Cherokee syllabary">Cherokee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaktovik_numerals" title="Kaktovik numerals">Kaktovik</a> (Iñupiaq)</li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">By <a href="/wiki/Radix" title="Radix">radix/base</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <dl><dt>Common radices/bases</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Binary_number" title="Binary number">2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ternary_numeral_system" title="Ternary numeral system">3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quaternary_numeral_system" title="Quaternary numeral system">4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quinary" title="Quinary">5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Senary" title="Senary">6</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Octal" title="Octal">8</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decimal" title="Decimal">10</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duodecimal" title="Duodecimal">12</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hexadecimal" title="Hexadecimal">16</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vigesimal" title="Vigesimal">20</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexagesimal" title="Sexagesimal">60</a></li></ul> <hr /> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Non-standard_positional_numeral_systems" title="Non-standard positional numeral systems">Non-standard radices/bases</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bijective_numeration" title="Bijective numeration">Bijective</a><span class="nowrap"> </span>(<a href="/wiki/Unary_numeral_system" title="Unary numeral system">1</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Signed-digit_representation" title="Signed-digit representation">Signed-digit</a><span class="nowrap"> </span>(<a href="/wiki/Balanced_ternary" title="Balanced ternary">balanced ternary</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixed_radix" title="Mixed radix">Mixed</a><span class="nowrap"> </span>(<a href="/wiki/Factorial_number_system" title="Factorial number system">factorial</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negative_base" title="Negative base">Negative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Complex-base_system" title="Complex-base system">Complex</a><span class="nowrap"> </span>(<a href="/wiki/Quater-imaginary_base" title="Quater-imaginary base">2<i>i</i></a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-integer_base_of_numeration" title="Non-integer base of numeration">Non-integer</a><span class="nowrap"> </span>(<a href="/wiki/Golden_ratio_base" title="Golden ratio base">φ</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asymmetric_numeral_systems" title="Asymmetric numeral systems">Asymmetric</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Sign-value_notation" title="Sign-value notation">Sign-value notation</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <dl><dt>Non-alphabetic</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aegean_numerals" title="Aegean numerals">Aegean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attic_numerals" title="Attic numerals">Attic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_script#Numerals" title="Aztec script">Aztec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahmi_numerals" title="Brahmi numerals">Brahmi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chuvash_numerals" title="Chuvash numerals">Chuvash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_numerals" title="Egyptian numerals">Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etruscan_numerals" title="Etruscan numerals">Etruscan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kharosthi_numerals" class="mw-redirect" title="Kharosthi numerals">Kharosthi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_counting" title="Prehistoric counting">Prehistoric counting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-cuneiform" title="Proto-cuneiform">Proto-cuneiform</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tally_marks" title="Tally marks">Tally marks</a></li></ul> <hr /> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Alphabetic_numeral_system" title="Alphabetic numeral system">Alphabetic</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abjad_numerals" title="Abjad numerals">Abjad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_numerals" title="Armenian numerals">Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alphasyllabic_numeral_system" title="Alphasyllabic numeral system">Alphasyllabic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aksharapalli" title="Aksharapalli">Akṣarapallī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80ryabha%E1%B9%ADa_numeration" title="Āryabhaṭa numeration">Āryabhaṭa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katapayadi_system" title="Katapayadi system">Kaṭapayādi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coptic_numerals" class="mw-redirect" title="Coptic numerals">Coptic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyrillic_numerals" title="Cyrillic numerals">Cyrillic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ge%CA%BDez_script#Numerals" title="Geʽez script">Geʽez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_numerals" title="Georgian numerals">Georgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glagolitic_numerals" title="Glagolitic numerals">Glagolitic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_numerals" title="Greek numerals">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_numerals" title="Hebrew numerals">Hebrew</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <a href="/wiki/List_of_numeral_systems" title="List of numeral systems">List of numeral systems</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Numeral_systems" title="Template:Numeral systems"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Numeral_systems" title="Template talk:Numeral systems"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Numeral_systems" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Numeral systems"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Roman numerals</b> are a <a href="/wiki/Numeral_system" title="Numeral system">numeral system</a> that originated in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">ancient Rome</a> and remained the usual way of writing numbers throughout Europe well into the <a href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages" title="Late Middle Ages">Late Middle Ages</a>. Numbers are written with combinations of letters from the <a href="/wiki/Latin_alphabet" title="Latin alphabet">Latin alphabet</a>, each with a fixed integer value. The modern style uses only these seven: </p> <table class="wikitable nounderlines" style="margin-left: 3em; text-align: center"> <tbody><tr> <td><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1003224644">.mw-parser-output .roman-numeral{font-family:"Nimbus Roman No9 L","Times New Roman",Times,serif;font-size:118%;line-height:1}.mw-parser-output .roman-numeral-a{border:1px solid}.mw-parser-output .roman-numeral-t{border-top:1px solid}.mw-parser-output .roman-numeral-v{border:solid;border-width:0 1px;padding:0 2px}.mw-parser-output .roman-numeral-h{border:solid;border-width:1px 0}.mw-parser-output .roman-numeral-tv{border:1px solid;border-bottom:none;padding:0 2px}</style><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral"><a href="/wiki/I" title="I">I</a></span> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral"><a href="/wiki/V" title="V">V</a></span> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral"><a href="/wiki/X" title="X">X</a></span> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral"><a href="/wiki/L" title="L">L</a></span> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral"><a href="/wiki/C" title="C">C</a></span> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral"><a href="/wiki/D" title="D">D</a></span> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral"><a href="/wiki/M" title="M">M</a></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>1 </td> <td>5 </td> <td>10 </td> <td>50 </td> <td>100 </td> <td>500 </td> <td>1000 </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The use of Roman numerals continued long after the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">decline of the Roman Empire</a>. From the 14th century on, Roman numerals began to be replaced by <a href="/wiki/Arabic_numerals" title="Arabic numerals">Arabic numerals</a>; however, this process was gradual, and the use of Roman numerals persisted. One place they are often seen is on <a href="/wiki/Clock_face" title="Clock face">clock faces</a>. For instance, on the clock of <a href="/wiki/Big_Ben" title="Big Ben">Big Ben</a> (designed in 1852), the hours from 1 to 12 are written as: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r996643573">.mw-parser-output .block-indent{padding-left:3em;padding-right:0;overflow:hidden}</style><div class="block-indent"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral"><b>I, II, III, IV, V, VI, VII, VIII, IX, X, XI, XII</b></span></div> <p>The notations <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">IV</span> and <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">IX</span> can be read as "one less than five" (4) and "one less than ten" (9), although there is a tradition favouring the representation of "4" as "<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">IIII</span>" on Roman numeral clocks.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other common uses include year numbers on monuments and buildings and copyright dates on the title screens of movies and television programs. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">MCM</span>, signifying "a thousand, and a hundred less than another thousand", means 1900, so 1912 is written <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">MCMXII</span>. For the years of the current (21st) century, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">MM</span> indicates 2000; this year is <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">MMXXIV</span> (2024). </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Description">Description</h2></div> <p>Roman numerals use different symbols for each power of ten, and there is no zero symbol, in contrast with the <a href="/wiki/Place_value_notation" class="mw-redirect" title="Place value notation">place value notation</a> of Arabic numerals (in which place-keeping zeros enable the same digit to represent different powers of ten). </p><p>This allows some flexibility in notation, and there has never been an official or universally accepted standard for Roman numerals. Usage varied greatly in ancient Rome and became thoroughly chaotic in medieval times. The more recent restoration of a largely "classical" notation has gained popularity among some, while variant forms are used by some modern writers as seeking more "flexibility".<sup id="cite_ref-adams_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-adams-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Roman numerals may be considered legally binding expressions of a number, as in <a href="/wiki/U.S._Copyright_law" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Copyright law">U.S. Copyright law</a> (where an "incorrect" or ambiguous numeral may invalidate a copyright claim or affect the termination date of the copyright period).<sup id="cite_ref-Hayes_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hayes-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Standard_form">Standard form</h3></div> <p>The following table displays how Roman numerals are usually written:<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br /> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Individual decimal places </caption> <tbody><tr> <th></th> <th>Thousands</th> <th>Hundreds</th> <th>Tens</th> <th>Units </th></tr> <tr> <td>1</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">M</span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">C</span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">X</span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">I</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>2</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">MM</span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">CC</span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">XX</span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">II</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>3</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">MMM</span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">CCC</span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">XXX</span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">III</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>4</td> <td></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">CD</span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">XL</span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">IV</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>5</td> <td></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">D</span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">L</span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">V</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>6</td> <td></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">DC</span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">LX</span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">VI</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>7</td> <td></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">DCC</span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">LXX</span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">VII</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>8</td> <td></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">DCCC</span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">LXXX</span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">VIII</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>9</td> <td></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">CM</span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">XC</span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">IX</span> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p><span class="anchor" id="Subtractive_notation"></span> The numerals for 4 (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">IV</span>) and 9 (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">IX</span>) are written using <a href="/wiki/Subtractive_notation" class="mw-redirect" title="Subtractive notation">subtractive notation</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-deha1997_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-deha1997-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> where the smaller symbol (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">I</span>) is <i>subtracted</i> from the larger one (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">V</span>, or <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">X</span>), thus avoiding the clumsier <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">IIII</span> and <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">VIIII</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Subtractive notation is also used for 40 (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">XL</span>), 90 (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">XC</span>), 400 (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">CD</span>) and 900 (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">CM</span>).<sup id="cite_ref-ema1990_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ema1990-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These are the only subtractive forms in standard use. </p><p>A number containing two or more decimal digits is built by appending the Roman numeral equivalent for each, from highest to lowest, as in the following examples: </p> <ul><li>   39 = <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">XXX</span> + <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">IX</span> = <b><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">XXXIX</span></b>.</li> <li>  246 = <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">CC</span> + <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">XL</span> + <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">VI</span> = <b><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">CCXLVI</span></b>.</li> <li>  789 = <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">DCC</span> + <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">LXXX</span> + <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">IX</span> = <b><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">DCCLXXXIX</span></b>.</li> <li>2,421 = <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">MM</span> + <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">CD</span> + <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">XX</span> + <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">I</span> = <b><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">MMCDXXI</span></b>.</li></ul> <p>Any missing place (represented by a zero in the place-value equivalent) is omitted, as in Latin (and English) speech: </p> <ul><li>  160 = <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">C</span> + <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">LX</span> = <b><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">CLX</span></b></li> <li>  207 = <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">CC</span> + <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">VII</span> = <b><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">CCVII</span></b></li> <li>1,009 = <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">M</span> + <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">IX</span> = <b><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">MIX</span></b></li> <li>1,066 = <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">M</span> + <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">LX</span> + <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">VI</span> = <b><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">MLXVI</span></b><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-martelli_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-martelli-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>The largest number that can be represented in this manner is 3,999 (<b><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">MMMCMXCIX</span></b>), but this is sufficient for the values for which Roman numerals are commonly used today, such as year numbers: </p> <ul><li>1776 = <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">M</span> + <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">DCC</span> + <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">LXX</span> + <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">VI</span> = <b><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">MDCCLXXVI</span></b> (the date written on the book held by the <a href="/wiki/Statue_of_Liberty" title="Statue of Liberty">Statue of Liberty</a>).</li> <li>1918 = <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">M</span> + <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">CM</span> + <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">X</span> + <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">VIII</span> = <b><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">MCMXVIII</span></b> (the first year of the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_flu" title="Spanish flu">Spanish flu</a> pandemic)</li> <li>1944 = <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">M</span> + <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">CM</span> + <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">XL</span> + <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">IV</span> = <b><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">MCMXLIV</span></b> (erroneous copyright notice of the 1954 movie <i><a href="/wiki/The_Last_Time_I_Saw_Paris#Copyright" title="The Last Time I Saw Paris">The Last Time I Saw Paris</a></i>)<sup id="cite_ref-Hayes_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hayes-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>2024 = <b><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">MMXXIV</span></b> (this year)<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>Prior to the introduction of Arabic numerals in the West, ancient and medieval users of Roman numerals used various means to write larger numbers <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1033199720">.mw-parser-output div.crossreference{padding-left:0}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><span role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable crossreference">(see <a href="#Large_numbers">§ Large numbers</a> below)</span>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_forms">Other forms</h3></div> <p>Forms exist that vary in one way or another from the general standard represented above. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Other_additive_forms">Other additive forms</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:BadSalzdetfurthBadenburgerStr060529.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/BadSalzdetfurthBadenburgerStr060529.jpg/200px-BadSalzdetfurthBadenburgerStr060529.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="182" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/BadSalzdetfurthBadenburgerStr060529.jpg/300px-BadSalzdetfurthBadenburgerStr060529.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/BadSalzdetfurthBadenburgerStr060529.jpg/400px-BadSalzdetfurthBadenburgerStr060529.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1184" data-file-height="1076" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Clock_face" title="Clock face">clock face</a> with the Roman numerals typical for clocks, in <a href="/wiki/Bad_Salzdetfurth" title="Bad Salzdetfurth">Bad Salzdetfurth</a>, Germany</figcaption></figure> <p>While subtractive notation for 4, 40 and 400 (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">IV</span>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">XL</span> and <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">CD</span>) has been the usual form since Roman times, <a href="/wiki/Additive_notation" class="mw-redirect" title="Additive notation">additive notation</a> to represent these numbers (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">IIII</span>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">XXXX</span> and <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">CCCC</span>)<sup id="cite_ref-caes0050_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-caes0050-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> continued to be used, including in compound numbers like 24 (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">XXIIII</span>),<sup id="cite_ref-rocc1612_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rocc1612-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 74 (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">LXXIIII</span>),<sup id="cite_ref-borc1673_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-borc1673-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and 490 (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">CCCCLXXXX</span>).<sup id="cite_ref-plin2015_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-plin2015-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The additive forms for 9, 90, and 900 (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">VIIII</span>,<sup id="cite_ref-caes0050_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-caes0050-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">LXXXX</span>,<sup id="cite_ref-benn1731_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-benn1731-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">DCCCC</span><sup id="cite_ref-mira1486_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mira1486-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) have also been used, although less often. </p><p>The two conventions could be mixed in the same document or inscription, even in the same numeral. For example, on the numbered gates to the <a href="/wiki/Colosseum" title="Colosseum">Colosseum</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">IIII</span> is systematically used instead of <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">IV</span>, but subtractive notation is used for <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">XL</span>; consequently, gate 44 is labelled <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">XLIIII</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Especially on tombstones and other funerary inscriptions, 5 and 50 have been occasionally written <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">IIIII</span> and <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">XXXXX</span> instead of <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">V</span> and <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">L</span>, and there are instances such as <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">IIIIII</span> and <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">XXXXXX</span> rather than <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">VI</span> or <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">LX</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Modern <a href="/wiki/Clock_face" title="Clock face">clock faces</a> that use Roman numerals still very often use <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">IIII</span> for four o'clock but <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">IX</span> for nine o'clock, a practice that goes back to very early clocks such as the <a href="/wiki/Wells_Cathedral_clock" title="Wells Cathedral clock">Wells Cathedral clock</a> of the late 14th century.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pickover_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pickover-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, this is far from universal: for example, the clock on the <a href="/wiki/Palace_of_Westminster" title="Palace of Westminster">Palace of Westminster</a> tower (commonly known as <a href="/wiki/Big_Ben" title="Big Ben">Big Ben</a>) uses a subtractive <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">IV</span> for 4 o'clock.<sup id="cite_ref-pickover_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pickover-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>c<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:AdmiraltyArchLondonCloseup.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e3/AdmiraltyArchLondonCloseup.jpg" decoding="async" width="193" height="85" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="193" data-file-height="85" /></a><figcaption>The year number on <a href="/wiki/Admiralty_Arch" title="Admiralty Arch">Admiralty Arch</a>, London. The year 1910 is rendered as <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">MDCCCCX</span>, rather than the more usual <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">MCMX</span></figcaption></figure> <p>Several monumental inscriptions created in the early 20th century use variant forms for "1900" (usually written <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">MCM</span>). These vary from <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">MDCCCCX</span> for 1910 as seen on <a href="/wiki/Admiralty_Arch" title="Admiralty Arch">Admiralty Arch</a>, London, to the more unusual, if not unique <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">MDCDIII</span> for 1903, on the north entrance to the <a href="/wiki/Saint_Louis_Art_Museum" title="Saint Louis Art Museum">Saint Louis Art Museum</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Epitaph_des_Marcus_Caelius.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Epitaph_des_Marcus_Caelius.JPG/200px-Epitaph_des_Marcus_Caelius.JPG" decoding="async" width="200" height="251" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Epitaph_des_Marcus_Caelius.JPG/300px-Epitaph_des_Marcus_Caelius.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Epitaph_des_Marcus_Caelius.JPG/400px-Epitaph_des_Marcus_Caelius.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2433" data-file-height="3052" /></a><figcaption>Epitaph of <a href="/wiki/Centurion" title="Centurion">centurion</a> Marcus Caelius, showing "<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">XIIX</span>"</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Other_subtractive_forms">Other subtractive forms</h4></div> <p>There are numerous historical examples of <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">IIX</span> being used for 8; for example, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">XIIX</span> was used by officers of the <a href="/wiki/Legio_XVIII" title="Legio XVIII">XVIII Roman Legion</a> to write their number.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The notation appears prominently on the <a href="/wiki/Cenotaph" title="Cenotaph">cenotaph</a> of their senior <a href="/wiki/Centurion" title="Centurion">centurion</a> <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Caelius" title="Marcus Caelius">Marcus Caelius</a> (<span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 45 BC</span> – 9 AD). On the publicly displayed official Roman calendars known as <a href="/wiki/Fasti" title="Fasti">Fasti</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">XIIX</span> is used for the 18 days to the next <a href="/wiki/Calends" title="Calends">Kalends</a>, and <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">XXIIX</span> for the 28 days in February. The latter can be seen on the sole extant pre-Julian calendar, the <a href="/wiki/Fasti_Antiates_Maiores" title="Fasti Antiates Maiores">Fasti Antiates Maiores</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Degrassi_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Degrassi-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are historical examples of other subtractive forms: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">IIIXX</span> for 17,<sup id="cite_ref-lvnd1621_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lvnd1621-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">IIXX</span> for 18,<sup id="cite_ref-sulp1692_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sulp1692-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">IIIC</span> for 97,<sup id="cite_ref-tent1699_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tent1699-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">IIC</span> for 98,<sup id="cite_ref-posn1698_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-posn1698-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-tent1700_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tent1700-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">IC</span> for 99.<sup id="cite_ref-picc1699_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-picc1699-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A possible explanation is that the word for 18 in Latin is <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">duodeviginti</i></span><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>—<span style="white-space: nowrap;"> </span>literally "two from twenty"⁠—<span style="white-space: nowrap;"> </span>while 98 is <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">duodecentum</i></span> (two from hundred) and 99 is <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">undecentum</i></span> (one from hundred).<sup id="cite_ref-kenn1879_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kenn1879-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the explanation does not seem to apply to <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">IIIXX</span> and <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">IIIC</span>, since the Latin words for 17 and 97 were <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">septendecim</i></span> (seven ten) and <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">nonaginta septem</i></span> (ninety seven), respectively. </p><p>The <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-text mw-content-ltr" style="" dir="ltr">ROMAN()</code> function in <a href="/wiki/Microsoft_Excel" title="Microsoft Excel">Microsoft Excel</a> supports multiple subtraction modes depending on the "<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886049734">.mw-parser-output .monospaced{font-family:monospace,monospace}</style><span class="monospaced">Form</span>" setting. For example, the number "499" (usually <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">CDXCIX</span>) can be rendered as <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">LDVLIV</span>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">XDIX</span>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">VDIV</span> or <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">ID</span>. The relevant Microsoft help page offers no explanation for this function other than to describe its output as "more concise".<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Non-standard_variants">Non-standard variants</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Padlock,_Athlone.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Padlock%2C_Athlone.jpg/240px-Padlock%2C_Athlone.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Padlock%2C_Athlone.jpg/360px-Padlock%2C_Athlone.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Padlock%2C_Athlone.jpg/480px-Padlock%2C_Athlone.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4320" data-file-height="3240" /></a><figcaption>Padlock used on the north <a href="/wiki/City_gate" title="City gate">gate</a> of the Irish town of <a href="/wiki/Athlone" title="Athlone">Athlone</a>. "1613" in the date is rendered <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">XVIXIII</span>, (literally "16, 13") instead of <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">MDCXIII</span>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Excerpt_from_BnF_ms._1433_fr.,_fol._24r.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Excerpt_from_BnF_ms._1433_fr.%2C_fol._24r.png/240px-Excerpt_from_BnF_ms._1433_fr.%2C_fol._24r.png" decoding="async" width="240" height="25" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Excerpt_from_BnF_ms._1433_fr.%2C_fol._24r.png/360px-Excerpt_from_BnF_ms._1433_fr.%2C_fol._24r.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Excerpt_from_BnF_ms._1433_fr.%2C_fol._24r.png/480px-Excerpt_from_BnF_ms._1433_fr.%2C_fol._24r.png 2x" data-file-width="578" data-file-height="61" /></a><figcaption>Excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Biblioth%C3%A8que_nationale_de_France" title="Bibliothèque nationale de France">Bibliothèque nationale de France</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Roman numeral for 500 is rendered as <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral"><span class="sfrac nowrap;"><span style="display:none; display:inline-block; text-align:center;"><span style="display:block; line-height:0.8em; font-size:70%;">C</span><span style="display:block; line-height:1em;">V</span></span></span></span>, instead of <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">D</span>.</figcaption></figure> <p>There are also historical examples of other additive and multiplicative forms, and forms which seem to reflect spoken phrases. Some of these variants may have been regarded as errors even by contemporaries. </p> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">IIXX</span> was how people associated with the <a href="/wiki/Legio_XXII_Deiotariana" title="Legio XXII Deiotariana">XXII Roman Legion</a> used to write their number. The practice may have been due to a common way to say "twenty-second" in Latin, namely <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">duo et vice(n)sima</i></span> (literally "two and twentieth") rather than the "regular" <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">vice(n)sima secunda</i></span> (twenty second).<sup id="cite_ref-malo2005_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-malo2005-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Apparently, at least one ancient <a href="/wiki/Stonecutter" class="mw-redirect" title="Stonecutter">stonecutter</a> mistakenly thought that the <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">IIXX</span> of "22nd Legion" stood for 18, and "corrected" it to <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">XVIII</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-malo2005_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-malo2005-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>There are some examples of year numbers after 1000 written as two Roman numerals 1–99, e.g. 1613 as <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">XVIXIII</span>, corresponding to the common reading "sixteen thirteen" of such year numbers in English, or 1519 as <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">X<span class="sfrac nowrap;"><span style="display:none; display:inline-block; text-align:center;"><span style="display:block; line-height:0.8em; font-size:70%;">C</span><span style="display:block; line-height:1em;">V</span></span></span>XIX</span> as in <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a> <i>quinze-cent-dix-neuf</i> (fifteen-hundred and nineteen), and similar readings in other languages.<sup id="cite_ref-gach1862_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gach1862-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>In some French texts from the 15th century and later, one finds constructions like <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">IIII<sup>XX</sup>XIX</span> for 99, reflecting the French reading of that number as <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">quatre-vingt-dix-neuf</i></span> (four-score and nineteen).<sup id="cite_ref-gach1862_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gach1862-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similarly, in some English documents one finds, for example, 77 written as "<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">iii<sup>xx</sup>xvii</span>" (which could be read "three-score and seventeen").<sup id="cite_ref-salt1923_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-salt1923-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>A medieval accounting text from 1301 renders numbers like 13,573 as "<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral"><span class="smallcaps"><span style="font-variant: small-caps; text-transform: lowercase;">XIII. M. V. C. III. XX. XIII</span></span></span>", that is, "13×1000 + 5×100 + 3×20 + 13".<sup id="cite_ref-wade1865_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wade1865-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Other numerals that do not fit the usual patterns – such as <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">VXL</span> for 45, instead of the usual <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">XLV</span> — may be due to scribal errors, or the writer's lack of familiarity with the system, rather than being genuine variant usage.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Non-numeric_combinations">Non-numeric combinations</h4></div> <p>As Roman numerals are composed of ordinary alphabetic characters, there may sometimes be confusion with other uses of the same letters. For example, "<a href="/wiki/XXX_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="XXX (disambiguation)">XXX</a>" and "<a href="/wiki/XL_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="XL (disambiguation)">XL</a>" have other connotations in addition to their values as Roman numerals, while "<a href="/wiki/IXL_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="IXL (disambiguation)">IXL</a>" more often than not is a <a href="/wiki/Gramogram" title="Gramogram">gramogram</a> of "I excel", and is in any case not an unambiguous Roman numeral.<sup id="cite_ref-ixl-story_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ixl-story-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Zero">Zero</h3></div> <p>As a non-<a href="/wiki/Positional_notation" title="Positional notation">positional numeral system</a>, Roman numerals have no "place-keeping" zeros. Furthermore, the system as used by the Romans lacked a numeral for the number <a href="/wiki/0_(number)" class="mw-redirect" title="0 (number)">zero</a> itself (that is, what remains after 1 is subtracted from 1). The word <i lang="la"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/nulla#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:nulla">nulla</a></i> (the <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> word meaning "none") was used to represent 0, although the earliest attested instances are medieval. For instance <a href="/wiki/Dionysius_Exiguus" title="Dionysius Exiguus">Dionysius Exiguus</a> used <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">nulla</i></span> alongside Roman numerals in a manuscript from 525 AD.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> About 725, <a href="/wiki/Bede" title="Bede">Bede</a> or one of his colleagues used the letter <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">N</span>, the initial of <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">nulla</i></span> or of <i lang="la"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/nihil#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:nihil">nihil</a></i> (the Latin word for "nothing") for 0, in a table of <a href="/wiki/Epacts" class="mw-redirect" title="Epacts">epacts</a>, all written in Roman numerals.<sup id="cite_ref-zero_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zero-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The use of <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">N</span> to indicate "none" long survived in the historic <a href="/wiki/Apothecaries%27_system" title="Apothecaries' system">apothecaries' system</a> of measurement: used well into the 20th century to designate quantities in pharmaceutical prescriptions.<sup id="cite_ref-Bachenheimer_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bachenheimer-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In later times, the Arabic numeral "0" has been used as a zero to open enumerations with Roman numbers. Examples include the 24-hour <a href="/wiki/Shepherd_Gate_Clock" title="Shepherd Gate Clock">Shepherd Gate Clock</a> from 1852 and <a href="/wiki/Tarot" title="Tarot">tarot</a> packs such as the 15th-century <a href="/wiki/Sola_Busca_tarot" title="Sola Busca tarot">Sola Busca</a> and the 20th century <a href="/wiki/Rider-Waite_Tarot" class="mw-redirect" title="Rider-Waite Tarot">Rider–Waite</a> packs. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fractions">Fractions</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vecchi_003.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Vecchi_003.jpg/150px-Vecchi_003.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="75" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Vecchi_003.jpg/225px-Vecchi_003.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Vecchi_003.jpg/300px-Vecchi_003.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="299" /></a><figcaption>A <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Triens" title="Triens">triens</a></i></span> coin (<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1154941027">.mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}</style><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">3</span></span> or <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">4</span>⁄<span class="den">12</span></span> of an <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">as</i></span>). Note the four dots (<b>····</b>) indicating its value.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Semisse.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Semisse.jpg/200px-Semisse.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="86" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Semisse.jpg/300px-Semisse.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Semisse.jpg/400px-Semisse.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1850" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption>A <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Semis" title="Semis">semis</a></i></span> coin (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">2</span></span> or <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">6</span>⁄<span class="den">12</span></span> of an <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">as</i></span>). Note the <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">S</span> indicating its value.</figcaption></figure> <p>The base "Roman fraction" is <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">S</span>, indicating <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">2</span></span>. The use of <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">S</span> (as in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">VIIS</span> to indicate 7<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">2</span></span>) is attested in some ancient inscriptions<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and also in the now rare apothecaries' system (usually in the form <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">SS</span>):<sup id="cite_ref-Bachenheimer_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bachenheimer-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but while Roman numerals for <a href="/wiki/Integers" class="mw-redirect" title="Integers">whole numbers</a> are essentially <a href="/wiki/Decimal" title="Decimal">decimal</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">S</span> does not correspond to <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">5</span>⁄<span class="den">10</span></span>, as one might expect, but <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">6</span>⁄<span class="den">12</span></span>. </p><p>The Romans used a <a href="/wiki/Duodecimal" title="Duodecimal">duodecimal</a> rather than a decimal system for <a href="/wiki/Rational_number" title="Rational number">fractions</a>, as the <a href="/wiki/Divisibility" class="mw-redirect" title="Divisibility">divisibility</a> of twelve <span class="nowrap">(12 = 2<sup>2</sup> × 3)</span> makes it easier to handle the common <a href="/wiki/Fraction_(mathematics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fraction (mathematics)">fractions</a> of <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">3</span></span> and <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">4</span></span> than does a system based on ten <span class="nowrap">(10 = 2 × 5)</span>. Notation for fractions other than <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">2</span></span> is mainly found on surviving <a href="/wiki/Roman_coin" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman coin">Roman coins</a>, many of which had values that were duodecimal fractions of the unit <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/As_(coin)" class="mw-redirect" title="As (coin)">as</a></i></span>. Fractions less than <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">2</span></span> are indicated by a dot (<b>·</b>) for each <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">uncia</i></span> "twelfth", the source of the English words <i>inch</i> and <i>ounce</i>; dots are repeated for fractions up to five twelfths. Six twelfths (one half), is <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">S</span> for <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">semis</i></span> "half". <i>Uncia</i> dots were added to <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">S</span> for fractions from seven to eleven twelfths, just as tallies were added to <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">V</span> for whole numbers from six to nine.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The arrangement of the dots was variable and not necessarily <a href="/wiki/Linearity" title="Linearity">linear</a>. Five dots arranged like (<b>⁙</b>) (as on the face of a <a href="/wiki/Dice" title="Dice">die</a>) are known as a <a href="/wiki/Quincunx" title="Quincunx">quincunx</a>, from the name of the Roman fraction/coin. The Latin words <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">sextans</i></span> and <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">quadrans</i></span> are the source of the English words <i><a href="/wiki/Sextant" title="Sextant">sextant</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Quadrant_(plane_geometry)" title="Quadrant (plane geometry)">quadrant</a></i>. </p><p>Each fraction from <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">12</span></span> to <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">12</span>⁄<span class="den">12</span></span> had a name in Roman times; these corresponded to the names of the related coins: </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Fraction </th> <th>Roman numeral </th> <th>Name (nominative and genitive singular) </th> <th>Meaning </th></tr> <tr> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">12</span></span> </td> <td><b>·</b> </td> <td><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Uncia_(coin)" title="Uncia (coin)">Uncia</a>, unciae</i></span> </td> <td>"Ounce" </td></tr> <tr> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">2</span>⁄<span class="den">12</span></span> = <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">6</span></span> </td> <td><b>··</b> or <b>:</b> </td> <td><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Sextans_(coin)" title="Sextans (coin)">Sextans</a>, sextantis</i></span> </td> <td>"Sixth" </td></tr> <tr> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">3</span>⁄<span class="den">12</span></span> = <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">4</span></span> </td> <td><b>···</b> or <b>∴</b> </td> <td><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Quadrans" title="Quadrans">Quadrans</a>, quadrantis</i></span> </td> <td>"Quarter" </td></tr> <tr> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">4</span>⁄<span class="den">12</span></span> = <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">3</span></span> </td> <td><b>····</b> or <b>∷</b> </td> <td><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Triens" title="Triens">Triens</a>, trientis</i></span> </td> <td>"Third" </td></tr> <tr> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">5</span>⁄<span class="den">12</span></span> </td> <td><b>·····</b> or <b>⁙</b> </td> <td><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Quincunx_(Roman_coin)" title="Quincunx (Roman coin)">Quincunx</a>, quincuncis</i></span> </td> <td>"Five-ounce" (<span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">quinque unciae</i></span> → <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">quincunx</i></span>) </td></tr> <tr> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">6</span>⁄<span class="den">12</span></span> = <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">2</span></span> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">S</span> </td> <td><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Semis" title="Semis">Semis</a>, semissis</i></span> </td> <td>"Half" </td></tr> <tr> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">7</span>⁄<span class="den">12</span></span> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">S</span><b>·</b> </td> <td><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Septunx, septuncis</i></span> </td> <td>"Seven-ounce" (<span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">septem unciae</i></span> → <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">septunx</i></span>) </td></tr> <tr> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">8</span>⁄<span class="den">12</span></span> = <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">2</span>⁄<span class="den">3</span></span> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">S</span><b>··</b> or <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">S</span><b>:</b> </td> <td><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Bes_(coin)" title="Bes (coin)">Bes</a>, bessis</i></span> </td> <td>"Twice" (as in "twice a third") </td></tr> <tr> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">9</span>⁄<span class="den">12</span></span> = <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">3</span>⁄<span class="den">4</span></span> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">S</span><b>···</b> or <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">S</span><b>∴</b> </td> <td><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Dodrans" title="Dodrans">Dodrans</a>, dodrantis</i></span><br /><b>or</b> <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">nonuncium, nonuncii</i></span> </td> <td>"Less a quarter" (<span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">de-quadrans</i></span> → <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">dodrans</i></span>)<br /><b>or</b> "ninth ounce" (<span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">nona uncia</i></span> → <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">nonuncium</i></span>) </td></tr> <tr> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">10</span>⁄<span class="den">12</span></span> = <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">5</span>⁄<span class="den">6</span></span> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">S</span><b>····</b> or <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">S</span><b>∷</b> </td> <td><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Dextans, dextantis</i></span><br /><b>or</b> <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">decunx, decuncis</i></span> </td> <td>"Less a sixth" (<span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">de-sextans</i></span> → <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">dextans</i></span>)<br /><b>or</b> "ten ounces" (<span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">decem unciae</i></span> → <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">decunx</i></span>) </td></tr> <tr> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">11</span>⁄<span class="den">12</span></span> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">S</span><b>·····</b> or <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">S</span><b>⁙</b> </td> <td><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Deunx, deuncis</i></span> </td> <td>"Less an ounce" (<span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">de-uncia</i></span> → <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">deunx</i></span>) </td></tr> <tr> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">12</span>⁄<span class="den">12</span></span> = 1 </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">I</span> </td> <td><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/As_(Roman_coin)" title="As (Roman coin)">As</a>, assis</i></span> </td> <td>"Unit" </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Other Roman fractional notations included the following: </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Fraction </th> <th>Roman numeral </th> <th>Name (nominative and genitive singular) </th> <th>Meaning </th></tr> <tr> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">1728</span></span>=12<sup>−3</sup> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">𐆕</span> </td> <td><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Siliqua" title="Siliqua">Siliqua</a>, siliquae</i></span> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">288</span></span> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">℈</span> </td> <td><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Scripulum, scripuli</i></span> </td> <td>"<a href="/wiki/Apothecaries%27_system" title="Apothecaries' system">scruple</a>" </td></tr> <tr> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">144</span></span>=12<sup>−2</sup> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral"><s>Ƨ</s></span> </td> <td><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Dimidia sextula, dimidiae sextulae</i></span> </td> <td>"half a sextula" </td></tr> <tr> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">72</span></span> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">Ƨ</span> </td> <td><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Sextula" class="mw-redirect" title="Sextula">Sextula</a>, sextulae</i></span> </td> <td>"<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">6</span></span> of an uncia" </td></tr> <tr> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">48</span></span> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">Ↄ</span> </td> <td><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Sicilicus, sicilici</i></span> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">36</span></span> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">ƧƧ</span> </td> <td><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Binae sextulae, binarum sextularum</i></span><br />(Exceptionally, these are plural forms.) </td> <td>"two sextulas" (<span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Duella" title="Duella">duella</a>, duellae</i></span>) </td></tr> <tr> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">24</span></span> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">Σ</span> or <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">𐆒</span> or <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">Є</span> </td> <td><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Semuncia" title="Semuncia">Semuncia</a>, semunciae</i></span> </td> <td>"<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">2</span></span> uncia" (<span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">semi-</i></span> + <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">uncia</i></span>) </td></tr> <tr> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">8</span></span> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">Σ</span><b>·</b> or <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">𐆒</span><b>·</b> or <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">Є</span><b>·</b> </td> <td><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Sescuncia, sescunciae</i></span> </td> <td>"<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac">1<span class="sr-only">+</span><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">2</span></span> uncias" (<span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Numeral_prefix" title="Numeral prefix">sesqui</a>-</i></span> + <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">uncia</i></span>) </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Large_numbers">Large numbers</h3></div> <p>The Romans developed two main ways of writing large numbers, the <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">apostrophus</i></span> and the <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">vinculum</i></span>, further extended in various ways in later times. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Apostrophus"><i>Apostrophus</i></h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Westerkerk_MDCXXX.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Westerkerk_MDCXXX.jpg/200px-Westerkerk_MDCXXX.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="95" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Westerkerk_MDCXXX.jpg/300px-Westerkerk_MDCXXX.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Westerkerk_MDCXXX.jpg/400px-Westerkerk_MDCXXX.jpg 2x" data-file-width="630" data-file-height="298" /></a><figcaption> "1630" on the <a href="/wiki/Westerkerk" title="Westerkerk">Westerkerk</a> in Amsterdam. "<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">M</span>" and "<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">D</span>" are given archaic <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">apostrophus</i></span> form.</figcaption></figure> <p>Using the <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">apostrophus</i></span> method,<sup id="cite_ref-merriam-webster_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-merriam-webster-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 500 is written as <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">IↃ</span>, while 1,000 is written as <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">CIↃ</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-asimov_on_numbers_12_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-asimov_on_numbers_12-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This system of encasing numbers to denote thousands (imagine the <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">C</span>s and <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">Ↄ</span>s as parentheses) had its origins in Etruscan numeral usage. </p><p>Each additional set of <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">C</span> and <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">Ↄ</span> surrounding <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">CIↃ</span> raises the value by a factor of ten: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">CCIↃↃ</span> represents 10,000 and <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">CCCIↃↃↃ</span> represents 100,000. Similarly, each additional <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">Ↄ</span> to the right of <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">IↃ</span> raises the value by a factor of ten: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">IↃↃ</span> represents 5,000 and <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">IↃↃↃ</span> represents 50,000. Numerals larger than <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">CCCIↃↃↃ</span> do not occur.<sup id="cite_ref-PropN3218_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PropN3218-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Roman_numerals_Bungus_1584-1585.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Roman_numerals_Bungus_1584-1585.png/200px-Roman_numerals_Bungus_1584-1585.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="358" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Roman_numerals_Bungus_1584-1585.png/300px-Roman_numerals_Bungus_1584-1585.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Roman_numerals_Bungus_1584-1585.png/400px-Roman_numerals_Bungus_1584-1585.png 2x" data-file-width="456" data-file-height="817" /></a><figcaption>Page from a 16th-century manual, showing a mixture of <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">apostrophus</i></span> and <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">vinculum</i></span> numbers (see in particular the ways of writing 10,000).</figcaption></figure> <ul><li><b><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">IↃ</span></b> = 500               <b><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">CIↃ</span></b> = 1,000</li> <li><b><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">IↃↃ</span></b> = 5,000         <b><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">CCIↃↃ</span></b> = 10,000</li> <li><b><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">IↃↃↃ</span></b> = 50,000    <b><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">CCCIↃↃↃ</span></b> = 100,000</li></ul> <p>Sometimes <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">CIↃ</span> (1000) is reduced to <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">ↀ</span>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">IↃↃ</span> (5,000) to <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">ↁ</span>; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">CCIↃↃ</span> (10,000) to <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">ↂ</span>; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">IↃↃↃ</span> (50,000) to <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">ↇ</span>; and <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">CCCIↃↃↃ</span> (100,000) to <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">ↈ</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-Ifrah2000_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ifrah2000-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is likely <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">IↃ</span> (500) reduced to <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">D</span> and <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">CIↃ</span> (1000) influenced the later <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">M</span>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/John_Wallis" title="John Wallis">John Wallis</a> is often credited with introducing the symbol for <a href="/wiki/Infinity" title="Infinity">infinity</a> <span class="nowrap">⟨∞⟩</span>, and one conjecture is that he based it on <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">ↀ</span>, since 1,000 was <a href="/wiki/Hyperbole" title="Hyperbole">hyperbolically</a> used to represent very large numbers. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Vinculum"><i>Vinculum</i></h4></div> <p>Using the <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Vinculum_(symbol)" title="Vinculum (symbol)">vinculum</a></i></span>, conventional Roman numerals are multiplied by 1,000 by adding a "bar" or "overline", thus:<sup id="cite_ref-Ifrah2000_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ifrah2000-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><b><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral roman-numeral-t" title="Roman numeral">IV</span></b> = 4,000</li> <li><b><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral roman-numeral-t" title="Roman numeral">XXV</span></b> = 25,000</li></ul> <p>The <i>vinculum </i>came into use in the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">late Republic</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Dilke_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dilke-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and it was a common alternative to the apostrophic ↀ during the Imperial era around the Roman world (M for '1000' was not in use until the Medieval period).<sup id="cite_ref-Chrisomalis01_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chrisomalis01-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-gordon01_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gordon01-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It continued in use in the Middle Ages, though it became known more commonly as <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">titulus</i></span>,<sup id="cite_ref-Chrisomalis02_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chrisomalis02-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and it appears in modern editions of classical and medieval Latin texts.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-PlinyNH_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PlinyNH-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In an extension of the <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">vinculum</i></span>, a three-sided box (now sometimes printed as two vertical lines and a <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">vinculum</i></span>) is used to multiply by 100,000,<sup id="cite_ref-Chrisomalis03_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chrisomalis03-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Dilke_53-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dilke-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> thus: </p> <ul><li><b><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral roman-numeral-tv" title="Roman numeral">XIII</span><span class="nowrap"> </span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral roman-numeral-t" title="Roman numeral">XXXII</span> p.</b> = 1,332,000 paces (1,332 <a href="/wiki/Mile#Roman" title="Mile">Roman miles</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>d<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-PlinyNH_58-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PlinyNH-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Vinculum</i></span> notation is distinct from the custom of adding an overline to a numeral simply to indicate that it is a number. Both usages can be seen on Roman inscriptions of the same period and general location, such as on the <a href="/wiki/Antonine_Wall" title="Antonine Wall">Antonine Wall</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Origin">Origin</h2></div> <p>The system is closely associated with the ancient <a href="/wiki/City-state" title="City-state">city-state</a> of Rome and the Empire that it created. However, due to the scarcity of surviving examples, the origins of the system are obscure and there are several competing theories, all largely conjectural. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Etruscan_numerals">Etruscan numerals</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Etruscan_numerals" title="Etruscan numerals">Etruscan numerals</a></div> <p>Rome was founded sometime between 850 and 750 BC. At the time, the region was inhabited by diverse populations of which the Etruscans were the most advanced. The ancient Romans themselves admitted that the basis of much of their civilization was Etruscan. Rome itself was located next to the southern edge of the Etruscan domain, which covered a large part of north-central Italy. </p><p>The Roman numerals, in particular, are directly derived from the <a href="/wiki/Etruscan_numerals" title="Etruscan numerals">Etruscan number symbols</a>: <span class="nowrap">⟨𐌠⟩</span>, <span class="nowrap">⟨𐌡⟩</span>, <span class="nowrap">⟨𐌢⟩</span>, <span class="nowrap">⟨𐌣⟩</span>, and <span class="nowrap">⟨𐌟⟩</span> for 1, 5, 10, 50, and 100 (they had more symbols for larger numbers, but it is unknown which symbol represents which number). As in the basic Roman system, the Etruscans wrote the symbols that added to the desired number, from higher to lower value. Thus, the number 87, for example, would be written 50 + 10 + 10 + 10 + 5 + 1 + 1 = 𐌣𐌢𐌢𐌢𐌡𐌠𐌠 (this would appear as 𐌠𐌠𐌡𐌢𐌢𐌢𐌣 since <a href="/wiki/Etruscan_language" title="Etruscan language">Etruscan</a> was written from right to left.)<sup id="cite_ref-heem2009_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-heem2009-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The symbols <span class="nowrap">⟨𐌠⟩</span> and <span class="nowrap">⟨𐌡⟩</span> resembled letters of the Etruscan alphabet, but <span class="nowrap">⟨𐌢⟩</span>, <span class="nowrap">⟨𐌣⟩</span>, and <span class="nowrap">⟨𐌟⟩</span> did not. The Etruscans used the subtractive notation, too, but not like the Romans. They wrote 17, 18, and 19 as 𐌠𐌠𐌠𐌢𐌢, 𐌠𐌠𐌢𐌢, and 𐌠𐌢𐌢, mirroring the way they spoke those numbers ("three from twenty", etc.); and similarly for 27, 28, 29, 37, 38, etc. However, they did not write 𐌠𐌡 for 4 (nor 𐌢𐌣 for 40), and wrote 𐌡𐌠𐌠, 𐌡𐌠𐌠𐌠 and 𐌡𐌠𐌠𐌠𐌠 for 7, 8, and 9, respectively.<sup id="cite_ref-heem2009_63-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-heem2009-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_Roman_numerals">Early Roman numerals</h3></div> <p>The early Roman numerals for 1, 10, and 100 were the Etruscan ones: <span class="nowrap">⟨𐌠⟩</span>, <span class="nowrap">⟨𐌢⟩</span>, and <span class="nowrap">⟨𐌟⟩</span>. The symbols for 5 and 50 changed from <span class="nowrap">⟨𐌡⟩</span> and <span class="nowrap">⟨𐌣⟩</span> to <span class="nowrap">⟨V⟩</span> and <span class="nowrap">⟨ↆ⟩</span> at some point. The latter had flattened to <span class="nowrap">⟨⊥⟩</span> (an inverted T) by the time of <a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustus</a>, and soon afterwards became identified with the graphically similar letter <span class="nowrap">⟨<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">L</span>⟩</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-PropN3218_51-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PropN3218-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The symbol for 100 was written variously as <span class="nowrap">⟨𐌟⟩</span> or <span class="nowrap">⟨ↃIC⟩</span>, and was then abbreviated to <span class="nowrap">⟨<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">Ↄ</span>⟩</span> or <span class="nowrap">⟨<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">C</span>⟩</span>, with <span class="nowrap">⟨<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">C</span>⟩</span> (which matched the Latin letter <i>C</i>) finally winning out. It might have helped that <i>C</i> was the initial letter of <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">CENTUM</i></span>, Latin for "hundred". </p><p>The numbers 500 and 1000 were denoted by <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">V</span> or <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">X</span> overlaid with a box or circle. Thus, 500 was like a <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">Ɔ</span> superimposed on a <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">⋌</span> or <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">⊢</span>, making it look like <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral"><s>Þ</s></span>. It became <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral"><s>D</s></span> or <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">Ð</span> by the time of Augustus, under the graphic influence of the letter <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">D</span>. It was later identified as the letter <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">D</span>; an alternative symbol for "thousand" was a <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">CIↃ</span>, and half of a thousand or "five hundred" is the right half of the symbol, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">IↃ</span>, and this may have been converted into <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">D</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-asimov_on_numbers_12_24-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-asimov_on_numbers_12-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The notation for 1000 was a circled or boxed <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">X</span>: Ⓧ, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">⊗</span>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">⊕</span>, and by Augustan times was partially identified with the Greek letter <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">Φ</span> <i><a href="/wiki/Phi" title="Phi">phi</a></i>. Over time, the symbol changed to <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">Ψ</span> and <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">ↀ</span>. The latter symbol further evolved into <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">∞</span>, then <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">⋈</span>, and eventually changed to <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">M</span> under the influence of the Latin word <i>mille</i> "thousand".<sup id="cite_ref-PropN3218_51-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PropN3218-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to Paul Kayser, the basic numerical symbols were <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">I</span>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">X</span>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">𐌟</span> and <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">Φ</span> (or <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">⊕</span>) and the intermediate ones were derived by taking half of those (half an <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">X</span> is <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">V</span>, half a <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">𐌟</span> is <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">ↆ</span> and half a <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">Φ/⊕</span> is <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">D</span>). Then 𐌟 and ↆ developed as mentioned above.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Colosseum-Entrance_LII.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Colosseum-Entrance_LII.jpg/240px-Colosseum-Entrance_LII.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Colosseum-Entrance_LII.jpg/360px-Colosseum-Entrance_LII.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Colosseum-Entrance_LII.jpg/480px-Colosseum-Entrance_LII.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption>Entrance to section <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">LII</span> (52) of the <a href="/wiki/Colosseum" title="Colosseum">Colosseum</a>, with numerals still visible</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Classical_Roman_numerals">Classical Roman numerals</h3></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Colosseum" title="Colosseum">Colosseum</a> was constructed in Rome in CE 72–80,<sup id="cite_ref-Hopkins_p.2_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hopkins_p.2-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and while the original perimeter wall has largely disappeared, the numbered entrances from <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">XXIII</span> (23) to <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">LIIII</span> (54) survive,<sup id="cite_ref-Claridge_pp._276–282_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Claridge_pp._276–282-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to demonstrate that in Imperial times Roman numerals had already assumed their classical form: <a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Standard_form">as largely standardised in current use</a>. The most obvious anomaly (<a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Other_additive_forms">a common one that persisted for centuries</a>) is the inconsistent use of subtractive notation - while <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">XL</span> is used for 40, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">IV</span> is avoided in favour of <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">IIII</span>: in fact, gate 44 is labelled <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">XLIIII</span>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Use_in_the_Middle_Ages_and_Renaissance">Use in the Middle Ages and Renaissance</h2></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Lower_case" class="mw-redirect" title="Lower case">Lower case</a>, or <i>minuscule</i>, letters were developed in the Middle Ages, well after the demise of the <a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Roman Empire</a>, and since that time lower-case versions of Roman numbers have also been commonly used: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">i</span>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">ii</span>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">iii</span>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">iv</span>, and so on. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Excerpt_from_BnF_ms._23112_fr.,_fol._343v.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Excerpt_from_BnF_ms._23112_fr.%2C_fol._343v.png/240px-Excerpt_from_BnF_ms._23112_fr.%2C_fol._343v.png" decoding="async" width="240" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Excerpt_from_BnF_ms._23112_fr.%2C_fol._343v.png/360px-Excerpt_from_BnF_ms._23112_fr.%2C_fol._343v.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Excerpt_from_BnF_ms._23112_fr.%2C_fol._343v.png/480px-Excerpt_from_BnF_ms._23112_fr.%2C_fol._343v.png 2x" data-file-width="553" data-file-height="64" /></a><figcaption>13th century example of <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">iiij</span>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Since the Middle Ages, a "<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">j</span>" has sometimes been substituted for the final "<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">i</span>" of a "lower-case" Roman numeral, such as "<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">iij</span>" for 3 or "<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">vij</span>" for 7. This "<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">j</span>" can be considered a <a href="/wiki/Swash_(typography)" title="Swash (typography)">swash</a> variant of "<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">i</span>". Into the early 20th century, the use of a final "<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">j</span>" was still sometimes used in <a href="/wiki/Medical_prescription" title="Medical prescription">medical prescriptions</a> to prevent tampering with or misinterpretation of a number after it was written.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Numerals in documents and inscriptions from the Middle Ages sometimes include additional symbols, which today are called "medieval Roman numerals". Some simply substitute another letter for the standard one (such as "<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">A</span>" for "<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">V</span>", or "<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">Q</span>" for "<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">D</span>"), while others serve as abbreviations for compound numerals ("<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">O</span>" for "<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">XI</span>", or "<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">F</span>" for "<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">XL</span>"). Although they are still listed today in some dictionaries, they are long out of use.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A superscript "o" (sometimes written directly above the symbol) was sometimes used as an <a href="/wiki/Ordinal_indicator" title="Ordinal indicator">ordinal indicator</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="sortable wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Number </th> <th>Medieval<br />abbreviation </th> <th>Notes and etymology </th></tr> <tr> <td>5 </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">A</span> </td> <td>Resembles an upside-down V. Also said to equal 500. </td></tr> <tr> <td>6 </td> <td>ↅ </td> <td>Either from a <a href="/wiki/Typographic_ligature" class="mw-redirect" title="Typographic ligature">ligature</a> of <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">VI</span>, or from <a href="/wiki/Digamma" title="Digamma">digamma</a> (ϛ), the Greek numeral 6 (sometimes conflated with the <a href="/wiki/Stigma_(letter)" class="mw-redirect" title="Stigma (letter)">στ</a> ligature).<sup id="cite_ref-PropN3218_51-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PropN3218-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>7 </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">S</span>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">Z</span> </td> <td>Presumed abbreviation of <i><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">septem</i></span></i>, Latin for 7. </td></tr> <tr> <td>9.5 </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">X̷</span> </td> <td>Scribal abbreviation, an x with a slash through it. Likewise, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">IX̷</span> represented 8.5 </td></tr> <tr> <td>11 </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">O</span> </td> <td>Presumed abbreviation of <i><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">onze</i></span></i>, French for 11. </td></tr> <tr> <td>40 </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">F</span> </td> <td>Presumed abbreviation of English <i>forty</i>. </td></tr> <tr> <td>70 </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">S</span> </td> <td>Also could stand for 7, with the same derivation. </td></tr> <tr> <td>80 </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">R</span> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>90 </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">N</span> </td> <td>Presumed abbreviation of <i><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">nonaginta</i></span></i>, Latin for 90. (Ambiguous with <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">N</span> for "nothing" (<i>nihil</i>)). </td></tr> <tr> <td>150 </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">Y</span> </td> <td>Possibly derived from the lowercase y's shape. </td></tr> <tr> <td>151 </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">K</span> </td> <td>Unusual, origin unknown; also said to stand for 250.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>160 </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">T</span> </td> <td>Possibly derived from Greek <i>tetra</i>, as 4 × 40 = 160. </td></tr> <tr> <td>200 </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">H</span> </td> <td>Could also stand for 2 (see also 𐆙, the symbol for the <a href="/wiki/Dupondius" title="Dupondius">dupondius</a>). From a barring of two <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">I</span>'s. </td></tr> <tr> <td>250 </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">E</span> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>300 </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">B</span> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>400 </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">P</span>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">G</span> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>500 </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">Q</span> </td> <td>Redundant with <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">D</span>; abbreviates <i><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">quingenti</i></span></i>, Latin for 500. Also sometimes used for 500,000.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>800 </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">Ω</span> </td> <td>Borrowed from <a href="/wiki/Gothic_alphabet" title="Gothic alphabet">Gothic</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td>900 </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">ϡ</span> </td> <td>Borrowed from Gothic. </td></tr> <tr> <td>2000 </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">Z</span> </td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p><a href="/wiki/Chronogram" title="Chronogram">Chronograms</a>, messages with dates encoded into them, were popular during the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> era. The chronogram would be a phrase containing the letters <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">I</span>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">V</span>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">X</span>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">L</span>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">C</span>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">D</span>, and <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">M</span>. By putting these letters together, the reader would obtain a number, usually indicating a particular year. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modern_use">Modern use</h2></div> <p>By the 11th century, Arabic numerals had been introduced into Europe from <a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">al-Andalus</a>, by way of <a href="/wiki/Arab" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab">Arab</a> traders and arithmetic treatises. Roman numerals, however, proved very persistent, remaining in common use in the West well into the 14th and 15th centuries, even in accounting and other business records (where the actual calculations would have been made using an <a href="/wiki/Abacus" title="Abacus">abacus</a>). Replacement by their more convenient "Arabic" equivalents was quite gradual, and Roman numerals are still used today in certain contexts. A few examples of their current use are: </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Carlos_IV_Coin.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Carlos_IV_Coin.jpg/240px-Carlos_IV_Coin.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="126" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Carlos_IV_Coin.jpg/360px-Carlos_IV_Coin.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Carlos_IV_Coin.jpg/480px-Carlos_IV_Coin.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1022" data-file-height="535" /></a><figcaption>Spanish <a href="/wiki/Spanish_real" title="Spanish real">Real</a> using <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">IIII</span> instead of <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">IV</span> as regnal number of <a href="/wiki/Charles_IV_of_Spain" title="Charles IV of Spain">Charles <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">IV</span> of Spain</a>.</figcaption></figure> <ul><li>Names of monarchs and popes, e.g. <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_II" title="Elizabeth II">Elizabeth II</a> of the United Kingdom, <a href="/wiki/Pope_Benedict_XVI" title="Pope Benedict XVI">Pope Benedict XVI</a>. These are referred to as <a href="/wiki/Regnal_number" title="Regnal number">regnal numbers</a> and are usually read as <a href="/wiki/Ordinal_numbers_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ordinal numbers (linguistics)">ordinals</a>; e.g. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">II</span> is pronounced "the second". This tradition began in Europe sporadically in the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>, gaining widespread use in England during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Henry_VIII" title="Henry VIII">Henry VIII</a>. Previously, the monarch was not known by numeral but by an <a href="/wiki/Epithet" title="Epithet">epithet</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Edward_the_Confessor" title="Edward the Confessor">Edward the Confessor</a>. Some monarchs (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Charles_IV_of_Spain" title="Charles IV of Spain">Charles IV of Spain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Louis_XIV_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis XIV of France">Louis XIV of France</a> and <a href="/wiki/William_IV_of_the_United_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="William IV of the United Kingdom">William IV of Great Britain</a>) seem to have preferred the use of <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">IIII</span> instead of <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">IV</span> on their coinage (see illustration).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suffix_(name)#Generational_titles" title="Suffix (name)">Generational suffixes</a>, particularly in the U.S., for people sharing the same name across generations, such as <a href="/wiki/William_Howard_Taft_IV" title="William Howard Taft IV">William Howard Taft IV</a>. These are also usually read as ordinals.</li> <li>In the <a href="/wiki/French_Republican_Calendar#Converting_from_the_Gregorian_Calendar" class="mw-redirect" title="French Republican Calendar">French Republican Calendar</a>, initiated during the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a>, years were numbered by Roman numerals – from the year <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">I</span> (1792) when this calendar was introduced to the year <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">XIV</span> (1805) when it was abandoned.</li> <li><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cambridge_Main_Public_Library_1888.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Cambridge_Main_Public_Library_1888.jpg/240px-Cambridge_Main_Public_Library_1888.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="264" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Cambridge_Main_Public_Library_1888.jpg/360px-Cambridge_Main_Public_Library_1888.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Cambridge_Main_Public_Library_1888.jpg/480px-Cambridge_Main_Public_Library_1888.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="550" /></a><figcaption>The year of construction of the <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_Public_Library" title="Cambridge Public Library">Cambridge Public Library</a> (Massachusetts, U.S.), 1888, displayed in "standard" Roman numerals on its facade.</figcaption></figure> The year of production of films, television shows and other works of art within the work itself. Outside reference to the work will use regular Arabic numerals.</li> <li>Hour marks on <a href="/wiki/Timepiece" class="mw-redirect" title="Timepiece">timepieces</a>. In this context, 4 is often written <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">IIII</span>.</li> <li>The year of construction on building <a href="/wiki/Fa%C3%A7ade" title="Façade">façades</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cornerstone" title="Cornerstone">cornerstones</a>.</li> <li>Page numbering of prefaces and introductions of books, and sometimes of appendices and annexes, too.</li> <li>Book volume and chapter numbers, as well as the several acts within a play (e.g. Act <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">iii</span>, Scene 2).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sequel" title="Sequel">Sequels</a> to some films, video games, and other works (as in <i><a href="/wiki/Rocky_II" title="Rocky II">Rocky II</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Grand_Theft_Auto_V" title="Grand Theft Auto V">Grand Theft Auto V</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Myst_III:_Exile" title="Myst III: Exile">Myst III: Exile</a></i>).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_(summary)" class="mw-redirect" title="Outline (summary)">Outlines</a> that use numbers to show hierarchical relationships.</li> <li>Occurrences of a recurring grand event, for instance: <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Summer_Olympic_Games" title="Summer Olympic Games">Summer</a> and <a href="/wiki/Winter_Olympic_Games" title="Winter Olympic Games">Winter Olympic Games</a> (e.g. the <a href="/wiki/2010_Winter_Olympics" title="2010 Winter Olympics">XXI Olympic Winter Games</a>; the <a href="/wiki/2012_Summer_Olympics" title="2012 Summer Olympics">Games of the XXX Olympiad</a>).</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Super_Bowl" title="Super Bowl">Super Bowl</a>, the annual championship game of the <a href="/wiki/National_Football_League" title="National Football League">National Football League</a> (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Super_Bowl_XLII" title="Super Bowl XLII">Super Bowl XLII</a>; <a href="/wiki/Super_Bowl_50" title="Super Bowl 50">Super Bowl 50</a> was a one-time exception<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/WrestleMania_I" title="WrestleMania I">WrestleMania</a>, the annual <a href="/wiki/Professional_wrestling" title="Professional wrestling">professional wrestling</a> event for the <a href="/wiki/WWE" title="WWE">WWE</a> (e.g. <a href="/wiki/WrestleMania_XXX" title="WrestleMania XXX">WrestleMania XXX</a>). This usage has also been inconsistent.</li></ul></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Specific_disciplines">Specific disciplines</h3></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Astronautics" title="Astronautics">astronautics</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_orbital_launch_systems#United_States" title="List of orbital launch systems">United States rocket</a> model variants are sometimes designated by Roman numerals, e.g. <a href="/wiki/Titan_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Titan I">Titan I</a>, <a href="/wiki/Titan_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Titan II">Titan II</a>, <a href="/wiki/Titan_III" class="mw-redirect" title="Titan III">Titan III</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saturn_I" title="Saturn I">Saturn I</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saturn_V" title="Saturn V">Saturn V</a>. </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">astronomy</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Natural_satellite" title="Natural satellite">natural satellites</a> or "moons" of the <a href="/wiki/Planet" title="Planet">planets</a> are <a href="/wiki/Naming_of_moons#Roman_numeral_designations" title="Naming of moons">designated</a> by capital Roman numerals appended to the planet's name. For example, <a href="/wiki/Titan_(moon)" title="Titan (moon)">Titan</a>'s designation is <a href="/wiki/Saturn" title="Saturn">Saturn</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">VI</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-jplsats-disc_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jplsats-disc-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a>, Roman numerals are sometimes used to denote the <a href="/wiki/Group_(periodic_table)" title="Group (periodic table)">groups</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Periodic_table" title="Periodic table">periodic table</a>, but this has officially been deprecated in favour of Arabic numerals.<sup id="cite_ref-Fluck_1988_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fluck_1988-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They are also used in the <a href="/wiki/IUPAC_nomenclature_of_inorganic_chemistry" title="IUPAC nomenclature of inorganic chemistry">IUPAC nomenclature of inorganic chemistry</a>, for the <a href="/wiki/Oxidation_number" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxidation number">oxidation number</a> of <a href="/wiki/Cation" class="mw-redirect" title="Cation">cations</a> which can take on several different positive charges. They are also used for naming <a href="/wiki/Phase_(matter)" title="Phase (matter)">phases</a> of <a href="/wiki/Polymorphism_(materials_science)" class="mw-redirect" title="Polymorphism (materials science)">polymorphic</a> <a href="/wiki/Crystal" title="Crystal">crystals</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Ice" title="Ice">ice</a>. </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Education" title="Education">education</a>, school grades (in the sense of year-groups rather than test scores) are sometimes referred to by a Roman numeral; for example, "grade <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">IX</span>" is sometimes seen for "grade 9". </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:9th_Aero_Squadron_AEF.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/9th_Aero_Squadron_AEF.jpg/240px-9th_Aero_Squadron_AEF.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="197" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/9th_Aero_Squadron_AEF.jpg/360px-9th_Aero_Squadron_AEF.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fb/9th_Aero_Squadron_AEF.jpg 2x" data-file-width="478" data-file-height="393" /></a><figcaption>Stylised "<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">IX</span>" represents "9" in unit emblem of <a href="/wiki/9th_Aero_Squadron" title="9th Aero Squadron">9th Aero Squadron</a> AEF, 1918.</figcaption></figure> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Entomology" title="Entomology">entomology</a>, the broods of the thirteen- and seventeen-year <a href="/wiki/Periodical_cicadas" title="Periodical cicadas">periodical cicadas</a> are identified by Roman numerals. </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Graphic_design" title="Graphic design">graphic design</a> stylised Roman numerals may represent numeric values. </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">law</a>, Roman numerals are commonly used to help organize legal codes as part of an <a href="/wiki/Outline_(list)#Alphanumeric_outline" title="Outline (list)">alphanumeric outline</a>. </p> <ul><li>In numbering <a href="/wiki/Act_of_Parliament_(United_Kingdom)" title="Act of Parliament (United Kingdom)">UK Acts of Parliament</a> within a given year (a given <a href="/wiki/Parliamentary_session" class="mw-redirect" title="Parliamentary session">session</a> until 1963), <a href="/wiki/Local_and_personal_acts_of_Parliament_(United_Kingdom)#Local_acts" title="Local and personal acts of Parliament (United Kingdom)">local acts</a> have lowercase Roman numerals, whereas <a href="/wiki/Act_of_Parliament_(United_Kingdom)#Public_general_acts" title="Act of Parliament (United Kingdom)">public acts</a> have plain Arabic numerals and <a href="/wiki/Local_and_personal_acts_of_Parliament_(United_Kingdom)#Personal_acts" title="Local and personal acts of Parliament (United Kingdom)">personal acts</a> have <a href="/wiki/Italic_type" title="Italic type">italic</a> Arabic numerals.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">mathematics</a> (including <a href="/wiki/Trigonometry" title="Trigonometry">trigonometry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Statistics" title="Statistics">statistics</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Calculus" title="Calculus">calculus</a>), when a graph includes negative numbers, its quadrants are named using <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">I</span>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">II</span>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">III</span>, and <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">IV</span>. These quadrant names signify positive numbers on both axes, negative numbers on the X axis, negative numbers on both axes, and negative numbers on the Y axis, respectively. The use of Roman numerals to designate quadrants avoids confusion, since Arabic numerals are used for the actual data represented in the graph. </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Military" title="Military">military</a> unit designation, Roman numerals are often used to distinguish between units at different levels. This reduces possible confusion, especially when viewing operational or strategic level maps. In particular, army corps are often numbered using Roman numerals (for example, the American XVIII Airborne Corps or the Nazi III Panzerkorps) with Arabic numerals being used for divisions and armies. </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Music" title="Music">music</a>, Roman numerals are used in several contexts: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Movement_(music)" title="Movement (music)">Movements</a> are often numbered using Roman numerals.</li> <li>In <a href="/wiki/Roman_numeral_analysis" title="Roman numeral analysis">Roman numeral analysis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Function_(music)" title="Function (music)">harmonic function</a> is identified using Roman numerals.</li> <li>Individual strings of <a href="/wiki/Stringed_instruments" class="mw-redirect" title="Stringed instruments">stringed instruments</a>, such as the <a href="/wiki/Violin" title="Violin">violin</a>, are often denoted by Roman numerals, with higher numbers denoting lower strings.</li></ul> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Pharmacy" title="Pharmacy">pharmacy</a>, Roman numerals were used with the now largely obsolete <a href="/wiki/Apothecaries%27_system" title="Apothecaries' system">apothecaries' system</a> of measurement: including <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">SS</span> to denote "one half" and <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">N</span> to denote "zero".<sup id="cite_ref-Bachenheimer_47-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bachenheimer-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Photography" title="Photography">photography</a>, Roman numerals (with zero) are used to denote varying levels of brightness when using the <a href="/wiki/Zone_System" title="Zone System">Zone System</a>. </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Seismology" title="Seismology">seismology</a>, Roman numerals are used to designate degrees of the <a href="/wiki/Mercalli_intensity_scale" class="mw-redirect" title="Mercalli intensity scale">Mercalli intensity scale</a> of earthquakes. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Eire_Frankng_I-IV-1986.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Eire_Frankng_I-IV-1986.jpg/220px-Eire_Frankng_I-IV-1986.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="125" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Eire_Frankng_I-IV-1986.jpg/330px-Eire_Frankng_I-IV-1986.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Eire_Frankng_I-IV-1986.jpg/440px-Eire_Frankng_I-IV-1986.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1222" data-file-height="696" /></a><figcaption>Example of postage stamp from Ireland (Éire) franked using Roman numeral for the month</figcaption></figure> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Team_sport" title="Team sport">sport</a> the team containing the "top" players and representing a nation or province, a <a href="/wiki/Sports_club" title="Sports club">club</a> or a school at the highest level in (say) <a href="/wiki/Rugby_union" title="Rugby union">rugby union</a> is often called the "1st <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">XV</span>", while a lower-ranking <a href="/wiki/Cricket" title="Cricket">cricket</a> or <a href="/wiki/American_football" title="American football">American football</a> team might be the "3rd <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">XI</span>". </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Tarot" title="Tarot">tarot</a>, Roman numerals (with zero) are often used to denote the cards of the <a href="/wiki/Major_Arcana" title="Major Arcana">Major Arcana</a>. </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Ireland" title="Republic of Ireland">Ireland</a>, Roman numerals were used until the late 1980s to indicate the month on postage <a href="/wiki/Franking" title="Franking">Franking</a>. In documents, Roman numerals are sometimes still used to indicate the month to avoid confusion over day/month/year or month/day/year formats. </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">theology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Biblical_scholarship" class="mw-redirect" title="Biblical scholarship">biblical scholarship</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Septuagint" title="Septuagint">Septuagint</a> is often referred to as <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">LXX</span>, as this translation of the <a href="/wiki/Old_Testament" title="Old Testament">Old Testament</a> into Greek is named for the legendary number of its translators (<i>septuaginta</i> being Latin for "seventy"). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern_use_in_European_languages_other_than_English">Modern use in European languages other than English</h3></div> <p>Some uses that are rare or never seen in English-speaking countries may be relatively common in parts of <a href="/wiki/Continental_Europe" title="Continental Europe">continental Europe</a> and in other regions (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Latin_America" title="Latin America">Latin America</a>) that use a European language other than English. For instance: </p><p>Capital or <a href="/wiki/Small_caps" title="Small caps">small capital</a> Roman numerals are widely used in <a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance languages</a> to denote <strong>centuries</strong>, e.g. the French <i><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r920966791">.mw-parser-output span.smallcaps{font-variant:small-caps}.mw-parser-output span.smallcaps-smaller{font-size:85%}</style><span class="smallcaps">xviii</span><sup>e</sup> siècle</i></span></i><sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the Spanish <i><span title="Spanish-language text"><i lang="es">siglo <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">xviii</span></i></span></i> (not <i><span title="Spanish-language text"><i lang="es"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">xviii</span> siglo</i></span></i>) for "18th century". Some Slavic and Turkic languages (especially in and adjacent to Russia) similarly favor Roman numerals (e.g. Russian <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">XVIII век</span></span>, Azeri <span title="Azerbaijani-language text"><i lang="az">XVIII əsr</i></span> or Polish <span title="Polish-language text"><i lang="pl">wiek XVIII</i></span><sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>). On the other hand, in <a href="/wiki/Turkish_language" title="Turkish language">Turkish</a> and some <a href="/wiki/Central_Europe" title="Central Europe">Central European</a> Slavic languages, like most <a href="/wiki/Germanic_languages" title="Germanic languages">Germanic languages</a>, one writes "18." (with a period) before the local word for "century" (e.g. Turkish <span title="Turkish-language text"><i lang="tr">18. yüzyıl</i></span>, Czech <span title="Czech-language text"><i lang="cs">18. století</i></span>). </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Yeltsin-authograph-1988.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Yeltsin-authograph-1988.gif/240px-Yeltsin-authograph-1988.gif" decoding="async" width="240" height="60" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Yeltsin-authograph-1988.gif/360px-Yeltsin-authograph-1988.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Yeltsin-authograph-1988.gif/480px-Yeltsin-authograph-1988.gif 2x" data-file-width="1261" data-file-height="315" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Boris_Yeltsin" title="Boris Yeltsin">Boris Yeltsin</a>'s signature, dated 10 November 1988, rendered as 10.<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">XI</span>.'88.</figcaption></figure> <p>Mixed Roman and Arabic numerals are sometimes used in numeric representations of dates (especially in formal letters and official documents, but also on tombstones). The <strong>month</strong> is written in Roman numerals, while the day is in Arabic numerals: "4.<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">VI</span>.1789" and "<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">VI</span>.4.1789" both refer unambiguously to 4 June 1789. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:DarboLaikas.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/DarboLaikas.jpg/200px-DarboLaikas.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="266" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/DarboLaikas.jpg/300px-DarboLaikas.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/DarboLaikas.jpg/400px-DarboLaikas.jpg 2x" data-file-width="709" data-file-height="943" /></a><figcaption>Business hours table on a shop window in <a href="/wiki/Vilnius" title="Vilnius">Vilnius</a>, Lithuania.</figcaption></figure> <p>Roman numerals are sometimes used to represent the <strong>days of the week</strong> in hours-of-operation signs displayed in windows or on doors of businesses,<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and also sometimes in railway and bus timetables. Monday, taken as the first day of the week, is represented by <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">I</span>. Sunday is represented by <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">VII</span>. The hours of operation signs are tables composed of two columns where the left column is the day of the week in Roman numerals and the right column is a range of hours of operation from starting time to closing time. In the example case (left), the business opens from 10 AM to 7 PM on weekdays, 10 AM to 5 PM on Saturdays and is <a href="/wiki/Sunday_shopping" title="Sunday shopping">closed on Sundays</a>. Note that the listing uses 24-hour time. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:S6002447_cropped.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/S6002447_cropped.jpg/220px-S6002447_cropped.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="223" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/S6002447_cropped.jpg/330px-S6002447_cropped.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/S6002447_cropped.jpg/440px-S6002447_cropped.jpg 2x" data-file-width="780" data-file-height="790" /></a><figcaption>Sign at 17.9 km on route SS4 <a href="/wiki/Via_Salaria" title="Via Salaria">Salaria</a>, north of Rome, Italy.</figcaption></figure> <p>Roman numerals may also be used for <a href="/wiki/Floor_numbering" class="mw-redirect" title="Floor numbering">floor numbering</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For instance, apartments in central <a href="/wiki/Amsterdam" title="Amsterdam">Amsterdam</a> are indicated as 138-<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">III</span>, with both an Arabic numeral (number of the block or house) and a Roman numeral (floor number). The apartment on the ground floor is indicated as <span title="Dutch-language text"><i lang="nl">138-huis</i></span>. </p><p>In Italy, where roads outside built-up areas have <a href="/wiki/Milestone" title="Milestone">kilometre signs</a>, major roads and motorways also mark 100-metre subdivisionals, using Roman numerals from <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">I</span> to <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">IX</span> for the smaller intervals. The sign <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1214402035">.mw-parser-output .sfrac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .sfrac.tion,.mw-parser-output .sfrac .tion{display:inline-block;vertical-align:-0.5em;font-size:85%;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sfrac .num{display:block;line-height:1em;margin:0.0em 0.1em;border-bottom:1px solid}.mw-parser-output .sfrac .den{display:block;line-height:1em;margin:0.1em 0.1em}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}</style><span class="sfrac">⁠<span class="tion"><span class="num"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">IX</span></span><span class="sr-only">/</span><span class="den">17</span></span>⁠</span> thus marks 17.9 km. </p><p>Certain romance-speaking countries use Roman numerals to designate assemblies of their national legislatures. For instance, the composition of the <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italian</a> <a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="Parliament of Italy">Parliament</a> from 2018 to 2022 (elected in the <a href="/wiki/2018_Italian_general_election" title="2018 Italian general election">2018 Italian general election</a>) is called the <a href="/wiki/Legislature_XVIII_of_Italy" title="Legislature XVIII of Italy">XVIII Legislature of the Italian Republic</a> (or more commonly the "XVIII Legislature"). </p><p>A notable exception to the use of Roman numerals in Europe is in Greece, where <a href="/wiki/Greek_numerals" title="Greek numerals">Greek numerals</a> (based on the Greek alphabet) are generally used in contexts where Roman numerals would be used elsewhere. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Unicode">Unicode</h2></div> <p>The "<a href="/wiki/Number_Forms" title="Number Forms">Number Forms</a>" block of the <a href="/wiki/Unicode" title="Unicode">Unicode</a> computer character set standard has a number of <a href="/wiki/Numerals_in_Unicode#Roman_numerals" title="Numerals in Unicode">Roman numeral symbols</a> in the range of <a href="/wiki/Unicode_code_point" class="mw-redirect" title="Unicode code point">code points</a> from U+2160 to U+2188.<sup id="cite_ref-UnicodeChartU2150_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UnicodeChartU2150-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This range includes both upper- and lowercase numerals, as well as pre-combined characters for numbers up to 12 (Ⅻ or <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">XII</span>). One justification for the existence of pre-combined numbers is to facilitate the setting of multiple-letter numbers (such as VIII) on a single horizontal line in Asian vertical text. The Unicode standard, however, includes special Roman numeral code points for compatibility only, stating that "[f]or most purposes, it is preferable to compose the Roman numerals from sequences of the appropriate Latin letters".<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The block also includes some <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">apostrophus</i></span> symbols for large numbers, an old variant of "<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">L</span>" (50) similar to the Etruscan character, the <a href="/wiki/Claudian_letter" class="mw-redirect" title="Claudian letter">Claudian letter</a> "reversed C", etc.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 23em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biquinary" class="mw-redirect" title="Biquinary">Biquinary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_numerals" title="Egyptian numerals">Egyptian numerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etruscan_numerals" title="Etruscan numerals">Etruscan numerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_numerals" title="Greek numerals">Greek numerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_numerals" title="Hebrew numerals">Hebrew numerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kharosthi_numerals" class="mw-redirect" title="Kharosthi numerals">Kharosthi numerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_numerals" title="Maya numerals">Maya numerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_abacus" title="Roman abacus">Roman abacus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-writing" title="Proto-writing">Proto-writing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_numerals_in_Unicode" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman numerals in Unicode">Roman numerals in Unicode</a></li></ul></div> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notes">Notes</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Without theorising about causation, it may be noted that <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">IV</span> and <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">IX</span> not only have fewer characters than <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">IIII</span> and <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">VIIII</span>, but are less likely to be confused (especially at a quick glance) with <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">III</span> and <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">VIII</span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">This is the Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) year in which Wikipedia's cache of this page was last updated, so may be a few hours out of date.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Asimov" title="Isaac Asimov">Isaac Asimov</a> once mentioned an "interesting theory" that Romans avoided using <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral" title="Roman numeral">IV</span> because it was the initial letters of <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">IVPITER</i></span>, the Latin spelling of <a href="/wiki/Jupiter_(mythology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Jupiter (mythology)">Jupiter</a>, and might have seemed <a href="/wiki/Piety" title="Piety">impious</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-asimov_on_numbers_12_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-asimov_on_numbers_12-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He did not say whose theory it was.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral roman-numeral-tv" title="Roman numeral">XIII</span> = 13 × 100,000 = 1,300,000 and <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral roman-numeral-t" title="Roman numeral">XXXII</span> = 32 × 1000 = 32,000, so '<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral roman-numeral-tv" title="Roman numeral">XIII</span><span class="nowrap"> </span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003224644"><span class="roman-numeral roman-numeral-t" title="Roman numeral">XXXII</span> = 1,332,000. <b>p.</b> is a common abbreviation for <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">passus</i></span>, paces, the Romans counting a pace as two steps.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFJudkins2011" class="citation news cs1">Judkins, Maura (4 November 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201115002205/https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/arts-post/post/public-clocks-do-a-number-on-roman-numerals/2011/11/04/gIQAenKllM_blog.html">"Public clocks do a number on Roman numerals"</a>. <i>The Washington Post</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/arts-post/post/public-clocks-do-a-number-on-roman-numerals/2011/11/04/gIQAenKllM_blog.html">the original</a> on 15 November 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 August</span> 2019</span>. <q>Most clocks using Roman numerals traditionally use IIII instead of IV... One of the rare prominent clocks that uses the IV instead of IIII is Big Ben in London.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=Public+clocks+do+a+number+on+Roman+numerals&rft.date=2011-11-04&rft.aulast=Judkins&rft.aufirst=Maura&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fblogs%2Farts-post%2Fpost%2Fpublic-clocks-do-a-number-on-roman-numerals%2F2011%2F11%2F04%2FgIQAenKllM_blog.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+numerals" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-adams-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-adams_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdams1990" class="citation web cs1">Adams, Cecil (23 February 1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.straightdope.com/columns/read/1371/what-is-the-proper-way-to-style-roman-numerals-for-the-1990s">"What is the proper way to style Roman numerals for the 1990s?"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Straight_Dope" title="The Straight Dope">The Straight Dope</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Straight+Dope&rft.atitle=What+is+the+proper+way+to+style+Roman+numerals+for+the+1990s%3F&rft.date=1990-02-23&rft.aulast=Adams&rft.aufirst=Cecil&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.straightdope.com%2Fcolumns%2Fread%2F1371%2Fwhat-is-the-proper-way-to-style-roman-numerals-for-the-1990s&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+numerals" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hayes-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hayes_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hayes_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHayes" class="citation web cs1">Hayes, David P. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://chart.copyrightdata.com/ch02.html#Roman">"Guide to Roman Numerals"</a>. <i>Copyright Registration and Renewal Information Chart and Web Site</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Copyright+Registration+and+Renewal+Information+Chart+and+Web+Site&rft.atitle=Guide+to+Roman+Numerals&rft.aulast=Hayes&rft.aufirst=David+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fchart.copyrightdata.com%2Fch02.html%23Roman&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+numerals" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReddyKhan2003" class="citation book cs1">Reddy, Indra K.; Khan, Mansoor A. (2003). "1 (Working with Arabic and Roman numerals)". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=U3QY7gz0C2cC"><i>Essential Math and Calculations for Pharmacy Technicians</i></a>. CRC Press. p. 3. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-203-49534-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-203-49534-6"><bdi>978-0-203-49534-6</bdi></a>. <q>Table 1-1 Roman and Arabic numerals (table very similar to the table here, apart from inclusion of Vinculum notation.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=1+%28Working+with+Arabic+and+Roman+numerals%29&rft.btitle=Essential+Math+and+Calculations+for+Pharmacy+Technicians&rft.pages=3&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-203-49534-6&rft.aulast=Reddy&rft.aufirst=Indra+K.&rft.au=Khan%2C+Mansoor+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DU3QY7gz0C2cC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+numerals" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-deha1997-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-deha1997_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDehaene1997" class="citation book cs1">Dehaene, Stanislas (1997). <i>The Number Sense : How the Mind Creates Mathematics</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199723096" title="Special:BookSources/9780199723096"><bdi>9780199723096</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Number+Sense+%3A+How+the+Mind+Creates+Mathematics&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=9780199723096&rft.aulast=Dehaene&rft.aufirst=Stanislas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+numerals" class="Z3988"></span> 288 pages.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ema1990-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ema1990_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHazewinkel1990" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Hazewinkel, Michiel, ed. (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kwMdtnhtUMMC&dq=%22Roman+numerals%22+additive&pg=PA502">"Numbers, Representations of"</a>. <i>Encyclopaedia of Mathematics</i>. Vol. 6. Springer. p. 502. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781556080050" title="Special:BookSources/9781556080050"><bdi>9781556080050</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Numbers%2C+Representations+of&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+of+Mathematics&rft.pages=502&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=9781556080050&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkwMdtnhtUMMC%26dq%3D%2522Roman%2Bnumerals%2522%2Badditive%26pg%3DPA502&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+numerals" class="Z3988"></span> 546 pages.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDela_CruzTorres2009" class="citation book cs1">Dela Cruz, M. L. P.; Torres, H. D. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PVK6lt2xXz4C"><i>Number Smart Quest for Mastery: Teacher's Edition</i></a>. Rex Bookstore, Inc. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789712352164" title="Special:BookSources/9789712352164"><bdi>9789712352164</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Number+Smart+Quest+for+Mastery%3A+Teacher%27s+Edition&rft.pub=Rex+Bookstore%2C+Inc.&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9789712352164&rft.aulast=Dela+Cruz&rft.aufirst=M.+L.+P.&rft.au=Torres%2C+H.+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPVK6lt2xXz4C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+numerals" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-martelli-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-martelli_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMartelliAscher2002" class="citation book cs1">Martelli, Alex; Ascher, David (2002). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/pythoncookbook00mart"><i>Python Cookbook</i></a></span>. O'Reilly Media Inc. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-596-00167-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-596-00167-4"><bdi>978-0-596-00167-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Python+Cookbook&rft.pub=O%27Reilly+Media+Inc.&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-596-00167-4&rft.aulast=Martelli&rft.aufirst=Alex&rft.au=Ascher%2C+David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpythoncookbook00mart&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+numerals" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-caes0050-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-caes0050_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-caes0050_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGaius_Iulius_Caesar" class="citation cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Gaius Iulius Caesar. <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:la:Commentarii de bello Gallico/Liber II#4"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/la:Commentarii_de_bello_Gallico/Liber_II#4"><i>Commentarii de bello Gallico, Book II, Section 4</i> </a></span> (in Latin) – via <a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Commentarii+de+bello+Gallico%2C+Book+II%2C+Section+4&rft.au=Gaius+Iulius+Caesar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+numerals" class="Z3988"></span> <br />Book II, Section 4: "<span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">... XV milia Atrebates, Ambianos X milia, Morinos XXV milia, Menapios VII milia, Caletos X milia, Veliocasses et Viromanduos totidem, Atuatucos XVIIII milia; ...</i></span>" <br />Book II, Section 8: "<span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">... ab utroque latere eius collis transversam fossam obduxit circiter passuum CCCC et ad extremas fossas castella constituit...</i></span>" <br />Book IV, Section 15: "<span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Nostri ad unum omnes incolumes, perpaucis vulneratis, ex tanti belli timore, cum hostium numerus capitum CCCCXXX milium fuisset, se in castra receperunt.</i></span>" <br />Book VII, Section 4: "<span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">...in hiberna remissis ipse se recipit die XXXX Bibracte.</i></span>"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-rocc1612-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-rocc1612_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRocca1612" class="citation book cs1">Rocca, Angelo (1612). <i>De campanis commentarius</i>. Rome: Guillelmo Faciotti.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=De+campanis+commentarius&rft.place=Rome&rft.pub=Guillelmo+Faciotti&rft.date=1612&rft.aulast=Rocca&rft.aufirst=Angelo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+numerals" class="Z3988"></span> <a href="/wiki/File:Campana_a_XXIIII_hominibus_pulsata.jpg" title="File:Campana a XXIIII hominibus pulsata.jpg">Title of a Plate</a>: "Campana a XXIIII hominibus pulsata" ("Bell to be sounded by 24 men").</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-borc1673-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-borc1673_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gerard Ter Borch (1673): <i><a href="/wiki/File:Cornelis_de_Graeff_(1650-1678).png" title="File:Cornelis de Graeff (1650-1678).png">Portrait of Cornelis de Graef</a></i>. Date on painting: "Out. XXIIII Jaer. // M. DC. LXXIIII".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-plin2015-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-plin2015_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGaius_Plinius_Secundus" class="citation cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Gaius Plinius Secundus. <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:la:Naturalis Historia/Liber III#IV"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/la:Naturalis_Historia/Liber_III#IV"><i>Naturalis Historia, Book III</i> </a></span> (in Latin) – via <a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Naturalis+Historia%2C+Book+III&rft.au=Gaius+Plinius+Secundus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+numerals" class="Z3988"></span> Book III: "<span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Saturni vocatur, Caesaream Mauretaniae urbem <span style="text-decoration:overline;">CCLXXXXVII</span> p[assum]. traiectus. reliqua in ora flumen Tader ... ortus in Cantabris haut procul oppido Iuliobrica, per <span style="text-decoration:overline;">CCCCL</span> p. fluens ...</i></span>" <br />Book IV: "<span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Epiri, Achaiae, Atticae, Thessalia in porrectum longitudo CCCCLXXXX traditur, latitudo CCLXXXXVII.</i></span>" <br />Book VI: "<span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">tam vicinum Arsaniae fluere eum in regione Arrhene Claudius Caesar auctor est, ut, cum intumuere, confluant nec tamen misceantur leviorque Arsanias innatet MMMM ferme spatio, mox divisus in Euphraten mergatur.</i></span>"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-benn1731-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-benn1731_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBennet1731" class="citation book cs1">Bennet, Thomas (1731). <i>Grammatica Hebræa, cum uberrima praxi in usum tironum ... Editio tertia</i>. T. Astley. p. 24.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Grammatica+Hebr%C3%A6a%2C+cum+uberrima+praxi+in+usum+tironum+...+Editio+tertia&rft.pages=24&rft.pub=T.+Astley&rft.date=1731&rft.aulast=Bennet&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+numerals" class="Z3988"></span> Copy in the British Library; 149 pages. <br />Page 24: "<span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">PRÆFIXA duo sunt</i></span> <i>viz.</i> <i>He</i> <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">emphaticum vel relativum (de quo Cap VI Reg. LXXXX.) &</i></span> <i>Shin</i> <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">cum</i></span> <i>Segal</i> <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">sequente</i></span> <i>Dagesh</i>, <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">quod denotat pronomen relativum...</i></span>"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-mira1486-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-mira1486_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDella_Mirandola1486" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Della Mirandola, Pico (1486). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.esotericarchives.com/pico/conclus.htm"><i>Conclusiones sive Theses DCCCC</i></a> [<i>Conclusions, or 900 Theses</i>] (in Latin).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Conclusiones+sive+Theses+DCCCC&rft.date=1486&rft.aulast=Della+Mirandola&rft.aufirst=Pico&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.esotericarchives.com%2Fpico%2Fconclus.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+numerals" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://threesixty360.wordpress.com/2011/01/01/roman-numerals-not-quite-so-simple/">"360:12 tables, 24 chairs, and plenty of chalk"</a>. <i>Roman Numerals...not quite so simple</i>. 2 January 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Roman+Numerals...not+quite+so+simple&rft.atitle=360%3A12+tables%2C+24+chairs%2C+and+plenty+of+chalk&rft.date=2011-01-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fthreesixty360.wordpress.com%2F2011%2F01%2F01%2Froman-numerals-not-quite-so-simple%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+numerals" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.web40571.clarahost.co.uk/roman/howtheywork.htm">"Paul Lewis"</a>. <i>Roman Numerals...How they work</i>. 13 November 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Roman+Numerals...How+they+work&rft.atitle=Paul+Lewis&rft.date=2021-11-13&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.web40571.clarahost.co.uk%2Froman%2Fhowtheywork.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+numerals" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReynoldsSpawforth1996" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Reynolds, Joyce Maire; Spawforth, Anthony J. S. (1996). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780198661726">"numbers, Roman"</a></span>. In Hornblower, Simon; Spawforth, Anthony (eds.). <i><a href="/wiki/Oxford_Classical_Dictionary" title="Oxford Classical Dictionary">Oxford Classical Dictionary</a></i> (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-866172-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-866172-X"><bdi>0-19-866172-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=numbers%2C+Roman&rft.btitle=Oxford+Classical+Dictionary&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=0-19-866172-X&rft.aulast=Reynolds&rft.aufirst=Joyce+Maire&rft.au=Spawforth%2C+Anthony+J.+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9780198661726&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+numerals" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKennedy1923" class="citation book cs1">Kennedy, Benjamin Hall (1923). <i>The Revised Latin Primer</i>. London: Longmans, Green & Co.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Revised+Latin+Primer&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Longmans%2C+Green+%26+Co.&rft.date=1923&rft.aulast=Kennedy&rft.aufirst=Benjamin+Hall&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+numerals" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMilham1947" class="citation book cs1">Milham, W.I. (1947). <i>Time & Timekeepers</i>. New York: Macmillan. p. 196.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Time+%26+Timekeepers&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=196&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=1947&rft.aulast=Milham&rft.aufirst=W.I.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+numerals" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-pickover-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-pickover_22-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-pickover_22-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPickover2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Clifford_A._Pickover" title="Clifford A. Pickover">Pickover, Clifford A.</a> (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=52N0JJBspM0C&pg=PA282"><i>Wonders of Numbers: Adventures in Mathematics, Mind, and Meaning</i></a>. Oxford University Press. p. 282. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-534800-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-534800-2"><bdi>978-0-19-534800-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Wonders+of+Numbers%3A+Adventures+in+Mathematics%2C+Mind%2C+and+Meaning&rft.pages=282&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-19-534800-2&rft.aulast=Pickover&rft.aufirst=Clifford+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D52N0JJBspM0C%26pg%3DPA282&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+numerals" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdamsZotti1988" class="citation book cs1">Adams, Cecil; Zotti, Ed (1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/moreofstraightdo00adam/page/154"><i>More of the straight dope</i></a>. Ballantine Books. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/moreofstraightdo00adam/page/154">154</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-345-35145-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-345-35145-6"><bdi>978-0-345-35145-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=More+of+the+straight+dope&rft.pages=154&rft.pub=Ballantine+Books&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0-345-35145-6&rft.aulast=Adams&rft.aufirst=Cecil&rft.au=Zotti%2C+Ed&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmoreofstraightdo00adam%2Fpage%2F154&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+numerals" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-asimov_on_numbers_12-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-asimov_on_numbers_12_24-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-asimov_on_numbers_12_24-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-asimov_on_numbers_12_24-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAsimov1966" class="citation book cs1">Asimov, Isaac (1966). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.arvindguptatoys.com/arvindgupta/asimov-on-numbers.pdf"><i>Asimov on Numbers</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Pocket Books, a division of Simon & Schuster, Inc. p. 12.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Asimov+on+Numbers&rft.pages=12&rft.pub=Pocket+Books%2C+a+division+of+Simon+%26+Schuster%2C+Inc&rft.date=1966&rft.aulast=Asimov&rft.aufirst=Isaac&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.arvindguptatoys.com%2Farvindgupta%2Fasimov-on-numbers.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+numerals" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101204081437/http://slam.org:80/century_of_free/gallery.php">"Gallery: Museum's North Entrance (1910)"</a>. Saint Louis Art Museum. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.slam.org/century_of_free/gallery.php">the original</a> on 4 December 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 January</span> 2014</span>. <q>The inscription over the North Entrance to the Museum reads: "Dedicated to Art and Free to All MDCDIII." These roman numerals translate to 1903, indicating that the engraving was part of the original building designed for the 1904 World's Fair.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Gallery%3A+Museum%27s+North+Entrance+%281910%29&rft.pub=Saint+Louis+Art+Museum&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.slam.org%2Fcentury_of_free%2Fgallery.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+numerals" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdkinsAdkins2004" class="citation book cs1">Adkins, Lesley; Adkins, Roy A (2004). <i>Handbook to life in ancient Rome</i> (2 ed.). Facts On File. p. 270. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8160-5026-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-8160-5026-0"><bdi>0-8160-5026-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Handbook+to+life+in+ancient+Rome&rft.pages=270&rft.edition=2&rft.pub=Facts+On+File&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0-8160-5026-0&rft.aulast=Adkins&rft.aufirst=Lesley&rft.au=Adkins%2C+Roy+A&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+numerals" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoyne1968" class="citation book cs1">Boyne, William (1968). <i>A manual of Roman coins</i>. p. 13.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+manual+of+Roman+coins&rft.pages=13&rft.date=1968&rft.aulast=Boyne&rft.aufirst=William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+numerals" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Degrassi-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Degrassi_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDegrassi1963" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol"><a href="/wiki/Attilio_Degrassi" title="Attilio Degrassi">Degrassi, Atilius</a>, ed. (1963). <i>Inscriptiones Italiae</i>. Vol. 13: Fasti et Elogia. Rome: Istituto Poligrafico dello Stato. Fasciculus 2: Fasti anni Numani et Iuliani.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Inscriptiones+Italiae&rft.place=Rome&rft.pages=Fasciculus+2%3A+Fasti+anni+Numani+et+Iuliani&rft.pub=Istituto+Poligrafico+dello+Stato&rft.date=1963&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+numerals" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-lvnd1621-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-lvnd1621_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLundorphio1621" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Lundorphio, Michaele Gaspar (1621). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=C41mAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA123"><i>Acta publica inter invictissimos gloriosissimosque&c. ... et Ferdinandum II. Romanorum Imperatores...</i></a> (in Latin). Ian-Friderici Weissii. p. 123.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Acta+publica+inter+invictissimos+gloriosissimosque%26c.+...+et+Ferdinandum+II.+Romanorum+Imperatores...&rft.pages=123&rft.pub=Ian-Friderici+Weissii&rft.date=1621&rft.aulast=Lundorphio&rft.aufirst=Michaele+Gaspar&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DC41mAAAAcAAJ%26pg%3DPA123&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+numerals" class="Z3988"></span> <br />Page 123: "<span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Sub Dato Pragæ IIIXX Decemb. A. C. M. DC. IIXX</i></span>". <br />Page 126, end of the same document: "<span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Dabantur Pragæ 17 Decemb. M. DC. IIXX</i></span>".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-sulp1692-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-sulp1692_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSulpicius_à_Munscrod1621" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Sulpicius à Munscrod, Raphael (1621). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_N43WFqB1wtoC/page/n69"><i>Vera Ac Germana Detecto Clandestinarvm Deliberationvm</i></a> (in Latin). p. 16.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Vera+Ac+Germana+Detecto+Clandestinarvm+Deliberationvm&rft.pages=16&rft.date=1621&rft.aulast=Sulpicius+%C3%A0+Munscrod&rft.aufirst=Raphael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbub_gb_N43WFqB1wtoC%2Fpage%2Fn69&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+numerals" class="Z3988"></span> <br />Page 16, line 1: "<span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">repertum Originale Subdatum IIIXXX Aug. A. C. MDC.IIXX</i></span>". <br />Page 41, upper right corner: "<span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Decemb. A. C. MDC.IIXX</i></span>". Page 42, upper left corner: "<span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Febr. A. C. MDC.XIX</i></span>". Page 70: "<span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">IIXX. die Maij sequentia in consilio noua ex Bohemia allata....</i></span>". <br />Page 71: "<span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">XIX. Maij</i></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-tent1699-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-tent1699_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTentzel1699" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Tentzel, Wilhelm Ernst (1699). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VN9lAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA39"><i>Als Ihre Königl. Majestät in Pohlen und ...</i></a> (in German). p. 39.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Als+Ihre+K%C3%B6nigl.+Majest%C3%A4t+in+Pohlen+und+...&rft.pages=39&rft.date=1699&rft.aulast=Tentzel&rft.aufirst=Wilhelm+Ernst&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DVN9lAAAAcAAJ%26pg%3DPA39&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+numerals" class="Z3988"></span> <br />Page 39: "<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">... und der Umschrifft: LITHUANIA ASSERTA M. DC. IIIC [1699].</i></span>"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-posn1698-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-posn1698_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPosner1698" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Posner, Johann Caspar (1698). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bmtOAAAAcAAJ&pg=PP9"><i>Mvndvs ante mvndvm sive De Chao Orbis Primordio</i></a> (in Latin).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mvndvs+ante+mvndvm+sive+De+Chao+Orbis+Primordio&rft.date=1698&rft.aulast=Posner&rft.aufirst=Johann+Caspar&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DbmtOAAAAcAAJ%26pg%3DPP9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+numerals" class="Z3988"></span> <br />Title page: "<span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Ad diem jvlii A. O. R. M DC IIC</i></span>".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-tent1700-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-tent1700_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTentzel1700" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Tentzel, Wilhelm Ernst (1700). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qFVPAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA93"><i>Saxonia Nvmismatica: Das ist: Die Historie Des Durchlauchtigsten...</i></a> (in German). p. 26.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Saxonia+Nvmismatica%3A+Das+ist%3A+Die+Historie+Des+Durchlauchtigsten...&rft.pages=26&rft.date=1700&rft.aulast=Tentzel&rft.aufirst=Wilhelm+Ernst&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DqFVPAAAAcAAJ%26pg%3DPA93&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+numerals" class="Z3988"></span> <br />Page 26: "<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Die Revers hat eine feine Inscription</i></span>: <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">SERENISSIMO DN.DN... SENATUS.QVERNF. A. M DC IIC D. 18 OCT [year 1698 day 18 oct].</i></span>"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-picc1699-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-picc1699_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPiccolomini1698" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Pope_Pius_II" title="Pope Pius II">Piccolomini, Enea Silvio</a> (1698). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0RNXAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA1"><i>Opera Geographica et Historica</i></a> (in Latin) (1st ed.). Helmstadt: J. M. Sustermann.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Opera+Geographica+et+Historica&rft.place=Helmstadt&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=J.+M.+Sustermann&rft.date=1698&rft.aulast=Piccolomini&rft.aufirst=Enea+Silvio&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0RNXAAAAcAAJ%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+numerals" class="Z3988"></span> Title page of first edition: "<span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Bibliopolæ ibid. M DC IC</i></span>".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-kenn1879-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-kenn1879_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKennedy1879" class="citation book cs1">Kennedy, Benjamin H. (1879). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/publiclatin00kennrich"><i>Latin grammar</i></a>. London: Longmans, Green, and Co. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/publiclatin00kennrich/page/150">150</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781177808293" title="Special:BookSources/9781177808293"><bdi>9781177808293</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Latin+grammar&rft.place=London&rft.pages=150&rft.pub=Longmans%2C+Green%2C+and+Co.&rft.date=1879&rft.isbn=9781177808293&rft.aulast=Kennedy&rft.aufirst=Benjamin+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpubliclatin00kennrich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+numerals" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://support.microsoft.com/en-us/office/roman-function-d6b0b99e-de46-4704-a518-b45a0f8b56f5">"ROMAN function"</a>. <i>support.microsoft.com</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=support.microsoft.com&rft.atitle=ROMAN+function&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsupport.microsoft.com%2Fen-us%2Foffice%2Froman-function-d6b0b99e-de46-4704-a518-b45a0f8b56f5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+numerals" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/btv1b105096493"><i>L' Atre périlleux et Yvain, le chevalier au lion </i></a>. 1301–1350.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=L%27+Atre+p%C3%A9rilleux+et+Yvain%2C+le+chevalier+au+lion+.&rft.date=1301&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgallica.bnf.fr%2Fark%3A%2F12148%2Fbtv1b105096493&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+numerals" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-malo2005-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-malo2005_39-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-malo2005_39-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMalone2005" class="citation thesis cs1">Malone, Stephen James (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://eprints.nottingham.ac.uk/13316/2/423645_vol2.pdf"><i>Legio XX Valeria Victrix: A Prosographical and Historical Study</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> (Thesis). Vol. 2. University of Nottingham.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=Legio+XX+Valeria+Victrix%3A+A+Prosographical+and+Historical+Study&rft.inst=University+of+Nottingham&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Malone&rft.aufirst=Stephen+James&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Feprints.nottingham.ac.uk%2F13316%2F2%2F423645_vol2.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+numerals" class="Z3988"></span> <br />On page 396 it discusses many coins with "Leg. IIXX" and notes that it must be Legion 22. <br />The footnote on that page says: "The form IIXX clearly reflecting the Latin <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">duo et vicensima</i></span> 'twenty-second': cf. X5398, <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">legatus I[eg II] I et vicensim(ae) Pri[mi]g</i></span>; VI 1551, <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">legatus leg] IIXX Prj</i></span>; III 14207.7, <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">miles leg IIXX</i></span>; and III 10471-3, a vexillation drawn from four German legions including 'XVIII PR' – surely here the stonecutter's hypercorrection for IIXX PR.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-gach1862-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-gach1862_40-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-gach1862_40-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGachard1862" class="citation journal cs1">Gachard, M. (1862). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.persee.fr/doc/bcrh_0770-6707_1862_num_31_3_3033">"II. Analectes historiques, neuvième série (n<sup>os</sup> CCLXI-CCLXXXIV)"</a>. <i>Bulletin de la Commission royale d'Historie</i>. <b>31</b> (3): 345–554. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3406%2Fbcrh.1862.3033">10.3406/bcrh.1862.3033</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bulletin+de+la+Commission+royale+d%27Historie&rft.atitle=II.+Analectes+historiques%2C+neuvi%C3%A8me+s%C3%A9rie+%28n%3Csup%3Eos%3C%2Fsup%3E+CCLXI-CCLXXXIV%29&rft.volume=31&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=345-554&rft.date=1862&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3406%2Fbcrh.1862.3033&rft.aulast=Gachard&rft.aufirst=M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.persee.fr%2Fdoc%2Fbcrh_0770-6707_1862_num_31_3_3033&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+numerals" class="Z3988"></span> <br />Page 347: <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Lettre de Philippe le Beau aux échevins..., quote: "Escript en nostre ville de Gand, le XXIIII<sup>me</sup> de febvrier, l'an IIII<sup>XX</sup>XIX [quatre-vingt-dix-neuf = 99].</i></span>" <br />Page 356: <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Lettre de l'achiduchesse Marguerite au conseil de Brabant..., quote: "... Escript à Bruxelles, le dernier jour de juing anno XV<sup>c</sup>XIX [1519].</i></span>" <br />Page 374: <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Letters patentes de la rémission ... de la ville de Bruxelles, quote</i></span>: "<span title="Dutch-language text"><i lang="nl">... Op heden, tweentwintich ['twenty-two'] daegen in decembri, anno vyfthien hondert tweendertich</i></span> ['fifteen hundred thirty-two'] <span title="Dutch-language text"><i lang="nl">... Gegeven op ten vyfsten dach in deser jegewoirdige maent van decembri anno XV tweendertich [1532] vorschreven.</i></span>" <br />Page 419: <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Acte du duc de Parme portant approbation..., quote: "Faiet le XV<sup>me</sup> de juillet XV<sup>c</sup> huytante-six [1586].</i></span>".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-salt1923-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-salt1923_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSalter1923" class="citation book cs1">Salter, Herbert Edward (1923). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dfNAAAAAYAAJ&q=iiixx"><i>Registrum Annalium Collegii Mertonensis 1483–1521</i></a>. Vol. 76. Oxford Historical Society.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Registrum+Annalium+Collegii+Mertonensis+1483%E2%80%931521&rft.pub=Oxford+Historical+Society&rft.date=1923&rft.aulast=Salter&rft.aufirst=Herbert+Edward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DdfNAAAAAYAAJ%26q%3Diiixx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+numerals" class="Z3988"></span> 544 pages. Page 184 has the computation in pounds:shillings:pence (li:s:d) x:iii:iiii + xxi:viii:viii + xlv:xiiii:i = iii<sup>xx</sup>xvii:vi:i, i.e. 10:3:4 + 21:8:8 + 45:14:1 = 77:6:1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-wade1865-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-wade1865_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFde_WaillyDelisle1865" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">de Wailly; Delisle (1865) [1301]. "E Duo Codicibus Ceratis Johannis de Sancto Justo" [From Two Texts in Wax by John of St Just]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NrxuEwPNWD4C&pg=PA530"><i>Recueil des historiens des Gaules et de la France. Par Martin Bouquet: Contenant la deuxieme livraison des monumens des regnes de saint Louis, de Philippe le Hardi, de Philippe le bel, de Louis X, de Philippe V et de Charles IV ... Jusqu'en MCCCXXVIII. Tome Vingt-Deuxième</i></a>. <i>Recueil des Historiens des Gaules et de la France</i> (in Latin). Vol. 22. p. 530: <q>SUMMA totalis, XIII. M. V. C. III. XX. XIII. l. III s. XI d.</q> [Sum total, 13 thousand 5 hundred 3 score 13 livres, 3 sous, 11 deniers.]</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Recueil+des+historiens+des+Gaules+et+de+la+France.+Par+Martin+Bouquet%3A+Contenant+la+deuxieme+livraison+des+monumens+des+regnes+de+saint+Louis%2C+de+Philippe+le+Hardi%2C+de+Philippe+le+bel%2C+de+Louis+X%2C+de+Philippe+V+et+de+Charles+IV+...+Jusqu%27en+MCCCXXVIII.+Tome+Vingt-Deuxi%C3%A8me&rft.btitle=Recueil+des+Historiens+des+Gaules+et+de+la+France&rft.pages=530&rft.date=1865&rft.au=de+Wailly&rft.au=Delisle&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNrxuEwPNWD4C%26pg%3DPA530&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+numerals" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ixl-story-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ixl-story_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://spcardmona.com.au/healthy-brands/ixl/our-brand-story">"Our Brand Story"</a>. SPC Ardmona<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 March</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Our+Brand+Story&rft.pub=SPC+Ardmona&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fspcardmona.com.au%2Fhealthy-brands%2Fixl%2Four-brand-story&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+numerals" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>Bede: The Reckoning of Time</i>. Translated by Wallis, Faith. 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National Football League. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151201194151/http://www.nfl.com/news/story/0ap2000000355943/article/nfl-wont-use-roman-numerals-for-super-bowl-50">Archived</a> from the original on 1 December 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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CRC Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-203-49534-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-203-49534-6"><bdi>978-0-203-49534-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Essential+Math+and+Calculations+for+Pharmacy+Technicians&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-203-49534-6&rft.aulast=Reddy&rft.aufirst=Indra+K.&rft.au=Khan%2C+Mansoor+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DU3QY7gz0C2cC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+numerals" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><i>Lexique des règles typographiques en usage à l'imprimerie nationale</i> (in French) (6th ed.). 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Les siècles.</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurska" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Burska, Katarzyna. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://poradnia-jezykowa.uni.lodz.pl/faq/cyfry-arabskie-a-zapis-wieku/">"cyfry arabskie a zapis wieku"</a> [Arabic digits when formatting centuries]. <i>Poradnia językowa Uniwersytetu Łódzkiego</i> (in Polish). University of Łódź.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Poradnia+j%C4%99zykowa+Uniwersytetu+%C5%81%C3%B3dzkiego&rft.atitle=cyfry+arabskie+a+zapis+wieku&rft.aulast=Burska&rft.aufirst=Katarzyna&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fporadnia-jezykowa.uni.lodz.pl%2Ffaq%2Fcyfry-arabskie-a-zapis-wieku%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+numerals" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131203092331/http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/latin/beginners/dating/default.htm">"Beginners latin"</a>. <i>nationalarchives.gov.uk</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/latin/beginners/dating/default.htm">the original</a> on 3 December 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 December</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=nationalarchives.gov.uk&rft.atitle=Beginners+latin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nationalarchives.gov.uk%2Flatin%2Fbeginners%2Fdating%2Fdefault.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+numerals" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131122162120/http://turner.faculty.swau.edu/mathematics/materialslibrary/roman/">"Roman Arithmetic"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Southwestern_Adventist_University" title="Southwestern Adventist University">Southwestern Adventist University</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://turner.faculty.swau.edu/mathematics/materialslibrary/roman/">the original</a> on 22 November 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 December</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Roman+Arithmetic&rft.pub=Southwestern+Adventist+University&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fturner.faculty.swau.edu%2Fmathematics%2Fmaterialslibrary%2Froman%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+numerals" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131203091427/http://romannumerals.info/roman-numerals-history/">"Roman Numerals History"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://romannumerals.info/roman-numerals-history/">the original</a> on 3 December 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 December</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Roman+Numerals+History&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fromannumerals.info%2Froman-numerals-history%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+numerals" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-UnicodeChartU2150-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-UnicodeChartU2150_82-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U2150.pdf">"Unicode Number Forms"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Unicode+Number+Forms&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.unicode.org%2Fcharts%2FPDF%2FU2150.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+numerals" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode6.0.0/ch15.pdf">"The Unicode Standard, Version 6.0 – Electronic edition"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Unicode, Inc. 2011. p. 486.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Unicode+Standard%2C+Version+6.0+%E2%80%93+Electronic+edition&rft.pages=486&rft.pub=Unicode%2C+Inc.&rft.date=2011&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.unicode.org%2Fversions%2FUnicode6.0.0%2Fch15.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+numerals" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://symbolonly.com/roman-symbols.html">"Roman symbol"</a>. <i>symbolonly.com</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=symbolonly.com&rft.atitle=Roman+symbol&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsymbolonly.com%2Froman-symbols.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+numerals" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMenninger1992" class="citation book cs1">Menninger, Karl (1992). <i>Number Words and Number Symbols: A Cultural History of Numbers</i>. <a href="/wiki/Dover_Publications" title="Dover Publications">Dover Publications</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-486-27096-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-486-27096-8"><bdi>978-0-486-27096-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Number+Words+and+Number+Symbols%3A+A+Cultural+History+of+Numbers&rft.pub=Dover+Publications&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-486-27096-8&rft.aulast=Menninger&rft.aufirst=Karl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+numerals" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about <br /> <b>Roman numerals</b> <hr /></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Roman+numerals&library=OLBP">Online books</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Roman+numerals">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Roman+numerals&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li> </ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li>Aczel, Amir D. 2015. <i>Finding Zero: A Mathematician's Odyssey to Uncover the Origins of Numbers.</i> 1st edition. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.</li> <li>Goines, David Lance. <i>A Constructed Roman Alphabet: A Geometric Analysis of the Greek and Roman Capitals and of the Arabic Numerals.</i> Boston: D.R. Godine, 1982.</li> <li>Houston, Stephen D. 2012. <i>The Shape of Script: How and Why Writing Systems Change.</i> Santa Fe, NM: School for Advanced Research Press.</li> <li>Taisbak, Christian M. 1965. "Roman numerals and the abacus." <i>Classica et medievalia</i> 26: 147–60.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.knowtheromans.co.uk/Categories/SubCatagories/RomanNumerals/">"Roman Numerals (Totally Epic Guide)"</a>. <i>Know The Romans</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Know+The+Romans&rft.atitle=Roman+Numerals+%28Totally+Epic+Guide%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.knowtheromans.co.uk%2FCategories%2FSubCatagories%2FRomanNumerals%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+numerals" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output 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href="/wiki/List_of_Latin-script_alphabets" title="List of Latin-script alphabets">list</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Latin_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical Latin alphabet">Classical Latin alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_basic_Latin_alphabet" title="ISO basic Latin alphabet">ISO basic Latin alphabet</a></li> <li>Phonetic alphabets <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">International Phonetic Alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/X-SAMPA" title="X-SAMPA">X-SAMPA</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spelling_alphabet" title="Spelling alphabet">Spelling alphabet</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Letters (<a href="/wiki/List_of_Latin-script_letters" title="List of Latin-script letters">list</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <table style="margin: 0 -0.25em; width: 100%;"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="26"><div style="width:100%; background:#e0e0e0;; text-align:center;">Letters of the <a href="/wiki/ISO_basic_Latin_alphabet" title="ISO basic Latin alphabet">ISO basic Latin alphabet</a></div> </th></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;width:3.85%;"><span class=""><a href="/wiki/A" title="A">Aa</a></span> </td> <td style="text-align:center;width:3.85%;"><span class=""><a href="/wiki/B" title="B">Bb</a></span> </td> <td style="text-align:center;width:3.85%;"><span class=""><a href="/wiki/C" title="C">Cc</a></span> </td> <td style="text-align:center;width:3.85%;"><span class=""><a href="/wiki/D" title="D">Dd</a></span> </td> <td style="text-align:center;width:3.85%;"><span class=""><a href="/wiki/E" title="E">Ee</a></span> </td> <td style="text-align:center;width:3.85%;"><span class=""><a href="/wiki/F" title="F">Ff</a></span> </td> <td style="text-align:center;width:3.85%;"><span class=""><a href="/wiki/G" title="G">Gg</a></span> </td> <td style="text-align:center;width:3.85%;"><span class=""><a href="/wiki/H" title="H">Hh</a></span> </td> <td style="text-align:center;width:3.85%;"><span class=""><a href="/wiki/I" title="I">Ii</a></span> </td> <td style="text-align:center;width:3.85%;"><span class=""><a href="/wiki/J" title="J">Jj</a></span> </td> <td style="text-align:center;width:3.85%;"><span class=""><a href="/wiki/K" title="K">Kk</a></span> </td> <td style="text-align:center;width:3.85%;"><span class=""><a href="/wiki/L" title="L">Ll</a></span> </td> <td style="text-align:center;width:3.85%;"><span class=""><a href="/wiki/M" title="M">Mm </a><p><a href="/wiki/M" title="M"></a> </p> </span></td> <td style="text-align:center;width:3.85%;"><span class=""><a href="/wiki/N" title="N">Nn</a></span> </td> <td style="text-align:center;width:3.85%;"><span class=""><a href="/wiki/O" title="O">Oo</a></span> </td> <td style="text-align:center;width:3.85%;"><span class=""><a href="/wiki/P" title="P">Pp</a></span> </td> <td style="text-align:center;width:3.85%;"><span class=""><a href="/wiki/Q" title="Q">Qq</a></span> </td> <td style="text-align:center;width:3.85%;"><span class=""><a href="/wiki/R" title="R">Rr</a></span> </td> <td style="text-align:center;width:3.85%;"><span class=""><a href="/wiki/S" title="S">Ss</a></span> </td> <td style="text-align:center;width:3.85%;"><span class=""><a href="/wiki/T" title="T">Tt</a></span> </td> <td style="text-align:center;width:3.85%;"><span class=""><a href="/wiki/U" title="U">Uu</a></span> </td> <td style="text-align:center;width:3.85%;"><span class=""><a href="/wiki/V" title="V">Vv</a></span> </td> <td style="text-align:center;width:3.85%;"><span class=""><a href="/wiki/W" title="W">Ww</a></span> </td> <td style="text-align:center;width:3.85%;"><span class=""><a href="/wiki/X" title="X">Xx</a></span> </td> <td style="text-align:center;width:3.85%;"><span class=""><a href="/wiki/Y" title="Y">Yy</a></span> </td> <td style="text-align:center;width:3.85%;"><span class=""><a href="/wiki/Z" title="Z">Zz </a><p><a href="/wiki/Z" title="Z"></a> </p> </span></td></tr> </tbody></table> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Latin-script_multigraph" title="Latin-script multigraph">Multigraphs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Latin-script_digraphs" title="List of Latin-script digraphs">Digraphs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ch_(digraph)" title="Ch (digraph)">Ch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dz_(digraph)" title="Dz (digraph)">Dz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C5%BE" title="Dž">Dž</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gh_(digraph)" title="Gh (digraph)">Gh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IJ_(digraph)" title="IJ (digraph)">IJ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lj_(digraph)" title="Lj (digraph)">Lj</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ll" title="Ll">Ll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_ly" title="Hungarian ly">Ly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nh_(digraph)" title="Nh (digraph)">Nh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nj_(digraph)" title="Nj (digraph)">Nj</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ny_(digraph)" title="Ny (digraph)">Ny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sh_(digraph)" title="Sh (digraph)">Sh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sz_(digraph)" title="Sz (digraph)">Sz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Th_(digraph)" title="Th (digraph)">Th</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Latin-script_trigraphs" title="List of Latin-script trigraphs">Trigraphs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_dzs" class="mw-redirect" title="Hungarian dzs">dzs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eau_(trigraph)" title="Eau (trigraph)">eau</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Latin-script_tetragraphs" title="List of Latin-script tetragraphs">Tetragraphs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ough_(orthography)" title="Ough (orthography)">ough</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Latin-script_pentagraphs" title="List of Latin-script pentagraphs">Pentagraphs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Tzsch" class="mw-redirect" title="Tzsch">tzsch</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Keyboard layouts (<a href="/wiki/List_of_Latin-script_keyboard_layouts" title="List of Latin-script keyboard layouts">list</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/QWERTY" title="QWERTY">QWERTY</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/QWERTZ" title="QWERTZ">QWERTZ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AZERTY" title="AZERTY">AZERTY</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dvorak_keyboard_layout" title="Dvorak keyboard layout">Dvorak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colemak" title="Colemak">Colemak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B%C3%89PO" title="BÉPO">BÉPO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo_(keyboard_layout)" title="Neo (keyboard layout)">Neo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical Standards</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ISO/IEC_646" title="ISO/IEC 646">ISO/IEC 646</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Latin_character_sets_(computing)" title="Western Latin character sets (computing)">Western Latin character sets</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Current Standards</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latin_script_in_Unicode" title="Latin script in Unicode">Unicode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DIN_91379" title="DIN 91379">DIN 91379: Unicode subset for Europe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_precomposed_Latin_characters_in_Unicode" title="List of precomposed Latin characters in Unicode">Precomposed Latin characters in Unicode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_letters_used_in_mathematics" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin letters used in mathematics">Letters used in mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_typographical_symbols_and_punctuation_marks" title="List of typographical symbols and punctuation marks">List of typographical symbols and punctuation marks</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diacritic" title="Diacritic">Diacritics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palaeography" title="Palaeography">Palaeography</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ancient_Rome_topics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ancient_Rome_topics" title="Template:Ancient Rome topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ancient_Rome_topics" title="Template talk:Ancient Rome topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient_Rome_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient Rome topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ancient_Rome_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Ancient Rome</a> topics</div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_ancient_Rome" title="Outline of ancient Rome">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Roman_history" title="Timeline of Roman history">Timeline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Rome" title="History of Rome">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Founding_of_Rome" title="Founding of Rome">Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Kingdom" title="Roman Kingdom">Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Overthrow_of_the_Roman_monarchy" title="Overthrow of the Roman monarchy">overthrow</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Republic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Empire</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="History of the Roman Empire">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pax_Romana" title="Pax Romana">Pax Romana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principate" title="Principate">Principate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominate" title="Dominate">Dominate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">fall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Historiography of the fall of the Western Roman Empire">historiography of the fall</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Decline_of_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Decline of the Byzantine Empire">decline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">fall</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Later_Roman_Empire" title="Later Roman Empire">Later Roman Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Later_Roman_Empire" title="History of the Later Roman Empire">History</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_Constitution" title="Roman Constitution">Constitution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Roman_Constitution" title="History of the Roman Constitution">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Roman_Kingdom" title="Constitution of the Roman Kingdom">Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Roman_Republic" title="Constitution of the Roman Republic">Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Constitution of the Roman Empire">Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Late_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitution of the Late Roman Empire">Late Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Senate" title="Roman Senate">Senate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_assemblies" title="Roman assemblies">Legislative assemblies</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Curiate_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Curiate Assembly">Curiate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centuriate_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Centuriate Assembly">Centuriate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribal Assembly">Tribal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plebeian_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="Plebeian Council">Plebeian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_magistrate" title="Roman magistrate">Executive magistrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SPQR" title="SPQR">SPQR</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_law" title="Roman law">Law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Twelve_Tables" title="Twelve Tables">Twelve Tables</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mos_maiorum" title="Mos maiorum">Mos maiorum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_citizenship" title="Roman citizenship">Citizenship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auctoritas" title="Auctoritas">Auctoritas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperium" title="Imperium">Imperium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Status_in_Roman_legal_system" title="Status in Roman legal system">Status</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_litigation" title="Roman litigation">Litigation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Political_institutions_of_ancient_Rome" title="Political institutions of ancient Rome">Government</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Curia" title="Curia">Curia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forum_(Roman)" title="Forum (Roman)">Forum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cursus_honorum" title="Cursus honorum">Cursus honorum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collegiality#In_the_Roman_Republic" title="Collegiality">Collegiality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_emperor" title="Roman emperor">Emperor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legatus" class="mw-redirect" title="Legatus">Legatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dux" title="Dux">Dux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Officium_(ancient_Rome)" title="Officium (ancient Rome)">Officium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Praefectus" title="Praefectus">Praefectus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vicarius" title="Vicarius">Vicarius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vigintisexviri" title="Vigintisexviri">Vigintisexviri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lictor" title="Lictor">Lictor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magister_militum" title="Magister militum">Magister militum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperator" title="Imperator">Imperator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Princeps_senatus" title="Princeps senatus">Princeps senatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pontifex_maximus" title="Pontifex maximus">Pontifex maximus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustus_(title)" title="Augustus (title)">Augustus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caesar_(title)" title="Caesar (title)">Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetrarchy" title="Tetrarchy">Tetrarch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optimates_and_populares" title="Optimates and populares">Optimates and populares</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_province" title="Roman province">Province</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_magistrate" title="Roman magistrate">Magistrates</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Ordinary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_consul" title="Roman consul">Consul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_censor" title="Roman censor">Censor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Praetor" title="Praetor">Praetor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribune" title="Tribune">Tribune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribune_of_the_plebs" title="Tribune of the plebs">Tribune of the plebs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_tribune" title="Military tribune">Military tribune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quaestor" title="Quaestor">Quaestor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aedile" title="Aedile">Aedile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Promagistrate" title="Promagistrate">Promagistrate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_governor" title="Roman governor">Governor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Extraordinary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/King_of_Rome" title="King of Rome">Rex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interrex" title="Interrex">Interrex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_dictator" title="Roman dictator">Dictator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magister_equitum" title="Magister equitum">Magister equitum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decemviri" title="Decemviri">Decemviri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribuni_militum_consulari_potestate" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribuni militum consulari potestate">Consular tribune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triumvirate_(ancient_Rome)" title="Triumvirate (ancient Rome)">Triumvir</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Military_of_ancient_Rome" title="Military of ancient Rome">Military</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_ancient_Rome" title="Military history of ancient Rome">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Borders_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Borders of the Roman Empire">Borders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_establishment_of_the_Roman_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Military establishment of the Roman Republic">Establishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Structural history of the Roman military">Structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campaign_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Campaign history of the Roman military">Campaigns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Political history of the Roman military">Political control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategy_of_the_Roman_military" title="Strategy of the Roman military">Strategy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_engineering" title="Roman military engineering">Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_frontiers_and_fortifications" title="Roman military frontiers and fortifications">Frontiers and fortifications</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Castra" title="Castra">castra</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Technological history of the Roman military">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_army" title="Roman army">Army</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_legion" title="Roman legion">Legion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_infantry_tactics" title="Roman infantry tactics">Infantry tactics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_personal_equipment" title="Roman military personal equipment">Personal equipment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_siege_engines" title="Roman siege engines">Siege engines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_(Roman_history)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege (Roman history)">Siege in Ancient Rome</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_navy" title="Roman navy">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auxilia" title="Auxilia">Auxiliaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_decorations_and_punishments" title="Roman military decorations and punishments">Decorations and punishments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippika_gymnasia" title="Hippika gymnasia">Hippika gymnasia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_economy" title="Roman economy">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_ancient_Rome" title="Agriculture in ancient Rome">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_during_the_Roman_period" title="Deforestation during the Roman period">Deforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_commerce" title="Roman commerce">Commerce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_finance" title="Roman finance">Finance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_currency" title="Roman currency">Currency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republican_currency" title="Roman Republican currency">Republican currency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Imperial_currency" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Imperial currency">Imperial currency</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_ancient_Rome" title="Culture of ancient Rome">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_architecture" title="Ancient Roman architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_art" title="Roman art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_bathing" title="Ancient Roman bathing">Bathing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_calendar" title="Roman calendar">Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clothing_in_ancient_Rome" title="Clothing in ancient Rome">Clothing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmetics_in_ancient_Rome" title="Cosmetics in ancient Rome">Cosmetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_cuisine" title="Ancient Roman cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_ancient_Rome" title="Education in ancient Rome">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_folklore" title="Roman folklore">Folklore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_hairstyles" title="Roman hairstyles">Hairstyles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_literature" title="Latin literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_ancient_Rome" title="Music of ancient Rome">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_mythology" title="Roman mythology">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">Religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_deities" title="List of Roman deities">Deities</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanization_(cultural)" title="Romanization (cultural)">Romanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_people" title="Roman people">Romans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexuality_in_ancient_Rome" title="Sexuality in ancient Rome">Sexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spectacles_in_ancient_Rome" title="Spectacles in ancient Rome">Spectacles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_ancient_Rome" title="Theatre of ancient Rome">Theatre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toys_and_games_in_ancient_Rome" title="Toys and games in ancient Rome">Toys and games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome_and_wine" title="Ancient Rome and wine">Wine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_ancient_Rome" title="Social class in ancient Rome">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Patrician_(ancient_Rome)" title="Patrician (ancient Rome)">Patricians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plebeians" title="Plebeians">Plebs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_of_the_Orders" title="Conflict of the Orders">Conflict of the Orders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secessio_plebis" title="Secessio plebis">Secessio plebis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equites" title="Equites">Equites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gens" title="Gens">Gens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_tribe" title="Roman tribe">Tribes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribal Assembly">Assembly</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patronage_in_ancient_Rome" title="Patronage in ancient Rome">Patronage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_naming_conventions" title="Roman naming conventions">Naming conventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demography_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Demography of the Roman Empire">Demography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_ancient_Rome" title="Women in ancient Rome">Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marriage_in_ancient_Rome" title="Marriage in ancient Rome">Marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adoption_in_ancient_Rome" title="Adoption in ancient Rome">Adoption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Rome" title="Slavery in ancient Rome">Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bagaudae" title="Bagaudae">Bagaudae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_technology" title="Ancient Roman technology">Technology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_amphitheatre" title="Roman amphitheatre">Amphitheatres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_aqueduct" title="Roman aqueduct">Aqueducts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_bridge" title="Roman bridge">Bridges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_circus" title="Roman circus">Circuses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_engineering" title="Ancient Roman engineering">Civil engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_concrete" title="Roman concrete">Concrete</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Roman_and_Byzantine_domes" title="History of Roman and Byzantine domes">Domes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_metallurgy" title="Roman metallurgy">Metallurgy</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Numerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_roads" title="Roman roads">Roads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanitation_in_ancient_Rome" title="Sanitation in ancient Rome">Sanitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ships_of_ancient_Rome" title="Ships of ancient Rome">Ships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_temple" title="Roman temple">Temples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_theatre_(structure)" title="Roman theatre (structure)">Theatres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermae" title="Thermae">Thermae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Latin" title="History of Latin">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_alphabet" title="Latin alphabet">Alphabet</a></li> <li>Versions <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Latin" title="Old Latin">Old</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Latin" title="Classical Latin">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vulgar_Latin" title="Vulgar Latin">Vulgar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Latin" title="Late Latin">Late</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Latin" title="Medieval Latin">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_Latin" title="Renaissance Latin">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Latin" title="Neo-Latin">Neo-Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_Latin" title="Contemporary Latin">Contemporary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecclesiastical_Latin" title="Ecclesiastical Latin">Ecclesiastical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance languages</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Writers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Latin_literature" title="Latin literature">Latin</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aelius_Donatus" title="Aelius Donatus">Aelius Donatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus" title="Ammianus Marcellinus">Ammianus Marcellinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apuleius" title="Apuleius">Appuleius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Asconius_Pedianus" title="Quintus Asconius Pedianus">Asconius Pedianus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aurelius_Victor" title="Aurelius Victor">Aurelius Victor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ausonius" title="Ausonius">Ausonius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boethius" title="Boethius">Boëthius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catullus" title="Catullus">Catullus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cassiodorus" title="Cassiodorus">Cassiodorus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Censorinus" title="Censorinus">Censorinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claudian" title="Claudian">Claudian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columella" title="Columella">Columella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornelius_Nepos" title="Cornelius Nepos">Cornelius Nepos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ennius" title="Ennius">Ennius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eutropius_(historian)" title="Eutropius (historian)">Eutropius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Fabius_Pictor" title="Quintus Fabius Pictor">Fabius Pictor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sextus_Pompeius_Festus" title="Sextus Pompeius Festus">Sextus Pompeius Festus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Festus_(historian)" title="Festus (historian)">Rufus Festus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Works_attributed_to_Florus" class="mw-redirect" title="Works attributed to Florus">Florus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frontinus" title="Frontinus">Frontinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Cornelius_Fronto" title="Marcus Cornelius Fronto">Fronto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fabius_Planciades_Fulgentius" title="Fabius Planciades Fulgentius">Fulgentius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aulus_Gellius" title="Aulus Gellius">Gellius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horace" title="Horace">Horace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydatius" title="Hydatius">Hydatius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaius_Julius_Hyginus" title="Gaius Julius Hyginus">Hyginus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerome" title="Jerome">Jerome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jordanes" title="Jordanes">Jordanes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Paulus" title="Julius Paulus">Julius Paulus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justin_(historian)" title="Justin (historian)">Justin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juvenal" title="Juvenal">Juvenal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lactantius" title="Lactantius">Lactantius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Livy" title="Livy">Livy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucan" title="Lucan">Lucan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucretius" title="Lucretius">Lucretius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macrobius" title="Macrobius">Macrobius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcellus_Empiricus" title="Marcellus Empiricus">Marcellus Empiricus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius" title="Marcus Aurelius">Marcus Aurelius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Manilius" title="Marcus Manilius">Manilius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martial" title="Martial">Martial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolaus_of_Damascus" title="Nicolaus of Damascus">Nicolaus Damascenus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonius_Marcellus" title="Nonius Marcellus">Nonius Marcellus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Obsequens" title="Julius Obsequens">Obsequens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orosius" title="Orosius">Orosius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ovid" title="Ovid">Ovid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petronius" title="Petronius">Petronius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phaedrus_(fabulist)" title="Phaedrus (fabulist)">Phaedrus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plautus" title="Plautus">Plautus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Younger" title="Pliny the Younger">Pliny the Younger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomponius_Mela" title="Pomponius Mela">Pomponius Mela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priscian" title="Priscian">Priscian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propertius" title="Propertius">Propertius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Claudius_Quadrigarius" title="Quintus Claudius Quadrigarius">Quadrigarius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintilian" title="Quintilian">Quintilian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Curtius_Rufus" title="Quintus Curtius Rufus">Quintus Curtius Rufus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sallust" title="Sallust">Sallust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Elder" title="Seneca the Elder">Seneca the Elder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Younger" title="Seneca the Younger">Seneca the Younger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurus_Servius_Honoratus" class="mw-redirect" title="Maurus Servius Honoratus">Servius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidonius_Apollinaris" title="Sidonius Apollinaris">Sidonius Apollinaris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silius_Italicus" title="Silius Italicus">Silius Italicus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statius" title="Statius">Statius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suetonius" title="Suetonius">Suetonius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Aurelius_Symmachus" title="Quintus Aurelius Symmachus">Symmachus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tacitus" title="Tacitus">Tacitus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terence" title="Terence">Terence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibullus" title="Tibullus">Tibullus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valerius_Antias" title="Valerius Antias">Valerius Antias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valerius_Maximus" title="Valerius Maximus">Valerius Maximus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Terentius_Varro" title="Marcus Terentius Varro">Varro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Velleius_Paterculus" title="Velleius Paterculus">Velleius Paterculus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verrius_Flaccus" title="Verrius Flaccus">Verrius Flaccus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virgil" title="Virgil">Vergil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitruvius" title="Vitruvius">Vitruvius</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_literature" title="Ancient Greek literature">Greek</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Claudius_Aelianus" title="Claudius Aelianus">Aelian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A%C3%ABtius_of_Amida" title="Aëtius of Amida">Aëtius of Amida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appian" title="Appian">Appian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arrian" title="Arrian">Arrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cassius_Dio" title="Cassius Dio">Cassius Dio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diodorus_Siculus" title="Diodorus Siculus">Diodorus Siculus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diogenes_La%C3%ABrtius" class="mw-redirect" title="Diogenes Laërtius">Diogenes Laërtius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dionysius_of_Halicarnassus" title="Dionysius of Halicarnassus">Dionysius of Halicarnassus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedanius_Dioscorides" title="Pedanius Dioscorides">Dioscorides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eusebius" title="Eusebius">Eusebius of Caesaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galen" title="Galen">Galen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herodian" title="Herodian">Herodian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josephus" title="Josephus">Josephus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_(emperor)" title="Julian (emperor)">Julian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libanius" title="Libanius">Libanius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucian" title="Lucian">Lucian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pausanias_(geographer)" title="Pausanias (geographer)">Pausanias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philostratus" title="Philostratus">Philostratus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phlegon_of_Tralles" title="Phlegon of Tralles">Phlegon of Tralles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photios_I_of_Constantinople" title="Photios I of Constantinople">Photius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyaenus" title="Polyaenus">Polyaenus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porphyry_(philosopher)" title="Porphyry (philosopher)">Porphyrius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priscus" title="Priscus">Priscus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Procopius" title="Procopius">Procopius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simplicius_of_Cilicia" title="Simplicius of Cilicia">Simplicius of Cilicia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sozomen" title="Sozomen">Sozomen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephanus_of_Byzantium" title="Stephanus of Byzantium">Stephanus Byzantinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strabo" title="Strabo">Strabo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Themistius" title="Themistius">Themistius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodoret" title="Theodoret">Theodoret</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joannes_Zonaras" title="Joannes Zonaras">Zonaras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zosimus_(historian)" title="Zosimus (historian)">Zosimus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Major cities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antioch" title="Antioch">Antioch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquileia" title="Aquileia">Aquileia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berytus" title="Berytus">Berytus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bologna" title="Bologna">Bononia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carthage" title="Carthage">Carthage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinopolis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eboracum" title="Eboracum">Eboracum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leptis_Magna" title="Leptis Magna">Leptis Magna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Londinium" title="Londinium">Londinium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lugdunum" title="Lugdunum">Lugdunum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lutetia" title="Lutetia">Lutetia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mediolanum" title="Mediolanum">Mediolanum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pompeii" title="Pompeii">Pompeii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ravenna" title="Ravenna">Ravenna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Roma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smyrna" title="Smyrna">Smyrna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vindobona" title="Vindobona">Vindobona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volubilis" title="Volubilis">Volubilis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists <span class="nobold">and other<br />topics</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_founded_by_the_Romans" title="List of cities founded by the Romans">Cities and towns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_of_ancient_Rome" title="Climate of ancient Rome">Climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_consuls" title="List of Roman consuls">Consuls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_dictators" title="List of Roman dictators">Dictators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_women" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Roman women">Distinguished women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_dynasties" title="List of Roman dynasties">Dynasties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_emperors" title="List of Roman emperors">Emperors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_and_Byzantine_empresses" title="List of Roman and Byzantine empresses">Empresses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiction_set_in_ancient_Rome" class="mw-redirect" title="Fiction set in ancient Rome">Fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_films_set_in_ancient_Rome" title="List of films set in ancient Rome">Film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_generals" title="List of Roman generals">Generals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_gentes" title="List of Roman gentes">Gentes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Graeco-Roman_geographers" title="List of Graeco-Roman geographers">Geographers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_institutions_of_ancient_Rome" title="Political institutions of ancient Rome">Institutions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_laws" title="List of Roman laws">Laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Legacy of the Roman Empire">Legacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_legions" title="List of Roman legions">Legions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_dictators" title="List of Roman dictators">Magistri equitum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_nomina" title="List of Roman nomina">Nomina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_pontifices_maximi" title="List of pontifices maximi">Pontifices maximi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_praetors" title="List of Roman praetors">Praetors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_quaestors" title="List of Roman quaestors">Quaestors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_tribunes" title="List of Roman tribunes">Tribunes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Iranian_relations" title="Roman–Iranian relations">Roman–Iranian relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_external_wars_and_battles" title="List of Roman external wars and battles">External wars and battles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_civil_wars_and_revolts" title="List of Roman civil wars and revolts">Civil wars and revolts</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Types_of_writing_systems" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:List_of_writing_systems" title="Template:List of writing systems"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:List_of_writing_systems" title="Template talk:List of writing systems"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:List_of_writing_systems" title="Special:EditPage/Template:List of writing systems"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Types_of_writing_systems" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_writing_systems" title="List of writing systems">Types</a> of <a href="/wiki/Writing_system" title="Writing system">writing systems</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em">Overview</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_writing" title="History of writing">History of writing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grapheme" title="Grapheme">Grapheme</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_writing_systems" title="List of writing systems">Writing systems</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Undeciphered_writing_systems" title="Undeciphered writing systems">undeciphered</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_creators_of_writing_systems" title="List of creators of writing systems">inventors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_constructed_scripts" title="List of constructed scripts">constructed</a></li></ul></li> <li>Languages by writing system / <a href="/wiki/List_of_languages_by_first_written_accounts" class="mw-redirect" title="List of languages by first written accounts">by first written accounts</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible expanded navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Types" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_writing_systems" title="List of writing systems">Types</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Abjads" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Abjad" title="Abjad">Abjads</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Abjad_numerals" title="Abjad numerals">Numerals</a></i></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aramaic_alphabet" title="Aramaic alphabet">Aramaic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hatran_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Hatran alphabet">Hatran</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_script" title="Arabic script">Arabic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Elifba_alphabet" title="Elifba alphabet">Elifba</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_hieroglyphs" title="Egyptian hieroglyphs">Egyptian hieroglyphs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elymaic" title="Elymaic">Elymaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_alphabet" title="Hebrew alphabet">Hebrew</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ktav_Ashuri" title="Ktav Ashuri">Ashuri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cursive_Hebrew" title="Cursive Hebrew">Cursive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rashi_script" title="Rashi script">Rashi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solitreo" title="Solitreo">Solitreo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tifinagh" title="Tifinagh">Tifinagh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandaic_alphabet" title="Mandaic alphabet">Mandaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manichaean_script" title="Manichaean script">Manichaean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nabataean_script" title="Nabataean script">Nabataean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_North_Arabian" title="Ancient North Arabian">Ancient North Arabian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pahlavi_scripts" title="Pahlavi scripts">Pahlavi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Book_Pahlavi" class="mw-redirect" title="Book Pahlavi">Book</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inscriptional_Pahlavi" title="Inscriptional Pahlavi">Inscriptional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inscriptional_Parthian" title="Inscriptional Parthian">Inscriptional Parthian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psalter_Pahlavi" title="Psalter Pahlavi">Psalter</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pegon_script" title="Pegon script">Pegon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoenician_alphabet" title="Phoenician alphabet">Phoenician</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paleo-Hebrew_alphabet" title="Paleo-Hebrew alphabet">Paleo-Hebrew</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pitman_shorthand" title="Pitman shorthand">Pitman shorthand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Sinaitic_script" title="Proto-Sinaitic script">Proto-Sinaitic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punic_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Punic alphabet">Punic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samaritan_script" title="Samaritan script">Samaritan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_South_Arabian_script" title="Ancient South Arabian script">South Arabian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_South_Arabian_script#Zabur_script" title="Ancient South Arabian script">Zabur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_South_Arabian_script#Musnad" title="Ancient South Arabian script">Musnad</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sogdian_alphabet" title="Sogdian alphabet">Sogdian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syriac_alphabet" title="Syriac alphabet">Syriac</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Syriac_alphabet#Classical_ʾEsṭrangēlā" title="Syriac alphabet">ʾEsṭrangēlā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syriac_alphabet#West_Syriac_Serṭā" title="Syriac alphabet">Serṭā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syriac_alphabet#East_Syriac_Maḏnḥāyā" title="Syriac alphabet">Maḏnḥāyā</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teeline_Shorthand" class="mw-redirect" title="Teeline Shorthand">Teeline Shorthand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ugaritic_alphabet" title="Ugaritic alphabet">Ugaritic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Abugidas" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Abugida" title="Abugida">Abugidas</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5em"><a href="/wiki/Brahmic_scripts" title="Brahmic scripts">Brahmic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5em">Northern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bengali%E2%80%93Assamese_script" title="Bengali–Assamese script">Bengali–Assamese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhaiksuki_script" title="Bhaiksuki script">Bhaiksuki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahmi_script" title="Brahmi script">Brahmi script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Devanagari" title="Devanagari">Devanagari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dogri_script" title="Dogri script">Dogri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gujarati_script" title="Gujarati script">Gujarati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gupta_script" title="Gupta script">Gupta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gurmukhi" title="Gurmukhi">Gurmukhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaithi" title="Kaithi">Kaithi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalinga_script" title="Kalinga script">Kalinga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khema_script" title="Khema script">Khema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khojki_script" title="Khojki script">Khojki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khudabadi_script" title="Khudabadi script">Khudabadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/La%E1%B9%87%E1%B8%8D%C4%81_scripts" title="Laṇḍā scripts">Laṇḍā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lepcha_script" title="Lepcha script">Lepcha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahajani" title="Mahajani">Mahajani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marchen_script" title="Marchen script">Marchen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meitei_script" title="Meitei script">Meitei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modi_script" title="Modi script">Modi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multani_script" title="Multani script">Multani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N%C4%81gar%C4%AB_script" title="Nāgarī script">Nagari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nandinagari" title="Nandinagari">Nandinagari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepalese_scripts" title="Nepalese scripts">Nepalese scripts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bhujimol_script" title="Bhujimol script">Bhujimol</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Golmol_script&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Golmol script (page does not exist)">Golmol</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Himmol_script&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Himmol script (page does not exist)">Himmol</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kummol_script&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kummol script (page does not exist)">Kummol</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kvemmol_script&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kvemmol script (page does not exist)">Kvemmol</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pachumol_script&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pachumol script (page does not exist)">Pachumol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pracalit_script" title="Pracalit script">Pracalit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ranjana_script" title="Ranjana script">Ranjana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamyig_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Tamyig script">Tamyig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tirhuta_script" title="Tirhuta script">Tirhuta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limbu_script" title="Limbu script">Limbu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepalese_scripts" title="Nepalese scripts">Litumol</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odia_script" title="Odia script">Odia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Karani_script" title="Karani script">Karani</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%CA%BCPhags-pa_script" title="ʼPhags-pa script">ʼPhags-pa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sharada_script" title="Sharada script">Sharada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siddha%E1%B9%83_script" title="Siddhaṃ script">Siddhaṃ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soyombo_script" title="Soyombo script">Soyombo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sylheti_Nagri" title="Sylheti Nagri">Sylheti Nagri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Takri_script" title="Takri script">Takri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_script" title="Tibetan script">Tibetan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Uchen_script" title="Uchen script">Uchen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Um%C3%AA_script" title="Umê script">Umê</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tocharian_script" title="Tocharian script">Tocharian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zanabazar_square_script" title="Zanabazar square script">Zanabazar square</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5em">Southern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ahom_script" title="Ahom script">Ahom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balinese_script" title="Balinese script">Balinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Batak_script" title="Batak script">Batak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baybayin" title="Baybayin">Baybayin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhattiprolu_script" title="Bhattiprolu script">Bhattiprolu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buda_script" title="Buda script">Buda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buhid_script" title="Buhid script">Buhid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chakma_script" title="Chakma script">Chakma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cham_script" title="Cham script">Cham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fakkham_script" title="Fakkham script">Fakkham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grantha_script" title="Grantha script">Grantha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goykanadi" title="Goykanadi">Goykanadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanunoo_script" title="Hanunoo script">Hanunoo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Javanese_script" title="Javanese script">Javanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kadamba_script" title="Kadamba script">Kadamba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kannada_script" title="Kannada script">Kannada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%27gaw_Karen_alphabet" title="S'gaw Karen alphabet">Karen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kawi_script" title="Kawi script">Kawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khmer_script" title="Khmer script">Khmer</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Khom_Thai_script" title="Khom Thai script">Khom Thai</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kulitan" title="Kulitan">Kulitan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tai_Tham_script" title="Tai Tham script">Lanna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Langdi" title="Langdi">Langdi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lao_script" title="Lao script">Lao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leke_script" title="Leke script">Leke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lontara_script" title="Lontara script">Lontara</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lontara_Bilang-bilang_script" title="Lontara Bilang-bilang script">Bilang-bilang</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Makasar_script" title="Makasar script">Makasar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malayalam_script" title="Malayalam script">Malayalam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maldivian_writing_systems" title="Maldivian writing systems">Old Maldivian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dhives_Akuru" title="Dhives Akuru">Dhives Akuru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eveyla_Akuru" class="mw-redirect" title="Eveyla Akuru">Eveyla Akuru</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mon%E2%80%93Burmese_script" title="Mon–Burmese script">Mon–Burmese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pallava_script" title="Pallava script">Pallava</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyu_script" title="Pyu script">Pyu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saurashtra_script" title="Saurashtra script">Saurashtra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shan_alphabet" title="Shan alphabet">Shan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinhala_script" title="Sinhala script">Sinhala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sukhothai_script" title="Sukhothai script">Sukhothai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sundanese_script" title="Sundanese script">Sundanese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Sundanese_script" title="Old Sundanese script">Old Sundanese</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tagbanwa_script" title="Tagbanwa script">Tagbanwa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tai_Le_script" title="Tai Le script">Tai Le</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Tai_Lue_alphabet" title="New Tai Lue alphabet">New Tai Lue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tai_Noi_script" title="Tai Noi script">Tai Noi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tai_Tham_script" title="Tai Tham script">Tai Tham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tai_Viet_script" title="Tai Viet script">Tai Viet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lai_Tay_script" title="Lai Tay script">Lai Tay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamil_script" title="Tamil script">Tamil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamil-Brahmi" title="Tamil-Brahmi">Tamil-Brahmi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanchangya_script" title="Tanchangya script">Tanchangya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telugu_script" title="Telugu script">Telugu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thai_script" title="Thai script">Thai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tigalari_script" title="Tigalari script">Tigalari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulu_scripts" title="Ulu scripts">Ulu scripts</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Incung_script&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Incung script (page does not exist)">Incung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lampung_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Lampung script">Lampung</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lembak_script&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lembak script (page does not exist)">Lembak</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ogan_script&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ogan script (page does not exist)">Ogan</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pasemah_script&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pasemah script (page does not exist)">Pasemah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rejang_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Rejang script">Rejang</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Serawai_script&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Serawai script (page does not exist)">Serawai</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vatteluttu" title="Vatteluttu">Vatteluttu</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kolezhuthu" class="mw-redirect" title="Kolezhuthu">Kolezhuthu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malayanma" title="Malayanma">Malayanma</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5em">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bharati_script" title="Bharati script">Bharati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boyd%27s_syllabic_shorthand" title="Boyd's syllabic shorthand">Boyd's syllabic shorthand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_Aboriginal_syllabics" title="Canadian Aboriginal syllabics">Canadian syllabics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blackfoot_language#Writing_system" title="Blackfoot language">Blackfoot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carrier_syllabics" title="Carrier syllabics">Déné syllabics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dham_script" title="Dham script">Dham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fox_language#Writing_systems" title="Fox language">Fox I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ge%CA%BDez_script" title="Geʽez script">Geʽez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gunjala_Gondi_script" title="Gunjala Gondi script">Gunjala Gondi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_Braille" title="Japanese Braille">Japanese Braille</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarati" title="Sarati">Sarati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunwar_language#Writing_Systems" title="Sunwar language">Jenticha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kharosthi" title="Kharosthi">Kharosthi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandombe_script" title="Mandombe script">Mandombe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gondi_writing" title="Gondi writing">Masaram Gondi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meroitic_script" title="Meroitic script">Meroitic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollard_script" title="Pollard script">Miao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mwangwego_script" title="Mwangwego script">Mwangwego</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pahawh_Hmong" title="Pahawh Hmong">Pahawh Hmong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sorang_Sompeng_script" title="Sorang Sompeng script">Sorang Sompeng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tengwar" title="Tengwar">Tengwar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thaana" title="Thaana">Thaana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Natural_Shorthand" title="Thomas Natural Shorthand">Thomas Natural Shorthand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warang_Citi" title="Warang Citi">Warang Citi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mwangwego_script" title="Mwangwego script">Mwangwego</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qiang_language" title="Qiang language">Rma</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Alphabets" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Alphabet" title="Alphabet">Alphabets</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em">Linear</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adlam_script" title="Adlam script">Adlam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ariyaka_script" title="Ariyaka script">Ariyaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_alphabet" title="Armenian alphabet">Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avestan_alphabet" title="Avestan alphabet">Avestan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pazend" title="Pazend">Pazend</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avoiuli" title="Avoiuli">Avoiuli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bassa_Vah_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Bassa Vah script">Bassa Vah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carian_alphabets" title="Carian alphabets">Carian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caucasian_Albanian_script" title="Caucasian Albanian script">Caucasian Albanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cirth" title="Cirth">Cirth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coelbren_y_Beirdd" title="Coelbren y Beirdd">Coelbren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coorgi%E2%80%93Cox_alphabet" title="Coorgi–Cox alphabet">Coorgi–Cox alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coptic_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Coptic alphabet">Coptic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyrillic_script" title="Cyrillic script">Cyrillic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bosnian_Cyrillic" title="Bosnian Cyrillic">Bosnian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Cyrillic_alphabet" title="Early Cyrillic alphabet">Early</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deseret_alphabet" title="Deseret alphabet">Deseret</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duployan_shorthand" title="Duployan shorthand">Duployan shorthand</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Duployan_shorthand#Chinook_writing" title="Duployan shorthand">Chinook</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eclectic_shorthand" title="Eclectic shorthand">Eclectic shorthand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elbasan_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Elbasan script">Elbasan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enochian" title="Enochian">Enochian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etruscan_alphabet" title="Etruscan alphabet">Etruscan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Psalmanazar#Pseudo-lexicographer" title="George Psalmanazar">Formosan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fox_language#Writing_systems" title="Fox language">Fox II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fraser_script" title="Fraser script">Fraser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabelsberger_shorthand" title="Gabelsberger shorthand">Gabelsberger shorthand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gadabuursi_Somali_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Gadabuursi Somali script">Gadabuursi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garay_alphabet" title="Garay alphabet">Garay alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_scripts" title="Georgian scripts">Georgian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asomtavruli" class="mw-redirect" title="Asomtavruli">Asomtavruli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuskhuri" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuskhuri">Nuskhuri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mkhedruli" class="mw-redirect" title="Mkhedruli">Mkhedruli</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veso_Bey_alphabet" title="Veso Bey alphabet">Veso Bey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glagolitic_script" title="Glagolitic script">Glagolitic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_alphabet" title="Gothic alphabet">Gothic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gregg_shorthand" title="Gregg shorthand">Gregg shorthand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_alphabet" title="Greek alphabet">Greek</a> (<a href="/wiki/Archaic_Greek_alphabets" title="Archaic Greek alphabets">Archaic</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Iberian_alphabet" title="Greco-Iberian alphabet">Greco-Iberian alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hangul" title="Hangul">Hangul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanifi_Rohingya_script" title="Hanifi Rohingya script">Hanifi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunwar_language#Writing_Systems" title="Sunwar language">Jenticha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaddare_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Kaddare script">Kaddare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kayah_Li_alphabet" title="Kayah Li alphabet">Kayah Li</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Klingon_scripts" title="Klingon scripts">Klingon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_script" title="Latin script">Latin</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beneventan_script" title="Beneventan script">Beneventan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackletter" title="Blackletter">Blackletter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carolingian_minuscule" title="Carolingian minuscule">Carolingian minuscule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fraktur" title="Fraktur">Fraktur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaelic_type" title="Gaelic type">Gaelic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insular_script" title="Insular script">Insular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interlac" class="mw-redirect" title="Interlac">Interlac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">IPA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurrent" title="Kurrent">Kurrent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merovingian_script" title="Merovingian script">Merovingian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scribal_abbreviation" title="Scribal abbreviation">Sigla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%BCtterlin" title="Sütterlin">Sütterlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tironian_notes" title="Tironian notes">Tironian notes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visigothic_script" title="Visigothic script">Visigothic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luo_script" title="Luo script">Luo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lycian_alphabet" title="Lycian alphabet">Lycian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lydian_alphabet" title="Lydian alphabet">Lydian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchu_alphabet" title="Manchu alphabet">Manchu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medefaidrin" title="Medefaidrin">Medefaidrin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molodtsov_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Molodtsov alphabet">Molodtsov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mru_language#Script" title="Mru language">Mru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mundari_Bani" title="Mundari Bani">Mundari Bani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N%27Ko_script" title="N'Ko script">N'Ko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ogham" title="Ogham">Ogham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ol_Chiki_script" title="Ol Chiki script">Ol Chiki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Hungarian_script" title="Old Hungarian script">Old Hungarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Italic_scripts" title="Old Italic scripts">Old Italic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Permic_script" title="Old Permic script">Old Permic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Turkic_script" title="Old Turkic script">Orkhon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Uyghur_alphabet" title="Old Uyghur alphabet">Old Uyghur</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mongolian_script" title="Mongolian script">Mongolian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evenki_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Evenki alphabet">Evenki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galik_alphabet" title="Galik alphabet">Galik alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchu_alphabet" title="Manchu alphabet">Manchu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clear_Script" title="Clear Script">Oirat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vagindra_script" title="Vagindra script">Vagindra</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ol_Onal" title="Ol Onal">Ol Onal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osage_script" title="Osage script">Osage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osmanya_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Osmanya script">Osmanya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pau_Cin_Hau_script" title="Pau Cin Hau script">Pau Cin Hau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phrygian_alphabet" title="Phrygian alphabet">Phrygian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pisidian_language" title="Pisidian language">Pisidian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Runes" class="mw-redirect" title="Runes">Runic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_runes" title="Anglo-Saxon runes">Anglo-Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cipher_runes" title="Cipher runes">Cipher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dalecarlian_runes" title="Dalecarlian runes">Dalecarlian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elder_Futhark" title="Elder Futhark">Elder Futhark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Younger_Futhark" title="Younger Futhark">Younger Futhark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_runic_inscriptions" title="Gothic runic inscriptions">Gothic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcomannic_runes" class="mw-redirect" title="Marcomannic runes">Marcomannic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_runes" title="Medieval runes">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Staveless_runes" title="Staveless runes">Staveless</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shavian_alphabet" title="Shavian alphabet">Shavian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidetic_language" title="Sidetic language">Sidetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sorang_Sompeng_script" title="Sorang Sompeng script">Sorang Sompeng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunuwar_alphabet" title="Sunuwar alphabet">Sunuwar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tifinagh" title="Tifinagh">Tifinagh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Todhri_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Todhri script">Todhri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurukh_language#Writing_systems" title="Kurukh language">Tolong Siki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vellara_alphabet" title="Vellara alphabet">Vellara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visible_Speech" title="Visible Speech">Visible Speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vithkuqi_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Vithkuqi script">Vithkuqi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wancho_language#Orthography" title="Wancho language">Wancho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warang_Citi" title="Warang Citi">Warang Citi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurdish_alphabets#Yezidi" title="Kurdish alphabets">Yezidi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zaghawa_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Zaghawa script">Zaghawa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em">Non-linear</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Braille" title="Braille">Braille</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_maritime_signal_flags" title="International maritime signal flags">Maritime flags</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telegraph_code" title="Telegraph code">Telegraph code</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_York_Point" title="New York Point">New York Point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_semaphore" title="Flag semaphore">Flag semaphore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moon_type" title="Moon type">Moon type</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Ideograms" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ideogram" title="Ideogram">Ideograms</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adinkra_symbols" title="Adinkra symbols">Adinkra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_script" title="Aztec script">Aztec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blissymbols" title="Blissymbols">Blissymbols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dongba_symbols" title="Dongba symbols">Dongba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ersu_Shaba_script" title="Ersu Shaba script">Ersu Shaba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emoji" title="Emoji">Emoji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isotype_(picture_language)" title="Isotype (picture language)">Isotype</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaid%C4%81_glyphs" title="Kaidā glyphs">Kaidā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mi%EA%9E%8Ckmaw_hieroglyphic_writing" class="mw-redirect" title="Miꞌkmaw hieroglyphic writing">Miꞌkmaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixtec_writing" title="Mixtec writing">Mixtec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Epoch_Notation_Painting" class="mw-redirect" title="New Epoch Notation Painting">New Epoch Notation Painting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nsibidi" title="Nsibidi">Nsibidi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ojibwe_writing_systems#Ojibwe_"hieroglyphs"" title="Ojibwe writing systems">Ojibwe Hieroglyphs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olmec_hieroglyphs" title="Olmec hieroglyphs">Olmec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siglas_poveiras" title="Siglas poveiras">Siglas poveiras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Testerian" title="Testerian">Testerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yerkish" title="Yerkish">Yerkish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zapotec_script" title="Zapotec script">Zapotec</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Logograms" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Logogram" title="Logogram">Logograms</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_family_of_scripts" title="Chinese family of scripts">Chinese family of scripts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_characters" title="Chinese characters">Chinese characters</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Simplified_Chinese_characters" title="Simplified Chinese characters">Simplified</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">Traditional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oracle_bone_script" title="Oracle bone script">Oracle bone script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_bronze_inscriptions" title="Chinese bronze inscriptions">Bronze scripts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seal_script" title="Seal script">Seal script</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Large_seal_script" title="Large seal script">large</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Small_seal_script" title="Small seal script">small</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bird-worm_seal_script" title="Bird-worm seal script">bird-worm</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanja" title="Hanja">Hanja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanji" title="Kanji">Kanji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ch%E1%BB%AF_N%C3%B4m" title="Chữ Nôm">Chữ Nôm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sawndip" title="Sawndip">Sawndip</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bowen_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Bowen script">Bowen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em">Chinese-influenced</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jurchen_script" title="Jurchen script">Jurchen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khitan_large_script" title="Khitan large script">Khitan large script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sui_script" title="Sui script">Sui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tangut_script" title="Tangut script">Tangut</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em"><a href="/wiki/Cuneiform" title="Cuneiform">Cuneiform</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_cuneiform" class="mw-redirect" title="Akkadian cuneiform">Akkadian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrian_cuneiform" class="mw-redirect" title="Assyrian cuneiform">Assyrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elamite_cuneiform" title="Elamite cuneiform">Elamite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hittite_cuneiform" title="Hittite cuneiform">Hittite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuneiform_Luwian" class="mw-redirect" title="Cuneiform Luwian">Luwian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuneiform" title="Cuneiform">Sumerian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em">Other logosyllabic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anatolian_hieroglyphs" title="Anatolian hieroglyphs">Anatolian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bagam_script" title="Bagam script">Bagam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cretan_hieroglyphs" title="Cretan hieroglyphs">Cretan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isthmian_script" title="Isthmian script">Isthmian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_script" title="Maya script">Maya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Elamite_script" title="Proto-Elamite script">Proto-Elamite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tenevil" title="Tenevil">Tenevil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yi_script#Classical_Yi" title="Yi script">Yi (Classical)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em">Logoconsonantal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Demotic_(Egyptian)" title="Demotic (Egyptian)">Demotic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hieratic" title="Hieratic">Hieratic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_hieroglyphs" title="Egyptian hieroglyphs">Hieroglyphs</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em">Numerals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindu%E2%80%93Arabic_numeral_system" title="Hindu–Arabic numeral system">Hindu-Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abjad_numerals" title="Abjad numerals">Abjad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attic_numerals" title="Attic numerals">Attic (Greek)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muisca_numerals" title="Muisca numerals">Muisca</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Roman</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sitelen_Pona" title="Sitelen Pona">Sitelen Pona</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Semi-syllabaries" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Semi-syllabaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Semi-syllabaries">Semi-syllabaries</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em">Full</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Linear_Elamite" title="Linear Elamite">Linear Elamite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtiberian_script" title="Celtiberian script">Celtiberian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northeastern_Iberian_script" title="Northeastern Iberian script">Northeastern Iberian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southeastern_Iberian_script" title="Southeastern Iberian script">Southeastern Iberian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khom_script_(Ong_Kommadam)" title="Khom script (Ong Kommadam)">Khom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dunging_script" title="Dunging script">Dunging</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em">Redundant</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Espanca_script" title="Espanca script">Espanca script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pahawh_Hmong" title="Pahawh Hmong">Pahawh Hmong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khitan_small_script" title="Khitan small script">Khitan small script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southwest_Paleohispanic_script" title="Southwest Paleohispanic script">Southwest Paleohispanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bopomofo" title="Bopomofo">Bopomofo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_writing_in_Vietnam#Quốc_Âm_Tân_Tự" title="History of writing in Vietnam">Quốc Âm Tân Tự</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Sign_languages" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Sign_language" title="Sign language">Sign languages</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ASLwrite" title="ASLwrite">ASLwrite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SignWriting" title="SignWriting">SignWriting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Si5s" title="Si5s">si5s</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stokoe_notation" title="Stokoe notation">Stokoe notation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Syllabaries" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Syllabary" title="Syllabary">Syllabaries</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afaka_syllabary" title="Afaka syllabary">Afaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bamum_script" title="Bamum script">Bamum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B%C3%A9t%C3%A9_syllabary" title="Bété syllabary">Bété</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byblos_syllabary" title="Byblos syllabary">Byblos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_Aboriginal_syllabics" title="Canadian Aboriginal syllabics">Canadian Aboriginal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_syllabary" title="Cherokee syllabary">Cherokee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cypriot_syllabary" title="Cypriot syllabary">Cypriot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cypro-Minoan_syllabary" title="Cypro-Minoan syllabary">Cypro-Minoan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ditema_tsa_Dinoko" title="Ditema tsa Dinoko">Ditema tsa Dinoko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eskayan_script" title="Eskayan script">Eskayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geba_syllabary" title="Geba syllabary">Geba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Lakes_Algonquian_syllabics" title="Great Lakes Algonquian syllabics">Great Lakes Algonquian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iban_language#Alphabet" title="Iban language">Iban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idu_script" title="Idu script">Idu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kana" title="Kana">Kana</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hiragana" title="Hiragana">Hiragana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katakana" title="Katakana">Katakana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Man%27y%C5%8Dgana" title="Man'yōgana">Man'yōgana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hentaigana" title="Hentaigana">Hentaigana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C5%8Dgana" title="Sōgana">Sōgana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jindai_moji" title="Jindai moji">Jindai moji</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mende_Kikakui_script" title="Mende Kikakui script">Kikakui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kpelle_syllabary" title="Kpelle syllabary">Kpelle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linear_B" title="Linear B">Linear B</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linear_Elamite" title="Linear Elamite">Linear Elamite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lisu_language#Lisu_syllabary" title="Lisu language">Lisu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loma_language#writing_systems" title="Loma language">Loma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N%C3%BCshu" title="Nüshu">Nüshu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nwagu_Aneke_script" title="Nwagu Aneke script">Nwagu Aneke script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Persian_cuneiform" title="Old Persian cuneiform">Old Persian cuneiform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuneiform" title="Cuneiform">Sumerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vai_syllabary" title="Vai syllabary">Vai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woleai_script" title="Woleai script">Woleai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yi_script#Modern_Yi" title="Yi script">Yi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yugtun_script" title="Yugtun script">Yugtun</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Braille" title="Template:Braille"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Braille" title="Template talk:Braille"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Braille" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Braille"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Braille_⠃⠗⠁⠊⠇⠇⠑" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Braille" title="Braille">Braille</a><span style="padding-left:0.5em;"> </span>⠃⠗⠁⠊⠇⠇⠑</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Braille cell</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1829_braille" title="1829 braille">1829 braille</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/International_uniformity_of_braille_alphabets" title="International uniformity of braille alphabets">International uniformity</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Braille_ASCII" title="Braille ASCII">ASCII braille</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Braille_Patterns" title="Braille Patterns">Unicode braille patterns</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Braille scripts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:French-ordered_braille_alphabets" title="Category:French-ordered braille alphabets">French-ordered</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Albanian_Braille" title="Albanian Braille">Albanian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Azeri_Braille" class="mw-redirect" title="Azeri Braille">Azerbaijani</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Cantonese_Braille" title="Cantonese Braille">Cantonese</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Catalan_Braille" title="Catalan Braille">Catalan</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Mainland_Chinese_Braille" title="Mainland Chinese Braille">Chinese (mainland Mandarin)</a> (largely reassigned)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Czech_Braille" title="Czech Braille">Czech</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Braille" title="Dutch Braille">Dutch</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/English_Braille" title="English Braille">English</a> (<a href="/wiki/Unified_English_Braille" title="Unified English Braille">Unified English</a>)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Esperanto_Braille" title="Esperanto Braille">Esperanto</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/French_Braille" title="French Braille">French</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/German_Braille" title="German Braille">German</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Ghanaian_braille" title="Ghanaian braille">Ghanaian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Guarani_Braille" title="Guarani Braille">Guarani</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hawaiian_Braille" title="Hawaiian Braille">Hawaiian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Braille" title="Hungarian Braille">Hungarian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/I%C3%B1upiaq_Braille" title="Iñupiaq Braille">Iñupiaq</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/IPA_Braille" title="IPA Braille">IPA</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Irish_Braille" title="Irish Braille">Irish</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Italian_Braille" title="Italian Braille">Italian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Latvian_Braille" title="Latvian Braille">Latvian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_Braille" title="Lithuanian Braille">Lithuanian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Luxembourgish_Braille" title="Luxembourgish Braille">Luxembourgish</a> (extended to 8-dot)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Maltese_Braille" title="Maltese Braille">Maltese</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/M%C4%81ori_Braille" title="Māori Braille">Māori</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Navajo_Braille" title="Navajo Braille">Navajo</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Nigerian_braille" title="Nigerian braille">Nigerian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Philippine_Braille" title="Philippine Braille">Philippine</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Polish_Braille" title="Polish Braille">Polish</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Braille" title="Portuguese Braille">Portuguese</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Romanian_Braille" title="Romanian Braille">Romanian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Samoan_Braille" title="Samoan Braille">Samoan</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Slovak_Braille" title="Slovak Braille">Slovak</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/South_African_braille" title="South African braille">South African</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Braille" title="Spanish Braille">Spanish</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Braille" title="Taiwanese Braille">Taiwanese Mandarin</a> (largely reassigned)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Turkish_Braille" title="Turkish Braille">Turkish</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_Braille" title="Vietnamese Braille">Vietnamese</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Welsh_Braille" title="Welsh Braille">Welsh</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Yugoslav_Braille" title="Yugoslav Braille">Yugoslav</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Zambian_Braille" title="Zambian Braille">Zambian</a></span></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Nordic family</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Estonian_Braille" title="Estonian Braille">Estonian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Faroese_Braille" title="Faroese Braille">Faroese</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Icelandic_Braille" title="Icelandic Braille">Icelandic</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Scandinavian_Braille" title="Scandinavian Braille">Scandinavian</a></span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap">Danish</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">Finnish</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">Greenlandic</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Northern_S%C3%A1mi_Braille" title="Northern Sámi Braille">Northern Sámi</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">Norwegian</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">Swedish</span></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Russian lineage family<br />i.e. <a href="/wiki/Cyrillic_alphabets" title="Cyrillic alphabets">Cyrillic</a>-mediated scripts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Belarusian_Braille" title="Belarusian Braille">Belarusian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_Braille" title="Bulgarian Braille">Bulgarian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Kazakh_Braille" title="Kazakh Braille">Kazakh</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Kyrgyz_Braille" title="Kyrgyz Braille">Kyrgyz</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Mongolian_Braille" title="Mongolian Braille">Mongolian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Russian_Braille" title="Russian Braille">Russian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Tatar_Braille" title="Tatar Braille">Tatar</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_Braille" title="Ukrainian Braille">Ukrainian</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Egyptian lineage family<br />i.e. <a href="/wiki/Arabic_script" title="Arabic script">Arabic</a>-mediated scripts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Arabic_Braille" title="Arabic Braille">Arabic</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Persian_Braille" title="Persian Braille">Persian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Urdu_Braille" title="Urdu Braille">Urdu</a> (Pakistan)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Indian lineage family<br />i.e. <a href="/wiki/Bharati_Braille" title="Bharati Braille">Bharati Braille</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Devanagari_Braille" title="Devanagari Braille">Devanagari (Hindi / Marathi / Nepali)</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Bengali_Braille" title="Bengali Braille">Bengali (Bangla / Assamese)</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Gujarati_Braille" title="Gujarati Braille">Gujarati</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Kannada_Braille" title="Kannada Braille">Kannada</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Malayalam_Braille" title="Malayalam Braille">Malayalam</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Odia_Braille" title="Odia Braille">Odia</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Punjabi_Braille" title="Punjabi Braille">Punjabi</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Sinhala_Braille" title="Sinhala Braille">Sinhala</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Tamil_Braille" title="Tamil Braille">Tamil</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Telugu_Braille" title="Telugu Braille">Telugu</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Urdu_Braille" title="Urdu Braille">Urdu</a> (India)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other scripts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Ge%27ez_Braille" class="mw-redirect" title="Ge'ez Braille">Amharic</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Armenian_Braille" title="Armenian Braille">Armenian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Burmese_Braille" title="Burmese Braille">Burmese</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Dzongkha_Braille" title="Dzongkha Braille">Dzongkha</a> (Bhutanese)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Georgian_Braille" title="Georgian Braille">Georgian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Greek_Braille" title="Greek Braille">Greek</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_Braille" title="Hebrew Braille">Hebrew</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Inuktitut_Braille" title="Inuktitut Braille">Inuktitut</a> (reassigned vowels)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Khmer_Braille" title="Khmer Braille">Khmer</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Thai_and_Lao_Braille" title="Thai and Lao Braille">Thai and Lao</a> (Japanese vowels)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Braille" title="Tibetan Braille">Tibetan</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Reordered</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Algerian_Braille" title="Algerian Braille">Algerian Braille</a> (obsolete)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Frequency-based</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/American_Braille" title="American Braille">American Braille</a> (obsolete)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Independent</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap">Chinese semi-syllabaries</span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Cantonese_Braille" title="Cantonese Braille">Cantonese</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Mainland_Chinese_Braille" title="Mainland Chinese Braille">Mainland Chinese Mandarin</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Braille" title="Taiwanese Braille">Taiwanese Mandarin</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Two-cell_Chinese_Braille" title="Two-cell Chinese Braille">Two-cell Chinese (Shuangpin)</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Japanese_Braille" title="Japanese Braille">Japanese</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Korean_Braille" title="Korean Braille">Korean</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Eight-dot</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Luxembourgish_Braille" title="Luxembourgish Braille">Luxembourgish</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Braille_kanji" title="Braille kanji">Kanji</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Gardner%E2%80%93Salinas_braille_codes" title="Gardner–Salinas braille codes">Gardner–Salinas braille codes</a> (GS8)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Symbols in braille</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Braille_music" title="Braille music">Braille music</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Canadian_currency_tactile_feature" title="Canadian currency tactile feature">Canadian currency marks</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Computer_Braille_Code" title="Computer Braille Code">Computer Braille Code</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Gardner%E2%80%93Salinas_braille_codes" title="Gardner–Salinas braille codes">Gardner–Salinas braille codes</a> (science; GS8/GS6)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/IPA_Braille" title="IPA Braille">International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Nemeth_Braille" title="Nemeth Braille">Nemeth braille code</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Braille_technology" title="Braille technology">Braille technology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Braille_e-book" title="Braille e-book">Braille e-book</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Braille_embosser" title="Braille embosser">Braille embosser</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Braille_translator" title="Braille translator">Braille translator</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Braille_watch" title="Braille watch">Braille watch</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Mountbatten_Brailler" title="Mountbatten Brailler">Mountbatten Brailler</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Optical_braille_recognition" title="Optical braille recognition">Optical braille recognition</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Perforation" title="Perforation">Perforation</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Perkins_Brailler" title="Perkins Brailler">Perkins Brailler</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Refreshable_braille_display" title="Refreshable braille display">Refreshable braille display</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Slate_and_stylus" title="Slate and stylus">Slate and stylus</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Braigo" title="Braigo">Braigo</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Louis_Braille" title="Louis Braille">Louis Braille</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Charles_Barbier" title="Charles Barbier">Charles Barbier</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/R%C3%B3%C5%BCa_Czacka" title="Róża Czacka">Róża Czacka</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Valentin_Ha%C3%BCy" title="Valentin Haüy">Valentin Haüy</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Harris_Mowbray" title="Harris Mowbray">Harris Mowbray</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Thakur_Vishva_Narain_Singh" title="Thakur Vishva Narain Singh">Thakur Vishva Narain Singh</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Sabriye_Tenberken" title="Sabriye Tenberken">Sabriye Tenberken</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/William_Bell_Wait" title="William Bell Wait">William Bell Wait</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organisations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Braille_Institute_of_America" title="Braille Institute of America">Braille Institute of America</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Braille_Without_Borders" title="Braille Without Borders">Braille Without Borders</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Japan_Braille_Library" title="Japan Braille Library">Japan Braille Library</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/National_Braille_Association" title="National Braille Association">National Braille Association</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Category:Blindness_organizations" title="Category:Blindness organizations">Blindness organizations</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Category:Schools_for_the_blind" title="Category:Schools for the blind">Schools for the blind</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/American_Printing_House_for_the_Blind" title="American Printing House for the Blind">American Printing House for the Blind</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other <a href="/wiki/Tactile_alphabet" title="Tactile alphabet">tactile alphabets</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Decapoint" title="Decapoint">Decapoint</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Moon_type" title="Moon type">Moon type</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/New_York_Point" title="New York Point">New York Point</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Night_writing" title="Night writing">Night writing</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Vibratese" title="Vibratese">Vibratese</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Accessible_publishing" title="Accessible publishing">Accessible publishing</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Braille_literacy" title="Braille literacy">Braille literacy</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/RoboBraille" title="RoboBraille">RoboBraille</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236088147">.mw-parser-output .sister-bar{display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline;font-size:88%;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em 0 0;padding:0 2em}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;padding:0.2em 0;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px;line-height:22px}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;align-items:baseline;padding:0.2em 0;column-gap:1em;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-item{display:flex;align-items:baseline;margin:0.15em 0;min-height:24px;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-logo{width:22px;line-height:22px;margin:0 0.2em;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-link{margin:0 0.2em;text-align:left}@media screen and (max-width:960px){.mw-parser-output .sister-bar{flex-flow:column wrap;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-header{flex:0 1}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-content{flex:1;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-item{flex:0 0 20em;min-width:20em}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+link+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+style+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+.navbox-styles+.portal-bar{margin-top:-1px}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sister-bar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="noprint metadata sister-bar" role="navigation" aria-label="sister-projects"><div class="sister-bar-header"><b>Roman numerals</b> at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects"><span id="sister-projects" style="white-space:nowrap;">sister projects</span></a>:</div><ul class="sister-bar-content"><li class="sister-bar-item"><span class="sister-bar-logo"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/19px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/29px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/38px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="391" data-file-height="391" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-bar-link"><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:Roman_numerals" class="extiw" title="wikt:Appendix:Roman numerals">Definitions</a></b> from Wiktionary</span></li><li class="sister-bar-item"><span class="sister-bar-logo"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/14px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/21px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/28px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" 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