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<span>Protocol</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Protocol-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Protocol subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Protocol-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Pure_ALOHA" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pure_ALOHA"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Pure ALOHA</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pure_ALOHA-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Slotted_ALOHA" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Slotted_ALOHA"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Slotted ALOHA</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Slotted_ALOHA-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reservation_ALOHA" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reservation_ALOHA"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Reservation ALOHA</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reservation_ALOHA-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Packet_Reservation_Multiple_Access" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Packet_Reservation_Multiple_Access"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Packet Reservation Multiple Access</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Packet_Reservation_Multiple_Access-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Demand_Assigned_Multiple_Access" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Demand_Assigned_Multiple_Access"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Demand Assigned Multiple Access</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Demand_Assigned_Multiple_Access-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mobile_Slotted_Aloha" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mobile_Slotted_Aloha"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Mobile Slotted Aloha</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mobile_Slotted_Aloha-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_protocols" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_protocols"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7</span> <span>Other protocols</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_protocols-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hardware" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hardware"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Hardware</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hardware-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Network_architecture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Network_architecture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Network architecture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Network_architecture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Legacy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">ALOHAnet</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 21 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-21" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">21 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/ALOHAnet" title="ALOHAnet – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="ALOHAnet" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/ALOHAnet" title="ALOHAnet – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="ALOHAnet" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/ALOHAnet" title="ALOHAnet – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="ALOHAnet" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/ALOHA_artekatua" title="ALOHA artekatua – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="ALOHA artekatua" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/ALOHAnet" title="ALOHAnet – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="ALOHAnet" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%95%8C%EB%A1%9C%ED%95%98%EB%84%B7" title="알로하넷 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="알로하넷" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-haw mw-list-item"><a href="https://haw.wikipedia.org/wiki/ALOHAnet" title="ALOHAnet – Hawaiian" lang="haw" hreflang="haw" data-title="ALOHAnet" data-language-autonym="Hawaiʻi" data-language-local-name="Hawaiian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hawaiʻi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/ALOHAnet" title="ALOHAnet – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="ALOHAnet" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%98%D7%95%D7%A7%D7%95%D7%9C_ALOHA" title="פרוטוקול ALOHA – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="פרוטוקול ALOHA" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/ALOHAnet" title="ALOHAnet – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="ALOHAnet" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aloha_protokoll" title="Aloha protokoll – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Aloha protokoll" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%85%E0%B4%B2%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%B9%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%86%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D" title="അലോഹനെറ്റ് – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="അലോഹനെറ്റ്" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%A1%E1%80%9C%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%9F%E1%80%AC" title="အလိုဟာ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="အလိုဟာ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/ALOHA_(protocol)" title="ALOHA (protocol) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="ALOHA (protocol)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/ALOHAnet" title="ALOHAnet – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ALOHAnet" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/ALOHAnet" title="ALOHAnet – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="ALOHAnet" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/ALOHAnet" title="ALOHAnet – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="ALOHAnet" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru badge-Q17559452 badge-recommendedarticle mw-list-item" title="recommended article"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/ALOHAnet" title="ALOHAnet – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="ALOHAnet" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82" title="Алоханет – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Алоханет" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/ALOHAnet" title="ALOHAnet – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="ALOHAnet" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/ALOHAnet" title="ALOHAnet – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="ALOHAnet" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q294502#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div 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class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Computer networking system</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"ALOHA" redirects here. For the Hawaiian word, see <a href="/wiki/Aloha" title="Aloha">Aloha</a>. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Aloha_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Aloha (disambiguation)">Aloha (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p><p><b>ALOHAnet</b>, also known as the <b>ALOHA System</b>,<sup id="cite_ref-abramson1_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-abramson1-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or simply <b>ALOHA</b>, was a pioneering <a href="/wiki/Computer_network" title="Computer network">computer networking</a> system developed at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Hawaii" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Hawaii">University of Hawaii</a>. ALOHAnet became operational in June 1971, providing the first public demonstration of a <a href="/wiki/Packet_radio" title="Packet radio">wireless packet data network</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-binder1_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-binder1-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-abramson2_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-abramson2-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The ALOHAnet used a new method of medium access, called <i>ALOHA random access</i>, and experimental <a href="/wiki/Ultra_high_frequency" title="Ultra high frequency">ultra high frequency</a> (UHF) for its operation. In its simplest form, later known as Pure ALOHA, remote units communicated with a base station (Menehune) over two separate radio frequencies (for inbound and outbound respectively). Nodes did not wait for the channel to be clear before sending, but instead waited for acknowledgement of successful receipt of a message, and re-sent it if this was not received. Nodes would also stop and re-transmit data if they detected any other messages while transmitting. While simple to implement, this results in an efficiency of only 18.4%. A later advancement, Slotted ALOHA, improved the efficiency of the protocol by reducing the chance of collision, improving throughput to 36.8%. </p><p>ALOHA was subsequently employed in the <a href="/wiki/Ethernet" title="Ethernet">Ethernet</a> cable based network in the 1970s, and following regulatory developments in the early 1980s it became possible to use the ALOHA random-access techniques in both <a href="/wiki/Wi-Fi" title="Wi-Fi">Wi-Fi</a> and in mobile telephone networks. ALOHA channels were used in a limited way in the 1980s in <a href="/wiki/1G" title="1G">1G</a> mobile phones for <a href="/wiki/Signaling_protocol" class="mw-redirect" title="Signaling protocol">signaling</a> and control purposes. In the late 1980s, the European standardization group <a href="/wiki/GSM" title="GSM">GSM</a> who worked on the Pan-European Digital mobile communication system GSM greatly expanded the use of ALOHA channels for access to radio channels in mobile telephony. In the early 2000s additional ALOHA channels were added to 2.5G and 3G mobile phones with the widespread introduction of <a href="/wiki/General_Packet_Radio_Service" class="mw-redirect" title="General Packet Radio Service">General Packet Radio Service</a> (GPRS), using a slotted-ALOHA random-access channel combined with a version of the Reservation ALOHA scheme first analyzed by a group at <a href="/wiki/BBN_Technologies" class="mw-redirect" title="BBN Technologies">BBN Technologies</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=ALOHAnet&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>One of the early computer networking designs, development of the ALOHA network was begun in September 1968 at the University of Hawaii under the leadership of <a href="/wiki/Norman_Abramson" title="Norman Abramson">Norman Abramson</a> and <a href="/wiki/Franklin_Kuo" class="mw-redirect" title="Franklin Kuo">Franklin Kuo</a>, along with Thomas Gaarder, Shu Lin, <a href="/wiki/Wesley_Peterson" class="mw-redirect" title="Wesley Peterson">Wesley Peterson</a> and Edward ("Ned") Weldon. The goal was to use low-cost commercial radio equipment to connect users on <a href="/wiki/Oahu" title="Oahu">Oahu</a> and the other Hawaiian islands with a central time-sharing computer on the main Oahu campus. The first packet broadcasting unit went into operation in June 1971. Terminals were connected to a special purpose <i>terminal connection unit</i> using <a href="/wiki/RS-232" title="RS-232">RS-232</a> at <span class="nowrap">9600 bit/s</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>ALOHA was originally a <a href="/wiki/Contrived_acronym" class="mw-redirect" title="Contrived acronym">contrived acronym</a> standing for Additive Links On-line Hawaii Area.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The original version of ALOHA used two distinct frequencies in a hub configuration, with the hub machine broadcasting packets to everyone on the <i>outbound</i> channel, and the various client machines sending data packets to the hub on the <i>inbound</i> channel. If data was received correctly at the hub, a short acknowledgment packet was sent to the client; if an acknowledgment was not received by a client machine after a short wait time, it would automatically retransmit the data packet after waiting a randomly selected time interval. This acknowledgment mechanism was used to detect and correct for <a href="/wiki/Collision_(telecommunications)" title="Collision (telecommunications)">collisions</a> created when two client machines both attempted to send a packet at the same time. </p><p>ALOHAnet's primary importance was its use of a shared medium for client transmissions. Unlike the <a href="/wiki/ARPANET" title="ARPANET">ARPANET</a> where each node could only talk to a single node at the other end of a wire or satellite circuit, in ALOHAnet all client nodes communicated with the hub on the same frequency. This meant that some sort of mechanism was needed to control who could talk at what time. The ALOHAnet solution was to allow each client to send its data without controlling when it was sent, and implementing an acknowledgment/retransmission scheme to deal with collisions. This approach radically reduced the complexity of the protocol and the networking hardware, since nodes do not need to negotiate <i>who</i> is allowed to speak. </p><p>This solution became known as a pure ALOHA, or random-access channel, and was the basis for subsequent <a href="/wiki/Ethernet" title="Ethernet">Ethernet</a> development and later <a href="/wiki/Wi-Fi" title="Wi-Fi">Wi-Fi</a> networks.<sup id="cite_ref-abramson2_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-abramson2-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Various versions of the ALOHA protocol (such as Slotted ALOHA) also appeared later in <a href="/wiki/Satellite_communications" class="mw-redirect" title="Satellite communications">satellite communications</a>, and were used in wireless data networks such as <a href="/wiki/DataTac" class="mw-redirect" title="DataTac">ARDIS</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mobitex" title="Mobitex">Mobitex</a>, <a href="/wiki/CDPD" class="mw-redirect" title="CDPD">CDPD</a>, and <a href="/wiki/GSM" title="GSM">GSM</a>. </p><p>The Aloha network introduced the mechanism of randomized multiple access, which resolved device transmission collisions by transmitting a packet immediately if no acknowledgement is present, and if no acknowledgment was received, the transmission was repeated after a random waiting time.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The probability distribution of this random waiting time for retransmission of a packet that has not been acknowledged as received is critically important for the stability of Aloha-type communication systems. The average waiting time for retransmission is typically shorter than the average time for generation of a new packet from the same client node, but it should not be allowed to be so short as to compromise the stability of the network, causing a collapse in its overall throughput.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Also important was ALOHAnet's use of the outgoing hub channel to broadcast packets directly to all clients on a second shared frequency and using an address in each packet to allow selective receipt at each client node.<sup id="cite_ref-binder1_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-binder1-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Separate frequencies were used for incoming and outgoing communications to the hub so that devices could receive acknowledgments regardless of transmissions. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Protocol">Protocol</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=ALOHAnet&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Protocol"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pure_ALOHA">Pure ALOHA</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=ALOHAnet&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Pure ALOHA"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pure_ALOHA1.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Graph of frames being sent from 4 different stations according to the pure ALOHA protocol with respect to time, with overlapping frames shaded to denote collision." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Pure_ALOHA1.svg/220px-Pure_ALOHA1.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="138" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Pure_ALOHA1.svg/330px-Pure_ALOHA1.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Pure_ALOHA1.svg/440px-Pure_ALOHA1.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1000" /></a><figcaption>Pure ALOHA protocol. Boxes indicate frames. Shaded boxes indicate frames that have collided.</figcaption></figure> <p>The original version of the protocol (now called Pure ALOHA, and the one implemented in ALOHAnet) was quite simple: </p> <ul><li>If you have data to send, send the data</li> <li>If, while you are transmitting data, you receive any data from another station, there has been a message collision. All transmitting stations will need to try resending <i>later</i>.</li></ul> <p>Pure ALOHA does not check whether the channel is busy before transmitting. Since collisions can occur and data may have to be sent again, ALOHA cannot efficiently use 100% of the capacity of the communications channel. How long a station waits until it retransmits, and the likelihood a collision occurs are interrelated, and both affect how efficiently the channel can be used. This means that the concept of <i>retransmit later</i> is a critical aspect; The quality of the backoff scheme chosen significantly influences the efficiency of the protocol, the ultimate channel capacity, and the predictability of its behavior. </p><p>To assess Pure ALOHA, there is a need to predict its throughput, the rate of (successful) transmission of frames.<sup id="cite_ref-tann_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tann-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> First make a few simplifying assumptions: </p> <ul><li>All frames have the same length.</li> <li>Stations cannot generate a frame while transmitting or trying to transmit. That is, while a station is sending or trying to resend a frame, it cannot be allowed to generate more frames to send.</li> <li>The population of stations attempting to transmit (both new transmission and retransmissions) follows a <a href="/wiki/Poisson_distribution" title="Poisson distribution">Poisson distribution</a>.</li></ul> <p>Let <span class="texhtml">T</span> refer to the time needed to transmit one frame on the channel, and define <i>frame-time</i> as a unit of time equal to <span class="texhtml">T</span>. Let <span class="texhtml">G</span> refer to the mean used in the Poisson distribution over transmission-attempt amounts. That is, on average, there are <span class="texhtml">G</span> transmission attempts per <i>frame-time</i>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pure_ALOHA.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Graph of 3 frames with respect to time. The earlier green frame overlaps with the yellow frame sent at time t0, which overlaps with the later purple frame." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Pure_ALOHA.svg/220px-Pure_ALOHA.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="102" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Pure_ALOHA.svg/330px-Pure_ALOHA.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Pure_ALOHA.svg/440px-Pure_ALOHA.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1398" data-file-height="651" /></a><figcaption>Overlapping frames in the pure ALOHA protocol. Frame-time is equal to 1 for all frames.</figcaption></figure> <p>Consider what needs to happen for a frame to be transmitted successfully. Let <span class="texhtml">t</span> refer to the time at which it is intended to send a frame. It is preferable to use the channel for one frame-time beginning at <span class="texhtml">t</span>, and all other stations to refrain from transmitting during this time. </p><p>For any frame-time, the probability of there being <span class="texhtml">k</span> transmission-attempts during that frame-time is: </p><p><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\frac {G^{k}e^{-G}}{k!}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <msup> <mi>G</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>k</mi> </mrow> </msup> <msup> <mi>e</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <mi>G</mi> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>k</mi> <mo>!</mo> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\frac {G^{k}e^{-G}}{k!}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/0f36956916ec82d84f194b48c8deb48f4a004c6c" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.005ex; width:7.638ex; height:5.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\frac {G^{k}e^{-G}}{k!}}}" /></span> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aloha_PureVsSlotted.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Throughput vs. Traffic Load of Pure Aloha and Slotted Aloha." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Aloha_PureVsSlotted.svg/220px-Aloha_PureVsSlotted.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Aloha_PureVsSlotted.svg/330px-Aloha_PureVsSlotted.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Aloha_PureVsSlotted.svg/440px-Aloha_PureVsSlotted.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="390" /></a><figcaption>Comparison of Pure Aloha and Slotted Aloha shown on Throughput vs. Traffic Load plot.</figcaption></figure> <p>The average number of transmission-attempts for two consecutive frame-times is <span class="texhtml">2G</span>. Hence, for any pair of consecutive frame-times, the probability of there being <span class="texhtml">k</span> transmission attempts during those two frame-times is: </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\frac {(2G)^{k}e^{-2G}}{k!}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mn>2</mn> <mi>G</mi> <msup> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>k</mi> </mrow> </msup> <msup> <mi>e</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <mn>2</mn> <mi>G</mi> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>k</mi> <mo>!</mo> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\frac {(2G)^{k}e^{-2G}}{k!}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/a559dbc1bb81c4ac34e047211998623e2c931b81" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.005ex; width:11.431ex; height:6.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\frac {(2G)^{k}e^{-2G}}{k!}}}" /></span></dd></dl> <p>Therefore, the probability (<span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle Prob_{pure}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>P</mi> <mi>r</mi> <mi>o</mi> <msub> <mi>b</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>p</mi> <mi>u</mi> <mi>r</mi> <mi>e</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle Prob_{pure}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/121ca2cc2e9af84c12a82df2c1efa950e37f1904" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:8.426ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle Prob_{pure}}" /></span>) of there being zero transmission-attempts between <span class="texhtml">t-T</span> and <span class="texhtml">t+T</span> (and thus of a successful transmission for us) is: </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle Prob_{pure}=e^{-2G}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>P</mi> <mi>r</mi> <mi>o</mi> <msub> <mi>b</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>p</mi> <mi>u</mi> <mi>r</mi> <mi>e</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <msup> <mi>e</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <mn>2</mn> <mi>G</mi> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle Prob_{pure}=e^{-2G}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/ad1f647bbdf0bd14d8eff88feda6f2ec9382afdb" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:16.233ex; height:3.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle Prob_{pure}=e^{-2G}}" /></span></dd></dl> <p>The throughput can be calculated as the rate of transmission attempts multiplied by the probability of success, and it can be concluded that the throughput (<span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle S_{pure}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>S</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>p</mi> <mi>u</mi> <mi>r</mi> <mi>e</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle S_{pure}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/7a5efd9e266bad19ab127e7957ba1939894ce255" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:4.932ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle S_{pure}}" /></span>) is: </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle S_{pure}=Ge^{-2G}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>S</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>p</mi> <mi>u</mi> <mi>r</mi> <mi>e</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mi>G</mi> <msup> <mi>e</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <mn>2</mn> <mi>G</mi> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle S_{pure}=Ge^{-2G}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/530fc749b587ac9f444a112448a534252033574a" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:14.565ex; height:3.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle S_{pure}=Ge^{-2G}}" /></span></dd></dl> <p>The maximum throughput is <span class="texhtml">0.5/e</span> frames per frame-time (reached when <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle G=0.5}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>G</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>0.5</mn> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle G=0.5}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/c2b970b1c77501bba05ffe2f991ad67a159d02a2" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:7.897ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle G=0.5}" /></span>), which is approximately 0.184 frames per frame-time. This means that, in Pure ALOHA, only about 18.4% of the time is used for successful transmissions. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Slotted_ALOHA">Slotted ALOHA</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=ALOHAnet&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Slotted ALOHA"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Slotted_ALOHA.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Graph of frames being sent from 8 different stations according to the slotted ALOHA protocol with respect to time, with frames in the same slots shaded to denote collision." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Slotted_ALOHA.svg/220px-Slotted_ALOHA.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Slotted_ALOHA.svg/330px-Slotted_ALOHA.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Slotted_ALOHA.svg/440px-Slotted_ALOHA.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="750" /></a><figcaption>Slotted ALOHA protocol. Boxes indicate frames. Shaded boxes indicate frames which are in the same slots.</figcaption></figure> <p>An improvement to the original ALOHA protocol was Slotted ALOHA, which introduced discrete time slots and increased the maximum throughput.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A station can start a transmission only at the beginning of a time slot, and thus collisions are reduced. In this case, only transmission-attempts within 1 frame-time and not 2 consecutive frame-times need to be considered, since collisions can only occur during each time slot. Thus, the probability of there being zero transmission attempts by other stations in a single time slot is: </p><p><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle Prob_{slotted}=e^{-G}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>P</mi> <mi>r</mi> <mi>o</mi> <msub> <mi>b</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>s</mi> <mi>l</mi> <mi>o</mi> <mi>t</mi> <mi>t</mi> <mi>e</mi> <mi>d</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <msup> <mi>e</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <mi>G</mi> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle Prob_{slotted}=e^{-G}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/d7bd4fdd94fc22f951f1544065ee444aedffe19e" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:17.008ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle Prob_{slotted}=e^{-G}}" /></span> </p><p>the probability of a transmission requiring exactly k attempts is (k-1 collisions and 1 success):<sup id="cite_ref-tann_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tann-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle Prob_{slotted}k=e^{-G}(1-e^{-G})^{k-1}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>P</mi> <mi>r</mi> <mi>o</mi> <msub> <mi>b</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>s</mi> <mi>l</mi> <mi>o</mi> <mi>t</mi> <mi>t</mi> <mi>e</mi> <mi>d</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mi>k</mi> <mo>=</mo> <msup> <mi>e</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <mi>G</mi> </mrow> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mn>1</mn> <mo>−</mo> <msup> <mi>e</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <mi>G</mi> </mrow> </msup> <msup> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>k</mi> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle Prob_{slotted}k=e^{-G}(1-e^{-G})^{k-1}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/af714d7bc3b04bab5538a4a631b2e475ad9cd2b5" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:31.106ex; height:3.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle Prob_{slotted}k=e^{-G}(1-e^{-G})^{k-1}}" /></span> </p><p>The throughput is: </p><p><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle S_{slotted}=Ge^{-G}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>S</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>s</mi> <mi>l</mi> <mi>o</mi> <mi>t</mi> <mi>t</mi> <mi>e</mi> <mi>d</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mi>G</mi> <msup> <mi>e</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <mi>G</mi> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle S_{slotted}=Ge^{-G}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/67139499f24259db3a05d9759aceb9dd124ced2e" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:15.34ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle S_{slotted}=Ge^{-G}}" /></span> </p><p>The maximum throughput is <i>1/e</i> frames per frame-time (reached when <i>G</i> = 1), which is approximately 0.368 frames per frame-time, or 36.8%. </p><p>Slotted ALOHA is used in low-data-rate tactical <a href="/wiki/Communications_satellite" title="Communications satellite">satellite communications networks</a> by military forces, in subscriber-based satellite communications networks, mobile telephony call setup, <a href="/wiki/Switched_video" title="Switched video">set-top box communications</a> and in the contactless <a href="/wiki/RFID" class="mw-redirect" title="RFID">RFID</a> technologies. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reservation_ALOHA">Reservation ALOHA</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=ALOHAnet&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Reservation ALOHA"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Reservation ALOHA, or R-ALOHA, is an effort to improve the efficiency of Slotted ALOHA. The improvements with Reservation ALOHA are markedly shorter delays and ability to efficiently support higher levels of utilization. As a contrast of efficiency, simulations have shown that Reservation ALOHA exhibits less delay at 80% utilization than Slotted ALOHA at 20–36% utilization.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The chief difference between Slotted and Reservation ALOHA is that with Slotted ALOHA, any slot is available for utilization without regards to prior usage. Under Reservation ALOHA's <a href="/wiki/Contention_based_protocol" class="mw-redirect" title="Contention based protocol">contention-based</a> reservation schema, the slot is temporarily considered "owned" by the station that successfully used it. Additionally, Reservation ALOHA simply stops sending data once the station has completed its transmission. As a rule, idle slots are considered available to all stations that may then implicitly reserve (utilize) the slot on a contention basis. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Packet_Reservation_Multiple_Access">Packet Reservation Multiple Access</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=ALOHAnet&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Packet Reservation Multiple Access"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Packet reservation multiple access (PRMA) is an implicit reservation scheme. Some fixed number of slots form a frame. After each frame, the satellite broadcasts the status of each slot from the previous frame, which indicates the reservation status of the corresponding slots of the next frame. All ground stations wishing to transmit compete exactly like slotted ALOHA during any "free slot" of that next frame (i.e., either no one transmitted in that slot of the previous frame, or there was a collision when multiple ground stations transmitted in that slot of the previous frame). If exactly one ground station happens to transmit during a "free slot", that ground station succeeds in reserving that slot of a frame -- the corresponding slot is implicitly reserved in all future frames. From then on, the satellite broadcasts that that particular ground station has reserved that slot of the frame, and that ground station can continue transmitting with a guaranteed data rate during that slot of the frame; other ground stations are careful *not* to transmit during that slot of the frame, so there are no collisions during reserved slots. When a ground station with a reserved slot has nothing to send, it simply stops transmitting, which gives up its reservation; the satellite notices its reserved slot is idle in one frame, and broadcasts that fact, which indicates that that slot will be a "free slot" in the next frame.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ppgk_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ppgk-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Maximum channel efficiency for slotted ALOHA is 36%; PRMA improves maximum channel efficiency to 80%.<sup id="cite_ref-ppgk_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ppgk-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Demand_Assigned_Multiple_Access">Demand Assigned Multiple Access</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=ALOHAnet&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Demand Assigned Multiple Access"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Demand_Assigned_Multiple_Access" title="Demand Assigned Multiple Access">Demand Assigned Multiple Access</a></div> <p>Demand assigned multiple access (DAMA), also called reservation ALOHA, is an explicit reservation scheme often used in satellite communications. DAMA alternates between two phases: During the reservation phase of a frame, DAMA acts like slotted ALOHA for some fixed number of short slots, except instead of ground stations sending complete packets, ground stations only send short requests for later transmission. The satellite collects all the successful requests (i.e., the ones not destroyed by collision) and sends them back as a reservation list assigning specific ground stations to specific TDM slots. During the TDM phase of a frame, the ground stations obey the reservation list and each one only transmits during the long TDM slot(s) reserved for it. Collisions may occur during the reservation phase, but not during the TDM phase.<sup id="cite_ref-ppgk_14-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ppgk-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Maximum channel efficiency for slotted ALOHA is 36%; DAMA improves maximum channel efficiency to 80%.<sup id="cite_ref-ppgk_14-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ppgk-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mobile_Slotted_Aloha">Mobile Slotted Aloha</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=ALOHAnet&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Mobile Slotted Aloha"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Mobile_Slotted_Aloha" title="Mobile Slotted Aloha">Mobile Slotted Aloha</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_protocols">Other protocols</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=ALOHAnet&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Other protocols"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The use of a random-access channel in ALOHAnet led to the development of <a href="/wiki/Carrier-sense_multiple_access" title="Carrier-sense multiple access">carrier-sense multiple access</a> (CSMA), a <i>listen before send</i> random-access protocol that can be used when all nodes send and receive on the same channel. CSMA in radio channels was extensively modeled.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/AX.25" title="AX.25">AX.25</a> packet radio protocol is based on the CSMA approach with collision recovery,<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> based on the experience gained from ALOHAnet. A variation of CSMA, <a href="/wiki/CSMA/CD" class="mw-redirect" title="CSMA/CD">CSMA/CD</a> is used in early versions of <a href="/wiki/Ethernet" title="Ethernet">Ethernet</a>. </p><p>ALOHA and the other random-access protocols have an inherent variability in their throughput and delay performance characteristics. For this reason, applications that need highly deterministic load behavior may use <a href="/wiki/Master/slave_(technology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Master/slave (technology)">master/slave</a> or <a href="/wiki/Token-passing" class="mw-redirect" title="Token-passing">token-passing</a> schemes (such as <a href="/wiki/Token_Ring" title="Token Ring">Token Ring</a> or <a href="/wiki/ARCNET" title="ARCNET">ARCNET</a>) instead of <a href="/wiki/Contention_(telecommunications)" title="Contention (telecommunications)">contention systems</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Hardware">Hardware</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=ALOHAnet&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Hardware"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The central node communications processor was an <a href="/wiki/HP_2100" title="HP 2100">HP 2100</a> minicomputer called the Menehune, which is the <a href="/wiki/Hawaiian_language" title="Hawaiian language">Hawaiian language</a> word for dwarf people,<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and was named for its similar role to the original <a href="/wiki/ARPANET" title="ARPANET">ARPANET</a> <a href="/wiki/Interface_Message_Processor" title="Interface Message Processor">Interface Message Processor</a> (IMP) which was being deployed at about the same time. In the original system, the Menehune forwarded correctly received user data to the UH central computer, an <a href="/wiki/IBM_System_360" class="mw-redirect" title="IBM System 360">IBM System 360</a>/65 time-sharing system. Outgoing messages from the 360 were converted into packets by the Menehune, which were queued and broadcast to the remote users at a data rate of <span class="nowrap">9600 bit/s</span>. Unlike the half-duplex radios at the user TCUs, the Menehune was interfaced to the radio channels with full-duplex radio equipment.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The original user interface developed for the system was an all-hardware unit called an ALOHAnet Terminal Control Unit (TCU) and was the sole piece of equipment necessary to connect a terminal into the ALOHA channel. The TCU was composed of a UHF antenna, transceiver, modem, buffer and control unit. The buffer was designed for a full line length of 80 characters, which allowed handling of both the 40- and 80-character fixed-length packets defined for the system. The typical user terminal in the original system consisted of a <a href="/wiki/Teletype_Model_33" title="Teletype Model 33">Teletype Model 33</a> or a dumb CRT user terminal connected to the TCU using a standard <a href="/wiki/RS-232" title="RS-232">RS-232</a> interface. Shortly after the original ALOHA network went into operation, the TCU was redesigned with one of the first Intel microprocessors, and the resulting upgrade was called a Programmable Control Unit (PCU). </p><p>Additional basic functions performed by the TCUs and PCUs were generation of a cyclic-parity-check code vector and decoding of received packets for packet error detection purposes, and generation of packet retransmissions using a simple random interval generator. If an acknowledgment was not received from the Menehune after the prescribed number of automatic retransmissions, a flashing light was used as an indicator to the human user. Also, since the TCUs and PCUs did not send acknowledgments to the Menehune, a steady warning light was displayed to the human user when an error was detected in a received packet. Considerable simplification was incorporated into the initial design of the TCU as well as the PCU for interfacing a human user into the network. </p><p>In later versions of the system, simple radio relays were placed in operation to connect the main network on the island of Oahu to other islands in Hawaii, and Menehune routing capabilities were expanded to allow user nodes to exchange packets with other user nodes, the <a href="/wiki/ARPANET" title="ARPANET">ARPANET</a>, and an experimental satellite network.<sup id="cite_ref-binder1_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-binder1-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Network_architecture">Network architecture</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=ALOHAnet&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Network architecture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Two fundamental choices which dictated much of the ALOHAnet design were the two-channel star configuration of the network and the use of random access for user transmissions. </p><p>The two-channel configuration was primarily chosen to allow for efficient transmission of the relatively dense total traffic stream being returned to users by the central time-sharing computer. An additional reason for the star configuration was the desire to centralize as many communication functions as possible at the central network node (the Menehune) to minimize the cost of the original all-hardware terminal control unit (TCU) at each user node. </p><p>The random-access channel for communication between users and the Menehune was designed specifically for the traffic characteristics of interactive computing. In a conventional communication system, a user might be assigned a portion of the channel on either a <a href="/wiki/Frequency-division_multiple_access" title="Frequency-division multiple access">frequency-division multiple access</a> or <a href="/wiki/Time-division_multiple_access" title="Time-division multiple access">time-division multiple access</a> basis. Since it was well known that in time-sharing systems (circa 1970), computer and user data are bursty, such fixed assignments are generally wasteful of bandwidth because of the high peak-to-average data rates that characterize the traffic. </p><p>To achieve a more efficient use of bandwidth for bursty traffic, ALOHAnet developed the random-access packet switching method that has come to be known as a <i>pure ALOHA</i> channel. This approach effectively dynamically allocates bandwidth immediately to a user who has data to send, using the acknowledgment and retransmission mechanism described earlier to deal with occasional access collisions. While the average channel loading must be kept below about 10% to maintain a low collision rate, this still results in better bandwidth efficiency than when fixed allocations are used in a bursty traffic context. </p><p>Two 100 kHz channels in the experimental UHF band were used in the implemented system, one for the user-to-computer random-access channel and one for the computer-to-user broadcast channel. The system was configured as a star network, allowing only the central node to receive transmissions in the random-access channel. All user TCUs received each transmission made by the central node in the broadcast channel. All transmissions were made in bursts at <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7003960000000000000♠"></span>9600 <a href="/wiki/Bit_per_second" class="mw-redirect" title="Bit per second">bit/s</a></span>, with data and control information encapsulated in packets. </p><p>Each packet consisted of a 32-bit header and a 16-bit header parity check word, followed by up to 80 bytes of data and a 16-bit parity check word for the data. The header contained address information identifying a particular user so that when the Menehune broadcast a packet, only the intended user's node would accept it. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legacy">Legacy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=ALOHAnet&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Legacy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Holmes_Hall_Manoa_ALOHAnet_IEEE_Milestone.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Holmes Hall Manoa ALOHAnet IEEE Milestone Plaque" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Holmes_Hall_Manoa_ALOHAnet_IEEE_Milestone.jpg/302px-Holmes_Hall_Manoa_ALOHAnet_IEEE_Milestone.jpg" decoding="async" width="302" height="208" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Holmes_Hall_Manoa_ALOHAnet_IEEE_Milestone.jpg/453px-Holmes_Hall_Manoa_ALOHAnet_IEEE_Milestone.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Holmes_Hall_Manoa_ALOHAnet_IEEE_Milestone.jpg/604px-Holmes_Hall_Manoa_ALOHAnet_IEEE_Milestone.jpg 2x" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="662" /></a><figcaption>IEEE Milestone on the ground floor at Holmes Hall, in the University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa</figcaption></figure> <p>In the 1970s ALOHA random access was employed in the nascent <a href="/wiki/Ethernet" title="Ethernet">Ethernet</a> cable based network<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and then in the <a href="/wiki/Marisat" title="Marisat">Marisat</a> (now <a href="/wiki/Inmarsat" title="Inmarsat">Inmarsat</a>) satellite network.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the early 1980s frequencies for mobile networks became available, and in 1985 frequencies suitable for what became known as <a href="/wiki/Wi-Fi" title="Wi-Fi">Wi-Fi</a> were allocated in the US.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These regulatory developments made it possible to use the ALOHA random-access techniques in both Wi-Fi and in mobile telephone networks. </p><p>ALOHA channels were used in a limited way in the 1980s in <a href="/wiki/1G" title="1G">1G</a> mobile phones for <a href="/wiki/Signaling_protocol" class="mw-redirect" title="Signaling protocol">signaling</a> and control purposes.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the late 1980s, the European standardization group <a href="/wiki/GSM" title="GSM">GSM</a> who worked on the Pan-European Digital mobile communication system GSM greatly expanded the use of ALOHA channels for access to radio channels in mobile telephony. In addition, <a href="/wiki/SMS" title="SMS">SMS</a> message texting was implemented in 2G mobile phones. In the early 2000s additional ALOHA channels were added to 2.5G and 3G mobile phones with the widespread introduction of <a href="/wiki/General_Packet_Radio_Service" class="mw-redirect" title="General Packet Radio Service">General Packet Radio Service</a> (GPRS), using a slotted-ALOHA random-access channel combined with a version of the Reservation ALOHA scheme first analyzed by a group at <a href="/wiki/BBN_Technologies" class="mw-redirect" title="BBN Technologies">BBN Technologies</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=ALOHAnet&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-abramson1-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-abramson1_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFAbramson1970" class="citation conference cs1"><a href="/wiki/Norman_Abramson" title="Norman Abramson">Abramson, N.</a> (1970). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.clear.rice.edu/comp551/papers/Abramson-Aloha.pdf"><i>The ALOHA System - Another Alternative for Computer Communications</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Proc. 1970 Fall Joint Computer Conference. AFIPS Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.btitle=The+ALOHA+System+-+Another+Alternative+for+Computer+Communications&rft.pub=AFIPS+Press&rft.date=1970&rft.aulast=Abramson&rft.aufirst=N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.clear.rice.edu%2Fcomp551%2Fpapers%2FAbramson-Aloha.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AALOHAnet" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKuo1995" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Franklin_F._Kuo" title="Franklin F. Kuo">Kuo, F. F.</a> (1995-01-11). "The ALOHA System". <i>ACM SIGCOMM Computer Communication Review</i>. <b>25</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">41–</span>44. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1145%2F205447.205451">10.1145/205447.205451</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0146-4833">0146-4833</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:2355657">2355657</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=ACM+SIGCOMM+Computer+Communication+Review&rft.atitle=The+ALOHA+System&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E41-%3C%2Fspan%3E44&rft.date=1995-01-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A2355657%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0146-4833&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1145%2F205447.205451&rft.aulast=Kuo&rft.aufirst=F.+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AALOHAnet" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKuo1981" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Franklin_F._Kuo" title="Franklin F. Kuo">Kuo, Franklin F.</a> (1981). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a098684.pdf">"Computer Networks–The ALOHA System"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Journal of Research of the National Bureau of Standards</i>. <b>86</b> (6). Report of the Office of Naval Research: <span class="nowrap">591–</span>595. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.6028%2Fjres.086.027">10.6028/jres.086.027</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6753009">6753009</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34566062">34566062</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170228211410/http://www.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a098684.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on February 28, 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Research+of+the+National+Bureau+of+Standards&rft.atitle=Computer+Networks%E2%80%93The+ALOHA+System&rft.volume=86&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E591-%3C%2Fspan%3E595&rft.date=1981&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6753009%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F34566062&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.6028%2Fjres.086.027&rft.aulast=Kuo&rft.aufirst=Franklin+F.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fapps.dtic.mil%2Fdtic%2Ftr%2Ffulltext%2Fu2%2Fa098684.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AALOHAnet" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-binder1-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-binder1_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-binder1_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-binder1_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBinderAbramsonKuoOkinaka1975" class="citation conference cs1">Binder, R.; <a href="/wiki/Norman_Abramson" title="Norman Abramson">Abramson, N.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Franklin_F._Kuo" title="Franklin F. Kuo">Kuo, F. F.</a>; Okinaka, A.; Wax, D. (1975). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.computer.org/csdl/proceedings/afips/1975/5083/00/50830203.pdf"><i>ALOHA packet broadcasting - A retrospect</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Proc. 1975 National Computer Conference. AFIPS Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.btitle=ALOHA+packet+broadcasting+-+A+retrospect&rft.pub=AFIPS+Press&rft.date=1975&rft.aulast=Binder&rft.aufirst=R.&rft.au=Abramson%2C+N.&rft.au=Kuo%2C+F.+F.&rft.au=Okinaka%2C+A.&rft.au=Wax%2C+D.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.computer.org%2Fcsdl%2Fproceedings%2Fafips%2F1975%2F5083%2F00%2F50830203.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AALOHAnet" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-abramson2-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-abramson2_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-abramson2_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAbramson2009" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Norman_Abramson" title="Norman Abramson">Abramson, N.</a> (December 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dl.comsoc.org/livepubs/ci1/public/2009/dec/pdf/abramson.pdf">"The Alohanet - surfing for wireless data [History of Communications]"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>IEEE Communications Magazine</i>. <b>47</b> (12): <span class="nowrap">21–</span>25. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1109%2FMCOM.2009.5350363">10.1109/MCOM.2009.5350363</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:7757418">7757418</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110718064132/http://dl.comsoc.org/livepubs/ci1/public/2009/dec/pdf/abramson.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 2011-07-18.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=IEEE+Communications+Magazine&rft.atitle=The+Alohanet+-+surfing+for+wireless+data+%5BHistory+of+Communications%5D&rft.volume=47&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E21-%3C%2Fspan%3E25&rft.date=2009-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2FMCOM.2009.5350363&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A7757418%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Abramson&rft.aufirst=N.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdl.comsoc.org%2Flivepubs%2Fci1%2Fpublic%2F2009%2Fdec%2Fpdf%2Fabramson.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AALOHAnet" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAbramson1985" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Norman_Abramson" title="Norman Abramson">Abramson, Norman</a> (Mar 1985). 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(1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Q8jyzfUmFvgC"><i>Måalamalama: A History of the University of Hawai'i</i></a>. University of Hawaii Press. p. 159. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780824820060" title="Special:BookSources/9780824820060"><bdi>9780824820060</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 2,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=M%C3%A5alamalama%3A+A+History+of+the+University+of+Hawai%27i&rft.pages=159&rft.pub=University+of+Hawaii+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=9780824820060&rft.aulast=Kamins&rft.aufirst=Robert+M.&rft.au=Potter%2C+Robert+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQ8jyzfUmFvgC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AALOHAnet" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWalrandParekh2010" class="citation book cs1">Walrand, Jean; Parekh, Shyam (2010). <i>Communication Networks: A Concise Introduction</i>. 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Federal Communications Commission. June 18, 1985. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.marcus-spectrum.com/documents/81413RO.txt">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(TXT)</span> on 2007-09-28<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2007-08-31</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Authorization+of+Spread+Spectrum+Systems+Under+Parts+15+and+90+of+the+FCC+Rules+and+Regulations&rft.pub=Federal+Communications+Commission&rft.date=1985-06-18&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.marcus-spectrum.com%2Fdocuments%2F81413RO.txt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AALOHAnet" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFStavenow1984" class="citation conference cs1">Stavenow, B. (1984). <i>Throughput-Delay Characteristics and Stability Considerations of the Access Channel in a Mobile Telephone System</i>. Proceedings of the 1984 ACM SIGMETRICS Conference on Measurement and Modeling of Computer Systems. pp. <span class="nowrap">105–</span>112.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.btitle=Throughput-Delay+Characteristics+and+Stability+Considerations+of+the+Access+Channel+in+a+Mobile+Telephone+System&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E105-%3C%2Fspan%3E112&rft.date=1984&rft.aulast=Stavenow&rft.aufirst=B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AALOHAnet" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCrowther1973" class="citation conference cs1"><a href="/wiki/Will_Crowther" class="mw-redirect" title="Will Crowther">Crowther, Will</a> (January 1973). <i>A System for Broadcast Communication: Reservation-ALOHA</i>. Proceedings of the 6th Hawaii International Conference on Systems Sciences. Honolulu. pp. <span class="nowrap">371–</span>374.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.btitle=A+System+for+Broadcast+Communication%3A+Reservation-ALOHA&rft.place=Honolulu&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E371-%3C%2Fspan%3E374&rft.date=1973-01&rft.aulast=Crowther&rft.aufirst=Will&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AALOHAnet" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=ALOHAnet&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFStallings1988" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/William_Stallings" title="William Stallings">Stallings, William</a> (1988). <i>Data and computer communications</i> (2nd ed.). MacMillan. pp. <span class="nowrap">296–</span>302. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-02-415451-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-02-415451-4"><bdi>978-0-02-415451-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Data+and+computer+communications&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E296-%3C%2Fspan%3E302&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=MacMillan&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0-02-415451-4&rft.aulast=Stallings&rft.aufirst=William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AALOHAnet" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>R. Metcalfe, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ethernethistory.typepad.com/papers/ethernetbobmemo.pdf">Xerox PARC memo, from Bob Metcalfe to Alto Aloha Distribution on Ether Acquisition</a>, May 22, 1973.</li> <li>R. Binder, ALOHAnet Protocols, ALOHA System Technical Report, College of Engineering, The University of Hawaii, September, 1974.</li> <li>R. Binder, W.S. Lai and M. Wilson, The ALOHAnet Menehune – Version II, ALOHA System Technical Report, College of Engineering, The University of Hawaii, September, 1974.</li> <li>N. Abramson, The ALOHA System Final Technical Report, Advanced Research Projects Agency, Contract Number NAS2-6700, October 11, 1974.</li> <li>N. Abramson "The Throughput of Packet Broadcasting Channels", IEEE Transactions on Communications, Vol 25 No 1, pp117–128, January 1977.</li> <li>M. Schwartz, Mobile Wireless Communications, Cambridge Univ. Press, 2005.</li> <li>K. J. Negus, and A. Petrick, History of Wireless Local Area Networks (WLANs) in the Unlicensed Bands, George Mason University Law School Conference, Information Economy Project, Arlington, VA., USA, April 4, 2008.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFH._WuC._ZhuR._J._LaX._Liu" class="citation web cs1">H. Wu; C. Zhu; R. J. La; X. Liu; Y. Zhang. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150123025735/http://web.cs.ucdavis.edu/~liu/paper/ToN2013FASA-huasen.pdf">"FASA: Accelerated S-ALOHA using access history for event-driven M2M communications"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. IEEE/ACM Transactions on Networking, 2013. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://web.cs.ucdavis.edu/~liu/paper/ToN2013FASA-huasen.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2015-01-23<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2015-01-22</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=FASA%3A+Accelerated+S-ALOHA+using+access+history+for+event-driven+M2M+communications&rft.pub=IEEE%2FACM+Transactions+on+Networking%2C+2013.&rft.au=H.+Wu&rft.au=C.+Zhu&rft.au=R.+J.+La&rft.au=X.+Liu&rft.au=Y.+Zhang&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fweb.cs.ucdavis.edu%2F~liu%2Fpaper%2FToN2013FASA-huasen.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AALOHAnet" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=ALOHAnet&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20030831021831/http://www.jacksons.net/working%20papers/Dynamic%20Sharing%20%202002%20version.pdf">Dynamic Sharing of Radio Spectrum: A Brief History</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (archived 2003-08-31)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nap.edu/readingroom/books/far/ch7.html">Funding a Revolution: Government Support for Computing Research</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20121211064840/http://www.hicss.hawaii.edu/hicss_31/specpl3.html">ALOHA to the Web, Norman Abramson, HICCS Distinguished Lecture</a> at <a href="/wiki/Archive.today" title="Archive.today">archive.today</a> (archived 2012-12-11)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gocertify.com/articles/who-invented-the-computer-norman-abramson-and-alohanet">Norman Abramson and ALOHAnet</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style 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abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Channel_access_methods" title="Template:Channel access methods"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Channel_access_methods" title="Template talk:Channel access methods"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Channel_access_methods" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Channel access methods"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Channel_access_methods_and_media_access_control194" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Channel_access_method" title="Channel access method">Channel access methods</a> and <a href="/wiki/Medium_access_control" title="Medium access control">media access control</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Circuit_switching" title="Circuit switching">Channel-based</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Frequency-division_multiple_access" title="Frequency-division multiple access">FDMA</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Frequency-division_multiplexing" title="Frequency-division multiplexing">FDM</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Orthogonal_frequency-division_multiple_access" title="Orthogonal frequency-division multiple access">OFDMA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Single-carrier_FDMA" title="Single-carrier FDMA">SC-FDMA</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wavelength-division_multiplexing" title="Wavelength-division multiplexing">WDM</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wavelength-division_multiple_access" class="mw-redirect" title="Wavelength-division multiple access">WDMA</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Time-division_multiple_access" title="Time-division multiple access">TDMA</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Multi-frequency_time-division_multiple_access" title="Multi-frequency time-division multiple access">MF-TDMA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-organized_time-division_multiple_access" title="Self-organized time-division multiple access">STDMA</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Code-division_multiple_access" title="Code-division multiple access">CDMA</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/W-CDMA" class="mw-redirect" title="W-CDMA">W-CDMA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TD-CDMA" class="mw-redirect" title="TD-CDMA">TD-CDMA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TD-SCDMA" class="mw-redirect" title="TD-SCDMA">TD-SCDMA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct-sequence_spread_spectrum" title="Direct-sequence spread spectrum">DS-CDMA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frequency-hopping_spread_spectrum" title="Frequency-hopping spread spectrum">FH-CDMA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multi-carrier_code-division_multiple_access" title="Multi-carrier code-division multiple access">MC-CDMA</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Space-division_multiple_access" title="Space-division multiple access">SDMA</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/IBurst" class="mw-redirect" title="IBurst">HC-SDMA</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Polarization-division_multiple_access" title="Polarization-division multiple access">PDMA</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li class="mw-empty-elt"></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pulse-address_multiple_access" title="Pulse-address multiple access">PAMA</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li class="mw-empty-elt"></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Packet_switching" title="Packet switching">Packet-based</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Contention_(telecommunications)" title="Contention (telecommunications)">Collision recovery</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#The_ALOHA_protocol">ALOHA</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Slotted ALOHA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reservation_ALOHA" class="mw-redirect" title="Reservation ALOHA">R-ALOHA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AX.25" title="AX.25">AX.25</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carrier-sense_multiple_access_with_collision_detection" title="Carrier-sense multiple access with collision detection">CSMA/CD</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Contention_(telecommunications)" title="Contention (telecommunications)">Collision avoidance</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Multiple_Access_with_Collision_Avoidance" class="mw-redirect" title="Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance">MACA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiple_Access_with_Collision_Avoidance_for_Wireless" title="Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance for Wireless">MACAW</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carrier-sense_multiple_access" title="Carrier-sense multiple access">CSMA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carrier-sense_multiple_access_with_collision_avoidance" title="Carrier-sense multiple access with collision avoidance">CSMA/CA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributed_coordination_function" title="Distributed coordination function">DCF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Point_coordination_function" title="Point coordination function">PCF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IEEE_802.11e-2005#802.11e_MAC_protocol_operation" title="IEEE 802.11e-2005">HCF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CSMA/CARP" class="mw-redirect" title="CSMA/CARP">CSMA/CARP</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Collision_domain" title="Collision domain">Collision-free</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Token_Ring" title="Token Ring">Token Ring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Token_bus_network" title="Token bus network">Token bus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mobile_Slotted_Aloha" title="Mobile Slotted Aloha">MS-ALOHA</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Delay and disruption tolerant</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mobile_ad_hoc_network" class="mw-redirect" title="Mobile ad hoc network">MANET</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vehicular_ad-hoc_network" class="mw-redirect" title="Vehicular ad-hoc network">VANET</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Delay-tolerant_networking" title="Delay-tolerant networking">DTN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynamic_Source_Routing" title="Dynamic Source Routing">Dynamic Source Routing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Duplex_(telecommunications)" title="Duplex (telecommunications)">Duplexing methods</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Duplex_(telecommunications)#Time-division_duplexing" title="Duplex (telecommunications)">TDD</a></li> <li><a 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node controller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FBB_(F6FBB)" class="mw-redirect" title="FBB (F6FBB)">FBB (F6FBB)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:lightsteelblue;"><a href="/wiki/Automatic_Packet_Reporting_System" title="Automatic Packet Reporting System">APRS</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Automatic_Packet_Reporting_System" title="Automatic Packet Reporting System">APRS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/APRS_Calling" title="APRS Calling">APRS Calling</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:lightsteelblue;">TCP/IP packet radio</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/AMPRNet" title="AMPRNet">AMPRNet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/KISS_(TNC)" 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