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mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Prevention subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Prevention-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Examples" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Examples"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Examples</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Examples-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Empirical_findings_and_meta-analysis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Empirical_findings_and_meta-analysis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Empirical findings and meta-analysis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Empirical_findings_and_meta-analysis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Case_studies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Case_studies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Case studies</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Case_studies-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Case studies subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Case_studies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Politics_and_military" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Politics_and_military"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Politics and military</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Politics_and_military-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Bay_of_Pigs_invasion_and_the_Cuban_Missile_Crisis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bay_of_Pigs_invasion_and_the_Cuban_Missile_Crisis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1.1</span> <span>Bay of Pigs invasion and the Cuban Missile Crisis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bay_of_Pigs_invasion_and_the_Cuban_Missile_Crisis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pearl_Harbor" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pearl_Harbor"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1.2</span> <span>Pearl Harbor</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pearl_Harbor-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Space_Shuttle_Challenger_disaster" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Space_Shuttle_Challenger_disaster"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1.3</span> <span>Space Shuttle <i>Challenger</i> disaster</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Space_Shuttle_Challenger_disaster-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Corporate_world" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Corporate_world"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Corporate world</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Corporate_world-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Swissair" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Swissair"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2.1</span> <span>Swissair</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Swissair-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Marks_&_Spencer_and_British_Airways" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Marks_&_Spencer_and_British_Airways"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2.2</span> <span>Marks & Spencer and British Airways</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Marks_&_Spencer_and_British_Airways-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sports" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sports"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>Sports</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sports-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Recent_developments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Recent_developments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Recent developments</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Recent_developments-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Recent developments subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Recent_developments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ubiquity_model" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ubiquity_model"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Ubiquity model</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ubiquity_model-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-General_group_problem-solving_(GGPS)_model" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#General_group_problem-solving_(GGPS)_model"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1.1</span> <span>General group problem-solving (GGPS) model</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-General_group_problem-solving_(GGPS)_model-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reexamination" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reexamination"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Reexamination</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reexamination-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reformulation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reformulation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3</span> <span>Reformulation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reformulation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sociocognitive_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sociocognitive_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.4</span> <span>Sociocognitive theory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sociocognitive_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Collective_illusions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Collective_illusions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.5</span> <span>Collective illusions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Collective_illusions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Further reading subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Articles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Articles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.1</span> <span>Articles</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Articles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Books" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Books"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.2</span> <span>Books</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Books-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Groupthink</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 34 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-34" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">34 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%81%D9%83%D9%8A%D8%B1_%D8%AC%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B9%D9%8A" title="تفكير جماعي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تفكير جماعي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pensament_de_grup" title="Pensament de grup – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Pensament de grup" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syndrom_skupinov%C3%A9ho_my%C5%A1len%C3%AD" title="Syndrom skupinového myšlení – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Syndrom skupinového myšlení" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meddwl_gr%C5%B5p" title="Meddwl grŵp – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Meddwl grŵp" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gruppet%C3%A6nkning" title="Gruppetænkning – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Gruppetænkning" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gruppendenken" title="Gruppendenken – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Gruppendenken" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pensamiento_de_grupo" title="Pensamiento de grupo – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Pensamiento de grupo" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kunpensado" title="Kunpensado – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Kunpensado" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talde-pentsamendu" title="Talde-pentsamendu – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Talde-pentsamendu" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AF%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%87%E2%80%8C%D8%B2%D8%AF%DA%AF%DB%8C" title="گروه‌زدگی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="گروه‌زدگی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pens%C3%A9e_de_groupe" title="Pensée de groupe – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Pensée de groupe" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pensamento_de_grupo" title="Pensamento de grupo – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Pensamento de grupo" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A7%91%EB%8B%A8%EC%82%AC%EA%B3%A0" title="집단사고 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="집단사고" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pemikiran_kelompok" title="Pemikiran kelompok – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Pemikiran kelompok" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Groupthink" title="Groupthink – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Groupthink" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%97%D7%A9%D7%99%D7%91%D7%AA_%D7%99%D7%97%D7%93" title="חשיבת יחד – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="חשיבת יחד" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grupo-pensa" title="Grupo-pensa – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Grupo-pensa" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Csoportgondolkod%C3%A1s" title="Csoportgondolkodás – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Csoportgondolkodás" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Groepsdenken" title="Groepsdenken – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Groepsdenken" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%9B%86%E5%9B%A3%E6%80%9D%E8%80%83" title="集団思考 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="集団思考" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gruppetenkning" title="Gruppetenkning – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Gruppetenkning" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guruhli_fikrlash" title="Guruhli fikrlash – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Guruhli fikrlash" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syndrom_grupowego_my%C5%9Blenia" title="Syndrom grupowego myślenia – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Syndrom grupowego myślenia" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pensamento_de_grupo" title="Pensamento de grupo – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Pensamento de grupo" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%80%D1%83%D0%BF%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D0%BC%D1%8B%D1%88%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5" title="Групповое мышление – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Групповое мышление" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Groupthink" title="Groupthink – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Groupthink" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%80%D1%83%D0%BF%D0%BD%D0%BE_%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%88%D1%99%D0%B5%D1%9A%D0%B5" title="Групно мишљење – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Групно мишљење" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ryhm%C3%A4ajattelu" title="Ryhmäajattelu – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Ryhmäajattelu" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gruppt%C3%A4nkande" title="Grupptänkande – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Grupptänkande" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a 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dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Psychological phenomenon that occurs within a group of people</div> <p><b>Groupthink</b> is a psychological <a href="/wiki/Phenomenon" title="Phenomenon">phenomenon</a> that occurs within a <a href="/wiki/Social_group" title="Social group">group of people</a> in which the desire for harmony or <a href="/wiki/Conformity" title="Conformity">conformity</a> in the group results in an irrational or dysfunctional <a href="/wiki/Decision-making" title="Decision-making">decision-making</a> outcome. Cohesiveness, or the desire for cohesiveness, in a group may produce a tendency among its members to agree at all costs.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This causes the group to minimize conflict and reach a consensus decision without <a href="/wiki/Critical_thinking" title="Critical thinking">critical evaluation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Groupthink is a construct of <a href="/wiki/Social_psychology" title="Social psychology">social psychology</a> but has an extensive reach and influences literature in the fields of <a href="/wiki/Communication_studies" title="Communication studies">communication studies</a>, <a href="/wiki/Political_science" title="Political science">political science</a>, <a href="/wiki/Management" title="Management">management</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Organizational_theory" title="Organizational theory">organizational theory</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Turner1998_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Turner1998-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as well as important aspects of deviant religious <a href="/wiki/Cult" title="Cult">cult</a> behaviour.<sup id="cite_ref-wexler_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wexler-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-turner1998a_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-turner1998a-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Overview">Overview</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Groupthink&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Overview"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Groupthink is sometimes stated to occur (more broadly) within natural groups within the community, for example to explain the lifelong different mindsets of those with differing political views (such as "<a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">conservatism</a>" and "<a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">liberalism</a>" in the U.S. political context<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or the purported benefits of team work vs. work conducted in solitude).<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, this conformity of viewpoints within a group does not mainly involve deliberate <a href="/wiki/Group_decision-making" title="Group decision-making">group decision-making</a>, and might be better explained by the collective <a href="/wiki/Confirmation_bias" title="Confirmation bias">confirmation bias</a> of the individual members of the group. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The term was coined in 1952 by <a href="/wiki/William_H._Whyte" title="William H. Whyte">William H. Whyte Jr.</a><sup id="cite_ref-whyte_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-whyte-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most of the initial research on groupthink was conducted by <a href="/wiki/Irving_Janis" title="Irving Janis">Irving Janis</a>, a research psychologist from <a href="/wiki/Yale_University" title="Yale University">Yale University</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Janis1971_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Janis1971-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Janis published an influential book in 1972, which was revised in 1982.<sup id="cite_ref-Janis1972_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Janis1972-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Janis1982_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Janis1982-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Janis used the <a href="/wiki/Bay_of_Pigs_Invasion" title="Bay of Pigs Invasion">Bay of Pigs</a> disaster (the failed invasion of Castro's Cuba in 1961) and the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941 as his two prime case studies. Later studies have evaluated and reformulated his groupthink model.<sup id="cite_ref-THart1998_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-THart1998-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-McCauley1989_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McCauley1989-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Groupthink requires individuals to avoid raising <a href="/wiki/Controversy" title="Controversy">controversial</a> issues or alternative solutions, and there is loss of individual creativity, uniqueness and independent thinking. The dysfunctional <a href="/wiki/Group_dynamics" title="Group dynamics">group dynamics</a> of the "<a href="/wiki/Ingroup" class="mw-redirect" title="Ingroup">ingroup</a>" produces an "illusion of invulnerability" (an inflated certainty that the right decision has been made). Thus the "ingroup" significantly overrates its own abilities in decision-making and significantly underrates the abilities of its opponents (the "<a href="/wiki/Outgroup_(sociology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Outgroup (sociology)">outgroup</a>"). Furthermore, groupthink can produce dehumanizing actions against the "outgroup". Members of a group can often feel under <a href="/wiki/Peer_pressure" title="Peer pressure">peer pressure</a> to "go along with the crowd" for fear of "rocking the boat" or of how their speaking out will be perceived by the rest of the group. Group interactions tend to favor clear and harmonious agreements and it can be a cause for concern when little to no new innovations or arguments for better policies, outcomes and structures are called to question. (McLeod). Groupthink can often be referred to as <span class="citation-needed-content" style="padding-left:0.1em; padding-right:0.1em; color:var(--color-subtle, #54595d); border:1px solid var(--border-color-subtle, #c8ccd1);">a group of "yes men"</span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This says groupthink can mean a group of people. No dictionary defines it this way. (January 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> because group activities and group projects in general make it extremely easy to pass on not offering constructive opinions. </p><p>Some methods that have been used to counteract group think in the past are selecting teams from more diverse backgrounds, and even mixing men and women for groups (Kamalnath). Groupthink can be considered by many to be a detriment to companies, organizations and in any work situations. Most positions that are senior level need individuals to be independent in their thinking. There is a positive correlation found between outstanding executives and decisiveness (Kelman). Groupthink also prohibits an organization from moving forward and innovating if no one ever speaks up and says something could be done differently. </p><p>Antecedent factors such as <a href="/wiki/Group_cohesiveness" title="Group cohesiveness">group cohesiveness</a>, faulty group structure, and situational context (e.g., community panic) play into the likelihood of whether or not groupthink will impact the decision-making process. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Groupthink&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:WilliamHWhyteJrGroupthinkFortuneMarch1952Page114.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/2/2a/WilliamHWhyteJrGroupthinkFortuneMarch1952Page114.png/220px-WilliamHWhyteJrGroupthinkFortuneMarch1952Page114.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="115" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/2/2a/WilliamHWhyteJrGroupthinkFortuneMarch1952Page114.png/330px-WilliamHWhyteJrGroupthinkFortuneMarch1952Page114.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/2/2a/WilliamHWhyteJrGroupthinkFortuneMarch1952Page114.png 2x" data-file-width="435" data-file-height="228" /></a><figcaption>From "Groupthink" by <a href="/wiki/William_H._Whyte" title="William H. Whyte">William H. Whyte Jr.</a> in <a href="/wiki/Fortune_(magazine)" title="Fortune (magazine)"><i>Fortune</i></a> magazine, March 1952</figcaption></figure><p><i></i> </p><p><a href="/wiki/William_H._Whyte" title="William H. Whyte">William H. Whyte Jr.</a> derived the term from George Orwell's <i><a href="/wiki/Nineteen_Eighty-Four" title="Nineteen Eighty-Four">Nineteen Eighty-Four</a></i>, and popularized it in 1952 in <a href="/wiki/Fortune_(magazine)" title="Fortune (magazine)"><i>Fortune</i></a> magazine: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Groupthink being a coinage – and, admittedly, a loaded one – a working definition is in order. We are not talking about mere instinctive conformity – it is, after all, a perennial failing of mankind. What we are talking about is a <i>rationalized</i> conformity – an open, articulate philosophy which holds that group values are not only expedient but right and good as well.<sup id="cite_ref-whyte_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-whyte-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Groupthink was Whyte's diagnosis of the malaise affecting both the study and practice of management (and, by association, America) in the 1950s. Whyte was dismayed that employees had subjugated themselves to the tyranny of groups, which crushed individuality and were instinctively hostile to anything or anyone that challenged the collective view.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>American psychologist <a href="/wiki/Irving_Janis" title="Irving Janis">Irving Janis</a> (Yale University) pioneered the initial research on the groupthink theory. He does not cite Whyte, but coined the term again by analogy with "<a href="/wiki/Doublethink" title="Doublethink">doublethink</a>" and similar terms that were part of the newspeak vocabulary in the novel <i><a href="/wiki/Nineteen_Eighty-Four" title="Nineteen Eighty-Four">Nineteen Eighty-Four</a></i> by George Orwell. He initially defined groupthink as follows: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>I use the term groupthink as a quick and easy way to refer to the mode of thinking that persons engage in when <i>concurrence-seeking</i> becomes so dominant in a cohesive ingroup that it tends to override realistic appraisal of alternative courses of action. Groupthink is a term of the same order as the words in the newspeak vocabulary George Orwell used in his dismaying world of <i>1984</i>. In that context, groupthink takes on an invidious connotation. Exactly such a connotation is intended, since the term refers to a deterioration in mental efficiency, reality testing and moral judgments as a result of group pressures.<sup id="cite_ref-Janis1971_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Janis1971-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 43">: 43 </span></sup></p></blockquote> <p>He went on to write: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The main principle of groupthink, which I offer in the spirit of <a href="/wiki/Parkinson%27s_Law" class="mw-redirect" title="Parkinson's Law">Parkinson's Law</a>, is this: "The more amiability and <i>esprit de corps</i> there is among the members of a policy-making ingroup, the greater the danger that independent critical thinking will be replaced by groupthink, which is likely to result in irrational and dehumanizing actions directed against outgroups".<sup id="cite_ref-Janis1971_10-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Janis1971-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 44">: 44 </span></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Janis set the foundation for the study of groupthink starting with his research in the American Soldier Project where he studied the effect of extreme stress on group cohesiveness. After this study he remained interested in the ways in which people make decisions under external threats. This interest led Janis to study a number of "disasters" in <a href="/wiki/American_foreign_policy" class="mw-redirect" title="American foreign policy">American foreign policy</a>, such as failure to anticipate the <a href="/wiki/Japanese_attack_on_Pearl_Harbor" class="mw-redirect" title="Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor">Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor</a> (1941); the <a href="/wiki/Bay_of_Pigs_Invasion" title="Bay of Pigs Invasion">Bay of Pigs Invasion</a> fiasco (1961); and the prosecution of the <a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a> (1964–67) by President <a href="/wiki/Lyndon_Johnson" class="mw-redirect" title="Lyndon Johnson">Lyndon Johnson</a>. He concluded that in each of these cases, the decisions occurred largely because of groupthink, which prevented contradictory views from being expressed and subsequently evaluated. </p><p>After the publication of Janis' book <i>Victims of Groupthink</i> in 1972,<sup id="cite_ref-Janis1972_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Janis1972-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and a revised edition with the title <i>Groupthink: Psychological Studies of Policy Decisions and Fiascoes</i> in 1982,<sup id="cite_ref-Janis1982_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Janis1982-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the concept of groupthink was used<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag may use weasel words or too-vague attribution. (November 2013)">by whom?</span></a></i>]</sup> to explain many other faulty decisions in history. These events included <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a>'s decision to invade the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> in 1941, the <a href="/wiki/Watergate_scandal" title="Watergate scandal">Watergate scandal</a> and others. Despite the popularity of the concept of groupthink, fewer than two dozen studies addressed the phenomenon itself following the publication of <i>Victims of Groupthink</i>, between the years 1972 and 1998.<sup id="cite_ref-Turner1998_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Turner1998-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 107">: 107 </span></sup> This was surprising considering how many fields of interests it spans, which include <a href="/wiki/Political_science" title="Political science">political science</a>, communications, <a href="/wiki/Organizational_studies" class="mw-redirect" title="Organizational studies">organizational studies</a>, <a href="/wiki/Social_psychology" title="Social psychology">social psychology</a>, management, strategy, counseling, and marketing. One can most likely explain this lack of follow-up in that group research is difficult to conduct, groupthink has many independent and dependent variables, and it is unclear "how to translate [groupthink's] theoretical concepts into observable and quantitative constructs".<sup id="cite_ref-Turner1998_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Turner1998-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 107–108">: 107–108 </span></sup> </p><p>Nevertheless, outside research psychology and sociology, wider culture has come to detect groupthink in observable situations, for example: </p> <ul><li>" [...] critics of Twitter point to the predominance of the hive mind in such social media, the kind of groupthink that submerges independent thinking in favor of conformity to the group, the collective"<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <ul><li>"[...] leaders often have beliefs which are very far from matching reality and which can become more extreme as they are encouraged by their followers. The predilection of many cult leaders for abstract, ambiguous, and therefore unchallengeable ideas can further reduce the likelihood of <a href="/wiki/Reality_testing" title="Reality testing">reality testing</a>, while the intense <a href="/wiki/Milieu_control" title="Milieu control">milieu control</a> exerted by cults over their members means that most of the reality available for testing is supplied by the group environment. This is seen in the phenomenon of 'groupthink', alleged to have occurred, notoriously, during the Bay of Pigs fiasco."<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <ul><li>"Groupthink by Compulsion [...] [G]roupthink at least implies voluntarism. When this fails, the organization is not above outright intimidation. [...] In [a nationwide telecommunications company], refusal by the new hires to cheer on command incurred consequences not unlike the indoctrination and brainwashing techniques associated with a Soviet-era gulag."<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Symptoms">Symptoms</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Groupthink&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Symptoms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>To make groupthink testable, <a href="/wiki/Irving_Janis" title="Irving Janis">Irving Janis</a> devised eight symptoms indicative of groupthink:<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Type I: Overestimations of the group — its power and morality </p> <ul><li><i>Illusions of invulnerability</i> creating excessive optimism and encouraging risk taking.</li> <li><i>Unquestioned belief</i> in the <a href="/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">morality</a> of the group, causing members to ignore the consequences of their actions.</li></ul> <p>Type II: Closed-mindedness </p> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Rationalization_(making_excuses)" class="mw-redirect" title="Rationalization (making excuses)">Rationalizing</a> warnings</i> that might challenge the group's assumptions.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Stereotype" title="Stereotype">Stereotyping</a></i> those who are opposed to the group as weak, evil, biased, spiteful, impotent, or stupid.</li></ul> <p>Type III: Pressures toward uniformity </p> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Self-censorship" title="Self-censorship">Self-censorship</a></i> of ideas that deviate from the apparent group consensus.</li> <li><i>Illusions of unanimity</i> among group members, <a href="/wiki/Silence_implies_consent" class="mw-redirect" title="Silence implies consent">silence is viewed as agreement</a>.</li> <li><i>Direct pressure</i> to conform placed on any member who questions the group, couched in terms of "disloyalty".</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mindguard" title="Mindguard">Mindguards</a></i>— self-appointed members who shield the group from dissenting information.</li></ul> <p>When a group exhibits most of the symptoms of groupthink, the consequences of a failing decision process can be expected: incomplete analysis of the other options, incomplete analysis of the objectives, failure to examine the risks associated with the favored choice, failure to reevaluate the options initially rejected, poor information research, selection bias in available information processing, failure to prepare for a back-up plan.<sup id="cite_ref-Janis1972_11-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Janis1972-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Causes">Causes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Groupthink&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Causes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Janis identified three antecedent conditions to groupthink:<sup id="cite_ref-Janis1972_11-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Janis1972-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 9">: 9 </span></sup> </p> <ul><li><i>High <a href="/wiki/Group_cohesiveness" title="Group cohesiveness">group cohesiveness</a></i>: Cohesiveness is the main factor that leads to groupthink. Groups that lack cohesiveness can of course make bad decisions, but they do not experience groupthink. In a cohesive group, members avoid speaking out against decisions, avoid arguing with others, and work towards maintaining friendly relationships in the group. If cohesiveness gets to such a level that there are no longer disagreements between members, then the group is ripe for groupthink. <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Deindividuation" title="Deindividuation">Deindividuation</a></i>: Group cohesiveness becomes more important than individual freedom of expression.</li> <li><i>Illusions of unanimity</i>: Members perceive falsely that everyone agrees with the group's decision; silence is seen as consent. Janis noted that the unity of group members was mere illusion. Members may disagree with the organizations' decision, but go along with the group for many reasons, such as maintaining their group status and avoiding conflict with managers or workmates. Such members think that suggesting opinions contrary to others may lead to isolation from the group.</li></ul></li> <li><i>Structural faults</i>: The group is organized in ways that disrupt the communication of information, or the group carelessly makes decisions. <ul><li><i>Insulation of the group</i>: This can promote the development of unique, inaccurate perspectives on issues the group is dealing with, which can then lead to faulty solutions to the problem.</li> <li><i>Lack of impartial leadership</i>: Leaders control the group discussion, by planning what will be discussed, allowing only certain questions to be asked, and asking for opinions of only certain people in the group. Closed-style leadership is when leaders announce their opinions on the issue before the group discusses the issue together. Open-style leadership is when leaders withhold their opinion until a later time in the discussion. Groups with a closed-style leader are more biased in their judgments, especially when members had a high degree of certainty.</li> <li><i>Lack of norms requiring methodological procedures</i>.</li> <li><i>Homogeneity of members' social backgrounds and ideology</i>.</li></ul></li> <li><i>Situational context:</i> <ul><li><i>Highly stressful external threats</i>: High-stake decisions can create tension and anxiety; group members may cope with this stress in irrational ways. Group members may rationalize their decision by exaggerating the positive consequences and minimizing the possible negative consequences. In attempt to minimize the stressful situation, the group decides quickly and allows little to no discussion or disagreement. Groups under high stress are more likely to make errors, lose focus of the ultimate goal, and use procedures that members know have not been effective in the past.</li> <li><i>Recent failures</i>: These can lead to low self-esteem, resulting in agreement with the group for fear of being seen as wrong.</li> <li><i>Excessive difficulties in <a href="/wiki/Decision-making" title="Decision-making">decision-making</a> tasks</i>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Moral_dilemmas" class="mw-redirect" title="Moral dilemmas">Moral dilemmas</a></i><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (March 2022)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li></ul></li></ul> <p>Although it is possible for a situation to contain all three of these factors, all three are not always present even when groupthink is occurring. Janis considered a high degree of cohesiveness to be the most important antecedent to producing groupthink, and always present when groupthink was occurring; however, he believed high cohesiveness would not always produce groupthink. A very cohesive group abides with all group <a href="/wiki/Norm_(social)" class="mw-redirect" title="Norm (social)">norms</a>; but whether or not groupthink arises is dependent on what the group norms are. If the group encourages individual <a href="/wiki/Dissent" title="Dissent">dissent</a> and alternative strategies to problem solving, it is likely that groupthink will be avoided even in a highly cohesive group. This means that high cohesion will lead to groupthink only if one or both of the other antecedents is present, situational context being slightly more likely than structural faults to produce groupthink.<sup id="cite_ref-Hart,_Paul't_1991_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hart,_Paul't_1991-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A 2018 study found that absence of a tenured project leader can also create conditions for groupthink to prevail. Presence of an "experienced" project manager can reduce the likelihood of groupthink by taking steps like critically analysing ideas, promoting open communication, encouraging diverse perspectives, and raising team awareness of groupthink symptoms.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It was found that among people who have bicultural identity, those with highly integrated bicultural identity as opposed to less integrated were more prone to groupthink.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In another 2022 study in Tanzania, Hofstede's cultural dimensions come into play. It was observed that in high power distance societies, individuals are hesitant to voice dissent, deferring to leaders' preferences in making decisions. Furthermore, as Tanzania is a collectivist society, community interests supersede those of individuals. The combination of high power distance and collectivism creates optimal conditions for groupthink to occur.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Prevention">Prevention</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Groupthink&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Prevention"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:What_is_groupthink_and_how_to_avoid_it.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/What_is_groupthink_and_how_to_avoid_it.png/220px-What_is_groupthink_and_how_to_avoid_it.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="129" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/What_is_groupthink_and_how_to_avoid_it.png/330px-What_is_groupthink_and_how_to_avoid_it.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/What_is_groupthink_and_how_to_avoid_it.png/440px-What_is_groupthink_and_how_to_avoid_it.png 2x" data-file-width="3058" data-file-height="1799" /></a><figcaption>Input from an outsider can break groupthink</figcaption></figure> <p>As observed by Aldag and Fuller (1993), the groupthink phenomenon seems to rest on a set of unstated and generally restrictive assumptions:<sup id="cite_ref-Aldag1993_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aldag1993-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>The purpose of group problem solving is mainly to improve decision quality</li> <li>Group problem solving is considered a rational process.</li> <li>Benefits of group problem solving: <ul><li>variety of perspectives</li> <li>more information about possible alternatives</li> <li>better decision reliability</li> <li>dampening of biases</li> <li>social presence effects</li></ul></li> <li>Groupthink prevents these benefits due to structural faults and provocative situational context</li> <li>Groupthink prevention methods will produce better decisions</li> <li>An illusion of well-being is presumed to be inherently dysfunctional.</li> <li>Group pressures towards consensus lead to concurrence-seeking tendencies.</li></ul> <p>It has been thought that groups with the strong ability to work together will be able to solve dilemmas in a quicker and more efficient fashion than an individual. Groups have a greater amount of resources which lead them to be able to store and retrieve information more readily and come up with more alternative solutions to a problem. There was a recognized downside to group <a href="/wiki/Problem_solving" title="Problem solving">problem solving</a> in that it takes groups more time to come to a decision and requires that people make compromises with each other. However, it was not until the research of Janis appeared that anyone really considered that a highly cohesive group could impair the group's ability to generate quality decisions. Tight-knit groups may appear to make decisions better because they can come to a consensus quickly and at a low energy cost; however, over time this process of decision-making may decrease the members' ability to think critically. It is, therefore, considered by many to be important to combat the effects of groupthink.<sup id="cite_ref-Hart,_Paul't_1991_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hart,_Paul't_1991-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to Janis, decision-making groups are not necessarily destined to groupthink. He devised ways of preventing groupthink:<sup id="cite_ref-Janis1972_11-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Janis1972-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 209–215">: 209–215 </span></sup> </p> <ul><li>Leaders should assign each member the role of "critical evaluator". This allows each member to freely air objections and doubts.</li> <li>Leaders should not express an opinion when assigning a task to a group.</li> <li>Leaders should absent themselves from many of the group meetings to avoid excessively influencing the outcome.</li> <li>The organization should set up several independent groups, working on the same problem.</li> <li>All effective alternatives should be examined.</li> <li>Each member should discuss the group's ideas with trusted people outside of the group.</li> <li>The group should invite outside experts into meetings. Group members should be allowed to discuss with and question the outside experts.</li> <li>At least one group member should be assigned the role of <a href="/wiki/Devil%27s_advocate" title="Devil's advocate">devil's advocate</a>. This should be a different person for each meeting.</li></ul> <p>The devil's advocate in a group may provide questions and insight which contradict the majority group in order to avoid groupthink decisions.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A study by Ryan Hartwig confirms that the devil's advocacy technique is very useful for group problem-solving.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It allows for conflict to be used in a way that is most-effective for finding the best solution so that members will not have to go back and find a different solution if the first one fails. Hartwig also suggests that the devil's advocacy technique be incorporated with other group decision-making models such as the <a href="/wiki/Functional_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Functional theory">functional theory</a> to find and evaluate alternative solutions. The main idea of the devil's advocacy technique is that somewhat structured conflict can be facilitated to not only reduce groupthink, but to also solve problems. </p><p>Diversity of all kinds is also instrumental in preventing groupthink. Individuals with varying backgrounds, thought, professional and life experiences etc. can offer unique perspectives and challenge assumptions.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a 2004 study, a diverse team of problem-solver outperformed a team consisting of best problem solvers as they start to think alike.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Psychological safety, emphasized by Edmondson and Lei<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Hirak et al.,<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is crucial for effective group performance. It involves creating an environment that encourages learning and removes barriers perceived as threats by team members. Edmondson et al.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> demonstrated variations in psychological safety based on work type, hierarchy, and leadership effectiveness, highlighting its importance in employee development and fostering a culture of learning within organizations.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A similar situation to groupthink is the <a href="/wiki/Abilene_paradox" title="Abilene paradox">Abilene paradox</a>, another phenomenon that is detrimental when working in groups. When organizations fall into an Abilene paradox, they take actions in contradiction to what their perceived goals may be and therefore defeat the very purposes they are trying to achieve.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Failure to communicate desires or beliefs can cause an Abilene paradox. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Examples">Examples</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Groupthink&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Examples"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Watergate_scandal" title="Watergate scandal">Watergate scandal</a> is an example of this.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Before the scandal had occurred, a meeting took place where they discussed the issue. One of Nixon's campaign aides was unsure if he should speak up and give his input. If he had voiced his disagreement with the group's decision, it is possible that the scandal could have been avoided.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>After the Bay of Pigs invasion fiasco, President <a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy" title="John F. Kennedy">John F. Kennedy</a> sought to avoid groupthink during the <a href="/wiki/Cuban_Missile_Crisis" title="Cuban Missile Crisis">Cuban Missile Crisis</a> using "vigilant appraisal".<sup id="cite_ref-Janis1982_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Janis1982-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 148–153">: 148–153 </span></sup> During meetings, he invited outside experts to share their viewpoints, and allowed group members to question them carefully. He also encouraged group members to discuss possible solutions with trusted members within their separate departments, and he even divided the group up into various sub-groups, to partially break the group cohesion. Kennedy was deliberately absent from the meetings, so as to avoid pressing his own opinion. </p><p>Cass Sunstein reports that <a href="/wiki/Introvert" class="mw-redirect" title="Introvert">introverts</a> can sometimes be silent in meetings with <a href="/wiki/Extrovert" class="mw-redirect" title="Extrovert">extroverts</a>; he recommends explicitly asking for each person's opinion, either during the meeting or afterwards in one-on-one sessions. Sunstein points to studies showing groups with a high level of internal socialization and <a href="/wiki/Happy_talk" title="Happy talk">happy talk</a> are more prone to bad investment decisions due to groupthink, compared with groups of investors who are relative strangers and more willing to be argumentative. To avoid <a href="/wiki/Group_polarization" title="Group polarization">group polarization</a>, where discussion with like-minded people drives an outcome further to an extreme than any of the individuals favored before the discussion, he recommends creating heterogeneous groups which contain people with different points of view. Sunstein also points out that people arguing a side they do not sincerely believe (in the role of devil's advocate) tend to be much less effective than a sincere argument. This can be accomplished by dissenting individuals, or a group like a <a href="/wiki/Red_team" title="Red team">Red Team</a> that is expected to pursue an alternative strategy or goal "for real".<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Empirical_findings_and_meta-analysis">Empirical findings and meta-analysis</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Groupthink&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Empirical findings and meta-analysis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Testing groupthink in a laboratory is difficult because synthetic settings remove groups from real social situations, which ultimately changes the variables conducive or inhibitive to groupthink.<sup id="cite_ref-Flowers1977_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Flowers1977-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because of its subjective nature, researchers have struggled to measure groupthink as a complete phenomenon, instead frequently opting to measure its particular factors. These factors range from <span class="cleanup-needed-content" style="padding-left:0.1em; padding-right:0.1em; color:var(--color-subtle, #54595d); border:1px solid var(--border-color-subtle, #c8ccd1);">causal to effectual</span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="It's unclear what the differences are, with the citation providing no explanation. (March 2024)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> and focus on group and situational aspects.<sup id="cite_ref-Schafer1996_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schafer1996-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Cline1990_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cline1990-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Park (1990) found that "only 16 empirical studies have been published on groupthink", and concluded that they "resulted in only partial support of his [Janis's] hypotheses".<sup id="cite_ref-Park1990_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Park1990-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 230">: 230 </span></sup> Park concludes, "despite Janis' claim that group cohesiveness is the major necessary antecedent factor, no research has shown a significant main effect of cohesiveness on groupthink."<sup id="cite_ref-Park1990_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Park1990-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 230">: 230 </span></sup> Park also concludes that research does not support Janis' claim that cohesion and leadership style interact to produce groupthink symptoms.<sup id="cite_ref-Park1990_40-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Park1990-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Park presents a summary of the results of the studies analyzed. According to Park, a study by Huseman and Drive (1979) indicates groupthink occurs in both small and large decision-making groups within businesses.<sup id="cite_ref-Park1990_40-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Park1990-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This results partly from group isolation within the business. Manz and Sims (1982) conducted a study showing that autonomous work groups are susceptible to groupthink symptoms in the same manner as decisions making groups within businesses.<sup id="cite_ref-Park1990_40-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Park1990-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Fodor and Smith (1982) produced a study revealing that group leaders with high power motivation create atmospheres more susceptible to groupthink.<sup id="cite_ref-Park1990_40-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Park1990-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Leaders with high power motivation possess characteristics similar to leaders with a "closed" leadership style—an unwillingness to respect dissenting opinion. The same study indicates that level of group cohesiveness is insignificant in predicting groupthink occurrence. Park summarizes a study performed by Callaway, Marriott, and Esser (1985) in which groups with highly dominant members "made higher quality decisions, exhibited lowered state of anxiety, took more time to reach a decision, and made more statements of disagreement/agreement".<sup id="cite_ref-Park1990_40-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Park1990-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 232">: 232 </span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Overall, groups with highly dominant members expressed characteristics inhibitory to groupthink. If highly dominant members are considered equivalent to leaders with high power motivation, the results of Callaway, Marriott, and Esser contradict the results of Fodor and Smith. A study by Leana (1985) indicates the interaction between level of group cohesion and leadership style is completely insignificant in predicting groupthink.<sup id="cite_ref-Park1990_40-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Park1990-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This finding refutes Janis' claim that the factors of cohesion and leadership style interact to produce groupthink. Park summarizes a study by McCauley (1989) in which structural conditions of the group were found to predict groupthink while situational conditions did not.<sup id="cite_ref-McCauley1989_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McCauley1989-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Park1990_40-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Park1990-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The structural conditions included group insulation, group homogeneity, and promotional leadership. The situational conditions included group cohesion. These findings refute Janis' claim about group cohesiveness predicting groupthink. </p><p>Overall, studies on groupthink have largely focused on the factors (antecedents) that predict groupthink. Groupthink occurrence is often measured by number of ideas/solutions generated within a group, but there is no uniform, concrete standard by which researchers can objectively conclude groupthink occurs.<sup id="cite_ref-Flowers1977_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Flowers1977-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The studies of groupthink and groupthink antecedents reveal a mixed body of results. Some studies indicate group cohesion and leadership style to be powerfully predictive of groupthink, while other studies indicate the insignificance of these factors. Group homogeneity and group insulation are generally supported as factors predictive of groupthink. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Case_studies">Case studies</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Groupthink&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Case studies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Politics_and_military">Politics and military</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Groupthink&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Politics and military"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Groupthink can have a strong hold on political decisions and military operations, which may result in enormous wastage of human and material resources. Highly qualified and experienced politicians and military commanders sometimes make very poor decisions when in a suboptimal group setting. Scholars such as Janis and Raven attribute political and military fiascoes, such as the <a href="/wiki/Bay_of_Pigs_Invasion" title="Bay of Pigs Invasion">Bay of Pigs Invasion</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Watergate_scandal" title="Watergate scandal">Watergate scandal</a>, to the effect of groupthink.<sup id="cite_ref-Janis1982_12-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Janis1982-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More recently, Dina Badie argued that groupthink was largely responsible for the shift in the U.S. administration's view on <a href="/wiki/Saddam_Hussein" title="Saddam Hussein">Saddam Hussein</a> that eventually led to the <a href="/wiki/2003_invasion_of_Iraq" title="2003 invasion of Iraq">2003 invasion of Iraq</a> by the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-Badie2010_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Badie2010-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the <a href="/wiki/September_11_attacks" title="September 11 attacks">September 11 attacks</a>, "stress, promotional leadership, and <a href="/wiki/Group_conflict" title="Group conflict">intergroup conflict</a>" were all factors that gave rise to the occurrence of groupthink.<sup id="cite_ref-Badie2010_46-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Badie2010-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 283">: 283 </span></sup> Political case studies of groupthink serve to illustrate the impact that the occurrence of groupthink can have in today's political scene. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Bay_of_Pigs_invasion_and_the_Cuban_Missile_Crisis">Bay of Pigs invasion and the Cuban Missile Crisis</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Groupthink&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Bay of Pigs invasion and the Cuban Missile Crisis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The United States <a href="/wiki/Bay_of_Pigs_Invasion" title="Bay of Pigs Invasion">Bay of Pigs Invasion</a> of April 1961 was the primary case study that Janis used to formulate his theory of groupthink.<sup id="cite_ref-Janis1971_10-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Janis1971-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The invasion plan was initiated by the <a href="/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Dwight D. Eisenhower">Eisenhower</a> administration, but when the <a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy" title="John F. Kennedy">Kennedy</a> administration took over, it "uncritically accepted" the plan of the <a href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">Central Intelligence Agency</a> (CIA).<sup id="cite_ref-Janis1971_10-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Janis1971-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 44">: 44 </span></sup> When some people, such as <a href="/wiki/Arthur_M._Schlesinger_Jr." title="Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr.">Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr.</a> and Senator <a href="/wiki/J._William_Fulbright" title="J. William Fulbright">J. William Fulbright</a>, attempted to present their objections to the plan, the Kennedy team as a whole ignored these objections and kept believing in the morality of their plan.<sup id="cite_ref-Janis1971_10-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Janis1971-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 46">: 46 </span></sup> Eventually Schlesinger minimized his own doubts, performing <a href="/wiki/Self-censorship" title="Self-censorship">self-censorship</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Janis1971_10-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Janis1971-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 74">: 74 </span></sup> The Kennedy team stereotyped <a href="/wiki/Fidel_Castro" title="Fidel Castro">Fidel Castro</a> and the Cubans by failing to question the CIA about its many false assumptions, including the ineffectiveness of <a href="/wiki/Cuban_Revolutionary_Air_and_Air_Defense_Force" title="Cuban Revolutionary Air and Air Defense Force">Castro's air force</a>, the weakness of <a href="/wiki/Cuban_Revolutionary_Armed_Forces" title="Cuban Revolutionary Armed Forces">Castro's army</a>, and the inability of Castro to quell internal uprisings.<sup id="cite_ref-Janis1971_10-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Janis1971-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 46">: 46 </span></sup> </p><p>Janis argued the fiasco that ensued could have been prevented if the Kennedy administration had followed the methods to preventing groupthink adopted during the <a href="/wiki/Cuban_Missile_Crisis" title="Cuban Missile Crisis">Cuban Missile Crisis</a>, which took place just one year later in October 1962. In the latter crisis, essentially the same political leaders were involved in decision-making, but this time they learned from their previous mistake of seriously under-rating their opponents.<sup id="cite_ref-Janis1971_10-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Janis1971-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 76">: 76 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Pearl_Harbor">Pearl Harbor</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Groupthink&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Pearl Harbor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor" title="Attack on Pearl Harbor">attack on Pearl Harbor</a> on December 7, 1941, is a prime example of groupthink. A number of factors such as shared illusions and rationalizations contributed to the lack of precaution taken by U.S. Navy officers based in Hawaii. The United States had intercepted Japanese messages and they discovered that Japan was arming itself for an offensive attack <i>somewhere</i> in the Pacific Ocean. Washington took action by warning officers stationed at <a href="/wiki/Pearl_Harbor" title="Pearl Harbor">Pearl Harbor</a>, but their warning was not taken seriously. They assumed that the <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Empire of Japan</a> was taking measures in the event that their embassies and consulates in enemy territories were usurped. </p><p>The U.S. Navy and Army in Pearl Harbor also shared rationalizations about why an attack was unlikely. Some of them included:<sup id="cite_ref-Janis1982_12-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Janis1982-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 83, 85">: 83, 85 </span></sup> </p> <ul><li>"The Japanese would never dare attempt a full-scale surprise assault against Hawaii because they would realize that it would precipitate an all-out war, which the United States would surely win."</li> <li>"The Pacific Fleet concentrated at Pearl Harbor was a major deterrent against air or naval attack."</li> <li>"Even if the Japanese were foolhardy to send their carriers to attack us [the United States], we could certainly detect and destroy them in plenty of time."</li> <li>"No warships anchored in the shallow water of Pearl Harbor could ever be sunk by torpedo bombs launched from enemy aircraft."</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Space_Shuttle_Challenger_disaster">Space Shuttle <i>Challenger</i> disaster</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Groupthink&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Space Shuttle Challenger disaster"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>On January 28, 1986, <a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a> launched the space shuttle <i><a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_Challenger" title="Space Shuttle Challenger">Challenger</a></i>. This was significant because a civilian, non-astronaut, high school teacher was to be the first American civilian in space. The space shuttle was perceived to be so safe as to make this possible. NASA's engineering and launch teams rely on teamwork. To launch the shuttle, individual team members must affirm each system is functioning nominally. <a href="/wiki/Morton_Thiokol" class="mw-redirect" title="Morton Thiokol">Morton Thiokol</a> engineers who designed and built the <i>Challenger</i><span class="nowrap" style="padding-left:0.1em;">'</span>s rocket boosters ignored warnings that cooler temperature during the day of the launch could result in failure and death of the crew.<sup id="cite_ref-" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_Challenger_Disaster" class="mw-redirect" title="Space Shuttle Challenger Disaster">Space Shuttle Challenger Disaster</a> grounded space shuttle flights for nearly three years. Ironic that this particular flight was to be a demonstration showing confidence in the safety of the space shuttle technology. </p><p>The <i>Challenger</i> case was subject to a more quantitatively oriented test of Janis's groupthink model performed by Esser and Lindoerfer, who found clear signs of positive antecedents to groupthink in the critical decisions concerning the launch of the <a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle" title="Space Shuttle">shuttle</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The day of the launch was rushed for publicity reasons. NASA wanted to captivate and hold the attention of America. Having civilian teacher <a href="/wiki/Christa_McAuliffe" title="Christa McAuliffe">Christa McAuliffe</a> on board to broadcast a live lesson, and the possible mention by president Ronald Reagan in the State of the Union address, were opportunities NASA deemed critical to increasing interest in its potential civilian space flight program. The schedule NASA set out to meet was, however, self-imposed. It seemed incredible to many that an organization with a perceived history of successful management would have locked itself into a schedule it had no chance of meeting.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Corporate_world">Corporate world</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Groupthink&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Corporate world"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the corporate world, ineffective and suboptimal group decision-making can negatively affect the health of a company and cause a considerable amount of monetary loss. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Swissair">Swissair</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Groupthink&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Swissair"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Aaron Hermann and Hussain Rammal illustrate the detrimental role of groupthink in the collapse of <a href="/wiki/Swissair" title="Swissair">Swissair</a>, a Swiss airline company that was thought to be so financially stable that it earned the title the "Flying Bank".<sup id="cite_ref-Hermann2010_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hermann2010-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The authors argue that, among other factors, Swissair carried two symptoms of groupthink: the belief that the group is invulnerable and the belief in the morality of the group.<sup id="cite_ref-Hermann2010_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hermann2010-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 1056">: 1056 </span></sup> In addition, before the fiasco, the size of the company board was reduced, subsequently eliminating industrial expertise. This may have further increased the likelihood of groupthink.<sup id="cite_ref-Hermann2010_50-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hermann2010-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 1055">: 1055 </span></sup> With the board members lacking expertise in the field and having somewhat similar background, norms, and values, the pressure to conform may have become more prominent.<sup id="cite_ref-Hermann2010_50-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hermann2010-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 1057">: 1057 </span></sup> This phenomenon is called group homogeneity, which is an antecedent to groupthink. Together, these conditions may have contributed to the poor decision-making process that eventually led to Swissair's collapse. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Marks_&_Spencer_and_British_Airways"><span id="Marks_.26_Spencer_and_British_Airways"></span>Marks & Spencer and British Airways</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Groupthink&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Marks & Spencer and British Airways"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Another example of groupthink from the corporate world is illustrated in the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>-based companies <a href="/wiki/Marks_%26_Spencer" title="Marks & Spencer">Marks & Spencer</a> and <a href="/wiki/British_Airways" title="British Airways">British Airways</a>. The negative impact of groupthink took place during the 1990s as both companies released globalization expansion strategies. Researcher Jack Eaton's content analysis of media press releases revealed that all eight symptoms of groupthink were present during this period. The most predominant symptom of groupthink was the illusion of invulnerability as both companies underestimated potential failure due to years of profitability and success during challenging markets. Up until the consequence of groupthink erupted they were considered <a href="/wiki/Blue_chip_(stock_market)" title="Blue chip (stock market)">blue chips</a> and darlings of the <a href="/wiki/London_Stock_Exchange" title="London Stock Exchange">London Stock Exchange</a>. During 1998–1999 the price of Marks & Spencer shares fell from 590 to less than 300 and that of British Airways from 740 to 300. Both companies had previously been prominently featured in the UK press and media for more positive reasons, reflecting national pride in their undeniable sector-wide performance.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sports">Sports</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Groupthink&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Sports"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Recent literature of groupthink attempts to study the application of this concept beyond the framework of business and politics. One particularly relevant and popular arena in which groupthink is rarely studied is sports. The lack of literature in this area prompted Charles Koerber and Christopher Neck to begin a case-study investigation that examined the effect of groupthink on the decision of the <a href="/wiki/Major_League_Umpires_Association" title="Major League Umpires Association">Major League Umpires Association</a> (MLUA) to stage a mass resignation in 1999. The decision was a failed attempt to gain a stronger negotiating stance against <a href="/wiki/Major_League_Baseball" title="Major League Baseball">Major League Baseball</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Koerber2003_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Koerber2003-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 21">: 21 </span></sup> Koerber and Neck suggest that three groupthink symptoms can be found in the decision-making process of the MLUA. First, the umpires overestimated the power that they had over the baseball league and the strength of their group's resolve. The union also exhibited some degree of closed-mindedness with the notion that MLB is the enemy. Lastly, there was the presence of self-censorship; some umpires who disagreed with the decision to resign failed to voice their dissent.<sup id="cite_ref-Koerber2003_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Koerber2003-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 25">: 25 </span></sup> These factors, along with other decision-making defects, led to a decision that was suboptimal and ineffective. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Recent_developments">Recent developments</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Groupthink&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Recent developments"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ubiquity_model">Ubiquity model</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Groupthink&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Ubiquity model"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Researcher Robert Baron (2005) contends that the connection between certain antecedents which Janis believed necessary has not been demonstrated by the current collective body of research on groupthink. He believes that Janis' antecedents for groupthink are incorrect, and argues that not only are they "not necessary to provoke the symptoms of groupthink, but that they often will not even amplify such symptoms".<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As an alternative to Janis' model, Baron proposed a ubiquity model of groupthink. This model provides a revised set of antecedents for groupthink, including <a href="/wiki/Social_identity" class="mw-redirect" title="Social identity">social identification</a>, salient <a href="/wiki/Norm_(sociology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Norm (sociology)">norms</a>, and low <a href="/wiki/Self-efficacy" title="Self-efficacy">self-efficacy</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="General_group_problem-solving_(GGPS)_model"><span id="General_group_problem-solving_.28GGPS.29_model"></span>General group problem-solving (GGPS) model</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Groupthink&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: General group problem-solving (GGPS) model"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Aldag and Fuller (1993) argue that the groupthink concept was based on a "small and relatively restricted sample" that became too broadly generalized.<sup id="cite_ref-Aldag1993_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aldag1993-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, the concept is too rigidly staged and deterministic. Empirical support for it has also not been consistent. The authors compare groupthink model to findings presented by <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Maslow" title="Abraham Maslow">Maslow</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jean_Piaget" title="Jean Piaget">Piaget</a>; they argue that, in each case, the model incites great interest and further research that, subsequently, invalidate the original concept. Aldag and Fuller thus suggest a new model called the <a href="/wiki/General_Group_Problem_Solving_(GGPS)_Model" class="mw-redirect" title="General Group Problem Solving (GGPS) Model">general group problem-solving (GGPS) model</a>, which integrates new findings from groupthink literature and alters aspects of groupthink itself.<sup id="cite_ref-Aldag1993_25-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aldag1993-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 534">: 534 </span></sup> The primary difference between the GGPS model and groupthink is that the former is more value neutral and more political.<sup id="cite_ref-Aldag1993_25-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aldag1993-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 544">: 544 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reexamination">Reexamination</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Groupthink&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Reexamination"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Later scholars have re-assessed the merit of groupthink by reexamining case studies that Janis originally used to buttress his model. Roderick Kramer (1998) believed that, because scholars today have a more sophisticated set of ideas about the general decision-making process and because new and relevant information about the fiascos have surfaced over the years, a reexamination of the case studies is appropriate and necessary.<sup id="cite_ref-Kramer1998_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kramer1998-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He argues that new evidence does not support Janis' view that groupthink was largely responsible for President Kennedy's and President Johnson's decisions in the Bay of Pigs Invasion and U.S. escalated military involvement in the <a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a>, respectively. Both presidents sought the advice of experts outside of their political groups more than Janis suggested.<sup id="cite_ref-Kramer1998_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kramer1998-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 241">: 241 </span></sup> Kramer also argues that the presidents were the final decision-makers of the fiascos; while determining which course of action to take, they relied more heavily on their own <a href="/wiki/Construals" class="mw-redirect" title="Construals">construals</a> of the situations than on any group-consenting decision presented to them.<sup id="cite_ref-Kramer1998_54-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kramer1998-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 241">: 241 </span></sup> Kramer concludes that Janis' explanation of the two military issues is flawed and that groupthink has much less influence on group decision-making than is popularly believed. </p><p>Groupthink, while it is thought to be avoided, does have some positive effects. Choi and Kim<sup id="cite_ref-Choi_Kim_1999_pp._297–306_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Choi_Kim_1999_pp._297–306-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> found that <a href="/wiki/Group_identity" class="mw-redirect" title="Group identity">group identity</a> traits such as believing in the group's moral superiority, were linked to less concurrence seeking, better decision-making, better team activities, and better team performance. This study also showed that the relationship between groupthink and defective decision making was insignificant. These findings mean that in the right circumstances, groupthink does not always have negative outcomes. It also questions the original theory of groupthink. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reformulation">Reformulation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Groupthink&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Reformulation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Scholars are challenging the original view of groupthink proposed by Janis. Whyte (1998) argues that a group's collective efficacy, i.e. confidence in its abilities, can lead to reduced vigilance and a higher risk tolerance, similar to how groupthink was described.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> McCauley (1998) proposes that the attractiveness of group members might be the most prominent factor in causing poor decisions.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Turner and Pratkanis (1991) suggest that from social identity perspective, groupthink can be seen as a group's attempt to ward off potentially negative views of the group.<sup id="cite_ref-turner1998a_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-turner1998a-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Together, the contributions of these scholars have brought about new understandings of groupthink that help reformulate Janis' original model. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sociocognitive_theory">Sociocognitive theory</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Groupthink&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Sociocognitive theory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>According to a theory many of the basic characteristics of groupthink – e.g., strong cohesion, indulgent atmosphere, and exclusive ethos – are the result of a special kind of mnemonic encoding (Tsoukalas, 2007). Members of tightly knit groups have a tendency to represent significant aspects of their community as <a href="/wiki/Episodic_memories" class="mw-redirect" title="Episodic memories">episodic memories</a> and this has a predictable influence on their group behavior and collective ideology, as opposed to what happens when they are encoded as <a href="/wiki/Semantic_memories" class="mw-redirect" title="Semantic memories">semantic memories</a> (which is common in formal and more loose group formations).<sup id="cite_ref-Tsoukalas_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tsoukalas-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Collective_illusions">Collective illusions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Groupthink&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Collective illusions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>According to scientist Todd Rose, Collective Illusions and Groupthink are linked concepts that show how social dynamics affect behavior. Groupthink occurs when individuals who are right about what the group wants, conform to the group's consensus. Collective illusions are a specific form of Groupthink where individuals mistakenly assume the group's wants, leading everyone to behave in ways that don't reflect their true preferences. Both the concepts involve social influence and conformity.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Groupthink&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output 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diversity">Cultural diversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiculturalism" title="Multiculturalism">Multiculturalism</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Groupthink&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>Leadership Glossary: Essential Terms for the 21st Century</i>. 2015-06-18.</cite><span 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(1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190403033229/https://www.icsahome.com/articles/expanding-the-groupthink-explanation-csj-12-1">"Expanding the groupthink explanation to the study of contemporary cults"</a>. <i>Cultic Studies Journal</i>. <b>12</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">49–</span>71. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.icsahome.com/articles/expanding-the-groupthink-explanation-csj-12-1">the original</a> on 2019-04-03<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Whyte">Whyte, W. H. Jr.</a> (March 1952). "Groupthink". <i><a href="/wiki/Fortune_(magazine)" title="Fortune (magazine)">Fortune</a></i>. pp. <span class="nowrap">114–</span>117, 142, 146.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Fortune&rft.atitle=Groupthink&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E114-%3C%2Fspan%3E117%2C+142%2C+146&rft.date=1952-03&rft.aulast=Whyte&rft.aufirst=W.+H.+Jr.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGroupthink" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Janis1971-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Janis1971_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Janis1971_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Janis1971_10-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Janis1971_10-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Janis1971_10-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Janis1971_10-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Janis1971_10-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Janis1971_10-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Janis1971_10-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFJanis1971" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-unfit">Janis, I. L. (November 1971). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100401033524/http://apps.olin.wustl.edu/faculty/macdonald/GroupThink.pdf">"Groupthink"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Psychology Today</i>. <b>5</b> (6): <span class="nowrap">43–</span>46, <span class="nowrap">74–</span>76. Archived from the original on April 1, 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Psychology+Today&rft.atitle=Groupthink&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E43-%3C%2Fspan%3E46%2C+%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E74-%3C%2Fspan%3E76&rft.date=1971-11&rft.aulast=Janis&rft.aufirst=I.+L.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fapps.olin.wustl.edu%2Ffaculty%2Fmacdonald%2FGroupThink.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGroupthink" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Janis1972-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Janis1972_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Janis1972_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Janis1972_11-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Janis1972_11-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Janis1972_11-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFJanis1972" class="citation book cs1">Janis, I. L. (1972). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/victimsofgroupth0000jani"><i>Victims of Groupthink: a Psychological Study of Foreign-Policy Decisions and Fiascoes</i></a></span>. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-395-14002-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-395-14002-1"><bdi>0-395-14002-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Victims+of+Groupthink%3A+a+Psychological+Study+of+Foreign-Policy+Decisions+and+Fiascoes&rft.place=Boston&rft.pub=Houghton+Mifflin&rft.date=1972&rft.isbn=0-395-14002-1&rft.aulast=Janis&rft.aufirst=I.+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fvictimsofgroupth0000jani&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGroupthink" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Janis1982-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Janis1982_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Janis1982_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Janis1982_12-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Janis1982_12-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Janis1982_12-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFJanis1982" class="citation book cs1">Janis, I. 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Boston: Houghton Mifflin. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-395-31704-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-395-31704-5"><bdi>0-395-31704-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Groupthink%3A+Psychological+Studies+of+Policy+Decisions+and+Fiascoes&rft.place=Boston&rft.pub=Houghton+Mifflin&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=0-395-31704-5&rft.aulast=Janis&rft.aufirst=I.+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgroupthinkpsycho00jani&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGroupthink" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-THart1998-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-THart1998_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREF't_Hart1998" class="citation journal cs1">'t Hart, P. (1998). 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(1989). "The nature of social influence in groupthink: Compliance and internalization". <i>Journal of Personality and Social Psychology</i>. <b>57</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">250–</span>260. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2F0022-3514.57.2.250">10.1037/0022-3514.57.2.250</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Personality+and+Social+Psychology&rft.atitle=The+nature+of+social+influence+in+groupthink%3A+Compliance+and+internalization&rft.volume=57&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E250-%3C%2Fspan%3E260&rft.date=1989&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2F0022-3514.57.2.250&rft.aulast=McCauley&rft.aufirst=C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGroupthink" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSafire2004" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/William_Safire" title="William Safire">Safire, William</a> (August 8, 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C01E2DD173CF93BA3575BC0A9629C8B63">"Groupthink"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 2,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Groupthink&rft.date=2004-08-08&rft.aulast=Safire&rft.aufirst=William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fquery.nytimes.com%2Fgst%2Ffullpage.html%3Fres%3D9C01E2DD173CF93BA3575BC0A9629C8B63&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGroupthink" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pol, O., Bridgman, T., & Cummings, S. (2022). The forgotten ‘immortalizer’: Recovering William H Whyte as the founder and future of groupthink research. Human Relations, 75(8): 1615-1641. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/00187267211070680">https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/00187267211070680</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCross2011" class="citation book cs1">Cross, Mary (2011-06-30). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RjoGvl_v8h0C"><i>Bloggerati, Twitterati: How Blogs and Twitter are Transforming Popular Culture</i></a>. ABC-CLIO (published 2011). p. 62. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780313384844" title="Special:BookSources/9780313384844"><bdi>9780313384844</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-11-17</span></span>. <q>[...] critics of twitter point to the predominance of the hive mind in such social media, the kind of groupthink that submerges independent thinking in favor of conformity to the group, the collective.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bloggerati%2C+Twitterati%3A+How+Blogs+and+Twitter+are+Transforming+Popular+Culture&rft.pages=62&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2011-06-30&rft.isbn=9780313384844&rft.aulast=Cross&rft.aufirst=Mary&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRjoGvl_v8h0C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGroupthink" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTaylor2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Kathleen_Taylor_(biologist)" title="Kathleen Taylor (biologist)">Taylor, Kathleen</a> (2006-07-27). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=D3tYeMLc4hQC"><i>Brainwashing: The Science of Thought Control</i></a>. Oxford University Press (published 2006). p. 42. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199204786" title="Special:BookSources/9780199204786"><bdi>9780199204786</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-11-17</span></span>. <q>[...] leaders often have beliefs which are very far from matching reality and which can become more extreme as they are encouraged by their followers. The predilection of many cult leaders for abstract, ambiguous, and therefore unchallengeable ideas can further reduce the likelihood of reality testing, while the intense milieu control exerted by cults over their members means that most of the reality available for testing is supplied by the group environment. This is seen in the phenomenon of 'groupthink', alleged to have occurred, notoriously, during the Bay of Pigs fiasco.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Brainwashing%3A+The+Science+of+Thought+Control&rft.pages=42&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2006-07-27&rft.isbn=9780199204786&rft.aulast=Taylor&rft.aufirst=Kathleen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DD3tYeMLc4hQC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGroupthink" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFJonathan_I.2000" class="citation book cs1">Jonathan I., Klein (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Zu5WBjrM470C"><i>Corporate Failure by Design: Why Organizations are Built to Fail</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Greenwood_Publishing_Group" title="Greenwood Publishing Group">Greenwood Publishing Group</a>. p. 145. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781567202977" title="Special:BookSources/9781567202977"><bdi>9781567202977</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-11-17</span></span>. <q>Groupthink by Compulsion [...] [G]roupthink at least implies voluntarism. When this fails, the organization is not above outright intimidation. [...] In [a nationwide telecommunications company], refusal by the new hires to cheer on command incurred consequences not unlike the indoctrination and brainwashing techniques associated with a Soviet-era gulag.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Corporate+Failure+by+Design%3A+Why+Organizations+are+Built+to+Fail&rft.pages=145&rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=9781567202977&rft.aulast=Jonathan+I.&rft.aufirst=Klein&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZu5WBjrM470C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGroupthink" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cook K., <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.stanford.edu/~kcook/groupthink.html">The Theory of Groupthink Applied to Nanking</a>, Stanford University, accessed 12 December 2020</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hart,_Paul't_1991-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hart,_Paul't_1991_21-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hart,_Paul't_1991_21-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHart1991" class="citation journal cs1">Hart, Paul't (1991). 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"So right it's wrong: Groupthink and the ubiquitous nature of polarized group decision making". <i>Advances in Experimental Social Psychology</i>. <b>37</b>: 35. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fs0065-2601%2805%2937004-3">10.1016/s0065-2601(05)37004-3</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780120152377" title="Special:BookSources/9780120152377"><bdi>9780120152377</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Advances+in+Experimental+Social+Psychology&rft.atitle=So+right+it%27s+wrong%3A+Groupthink+and+the+ubiquitous+nature+of+polarized+group+decision+making&rft.volume=37&rft.pages=35&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fs0065-2601%2805%2937004-3&rft.isbn=9780120152377&rft.aulast=Baron&rft.aufirst=R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGroupthink" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kramer1998-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kramer1998_54-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kramer1998_54-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kramer1998_54-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKramer1998" class="citation journal cs1">Kramer, R. M. (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1006%2Fobhd.1998.2762">"Revisiting the Bay of Pigs and Vietnam decisions 25 years later: How well has the groupthink hypothesis stood the test of time?"</a>. <i>Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes</i>. <b>73</b> (2/3): <span class="nowrap">236–</span>71. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1006%2Fobhd.1998.2762">10.1006/obhd.1998.2762</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9705804">9705804</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Organizational+Behavior+and+Human+Decision+Processes&rft.atitle=Revisiting+the+Bay+of+Pigs+and+Vietnam+decisions+25+years+later%3A+How+well+has+the+groupthink+hypothesis+stood+the+test+of+time%3F&rft.volume=73&rft.issue=2%2F3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E236-%3C%2Fspan%3E71&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1006%2Fobhd.1998.2762&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F9705804&rft.aulast=Kramer&rft.aufirst=R.+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1006%252Fobhd.1998.2762&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGroupthink" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Choi_Kim_1999_pp._297–306-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Choi_Kim_1999_pp._297–306_55-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFChoiKim1999" class="citation journal cs1">Choi, Jin Nam; Kim, Myung Un (1999). "The organizational application of groupthink and its limitations in organizations". <i>Journal of Applied Psychology</i>. <b>84</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">297–</span>306. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2F0021-9010.84.2.297">10.1037/0021-9010.84.2.297</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1939-1854">1939-1854</a>. <q>Interestingly, several groupthink symptoms (i.e., group identity), such as the illusion of invulnerability, belief in inherent group morality, and illusion of unanimity, produced unexpected results: (a) negative correlations with concurrence seeking and defective decision making and (b) positive correlations with both internal and external team activities and with reported team performance.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Applied+Psychology&rft.atitle=The+organizational+application+of+groupthink+and+its+limitations+in+organizations.&rft.volume=84&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E297-%3C%2Fspan%3E306&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2F0021-9010.84.2.297&rft.issn=1939-1854&rft.aulast=Choi&rft.aufirst=Jin+Nam&rft.au=Kim%2C+Myung+Un&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGroupthink" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWhyte1998" class="citation journal cs1">Whyte, G. (1998). "Recasting Janis's Groupthink model: The key role of collective efficacy in decision fiascoes". <i>Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes</i>. <b>73</b> (2/3): <span class="nowrap">185–</span>209. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1006%2Fobhd.1998.2761">10.1006/obhd.1998.2761</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9705802">9705802</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Organizational+Behavior+and+Human+Decision+Processes&rft.atitle=Recasting+Janis%27s+Groupthink+model%3A+The+key+role+of+collective+efficacy+in+decision+fiascoes&rft.volume=73&rft.issue=2%2F3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E185-%3C%2Fspan%3E209&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1006%2Fobhd.1998.2761&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F9705802&rft.aulast=Whyte&rft.aufirst=G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGroupthink" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMcCauley1998" class="citation journal cs1">McCauley, C. (1998). "Group dynamics in Janis's theory of groupthink: Backward and forward". <i>Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes</i>. <b>73</b> (2/3): <span class="nowrap">142–</span>162. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1006%2Fobhd.1998.2759">10.1006/obhd.1998.2759</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9705800">9705800</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Organizational+Behavior+and+Human+Decision+Processes&rft.atitle=Group+dynamics+in+Janis%27s+theory+of+groupthink%3A+Backward+and+forward&rft.volume=73&rft.issue=2%2F3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E142-%3C%2Fspan%3E162&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1006%2Fobhd.1998.2759&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F9705800&rft.aulast=McCauley&rft.aufirst=C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGroupthink" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tsoukalas-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Tsoukalas_58-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTsoukalas2007" class="citation journal cs1">Tsoukalas, I. (2007). "Exploring the microfoundations of group consciousness". <i>Culture and Psychology</i>. <b>13</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">39–</span>81. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1354067x07073650">10.1177/1354067x07073650</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144625304">144625304</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Culture+and+Psychology&rft.atitle=Exploring+the+microfoundations+of+group+consciousness&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E39-%3C%2Fspan%3E81&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F1354067x07073650&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144625304%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Tsoukalas&rft.aufirst=I.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGroupthink" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFByrd2022" class="citation news cs1">Byrd, Klark (20 February 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://theparisnews.com/opinion/commentary-collective-illusions-seeks-to-help-us-fight-groupthink/article_561db798-9103-11ec-a2b6-4fba336e6618.html">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'Collective Illusions' seeks to help us fight groupthink"</a>. <i>Theparisnews.com</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Theparisnews.com&rft.atitle=%E2%80%98Collective+Illusions%E2%80%99+seeks+to+help+us+fight+groupthink&rft.date=2022-02-20&rft.aulast=Byrd&rft.aufirst=Klark&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftheparisnews.com%2Fopinion%2Fcommentary-collective-illusions-seeks-to-help-us-fight-groupthink%2Farticle_561db798-9103-11ec-a2b6-4fba336e6618.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGroupthink" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Groupthink&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; 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S. (2005). "So right it's wrong: groupthink and the ubiquitous nature of polarized group decision making". <i>Advances in Experimental Social Psychology</i>. <b>37</b>: <span class="nowrap">219–</span>253. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0065-2601%2805%2937004-3">10.1016/S0065-2601(05)37004-3</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780120152377" title="Special:BookSources/9780120152377"><bdi>9780120152377</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Advances+in+Experimental+Social+Psychology&rft.atitle=So+right+it%27s+wrong%3A+groupthink+and+the+ubiquitous+nature+of+polarized+group+decision+making&rft.volume=37&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E219-%3C%2Fspan%3E253&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0065-2601%2805%2937004-3&rft.isbn=9780120152377&rft.aulast=Baron&rft.aufirst=R.+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGroupthink" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFerrarisCarveth2003" class="citation web cs1">Ferraris, C.; Carveth, R. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121018163559/http://bama.ua.edu/~sprentic/672%20Ferraris%20&%20Carveth.pdf">"NASA and the Columbia disaster: Decision-making by groupthink?"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Proceedings of the 2003 Association for Business Communication Annual Convention</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bama.ua.edu/~sprentic/672%20Ferraris%20&%20Carveth.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2012-10-18<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2018-09-18</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+2003+Association+for+Business+Communication+Annual+Convention&rft.atitle=NASA+and+the+Columbia+disaster%3A+Decision-making+by+groupthink%3F&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Ferraris&rft.aufirst=C.&rft.au=Carveth%2C+R.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbama.ua.edu%2F~sprentic%2F672%2520Ferraris%2520%26%2520Carveth.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGroupthink" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFEsser1998" class="citation journal cs1">Esser, J. K. (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130618201511/http://liquidbriefing.com/twiki/pub/Dev/RefEsser1998/alive_and_well_after_25_years.pdf">"Alive and well after 25 years: a review of groupthink research"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes</i>. <b>73</b> (<span class="nowrap">2–</span>3): <span class="nowrap">116–</span>141. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1006%2Fobhd.1998.2758">10.1006/obhd.1998.2758</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9705799">9705799</a>. 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"Groupthink reconsidered". <i>Academy of Management Review</i>. <b>14</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">40–</span>56. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F258190">10.2307/258190</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/258190">258190</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Academy+of+Management+Review&rft.atitle=Groupthink+reconsidered&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E40-%3C%2Fspan%3E56&rft.date=1989&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F258190&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F258190%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Whyte&rft.aufirst=G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGroupthink" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Books">Books</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Groupthink&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Books"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFJanis1972" class="citation book cs1">Janis, Irving L. (1972). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/victimsofgroupth0000jani"><i>Victims of Groupthink: A Psychological Study of Foreign-policy Decisions and Fiascoes</i></a></span>. Boston: Houghton, Mifflin. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-395-14002-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-395-14002-1"><bdi>0-395-14002-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Victims+of+Groupthink%3A+A+Psychological+Study+of+Foreign-policy+Decisions+and+Fiascoes&rft.place=Boston&rft.pub=Houghton%2C+Mifflin&rft.date=1972&rft.isbn=0-395-14002-1&rft.aulast=Janis&rft.aufirst=Irving+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fvictimsofgroupth0000jani&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGroupthink" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFJanisMann1977" class="citation book cs1">Janis, Irving L.; Mann, L. (1977). <i>Decision making: A Psychological Analysis of Conflict, Choice, and Commitment</i>. New York: The Free Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-02-916190-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-02-916190-8"><bdi>0-02-916190-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Decision+making%3A+A+Psychological+Analysis+of+Conflict%2C+Choice%2C+and+Commitment&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=The+Free+Press&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=0-02-916190-8&rft.aulast=Janis&rft.aufirst=Irving+L.&rft.au=Mann%2C+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGroupthink" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKowert2002" class="citation book cs1">Kowert, P. (2002). <i>Groupthink or Deadlock: When do Leaders Learn from their Advisors?</i>. Albany: State University of New York Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7914-5250-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-7914-5250-6"><bdi>0-7914-5250-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Groupthink+or+Deadlock%3A+When+do+Leaders+Learn+from+their+Advisors%3F&rft.place=Albany&rft.pub=State+University+of+New+York+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-7914-5250-6&rft.aulast=Kowert&rft.aufirst=P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGroupthink" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Everett_Dean_Martin" title="Everett Dean Martin">Martin, Everett Dean</a>, <i>The Behavior of Crowds, A Psychological Study</i>, Harper & Brothers Publishers, New York, 1920.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFNemeth2018" class="citation book cs1">Nemeth, Charlan (2018). <i>In Defense of Troublemakers: The Power of Dissent in Life and Business</i>. Basic Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0465096299" title="Special:BookSources/978-0465096299"><bdi>978-0465096299</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=In+Defense+of+Troublemakers%3A+The+Power+of+Dissent+in+Life+and+Business&rft.pub=Basic+Books&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-0465096299&rft.aulast=Nemeth&rft.aufirst=Charlan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGroupthink" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSchaferCrichlow2010" class="citation book cs1">Schafer, M.; Crichlow, S. (2010). <i>Groupthink versus High-Quality Decision Making in International Relations</i>. New York: Columbia University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-231-14888-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-231-14888-7"><bdi>978-0-231-14888-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Groupthink+versus+High-Quality+Decision+Making+in+International+Relations&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-231-14888-7&rft.aulast=Schafer&rft.aufirst=M.&rft.au=Crichlow%2C+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGroupthink" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSunsteinHastie2014" class="citation book cs1">Sunstein, Cass R.; Hastie, Reid (2014). <i>Wiser: Getting Beyond Groupthink to Make Groups Smarter</i>. Harvard Business Review Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Wiser%3A+Getting+Beyond+Groupthink+to+Make+Groups+Smarter&rft.pub=Harvard+Business+Review+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.aulast=Sunstein&rft.aufirst=Cass+R.&rft.au=Hastie%2C+Reid&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGroupthink" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREF't_Hart1990" class="citation book cs1">'t Hart, P. (1990). <i>Groupthink in Government: a Study of Small Groups and Policy Failure</i>. Amsterdam; Rockland, MA: Swets & Zeitlinger. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-265-1113-2" title="Special:BookSources/90-265-1113-2"><bdi>90-265-1113-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Groupthink+in+Government%3A+a+Study+of+Small+Groups+and+Policy+Failure&rft.place=Amsterdam%3B+Rockland%2C+MA&rft.pub=Swets+%26+Zeitlinger&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=90-265-1113-2&rft.aulast=%27t+Hart&rft.aufirst=P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGroupthink" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREF't_HartSternSundelius1997" class="citation book cs1">'t Hart, P.; Stern, E. K.; Sundelius, B. (1997). <i>Beyond Groupthink: Political Group Dynamics and Foreign Policy-Making</i>. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-472-09653-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-472-09653-2"><bdi>0-472-09653-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Beyond+Groupthink%3A+Political+Group+Dynamics+and+Foreign+Policy-Making&rft.place=Ann+Arbor&rft.pub=University+of+Michigan+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0-472-09653-2&rft.aulast=%27t+Hart&rft.aufirst=P.&rft.au=Stern%2C+E.+K.&rft.au=Sundelius%2C+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGroupthink" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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(psychology)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indoctrination" title="Indoctrination">Indoctrination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invented_tradition" title="Invented tradition">Invented tradition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_conformity" title="Memory conformity">Memory conformity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mere_exposure_effect" class="mw-redirect" title="Mere exposure effect">Mere exposure effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milieu_control" title="Milieu control">Milieu control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mobbing" title="Mobbing">Mobbing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normalization_(sociology)" title="Normalization (sociology)">Normalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normative_social_influence" title="Normative social influence">Normative social influence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passing_(sociology)" title="Passing (sociology)">Passing (sociology)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patriotism" title="Patriotism">Patriotism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peer_pressure" title="Peer pressure">Peer 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class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Individual pressure</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authoritarian_personality" title="Authoritarian personality">Authoritarian personality</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authoritarian_leadership_style" title="Authoritarian leadership style">Authoritarian leadership style</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right-wing_authoritarian_personality" class="mw-redirect" title="Right-wing authoritarian personality">Right-wing authoritarian personality</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Control_freak" title="Control freak">Control freak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obsessive%E2%80%93compulsive_personality_disorder" title="Obsessive–compulsive personality disorder">Obsessive–compulsive personality disorder</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Conformity</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compliance_(psychology)" title="Compliance (psychology)">Compliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communal_reinforcement" title="Communal reinforcement">Communal reinforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Countersignaling" title="Countersignaling">Countersignaling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creeping_normality" title="Creeping normality">Creeping normality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herd_behavior" title="Herd behavior">Herd behavior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internalization_(sociology)" title="Internalization (sociology)">Internalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normalization_of_deviance" title="Normalization of deviance">Normalization of deviance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obedience_(human_behavior)" class="mw-redirect" title="Obedience (human behavior)">Obedience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preference_falsification" title="Preference falsification">Preference falsification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_proof" title="Social proof">Social proof</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_reality" title="Social reality">Social reality</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Experiments</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asch_conformity_experiments" title="Asch conformity experiments">Asch conformity experiments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breaching_experiment" title="Breaching experiment">Breaching experiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milgram_experiment" title="Milgram experiment">Milgram experiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanford_prison_experiment" title="Stanford prison experiment">Stanford prison experiment</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Anticonformity_(psychology)" title="Anticonformity (psychology)">Anticonformity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_media" title="Alternative media">Alternative media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-authoritarianism" title="Anti-authoritarianism">Anti-authoritarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-social_behaviour" title="Anti-social behaviour">Anti-social behaviour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auto-segregation" class="mw-redirect" title="Auto-segregation">Auto-segregation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_disobedience" title="Civil disobedience">Civil disobedience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmopolitanism" title="Cosmopolitanism">Cosmopolitanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counterculture" title="Counterculture">Counterculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_jamming" title="Culture jamming">Culture jamming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deviance_(sociology)" title="Deviance (sociology)">Deviance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Devil%27s_advocate" title="Devil's advocate">Devil's advocate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissent" title="Dissent">Dissent</a> / <a href="/wiki/Defection" title="Defection">Defection</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Political_dissent" title="Political dissent">Political</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eccentricity_(behavior)" title="Eccentricity (behavior)">Eccentricity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eclecticism" title="Eclecticism">Eclecticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermit" title="Hermit">Hermit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idiosyncrasy" title="Idiosyncrasy">Idiosyncrasy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insubordination" title="Insubordination">Insubordination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pueblo_clown" title="Pueblo clown">Pueblo clown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rebellion" title="Rebellion">Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_team" title="Red team">Red team</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satire" title="Satire">Satire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shock_value" title="Shock value">Shock value</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="George_Orwell&#039;s_Nineteen_Eighty-Four265" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Nineteen_Eighty-Four" title="Template:Nineteen Eighty-Four"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Nineteen_Eighty-Four" title="Template talk:Nineteen Eighty-Four"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Nineteen_Eighty-Four" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Nineteen Eighty-Four"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="George_Orwell&#039;s_Nineteen_Eighty-Four265" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/George_Orwell" title="George Orwell">George Orwell</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Nineteen_Eighty-Four" title="Nineteen Eighty-Four">Nineteen Eighty-Four</a></i></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Characters</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Winston_Smith_(Nineteen_Eighty-Four)" title="Winston Smith (Nineteen Eighty-Four)">Winston Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julia_(Nineteen_Eighty-Four)" title="Julia (Nineteen Eighty-Four)">Julia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/O%27Brien_(Nineteen_Eighty-Four)" title="O'Brien (Nineteen Eighty-Four)">O'Brien</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Big_Brother_(Nineteen_Eighty-Four)" title="Big Brother (Nineteen Eighty-Four)">Big Brother</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmanuel_Goldstein" title="Emmanuel Goldstein">Emmanuel Goldstein</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Places</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Political_geography_of_Nineteen_Eighty-Four" title="Political geography of Nineteen Eighty-Four">Political geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministries_in_Nineteen_Eighty-Four" title="Ministries in Nineteen Eighty-Four">Ministries</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thought_Police" title="Thought Police">Thought Police</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Newspeak" title="Newspeak">Newspeak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doublespeak" title="Doublespeak">Doublespeak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doublethink" title="Doublethink">Doublethink</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Groupthink</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2_%2B_2_%3D_5" title="2 + 2 = 5">2 + 2 = 5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thoughtcrime" title="Thoughtcrime">Thoughtcrime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telescreen" title="Telescreen">Telescreen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_hole" title="Memory hole">Memory hole</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Theory_and_Practice_of_Oligarchical_Collectivism" title="The Theory and Practice of Oligarchical Collectivism">The Theory and Practice of Oligarchical Collectivism</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two_Minutes_Hate" title="Two Minutes Hate">Two Minutes Hate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_Week" title="Hate Week">Hate Week</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Adaptations_of_Nineteen_Eighty-Four" title="Adaptations of Nineteen Eighty-Four">Adaptations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Film</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1984_(1956_film)" title="1984 (1956 film)">1956 film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nineteen_Eighty-Four_(1984_film)" title="Nineteen Eighty-Four (1984 film)">1984 film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1984_(2023_film)" title="1984 (2023 film)">2023 film</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Television</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1984_(Westinghouse_Studio_One)" title="1984 (Westinghouse Studio One)">US program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nineteen_Eighty-Four_(British_TV_programme)" title="Nineteen Eighty-Four (British TV programme)">UK programme</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Stage</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1984_(opera)" title="1984 (opera)">2005 opera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1984_(play)" title="1984 (play)">2013 play</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nineteen_Eighty-Four_in_popular_media" title="Nineteen Eighty-Four in popular media">In popular media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Ministry_of_Truth_(Lynskey_book)" title="The Ministry of Truth (Lynskey book)"><i>The Ministry of Truth</i> (Lynskey book)</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/George_Orwell_on_Screen" title="George Orwell on Screen">George Orwell on Screen</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1984_(advertisement)" title="1984 (advertisement)">"1984" (advertisement)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Room_101" class="mw-redirect" title="Room 101">Room 101</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Room_101_(radio_series)" title="Room 101 (radio series)">radio series</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Room_101_(British_TV_series)" title="Room 101 (British TV series)">British TV series</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Room_101_(Australian_TV_series)" title="Room 101 (Australian TV series)">Australian TV series</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><b><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Nineteen_Eighty-Four" title="Category:Nineteen 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