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class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Spring analogy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Spring_analogy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Analytical_formulation_of_consolidation_rate" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Analytical_formulation_of_consolidation_rate"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Analytical formulation of consolidation rate</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Analytical_formulation_of_consolidation_rate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Creep" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Creep"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Creep</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Creep-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Deformation_characteristics_of_consolidation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Deformation_characteristics_of_consolidation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Deformation characteristics of consolidation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Deformation_characteristics_of_consolidation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" 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href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9F%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%83%E0%A6%A2%E0%A6%BC%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%A8" title="মাটির দৃঢ়ীভবন – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="মাটির দৃঢ়ীভবন" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konsolidation_(Bodenmechanik)" title="Konsolidation (Bodenmechanik) – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Konsolidation (Bodenmechanik)" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consolidaci%C3%B3n_de_suelos" title="Consolidación de suelos – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Consolidación de suelos" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grundofirmigo" title="Grundofirmigo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Grundofirmigo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%AD%DA%A9%DB%8C%D9%85_%D8%AE%D8%A7%DA%A9" title="تحکیم خاک – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="تحکیم خاک" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consolidation_(sol)" title="Consolidation (sol) – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Consolidation (sol)" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%95%95%EB%B0%80" title="압밀 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="압밀" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consolidazione" title="Consolidazione – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Consolidazione" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consolidatie_(gesteente)" title="Consolidatie (gesteente) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Consolidatie (gesteente)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%9C%A7%E5%AF%86" title="圧密 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="圧密" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konsolidering" title="Konsolidering – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Konsolidering" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konsolidacja_(mechanika_grunt%C3%B3w)" title="Konsolidacja (mechanika gruntów) – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Konsolidacja (mechanika gruntów)" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%B3%D1%80%D1%83%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B0" title="Консолидация грунта – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Консолидация грунта" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konsolidering_(geologi)" title="Konsolidering (geologi) – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Konsolidering (geologi)" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konsolidasyon_oturmas%C4%B1" title="Konsolidasyon oturması – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Konsolidasyon oturması" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%96%D1%8F_%D2%91%D1%80%D1%83%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%83" title="Консолідація ґрунту – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Консолідація ґрунту" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%9B%BA%E7%BB%93" title="固结 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="固结" data-language-autonym="中文" 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.compact-ambox .hide-when-compact{display:none}</style><table class="box-Multiple_issues plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-multiple_issues compact-ambox" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/40px-Ambox_important.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/60px-Ambox_important.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/80px-Ambox_important.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="40" data-file-height="40" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span"><div class="multiple-issues-text mw-collapsible"><b>This article has multiple issues.</b> Please help <b><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Soil_consolidation" title="Special:EditPage/Soil consolidation">improve 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//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Soil_consolidation" title="Special:EditPage/Soil consolidation">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Soil+consolidation%22">"Soil consolidation"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Soil+consolidation%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Soil+consolidation%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Soil+consolidation%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Soil+consolidation%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Soil+consolidation%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">March 2017</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Technical plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-technical" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/40px-Edit-clear.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/60px-Edit-clear.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/80px-Edit-clear.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>may be too technical for most readers to understand</b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Soil_consolidation&action=edit">help improve it</a> to <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Make_technical_articles_understandable" title="Wikipedia:Make technical articles understandable">make it understandable to non-experts</a>, without removing the technical details.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">March 2017</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> </div> </div><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Oedometer.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Oedometer.jpg/220px-Oedometer.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Oedometer.jpg/330px-Oedometer.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Oedometer.jpg/440px-Oedometer.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4618" data-file-height="3464" /></a><figcaption>Two oedometers at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Cambridge" title="University of Cambridge">University of Cambridge</a> </figcaption></figure> <p><b>Soil consolidation</b> refers to the <a href="/wiki/Soil_mechanics" title="Soil mechanics">mechanical process</a> by which <a href="/wiki/Soil" title="Soil">soil</a> changes volume gradually in response to a change in <a href="/wiki/Pressure" title="Pressure">pressure</a>. This happens because soil is a three-phase material, comprising soil grains and pore fluid, usually <a href="/wiki/Groundwater" title="Groundwater">groundwater</a>. When soil <a href="/wiki/Soil_saturation" class="mw-redirect" title="Soil saturation">saturated with water</a> is subjected to an increase in pressure, the high <a href="/wiki/Bulk_modulus" title="Bulk modulus">volumetric stiffness</a> of water compared to the soil matrix means that the water initially absorbs all the change in pressure without changing volume, creating excess <a href="/wiki/Pore_water_pressure" title="Pore water pressure">pore water pressure</a>. As water diffuses away from regions of high pressure due to <a href="/wiki/Seepage" class="mw-redirect" title="Seepage">seepage</a>, the soil matrix gradually takes up the pressure change and shrinks in volume. The theoretical framework of consolidation is therefore closely related to the concept of <a href="/wiki/Effective_stress" title="Effective stress">effective stress</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_conductivity" title="Hydraulic conductivity">hydraulic conductivity</a>. The early theoretical modern models were proposed one century ago, according to two different approaches, by <a href="/wiki/Karl_von_Terzaghi" title="Karl von Terzaghi">Karl Terzaghi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paul_Fillunger" title="Paul Fillunger">Paul Fillunger</a>. The Terzaghi’s model is currently the most utilized in engineering practice and is based on the <a href="/wiki/Diffusion_equation" title="Diffusion equation">diffusion equation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Guerriero_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Guerriero-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the narrow sense, "consolidation" refers strictly to this delayed volumetric response to pressure change due to gradual movement of water. Some publications also use "consolidation" in the broad sense, to refer to any process by which soil changes volume due to a change in applied pressure. This broader definition encompasses the overall concept of <a href="/wiki/Soil_compaction" title="Soil compaction">soil compaction</a>, <a href="/wiki/Subsidence" title="Subsidence">subsidence</a>, and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Heave_(soil_mechanics)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Heave (soil mechanics) (page does not exist)">heave</a>. Some types of soil, mainly those rich in <a href="/wiki/Organic_matter" title="Organic matter">organic matter</a>, show significant <a href="/wiki/Creep_(deformation)" title="Creep (deformation)">creep</a>, whereby the soil changes volume slowly at constant effective stress over a longer time-scale than consolidation due to the diffusion of water. To distinguish between the two mechanisms, "primary consolidation" refers to consolidation due to dissipation of excess water pressure, while "secondary consolidation" refers to the creep process. </p><p>The effects of consolidation are most conspicuous where a <a href="/wiki/Building" title="Building">building</a> sits over a layer of soil with low <a href="/wiki/Stiffness" title="Stiffness">stiffness</a> and low permeability, such as <a href="/wiki/Marine_clay" title="Marine clay">marine clay</a>, leading to large <a href="/wiki/Subsidence" title="Subsidence">settlement</a> over many years. Types of construction project where consolidation often poses technical risk include <a href="/wiki/Land_reclamation" title="Land reclamation">land reclamation</a>, the construction of <a href="/wiki/Levee" title="Levee">embankments</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tunnel" title="Tunnel">tunnel</a> and <a href="/wiki/Basement" title="Basement">basement</a> excavation in clay. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Geotechnical_engineer" class="mw-redirect" title="Geotechnical engineer">Geotechnical engineers</a> use <a href="/wiki/Oedometer" class="mw-redirect" title="Oedometer">oedometers</a> to quantify the effects of consolidation. In an oedometer test, a series of known pressures are applied to a thin disc of soil sample, and the change of sample thickness with time is recorded. This allows the consolidation characteristics of the soil to be quantified in terms of the coefficient of consolidation (<span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle C_{v}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>C</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>v</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle C_{v}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/4e351d30ded09e7d285c21e836f116e14ad5ae28" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.691ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle C_{v}}"></span>) and hydraulic conductivity (<span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle K}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>K</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle K}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/2b76fce82a62ed5461908f0dc8f037de4e3686b0" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.066ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle K}"></span>). </p><p>Clays undergo consolidation settlement not only by the action of <i>external</i> loads (surcharge loads) but also under its own weight or weight of soils that exist above the clay. </p><p>Clays also undergo settlement when dewatered (groundwater pumping) because the effective stress on the clay increases. </p><p>Coarse-grained soils do not undergo consolidation settlement due to relatively high hydraulic conductivity compared to clays. Instead, Coarse-grained soils undergo the immediate settlement. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History_and_terminology">History and terminology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil_consolidation&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History and terminology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The first modern theoretical models for soil consolidation were proposed in the 1920s by <a href="/wiki/Karl_von_Terzaghi" title="Karl von Terzaghi">Terzaghi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paul_Fillunger" title="Paul Fillunger">Fillunger</a>, according to two substantially different approaches.<sup id="cite_ref-Guerriero_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Guerriero-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The former was based on <a href="/wiki/Diffusion_equation" title="Diffusion equation">diffusion equations</a> in <a href="/wiki/Lagrangian_and_Eulerian_specification_of_the_flow_field" title="Lagrangian and Eulerian specification of the flow field">eulerian notation</a>, whereas the latter considered the local Newton’s law for both liquid and solid phases, in which main variables, such as partial pressure, porosity, local velocity etc., were involved by means of the <a href="/wiki/Mixture_theory" title="Mixture theory">mixture theory</a>. Terzaghi had an engineering approach to the problem of soil consolidation and provided simplified models that are still widely used in engineering practice today, whereas, on the other hand, Fillunger had a rigorous approach to the above problems and provided rigorous mathematical models that paid particular attention to the methods of local averaging of the involved variables. Fillunger’s model was very abstract and involved variables that were difficult to detect experimentally, and, therefore, it was not applicable to the study of real cases by engineers and/or designers. Nevertheless, this provided the basis for advanced theoretical studies of particularly complex problems. Due to the different approach to the problem of consolidation by the two scientists, a bitter scientific dispute arose between them, and this unfortunately led to a tragic ending in 1937. After Fillunger’s suicide, his theoretical results were forgotten for decades, whereas the methods proposed by Terzaghi found widespread diffusion among scientists and professionals. In the following decades <a href="/wiki/Maurice_Anthony_Biot" title="Maurice Anthony Biot">Biot</a> fully developed the three-dimensional soil consolidation theory, extending the one-dimensional model previously proposed by Terzaghi to more general hypotheses and introducing the set of basic equations of <a href="/wiki/Poroelasticity" title="Poroelasticity">poroelasticity</a>. Today, the Terzaghis’ one dimensional model is still the most utilized by engineers for its conceptual simplicity and because it is based on experimental data, such as <a href="/wiki/Oedometer_test" title="Oedometer test">oedometer tests</a>, which are relatively simple, reliable and inexpensive and for which theoretical solutions in closed form are well known. According to the "father of <a href="/wiki/Soil_mechanics" title="Soil mechanics">soil mechanics</a>", <a href="/wiki/Karl_von_Terzaghi" title="Karl von Terzaghi">Karl von Terzaghi</a>, consolidation is "any process which involves a decrease in water content of saturated soil without replacement of water by air". More generally, consolidation refers to the process by which <a href="/wiki/Soil" title="Soil">soils</a> change volume in response to a change in <a href="/wiki/Pressure" title="Pressure">pressure</a>, encompassing both compaction and swelling.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Magnitude_of_volume_change">Magnitude of volume change</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil_consolidation&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Magnitude of volume change"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Consol_curve_plain.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Consol_curve_plain.svg/400px-Consol_curve_plain.svg.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="400" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Consol_curve_plain.svg/600px-Consol_curve_plain.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Consol_curve_plain.svg/800px-Consol_curve_plain.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="629" data-file-height="629" /></a><figcaption>The experimentally determined consolidation curve (blue dots) for a saturated clay showing a procedure for computing the preconsolidation stress.</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%EA%B3%BC%EC%95%95%EB%B0%80%EC%A0%90%ED%86%A0_e-log_p.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/%EA%B3%BC%EC%95%95%EB%B0%80%EC%A0%90%ED%86%A0_e-log_p.jpg/400px-%EA%B3%BC%EC%95%95%EB%B0%80%EC%A0%90%ED%86%A0_e-log_p.jpg" decoding="async" width="400" height="316" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/%EA%B3%BC%EC%95%95%EB%B0%80%EC%A0%90%ED%86%A0_e-log_p.jpg/600px-%EA%B3%BC%EC%95%95%EB%B0%80%EC%A0%90%ED%86%A0_e-log_p.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/%EA%B3%BC%EC%95%95%EB%B0%80%EC%A0%90%ED%86%A0_e-log_p.jpg/800px-%EA%B3%BC%EC%95%95%EB%B0%80%EC%A0%90%ED%86%A0_e-log_p.jpg 2x" data-file-width="891" data-file-height="703" /></a><figcaption>Construction of compression and recompression curve. The curve, generally referred to as the virgin compression curve, approximately intersects the laboratory curve at a void ratio of 0.42<span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle e_{0}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>e</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle e_{0}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/51703931b2ce836f3a377076756262596e4348e3" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.138ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle e_{0}}"></span> (Terzaghi and Peck, 1967). Note that <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle e_{0}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>e</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle e_{0}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/51703931b2ce836f3a377076756262596e4348e3" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.138ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle e_{0}}"></span> is the void ratio of the clay in the field. Knowing the values of <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle e_{0}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>e</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle e_{0}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/51703931b2ce836f3a377076756262596e4348e3" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.138ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle e_{0}}"></span> and <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \sigma _{c}^{'}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msubsup> <mi>σ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>c</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msup> <mi></mi> <mo>′</mo> </msup> </mrow> </msubsup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \sigma _{c}^{'}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/eb92a7caddd6f69e37d9861b936a985d03287bea" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.272ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \sigma _{c}^{'}}"></span> you can easily construct the virgin curve and calculate its compression index by using Eq. <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle C_{C}={\frac {e_{1}-e_{2}}{log({\frac {\sigma _{2}^{'}}{\sigma _{1}^{'}}})}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>C</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>C</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <msub> <mi>e</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo>−</mo> <msub> <mi>e</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>l</mi> <mi>o</mi> <mi>g</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <msubsup> <mi>σ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msup> <mi></mi> <mo>′</mo> </msup> </mrow> </msubsup> <msubsup> <mi>σ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msup> <mi></mi> <mo>′</mo> </msup> </mrow> </msubsup> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle C_{C}={\frac {e_{1}-e_{2}}{log({\frac {\sigma _{2}^{'}}{\sigma _{1}^{'}}})}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/dc0402410cbf963e39bcdf1e9c72a2e62e5d74fb" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -5.838ex; width:14.43ex; height:9.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle C_{C}={\frac {e_{1}-e_{2}}{log({\frac {\sigma _{2}^{'}}{\sigma _{1}^{'}}})}}}"></span>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Consolidation is the process in which reduction in volume takes place by the gradual expulsion or absorption of water under long-term static loads.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When <a href="/wiki/Stress_(physics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Stress (physics)">stress</a> is applied to a soil, it causes the soil particles to pack together more tightly. When this occurs in a soil that is saturated with water, water will be squeezed out of the soil. The magnitude of consolidation can be predicted by many different methods. In the classical method developed by Terzaghi, soils are tested with an <a href="/wiki/Oedometer_test" title="Oedometer test">oedometer test</a> to determine their compressibility. In most theoretical formulations, a logarithmic relationship is assumed between the volume of the soil sample and the effective stress carried by the soil particles. The constant of proportionality (change in void ratio per order of magnitude change in effective stress) is known as the compression index, given the symbol <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \lambda }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>λ</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \lambda }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/b43d0ea3c9c025af1be9128e62a18fa74bedda2a" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.355ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \lambda }"></span> when calculated in natural logarithm and <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle C_{C}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>C</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>C</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle C_{C}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/0657d0e9244c6efd94c7392ee4f363a8ef9b98be" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:3.143ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle C_{C}}"></span> when calculated in base-10 logarithm.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This can be expressed in the following equation, which is used to estimate the volume change of a soil layer: </p><p><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \delta _{c}={\frac {C_{c}}{1+e_{0}}}H\log \left({\frac {\sigma _{zf}'}{\sigma _{z0}'}}\right)\ }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>δ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>c</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <msub> <mi>C</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>c</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mrow> <mn>1</mn> <mo>+</mo> <msub> <mi>e</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mi>H</mi> <mi>log</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <msubsup> <mi>σ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>z</mi> <mi>f</mi> </mrow> <mo>′</mo> </msubsup> <msubsup> <mi>σ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>z</mi> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> <mo>′</mo> </msubsup> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> <mtext> </mtext> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \delta _{c}={\frac {C_{c}}{1+e_{0}}}H\log \left({\frac {\sigma _{zf}'}{\sigma _{z0}'}}\right)\ }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/788f5783b0ed30f9d56cefac530fac8bbd0885c5" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -3.171ex; width:25.805ex; height:7.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \delta _{c}={\frac {C_{c}}{1+e_{0}}}H\log \left({\frac {\sigma _{zf}'}{\sigma _{z0}'}}\right)\ }"></span> </p><p>where </p> <dl><dd>δ<sub>c</sub> is the settlement due to consolidation.</dd> <dd>C<sub>c</sub> is the compression index.</dd> <dd>e<sub>0</sub> is the initial <a href="/wiki/Void_ratio" title="Void ratio">void ratio</a>.</dd> <dd>H is the height of the compressible soil.</dd> <dd>σ<sub>zf</sub> is the final vertical stress.</dd> <dd>σ<sub>z0</sub> is the initial vertical stress.</dd></dl> <p>When stress is removed from a consolidated soil, the soil will rebound, regaining some of the volume it had lost in the consolidation process. If the stress is reapplied, the soil will consolidate again along a recompression curve, defined by the recompression index. The gradient of the swelling and recompression lines on a plot of void ratio against the logarithm of effective stress often idealised to take the same value, known as the "swelling index" (given the symbol <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \kappa }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>κ</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \kappa }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/54ddec2e922c5caea4e47d04feef86e782dc8e6d" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.339ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \kappa }"></span> when calculated in natural logarithm and <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle C_{S}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>C</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>S</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle C_{S}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/4756cefa16309fd1faefd2d831257cd74868705c" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.954ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle C_{S}}"></span> when calculated in base-10 logarithm). </p><p>C<sub>c</sub> can be replaced by C<sub>r</sub> (the recompression index) for use in overconsolidated soils where the final effective stress is less than the preconsolidation stress. When the final effective stress is greater than the preconsolidation stress, the two equations must be used in combination to model both the recompression portion and the virgin compression portion of the consolidation processes, as follows, </p><p><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \delta _{c}={\frac {C_{r}}{1+e_{0}}}H\log \left({\frac {\sigma _{zc}'}{\sigma _{z0}'}}\right)+{\frac {C_{c}}{1+e_{0}}}H\log \left({\frac {\sigma _{zf}'}{\sigma _{zc}'}}\right)\ }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>δ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>c</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <msub> <mi>C</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>r</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mrow> <mn>1</mn> <mo>+</mo> <msub> <mi>e</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mi>H</mi> <mi>log</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <msubsup> <mi>σ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>z</mi> <mi>c</mi> </mrow> <mo>′</mo> </msubsup> <msubsup> <mi>σ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>z</mi> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> <mo>′</mo> </msubsup> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <msub> <mi>C</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>c</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mrow> <mn>1</mn> <mo>+</mo> <msub> <mi>e</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mi>H</mi> <mi>log</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <msubsup> <mi>σ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>z</mi> <mi>f</mi> </mrow> <mo>′</mo> </msubsup> <msubsup> <mi>σ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>z</mi> <mi>c</mi> </mrow> <mo>′</mo> </msubsup> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> <mtext> </mtext> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \delta _{c}={\frac {C_{r}}{1+e_{0}}}H\log \left({\frac {\sigma _{zc}'}{\sigma _{z0}'}}\right)+{\frac {C_{c}}{1+e_{0}}}H\log \left({\frac {\sigma _{zf}'}{\sigma _{zc}'}}\right)\ }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/61efde46d7f6ecc71adf79938b39f09270f69e4f" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -3.171ex; width:48.453ex; height:7.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \delta _{c}={\frac {C_{r}}{1+e_{0}}}H\log \left({\frac {\sigma _{zc}'}{\sigma _{z0}'}}\right)+{\frac {C_{c}}{1+e_{0}}}H\log \left({\frac {\sigma _{zf}'}{\sigma _{zc}'}}\right)\ }"></span> </p><p>where σ<sub>zc</sub> is the preconsolidation stress of the soil. </p><p>This method assumes consolidation occurs in only one-dimension. Laboratory data is used to construct a plot of <a href="/wiki/Strain_(materials_science)" class="mw-redirect" title="Strain (materials science)">strain</a> or <a href="/wiki/Void_ratio" title="Void ratio">void ratio</a> versus <a href="/wiki/Effective_stress" title="Effective stress">effective stress</a> where the effective stress axis is on a <a href="/wiki/Logarithmic_scale" title="Logarithmic scale">logarithmic scale</a>. The plot's slope is the compression index or recompression index. The equation for consolidation settlement of a normally consolidated soil can then be determined to be: </p><p>The soil which had its load removed is considered to be "overconsolidated". This is the case for soils that have previously had <a href="/wiki/Glaciers" class="mw-redirect" title="Glaciers">glaciers</a> on them or that have been affected by <a href="/wiki/Land_subsidence" class="mw-redirect" title="Land subsidence">land subsidence</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The highest stress that it has been subjected to is termed the "<a href="/wiki/Preconsolidation_pressure" title="Preconsolidation pressure">preconsolidation stress</a>". The "over-consolidation ratio" (OCR) is defined as the highest stress experienced divided by the current stress. A soil that is currently experiencing its highest stress is said to be "normally consolidated" and has an OCR of one. A soil could be considered "underconsolidated" or "unconsolidated" immediately after a new load is applied but before the excess <a href="/wiki/Pore_water_pressure" title="Pore water pressure">pore water pressure</a> has dissipated. Occasionally, soil strata form by natural deposition in rivers and seas may exist in an exceptionally low density that is impossible to achieve in an oedometer; this process is known as "intrinsic consolidation".<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Time_dependency">Time dependency</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil_consolidation&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Time dependency"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Spring_analogy">Spring analogy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil_consolidation&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Spring analogy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The process of consolidation is often explained with an idealized system composed of a <a href="/wiki/Spring_(device)" title="Spring (device)">spring</a>, a container with a hole in its cover, and water. In this system, the spring represents the compressibility or the structure of the soil itself, and the water which fills the container represents the pore water in the soil. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Consolidation_spring_analogy.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Consolidation_spring_analogy.jpg/600px-Consolidation_spring_analogy.jpg" decoding="async" width="600" height="195" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Consolidation_spring_analogy.jpg/900px-Consolidation_spring_analogy.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Consolidation_spring_analogy.jpg/1200px-Consolidation_spring_analogy.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1734" data-file-height="564" /></a><figcaption>Schematic diagram of spring analogy</figcaption></figure> <ol><li>The container is completely filled with water, and the hole is closed. (Fully saturated soil)</li> <li>A load is applied onto the cover, while the hole is still unopened. At this stage, only the water resists the applied load. (Development of excess pore water pressure)</li> <li>As soon as the hole is opened, water starts to drain out through the hole and the spring shortens. (Drainage of excess pore water pressure)</li> <li>After some time, the drainage of water no longer occurs. Now, the spring alone resists the applied load. (Full dissipation of excess pore water pressure. End of consolidation)</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Analytical_formulation_of_consolidation_rate">Analytical formulation of consolidation rate</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil_consolidation&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Analytical formulation of consolidation rate"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The time for consolidation to occur can be predicted. Sometimes consolidation can take years. This is especially true in saturated clays because their <a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_conductivity" title="Hydraulic conductivity">hydraulic conductivity</a> is extremely low, and this causes the water to take an exceptionally long time to drain out of the soil. While drainage is occurring, the <a href="/wiki/Pore_water_pressure" title="Pore water pressure">pore water pressure</a> is greater than normal because it is carrying part of the applied stress (as opposed to the soil particles). </p><p><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle T_{v}={\frac {c_{v}*t}{(H_{dr})^{2}}}\ }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>T</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>v</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <msub> <mi>c</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>v</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>∗</mo> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> <mrow> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msub> <mi>H</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>d</mi> <mi>r</mi> </mrow> </msub> <msup> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mtext> </mtext> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle T_{v}={\frac {c_{v}*t}{(H_{dr})^{2}}}\ }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/449d659a5dab639252a61184939c0fc97b995701" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.671ex; width:13.531ex; height:6.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle T_{v}={\frac {c_{v}*t}{(H_{dr})^{2}}}\ }"></span> </p><p>Where T<sub>v</sub> is the time factor. </p><p>H<sub>dr</sub> is the average longest drain path during consolidation. </p><p>t is the time at measurement </p><p>C<sub>v</sub> is defined as the coefficient of consolidation found using the log method with </p><p><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle C_{v}={\frac {T_{50}H_{dr}^{2}}{t_{50}}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>C</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>v</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <msub> <mi>T</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>50</mn> </mrow> </msub> <msubsup> <mi>H</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>d</mi> <mi>r</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msubsup> </mrow> <msub> <mi>t</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>50</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle C_{v}={\frac {T_{50}H_{dr}^{2}}{t_{50}}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/fa2e2b652bc6c41bb3190d68134662e961c81a65" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.171ex; width:13.625ex; height:6.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle C_{v}={\frac {T_{50}H_{dr}^{2}}{t_{50}}}}"></span> </p><p>or the root method with </p><p><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle C_{v}={\frac {T_{95}H_{dr}^{2}}{t_{95}}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>C</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>v</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <msub> <mi>T</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>95</mn> </mrow> </msub> <msubsup> <mi>H</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>d</mi> <mi>r</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msubsup> </mrow> <msub> <mi>t</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>95</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle C_{v}={\frac {T_{95}H_{dr}^{2}}{t_{95}}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/0bf9b03a80567eaae5c346248f27b06a330c8cee" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.171ex; width:13.625ex; height:6.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle C_{v}={\frac {T_{95}H_{dr}^{2}}{t_{95}}}}"></span> </p><p>t<sub>50</sub> time to 50% deformation (consolidation) and t<sub>95</sub> is 95% </p><p>Where T<sub>95</sub>=1.129 T<sub>50</sub>=0.197 </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Creep">Creep</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil_consolidation&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Creep"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The theoretical formulation above assumes that time-dependent volume change of a soil unit only depends on changes in effective stress due to the gradual restoration of steady-state pore water pressure. This is the case for most types of <a href="/wiki/Sand" title="Sand">sand</a> and clay with low amounts of organic material. However, in soils with a high amount of organic material such as <a href="/wiki/Peat" title="Peat">peat</a>, the phenomenon of <a href="/wiki/Creep_(deformation)" title="Creep (deformation)">creep</a> also occurs, whereby the soil changes volume gradually at constant effective stress. Soil creep is typically caused by viscous behavior of the clay-water system and compression of organic matter. </p><p>This process of creep is sometimes known as "secondary consolidation" or "secondary compression" because it also involves gradual change of soil volume in response to an application of load; the designation "secondary" distinguishes it from "primary consolidation", which refers to volume change due to dissipation of excess pore water pressure. Creep typically takes place over a longer time-scale than (primary) consolidation, such that even after the restoration of hydrostatic pressure some compression of soil takes place at slow rate. </p><p>Analytically, the rate of creep is assumed to decay exponentially with time since application of load, giving the formula: </p><p><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle S_{s}={\frac {H_{0}}{1+e_{0}}}C_{a}\log \left({\frac {t}{t_{95}}}\right)\ }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>S</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>s</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <msub> <mi>H</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mrow> <mn>1</mn> <mo>+</mo> <msub> <mi>e</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <msub> <mi>C</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>a</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mi>log</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mi>t</mi> <msub> <mi>t</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>95</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> <mtext> </mtext> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle S_{s}={\frac {H_{0}}{1+e_{0}}}C_{a}\log \left({\frac {t}{t_{95}}}\right)\ }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/7b22896ac45a961e8412baa938c8db2385b413fb" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.505ex; width:26.18ex; height:6.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle S_{s}={\frac {H_{0}}{1+e_{0}}}C_{a}\log \left({\frac {t}{t_{95}}}\right)\ }"></span> </p><p>Where H<sub>0</sub> is the height of the consolidating medium<br /> e<sub>0</sub> is the initial void ratio<br /> C<sub>a</sub> is the secondary compression index<br /> t is the length of time after consolidation considered<br /> t<sub>95</sub> is the length of time for achieving 95% consolidation </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Deformation_characteristics_of_consolidation">Deformation characteristics of consolidation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil_consolidation&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Deformation characteristics of consolidation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Coefficient of compressibility <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle a_{v}={\frac {\Delta e}{\Delta \sigma _{'}}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>a</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>v</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi mathvariant="normal">Δ</mi> <mi>e</mi> </mrow> <mrow> <mi mathvariant="normal">Δ</mi> <msub> <mi>σ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msup> <mi></mi> <mo>′</mo> </msup> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle a_{v}={\frac {\Delta e}{\Delta \sigma _{'}}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/e664d8cadd765ca497bf9e442b2a1be13cdf2a68" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.338ex; width:10.221ex; height:5.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle a_{v}={\frac {\Delta e}{\Delta \sigma _{'}}}}"></span>. The compressibility of saturated specimens of clay minerals increases in the order kaolinite <illite<smectite. The compression index Cc, which is defined as the change in void ratio per 10-fold increase in consolidation pressure, is in the range of 0.19 to 0.28 for kaolinite, 0.50 to 1.10 for illite, and 1.0 to 2.6 for montmorillonite, for different ionic forms.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The more compressible the clay, the more pronounced the influences of cation type and electrolyte concentration on compressibility. </p><p>Coefficient of volume compressibility <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle m_{v}={\frac {\Delta V/V}{\Delta \sigma _{'}}}={\frac {a_{v}}{\Delta \sigma _{'}}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>m</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>v</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi mathvariant="normal">Δ</mi> <mi>V</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mi>V</mi> </mrow> <mrow> <mi mathvariant="normal">Δ</mi> <msub> <mi>σ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msup> <mi></mi> <mo>′</mo> </msup> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <msub> <mi>a</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>v</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mrow> <mi mathvariant="normal">Δ</mi> <msub> <mi>σ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msup> <mi></mi> <mo>′</mo> </msup> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle m_{v}={\frac {\Delta V/V}{\Delta \sigma _{'}}}={\frac {a_{v}}{\Delta \sigma _{'}}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/198314c8fc5eecad1fddae0dc8aa9755c650e91f" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.338ex; width:21.639ex; height:6.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle m_{v}={\frac {\Delta V/V}{\Delta \sigma _{'}}}={\frac {a_{v}}{\Delta \sigma _{'}}}}"></span> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil_consolidation&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compaction_(geology)" title="Compaction (geology)">Compaction (geology)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Settlement_(structural)" title="Settlement (structural)">Settlement (structural)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_mechanics" title="Soil mechanics">Soil mechanics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vacuum_consolidation" title="Vacuum consolidation">Vacuum consolidation</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil_consolidation&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Guerriero-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Guerriero_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Guerriero_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFGuerriero2022" class="citation journal cs1">Guerriero, Vincenzo (December 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fgeotechnics2040045">"1923–2023: One Century since Formulation of the Effective Stress Principle, the Consolidation Theory and Fluid–Porous-Solid Interaction Models"</a>. <i>Geotechnics</i>. <b>2</b> (4): 961–988. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fgeotechnics2040045">10.3390/geotechnics2040045</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2673-7094">2673-7094</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Geotechnics&rft.atitle=1923%26ndash%3B2023%3A+One+Century+since+Formulation+of+the+Effective+Stress+Principle%2C+the+Consolidation+Theory+and+Fluid%26ndash%3BPorous-Solid+Interaction+Models&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=961-988&rft.date=2022-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3390%2Fgeotechnics2040045&rft.issn=2673-7094&rft.aulast=Guerriero&rft.aufirst=Vincenzo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.3390%252Fgeotechnics2040045&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoil+consolidation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchofieldWroth1968" class="citation book cs1">Schofield, Andrew Noel; Wroth, Peter (1968). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Z-YeAQAAIAAJ"><i>Critical State Soil Mechanics</i></a>. McGraw-Hill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780641940484" title="Special:BookSources/9780641940484"><bdi>9780641940484</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Critical+State+Soil+Mechanics&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill&rft.date=1968&rft.isbn=9780641940484&rft.aulast=Schofield&rft.aufirst=Andrew+Noel&rft.au=Wroth%2C+Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZ-YeAQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoil+consolidation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLambeWhitman1969" class="citation book cs1">Lambe, T. William; Whitman, Robert V. (1969). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HflRAAAAMAAJ"><i>Soil mechanics</i></a>. Wiley. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780471511922" title="Special:BookSources/9780471511922"><bdi>9780471511922</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Soil+mechanics&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=1969&rft.isbn=9780471511922&rft.aulast=Lambe&rft.aufirst=T.+William&rft.au=Whitman%2C+Robert+V.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHflRAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoil+consolidation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChan2016" class="citation thesis cs1">Chan, Deryck Y.K. (2016). <i>Base slab heave in over-consolidated clay</i> (MRes thesis). University of Cambridge.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=Base+slab+heave+in+over-consolidated+clay&rft.inst=University+of+Cambridge&rft.date=2016&rft.aulast=Chan&rft.aufirst=Deryck+Y.K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoil+consolidation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTomásDomenechMiraCuenca2007" class="citation journal cs1">Tomás, R.; Domenech, C.; Mira, A.; Cuenca, A.; Delgado, J. (2007-05-22). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0013795207000257">"Preconsolidation stress in the Vega Baja and Media areas of the River Segura (SE Spain): Causes and relationship with piezometric level changes"</a>. <i>Engineering Geology</i>. <b>91</b> (2): 135–151. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.enggeo.2007.01.006">10.1016/j.enggeo.2007.01.006</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0013-7952">0013-7952</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Engineering+Geology&rft.atitle=Preconsolidation+stress+in+the+Vega+Baja+and+Media+areas+of+the+River+Segura+%28SE+Spain%29%3A+Causes+and+relationship+with+piezometric+level+changes&rft.volume=91&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=135-151&rft.date=2007-05-22&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.enggeo.2007.01.006&rft.issn=0013-7952&rft.aulast=Tom%C3%A1s&rft.aufirst=R.&rft.au=Domenech%2C+C.&rft.au=Mira%2C+A.&rft.au=Cuenca%2C+A.&rft.au=Delgado%2C+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Fscience%2Farticle%2Fpii%2FS0013795207000257&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoil+consolidation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurland1990" class="citation journal cs1">Burland, J. B. (1990-09-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.icevirtuallibrary.com/doi/10.1680/geot.1990.40.3.329">"On the compressibility and shear strength of natural clays"</a>. <i>Géotechnique</i>. <b>40</b> (3): 329–378. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1680%2Fgeot.1990.40.3.329">10.1680/geot.1990.40.3.329</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0016-8505">0016-8505</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=G%C3%A9otechnique&rft.atitle=On+the+compressibility+and+shear+strength+of+natural+clays&rft.volume=40&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=329-378&rft.date=1990-09-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1680%2Fgeot.1990.40.3.329&rft.issn=0016-8505&rft.aulast=Burland&rft.aufirst=J.+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.icevirtuallibrary.com%2Fdoi%2F10.1680%2Fgeot.1990.40.3.329&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoil+consolidation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cornell University, 1950</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil_consolidation&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoduto2001" class="citation cs2">Coduto, Donald (2001), <i>Foundation Design</i>, Prentice-Hall, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-13-589706-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-13-589706-8"><bdi>0-13-589706-8</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Foundation+Design&rft.pub=Prentice-Hall&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-13-589706-8&rft.aulast=Coduto&rft.aufirst=Donald&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoil+consolidation" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKim2000" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Kim, Myung-mo (2000), <i>Soil Mechanics</i> (in Korean) (4 ed.), <a href="/wiki/Seoul" title="Seoul">Seoul</a>: Munundang, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/89-7393-053-2" title="Special:BookSources/89-7393-053-2"><bdi>89-7393-053-2</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Soil+Mechanics&rft.place=Seoul&rft.edition=4&rft.pub=Munundang&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=89-7393-053-2&rft.aulast=Kim&rft.aufirst=Myung-mo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoil+consolidation" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTerzaghi1943" class="citation cs2">Terzaghi, Karl (1943), <i>Theoretical soil mechanics</i>, John Wiley&Sons, Inc., p. 265</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Theoretical+soil+mechanics&rft.pages=265&rft.pub=John+Wiley%26Sons%2C+Inc.&rft.date=1943&rft.aulast=Terzaghi&rft.aufirst=Karl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoil+consolidation" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output 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li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Consolidation" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Consolidation">Consolidation</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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href="/wiki/File:In_situ_permeameter_test.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/In_situ_permeameter_test.svg/20px-In_situ_permeameter_test.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/In_situ_permeameter_test.svg/30px-In_situ_permeameter_test.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/In_situ_permeameter_test.svg/40px-In_situ_permeameter_test.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Permeability_(Earth_sciences)" class="mw-redirect" title="Permeability (Earth sciences)">Permeability test</a></li></ul> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Load_test.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Load_test.svg/20px-Load_test.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Load_test.svg/30px-Load_test.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Load_test.svg/40px-Load_test.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Load_test" class="mw-redirect" title="Load test">Load test</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Static_load_testing" title="Static load testing">Static</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynamic_load_testing" title="Dynamic load testing">Dynamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statnamic_load_test" title="Statnamic load test">Statnamic</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Pore_pressure_measurement.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Pore_pressure_measurement.svg/20px-Pore_pressure_measurement.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Pore_pressure_measurement.svg/30px-Pore_pressure_measurement.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Pore_pressure_measurement.svg/40px-Pore_pressure_measurement.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> Pore pressure measurement <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Piezometer" class="mw-redirect" title="Piezometer">Piezometer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Well#Classification" title="Well">Well</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Ram_sounding.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Ram_sounding.svg/20px-Ram_sounding.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Ram_sounding.svg/30px-Ram_sounding.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Ram_sounding.svg/40px-Ram_sounding.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ram_sounding&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ram sounding (page does not exist)">Ram sounding</a></li></ul> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Rock_control_drilling.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Rock_control_drilling.svg/20px-Rock_control_drilling.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Rock_control_drilling.svg/30px-Rock_control_drilling.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Rock_control_drilling.svg/40px-Rock_control_drilling.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Rock_control_drilling&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rock control drilling (page does not exist)">Rock control drilling</a></li></ul> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Rotary_pressure_sounding.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Rotary_pressure_sounding.svg/20px-Rotary_pressure_sounding.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Rotary_pressure_sounding.svg/30px-Rotary_pressure_sounding.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Rotary_pressure_sounding.svg/40px-Rotary_pressure_sounding.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Rotary-pressure_sounding" title="Rotary-pressure sounding">Rotary-pressure sounding</a></li></ul> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Rotary_weight_sounding.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Rotary_weight_sounding.svg/20px-Rotary_weight_sounding.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Rotary_weight_sounding.svg/30px-Rotary_weight_sounding.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Rotary_weight_sounding.svg/40px-Rotary_weight_sounding.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Rotary_weight_sounding&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rotary weight sounding (page does not exist)">Rotary weight sounding</a></li></ul> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Sample_series.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Sample_series.svg/20px-Sample_series.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Sample_series.svg/30px-Sample_series.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Sample_series.svg/40px-Sample_series.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Soil_test#Soil_testing" title="Soil test">Sample series</a></li></ul> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Screw_plate_test.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Screw_plate_test.svg/20px-Screw_plate_test.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Screw_plate_test.svg/30px-Screw_plate_test.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Screw_plate_test.svg/40px-Screw_plate_test.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Screw_plate_test&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Screw plate test (page does not exist)">Screw plate test</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deformation_monitoring" title="Deformation monitoring">Deformation monitoring</a> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Inclinometer.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Inclinometer.svg/20px-Inclinometer.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Inclinometer.svg/30px-Inclinometer.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Inclinometer.svg/40px-Inclinometer.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Inclinometer" title="Inclinometer">Inclinometer</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Settlement_recordings.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Settlement_recordings.svg/20px-Settlement_recordings.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Settlement_recordings.svg/30px-Settlement_recordings.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Settlement_recordings.svg/40px-Settlement_recordings.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Settlement recordings</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Shear_vane_test.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Shear_vane_test.svg/20px-Shear_vane_test.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Shear_vane_test.svg/30px-Shear_vane_test.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Shear_vane_test.svg/40px-Shear_vane_test.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Shear_vane_test" title="Shear vane test">Shear vane test</a></li></ul> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Simple_sounding.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Simple_sounding.svg/20px-Simple_sounding.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Simple_sounding.svg/30px-Simple_sounding.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Simple_sounding.svg/40px-Simple_sounding.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Simple_sounding&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Simple sounding (page does not exist)">Simple sounding</a></li></ul> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Standard_penetration_test.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Standard_penetration_test.svg/20px-Standard_penetration_test.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Standard_penetration_test.svg/30px-Standard_penetration_test.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Standard_penetration_test.svg/40px-Standard_penetration_test.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Standard_penetration_test" title="Standard penetration test">Standard penetration test</a></li></ul> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Total_sounding.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Total_sounding.svg/20px-Total_sounding.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Total_sounding.svg/30px-Total_sounding.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Total_sounding.svg/40px-Total_sounding.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Total_sounding" title="Total sounding">Total sounding</a></li></ul> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Trial_pit.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Trial_pit.svg/20px-Trial_pit.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Trial_pit.svg/30px-Trial_pit.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Trial_pit.svg/40px-Trial_pit.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Trial_pit" title="Trial pit">Trial pit</a></li></ul> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Visible_rock.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Visible_rock.svg/20px-Visible_rock.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Visible_rock.svg/30px-Visible_rock.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Visible_rock.svg/40px-Visible_rock.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Bedrock" title="Bedrock">Visible bedrock</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_densometer" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear densometer">Nuclear densometer test</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Exploration_geophysics" title="Exploration geophysics">Exploration geophysics</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crosshole_sonic_logging" title="Crosshole sonic logging">Crosshole sonic logging</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pile_integrity_test" title="Pile integrity test">Pile integrity test</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wave_equation_analysis" title="Wave equation analysis">Wave equation analysis</a></li></ul></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.0em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Soil_test" title="Soil test">Laboratory <br />testing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_classification" title="Soil classification">Soil classification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atterberg_limits" title="Atterberg limits">Atterberg limits</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/California_bearing_ratio" title="California bearing ratio">California bearing ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_shear_test" title="Direct shear test">Direct shear test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrometer" title="Hydrometer">Hydrometer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proctor_compaction_test" title="Proctor compaction test">Proctor compaction test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R-value_(soils)" title="R-value (soils)">R-value</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sieve_analysis" title="Sieve analysis">Sieve analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triaxial_shear_test" title="Triaxial shear test">Triaxial shear test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oedometer_test" title="Oedometer test">Oedometer test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_conductivity#Experimental_approach" title="Hydraulic conductivity">Hydraulic conductivity tests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_content#Measurement" title="Water content">Water content tests</a></li> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Soil" title="Soil">Soil</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.0em;font-weight: normal;">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clay" title="Clay">Clay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silt" title="Silt">Silt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sand" title="Sand">Sand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravel" title="Gravel">Gravel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peat" title="Peat">Peat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loam" title="Loam">Loam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loess" title="Loess">Loess</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.0em;font-weight: normal;">Properties</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_conductivity" title="Hydraulic conductivity">Hydraulic conductivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_content" title="Water content">Water content</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Void_ratio" title="Void ratio">Void ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulk_density" title="Bulk density">Bulk density</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thixotropy" title="Thixotropy">Thixotropy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reynolds%27_dilatancy" class="mw-redirect" title="Reynolds' dilatancy">Reynolds' dilatancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angle_of_repose" title="Angle of repose">Angle of repose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friction#Angle_of_friction" title="Friction">Friction angle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cohesion_(geology)" title="Cohesion (geology)">Cohesion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porosity" title="Porosity">Porosity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permeability_(earth_sciences)" class="mw-redirect" title="Permeability (earth sciences)">Permeability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Specific_storage" title="Specific storage">Specific storage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shear_strength_(soil)" title="Shear strength (soil)">Shear strength</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_liquefaction" title="Soil liquefaction">Sensitivity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Structures <br />(<a href="/wiki/Soil-structure_interaction" title="Soil-structure interaction">Interaction</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.0em;font-weight: normal;">Natural features</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Topography" title="Topography">Topography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vegetation" title="Vegetation">Vegetation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terrain" title="Terrain">Terrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Topsoil" title="Topsoil">Topsoil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_table" title="Water table">Water table</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bedrock" title="Bedrock">Bedrock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subgrade" title="Subgrade">Subgrade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subsoil" title="Subsoil">Subsoil</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.0em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Earthworks_(engineering)" title="Earthworks (engineering)">Earthworks</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Shoring structures <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Retaining_wall" title="Retaining wall">Retaining walls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabion" title="Gabion">Gabion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ground_freezing" title="Ground freezing">Ground freezing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mechanically_stabilized_earth" title="Mechanically stabilized earth">Mechanically stabilized earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pressure_grouting" title="Pressure grouting">Pressure grouting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slurry_wall" title="Slurry wall">Slurry wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_nailing" title="Soil nailing">Soil nailing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tieback_(geotechnical)" title="Tieback (geotechnical)">Tieback</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_development" title="Land development">Land development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landfill" title="Landfill">Landfill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digging" title="Digging">Excavation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trench" title="Trench">Trench</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embankment_(earthworks)" title="Embankment (earthworks)">Embankment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cut_(earthworks)" title="Cut (earthworks)">Cut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causeway" title="Causeway">Causeway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terrace_(earthworks)" title="Terrace (earthworks)">Terracing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunnel#Cut-and-cover" title="Tunnel">Cut-and-cover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cut_and_fill" title="Cut and fill">Cut and fill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fill_dirt" title="Fill dirt">Fill dirt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grading_(engineering)" class="mw-redirect" title="Grading (engineering)">Grading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_reclamation" title="Land reclamation">Land reclamation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Track_bed" title="Track bed">Track bed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erosion_control" title="Erosion control">Erosion control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_structure" title="Earth structure">Earth structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expanded_clay_aggregate" title="Expanded clay aggregate">Expanded clay aggregate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crushed_stone" title="Crushed stone">Crushed stone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geosynthetics" title="Geosynthetics">Geosynthetics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geotextile" title="Geotextile">Geotextile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomembrane" title="Geomembrane">Geomembrane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geosynthetic_clay_liner" title="Geosynthetic clay liner">Geosynthetic clay liner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cellular_confinement" title="Cellular confinement">Cellular confinement</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infiltration_(hydrology)" title="Infiltration (hydrology)">Infiltration</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.0em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Foundation_(engineering)" title="Foundation (engineering)">Foundations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shallow_foundation" title="Shallow foundation">Shallow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_foundation" title="Deep foundation">Deep</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Soil_mechanics" title="Soil mechanics">Mechanics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.0em;font-weight: normal;">Forces</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effective_stress" title="Effective stress">Effective stress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pore_water_pressure" title="Pore water pressure">Pore water pressure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lateral_earth_pressure" title="Lateral earth pressure">Lateral earth pressure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overburden_pressure" title="Overburden pressure">Overburden pressure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preconsolidation_pressure" title="Preconsolidation pressure">Preconsolidation pressure</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.0em;font-weight: normal;">Phenomena/<br />problems</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Permafrost" title="Permafrost">Permafrost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frost_heaving" title="Frost heaving">Frost heaving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consolidation_(soil)" class="mw-redirect" title="Consolidation (soil)">Consolidation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_compaction" title="Soil compaction">Compaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earthquake" title="Earthquake">Earthquake</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Response_spectrum" title="Response spectrum">Response spectrum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seismic_hazard" title="Seismic hazard">Seismic hazard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S_wave" title="S wave">Shear wave</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landslide" title="Landslide">Landslide</a> analysis <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slope_stability_analysis" title="Slope stability analysis">Stability analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landslide_mitigation" title="Landslide mitigation">Mitigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landslide_classification" title="Landslide classification">Classification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sliding_criterion_(geotechnical_engineering)" title="Sliding criterion (geotechnical engineering)">Sliding criterion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Road#Slab_stabilization" title="Road">Slab stabilisation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bearing_capacity" title="Bearing capacity">Bearing capacity</a> * <a href="/wiki/Stress_distribution_in_soil" title="Stress distribution in soil">Stress distribution in soil</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Software" title="Software">Numerical analysis <br />software</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/SEEP2D" title="SEEP2D">SEEP2D</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=STABL&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="STABL (page does not exist)">STABL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SVFlux" title="SVFlux">SVFlux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SVSlope" title="SVSlope">SVSlope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UTEXAS" title="UTEXAS">UTEXAS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plaxis" title="Plaxis">Plaxis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geoprofessions" title="Geoprofessions">Related fields</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">Geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geochemistry" title="Geochemistry">Geochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrology" title="Petrology">Petrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earthquake_engineering" title="Earthquake engineering">Earthquake engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomorphology" title="Geomorphology">Geomorphology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_science" title="Soil science">Soil science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrology" title="Hydrology">Hydrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrogeology" title="Hydrogeology">Hydrogeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_materials" title="Earth materials">Earth materials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_science" title="Agricultural science">Agricultural science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agrology" class="mw-redirect" title="Agrology">Agrology</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> 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