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Darwin presented his views on the development of human speech from animal sounds in The Descent of Man (1871), but he had been interested in the origin of language since the late 1830s. Darwin’s correspondence reveals the scope of his" /> <meta name="generator" content="Drupal 7 (https://www.drupal.org)" /> <link rel="canonical" href="https://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/commentary/human-nature/origin-language/language-key-letters" /> <link rel="shortlink" href="https://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/node/55" /> <meta property="og:site_name" content="Darwin Correspondence Project" /> <meta property="og:type" content="article" /> <meta property="og:url" content="https://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/commentary/human-nature/origin-language/language-key-letters" /> <meta property="og:title" content="Language: key letters" /> <meta property="og:description" content="How and why language evolved bears on larger questions about the evolution of the human species, and the relationship between man and animals. Darwin presented his views on the development of human speech from animal sounds in The Descent of Man (1871), but he had been interested in the origin of language since the late 1830s. Darwin’s correspondence reveals the scope of his thinking about the evolution of language, how his views changed over time, and the array of people—from expert linguists, to naval officers, to bankers—with whom he exchanged information and ideas." /> <meta property="og:updated_time" content="2017-05-04T11:38:44+01:00" /> <meta property="og:image" content="https://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/sites/default/files/MAX-MULLER-F-01-03233.jpg" /> <meta name="twitter:card" content="summary" /> <meta name="twitter:url" content="https://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/commentary/human-nature/origin-language/language-key-letters" /> <meta name="twitter:title" content="Language: key letters" /> <meta property="article:published_time" content="2015-06-09T10:54:37+01:00" /> <meta property="article:modified_time" content="2015-06-09T10:54:37+01:00" /> <title>Language: key letters | Darwin Correspondence Project</title> <meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1.0"/> <style type="text/css" 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href="/about-darwin">About Darwin</a><ul class="campl-unstyled-list local-dropdown-menu"><li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-2309"><a href="/about-darwin">About Darwin overview</a></li> <li class="expanded menu-mlid-869"><a href="/people/about-darwin/family-life">Family life</a><ul class="campl-unstyled-list local-dropdown-menu"><li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-869"><a href="/people/about-darwin/family-life">Family life overview</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1125"><a href="/people/about-darwin/family-life/darwin-childhood">Darwin on childhood</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1038"><a href="/tags/about-darwin/family-life/darwin-marriage">Darwin on marriage</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1258"><a href="/people/about-darwin/family-life/darwin-s-observations-his-children">Darwin’s observations on his children</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2295"><a href="/people/about-darwin/family-life/darwin-and-fatherhood">Darwin and fatherhood</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1039"><a href="/people/about-darwin/family-life/death-anne-elizabeth-darwin">The death of Annie Darwin</a></li> <li class="last leaf menu-mlid-1051"><a href="/people/about-darwin/family-life/visiting-darwins">Visiting the Darwins</a></li> </ul></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3416"><a href="/commentary/voyage-hms-beagle" title="">Voyage of HMS Beagle</a></li> <li class="expanded menu-mlid-1035"><a href="/people/about-darwin/what-darwin-read">What Darwin read</a><ul class="campl-unstyled-list local-dropdown-menu"><li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-1035"><a href="/people/about-darwin/what-darwin-read">What Darwin read overview</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1130"><a href="/people/about-darwin/what-darwin-read/darwin-s-student-booklist">Darwin’s student booklist</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-933"><a href="/people/about-darwin/what-darwin-read/books-beagle">Books on the Beagle</a></li> <li class="last leaf menu-mlid-1036"><a href="/people/about-darwin/what-darwin-read/darwin-s-reading-notebooks">Darwin’s reading notebooks</a></li> </ul></li> <li class="expanded menu-mlid-1059"><a href="/about-darwin/origin-species">On the Origin of Species</a><ul class="campl-unstyled-list local-dropdown-menu"><li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-1059"><a href="/about-darwin/origin-species">On the Origin of Species overview</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1060"><a href="/people/about-darwin/origin-species/writing-origin">The writing of "Origin"</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1084"><a href="/people/about-darwin/origin-species/abstract-darwin-s-theory">Abstract of Darwin’s theory</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1093"><a href="/people/about-darwin/origin-species/alfred-russel-wallace-s-essay-varieties">Alfred Russel Wallace’s essay on varieties</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1094"><a href="/charles-darwin-and-his-publisher">Charles Darwin and his publisher</a></li> <li class="last leaf menu-mlid-1147"><a href="/people/about-darwin/origin-species/review-origin-species">Review: The Origin of Species</a></li> </ul></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1126"><a href="/people/about-darwin/darwins-health">Darwin’s health</a><ul class="campl-unstyled-list local-dropdown-menu"><li class="first last leaf menu-mlid-2917"><a href="/tags/darwin/darwin-on-his-health">Darwin's notes for his physician, 1865</a></li> </ul></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1128"><a href="/about-darwin/darwin-s-photographic-portraits">Darwin’s photographic portraits</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2896"><a href="/have-you-read-one-about">Have you read the one about....</a></li> <li class="expanded menu-mlid-2654"><a href="/people/about-darwin/six-things-darwin-never-said">Six things Darwin never said – and one he did</a><ul class="campl-unstyled-list local-dropdown-menu"><li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-2654"><a href="/people/about-darwin/six-things-darwin-never-said">Six things Darwin never said – and one he did overview</a></li> <li class="last leaf menu-mlid-2892"><a href="/people/about-darwin/six-things-darwin-never-said/evolution-misquotation">The evolution of a misquotation</a></li> </ul></li> <li class="expanded menu-mlid-3673"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue">Portraits of Charles Darwin: a catalogue</a><ul class="campl-unstyled-list local-dropdown-menu"><li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-3673"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue">Portraits of Charles Darwin: a catalogue overview</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3676"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/11-ellen-sharples-pastel">1.1 Ellen Sharples pastel</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3709"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/12-george-richmond-marriage-portrait">1.2 George Richmond, marriage portrait</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3718"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/13-thomas-herbert-maguire-lithograph">1.3 Thomas Herbert Maguire, lithograph</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3721"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/14-samuel-laurence-drawing-1">1.4 Samuel Laurence drawing 1</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3724"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/15-samuel-laurence-drawing-2">1.5 Samuel Laurence drawing 2</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3727"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/16-ouless-oil-portrait">1.6 Ouless oil portrait</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3730"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/17-ouless-replica">1.7 Ouless replica</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3733"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/18-anonymous-drawing-after-ouless">1.8 anonymous drawing, after Ouless</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3736"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/19-rajon-etching-after-ouless">1.9 Rajon, etching after Ouless</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3679"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/110-rajon-etching-variant-state">1.10 Rajon etching, variant state</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3682"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/111-laura-russell-oil">1.11 Laura Russell, oil</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3685"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/112-marian-huxley-drawing">1.12 Marian Huxley, drawing</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3688"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/113-louisa-nash-drawing">1.13 Louisa Nash, drawing</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3691"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/114-william-richmond-oil">1.14 William Richmond, oil</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3694"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/115-albert-goodwin-watercolour">1.15 Albert Goodwin, watercolour</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3697"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/116-alphonse-legros-drypoint">1.16 Alphonse Legros, drypoint</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3700"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/117-alphonse-legros-drawing">1.17 Alphonse Legros drawing</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3703"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/118-john-collier-oil-linnean">1.18 John Collier, oil in Linnean</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3706"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/119-john-collier-oil-npg">1.19 John Collier, oil in NPG</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3712"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/120-leopold-flameng-etching-after-collier">1.20 Leopold Flameng etching, after Collier</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3715"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/121-window-christs-college-cambridge">1.21 window at Christ's College Cambridge</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3739"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/21-thomas-woolner-bust">2.1 Thomas Woolner bust</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3772"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/22-thomas-woolner-metal-plaque">2.2 Thomas Woolner metal plaque</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3802"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/23-wedgwood-medallions">2.3 Wedgwood medallions</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3805"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/24-wedgwood-plaque">2.4 Wedgwood plaque</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3808"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/25-wedgwood-medallions-2nd-type">2.5 Wedgwood medallions, 2nd type</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3811"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/26-adolf-von-hildebrand-bust">2.6 Adolf von Hildebrand bust</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3814"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/27-joseph-moore-midland-union-medal">2.7 Joseph Moore, Midland Union medal</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3817"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/28-alphonse-legros-medallion">2.8 Alphonse Legros medallion</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3820"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/29-legros-medallion-plaster-model">2.9 Legros medallion, plaster model</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3742"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/210-moritz-klinkicht-print-legros">2.10 Moritz Klinkicht, print from Legros</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3745"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/211-christian-lehr-plaster-bust">2.11 Christian Lehr, plaster bust</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3748"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/212-allan-wyon-royal-society-medal">2.12 Allan Wyon, Royal Society medal</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3751"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/213-edgar-boehm-statue-nhm">2.13 Edgar Boehm, statue in the NHM</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3754"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/214-boehm-westminster-abbey-roundel">2.14 Boehm, Westminster Abbey roundel</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3757"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/215-boehm-terracotta-bust-npg">2.15 Boehm terracotta bust (NPG)</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3760"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/216-horace-montford-statue-shrewsbury">2.16 Horace Montford statue, Shrewsbury</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3763"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/217-montford-statuette">2.17 Montford, statuette</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3766"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/218-montford-carnegie-bust">2.18 Montford, Carnegie bust</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3769"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/219-montford-bust-royal-society">2.19 Montford, bust at the Royal Society</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3775"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/220-montford-terracotta-bust-npg">2.20 Montford, terracotta bust, NPG</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3778"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/221-montford-relief-christs-college">2.21 Montford, relief at Christ's College</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3781"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/222-l-j-chavalliaud-statue-liverpool">2.22 L.-J. Chavalliaud statue in Liverpool</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3784"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/223-hope-pinker-statue-oxford-museum">2.23 Hope Pinker statue, Oxford Museum</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3787"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/224-herbert-hampton-statue-lancaster">2.24 Herbert Hampton statue, Lancaster</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3790"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/225-henry-pegram-statue-birmingham">2.25 Henry Pegram statue, Birmingham</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3793"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/226-linnean-society-medal">2.26 Linnean Society medal</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3796"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/227-william-couper-bust-new-york">2.27 William Couper bust, New York</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3799"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/228-couper-bust-cambridge">2.28 Couper bust in Cambridge</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3823"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/31-antoine-claudet-daguerreotype">3.1 Antoine Claudet, daguerreotype</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3856"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/32-maull-and-polyblank-photo-1">3.2 Maull and Polyblank photo 1</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3865"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/33-maull-and-polyblank-photo-2">3.3 Maull and Polyblank photo 2</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3868"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/34-william-darwin-photo-1">3.4 William Darwin, photo 1</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3871"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/35-william-darwin-photo-2">3.5 William Darwin, photo 2</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3874"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/36-william-darwin-photo-3">3.6 William Darwin, photo 3</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3877"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/37-leonard-darwin-photo-verandah">3.7 Leonard Darwin, photo on verandah</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3880"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/38-leonard-darwin-interior-photo">3.8 Leonard Darwin, interior photo</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3883"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/39-leonard-darwin-photo-horseback">3.9 Leonard Darwin, photo on horseback</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3826"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/310-ernest-edwards-men-eminence">3.10 Ernest Edwards, 'Men of Eminence'</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3829"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/311-edwards-illustrated-london-news">3.11 Edwards, in Illustrated London News</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3832"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/312-edwards-second-group-photos">3.12 Edwards, second group of photos</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3835"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/313-edwards-representative-men">3.13 Edwards 'Representative Men'</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3838"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/314-julia-margaret-cameron-photos">3.14 Julia Margaret Cameron, photos</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3841"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/315-george-charles-wallich-photo">3.15 George Charles Wallich, photo</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3844"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/316-oscar-rejlander-photos">3.16 Oscar Rejlander, photos</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3847"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/317-lock-and-whitfield-men-mark">3.17 Lock and Whitfield, 'Men of Mark'</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3850"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/318-elliott-and-fry-photos-c1869-1871">3.18 Elliott and Fry photos, c.1869-1871</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3853"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/319-elliott-and-fry-photos-c1880-1">3.19 Elliott and Fry photos c.1880-1</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3859"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/320-elliott-and-fry-c1880-1-verandah">3.20 Elliott and Fry, c.1880-1, verandah</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3862"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/321-herbert-rose-barraud-photos">3.21 Herbert Rose Barraud, photos</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3886"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/41-albert-way-comic-drawings">4.1 Albert Way, comic drawings</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3919"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/42-augustus-earle-caricature-drawing">4.2 Augustus Earle, caricature drawing</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3952"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/43-alfred-crowquill-caricature">4.3 Alfred Crowquill, caricature</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3985"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/44-thomas-huxley-caricature-sketch">4.4 Thomas Huxley, caricature sketch</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4018"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/45-william-beard-comic-painting">4.5 William Beard, comic painting</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4051"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/46-thomas-nast-cartoon">4.6 Thomas Nast, cartoon</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4054"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/47-vanity-fair-caricature">4.7 'Vanity Fair', caricature</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4057"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/48-vanity-fair-preliminary-study">4.8 'Vanity Fair', preliminary study</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4060"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/49-graphic-cartoon">4.9 'Graphic', cartoon</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3889"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/410-hornet-caricature-darwin">4.10 'Hornet' caricature of Darwin</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3892"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/411-fun-cartoon-little-lecture">4.11 'Fun' cartoon, 'A little lecture'</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3895"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/412-fun-wedding-procession">4.12 'Fun', Wedding procession</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3898"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/413-fun-cartoon-griset-emotional">4.13 'Fun' cartoon by Griset, 'Emotional'</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3901"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/414-fun-cartoon-troubles">4.14 'Fun' cartoon, 'That troubles'</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3904"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/415-george-cruikshank-comic-drawing">4.15 George Cruikshank, comic drawing</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3907"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/416-joseph-simms-physiognomy">4.16 Joseph Simms, physiognomy</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3910"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/417-figaro-unidentifiable-1871">4.17 'Figaro', unidentifiable 1871</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3913"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/418-figaro-chromolithograph-1">4.18 'Figaro' chromolithograph 1</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3916"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/419-george-montbard-caricature">4.19 George Montbard, caricature</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3922"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/420-frederick-waddy-caricature">4.20 Frederick Waddy, caricature</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3925"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/421-gegeef-our-national-church-1">4.21 Gegeef, 'Our National Church', 1</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3928"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/422-gegeef-et-al-our-national-church-2">4.22 Gegeef et al., 'Our National Church', 2</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3931"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/423-gegeef-battle-field-science">4.23 Gegeef, 'Battle Field of Science'</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3934"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/424-daily-graphic-nast-satire">4.24 'Daily Graphic', Nast satire</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3937"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/425-punch-1877-re-cambridge-doctorate">4.25 'Punch' 1877 re. Cambridge doctorate</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3940"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/426-christmas-card-caricature-monkeys">4.26 Christmas card caricature, monkeys</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3943"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/427-four-founders-darwinismus">4.27 'Four founders of Darwinismus'</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3946"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/428-english-celebrities-montage">4.28 'English celebrities' montage</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3949"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/429-richard-grant-white-fall-man">4.29 Richard Grant White, 'Fall of man'</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3955"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/430-la-petite-lune-gill-cartoon">4.30 'La Petite Lune', Gill cartoon</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3958"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/431-la-lune-rousse-gill-cartoon">4.31 'La Lune Rousse', Gill cartoon</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3961"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/432-anis-liqueur-label">4.32 Anis liqueur label</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3964"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/433-harpers-weekly-bellew-caricature">4.33 'Harper's Weekly', Bellew caricature</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3967"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/434-punch-sambourne-cartoon-1">4.34 'Punch', Sambourne cartoon 1</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3970"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/435-frederick-sem-caricature">4.35 Frederick Sem, caricature</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3973"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/436-sem-chistmas-card">4.36 Sem, Chistmas card</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3976"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/437-mosquito-satire">4.37 'Mosquito' satire</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3979"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/438-franz-goedecker-caricature">4.38 Franz Goedecker, caricature</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3982"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/439-moonshine-magazine-cartoon">4.39 'Moonshine' magazine cartoon</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3988"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/440-phrenological-magazine">4.40 'Phrenological Magazine'</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3991"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/441-punch-sambourne-cartoon-2">4.41 'Punch', Sambourne cartoon 2</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3994"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/442-punch-sambourne-cartoon-3">4.42 'Punch' Sambourne cartoon 3</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3997"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/443-illustrated-london-news-article">4.43 'Illustrated London News' article</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4000"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/444-puck-cartoon-1">4.44 'Puck' cartoon 1</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4003"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/445-puck-cartoon-2">4.45 'Puck' cartoon 2</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4006"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/446-puck-cartoon-3">4.46 'Puck' cartoon 3</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4009"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/447-puck-cartoon-4">4.47 'Puck' cartoon 4</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4012"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/448-puck-cartoon-5">4.48 'Puck', cartoon 5</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4015"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/449-alfred-bryan-caricature">4.49 Alfred Bryan, caricature</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4021"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/450-cigar-box-lid-design">4.50 Cigar box lid design</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4024"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/451-frederick-holder-life-and-work">4.51 Frederick Holder 'Life and Work'</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4027"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/452-wasp-caricature">4.52 'Wasp' caricature</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4030"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/453-claud-warren-outlines-hands">4.53 Claud Warren, 'Outlines of Hands'</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4033"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/454-jubilees-queen-victoria">4.54 jubilees of Queen Victoria</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4036"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/455-harry-furniss-caricature">4.55 Harry Furniss caricature</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4039"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/456-larks-cartoon">4.56 'Larks' cartoon</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4042"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/457-silhouette-cartoon">4.57 silhouette cartoon</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4045"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/458-simian-savage-drawings">4.58 'Simian, savage' . . . drawings</a></li> <li class="last leaf menu-mlid-4048"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/459-simplicissimus-cartoon">4.59 'Simplicissimus' cartoon</a></li> </ul></li> <li class="expanded menu-mlid-4066"><a href="/about-darwin/darwin-and-experimental-life">Darwin and the experimental life</a><ul class="campl-unstyled-list local-dropdown-menu"><li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-4066"><a href="/about-darwin/darwin-and-experimental-life">Darwin and the experimental life overview</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4069"><a href="/about-darwin/darwin-and-experimental-life/what-experiment">What is an experiment?</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4081"><a href="/about-darwin/darwin-and-experimental-life/morphology-movement-observation-and-experiment">From morphology to movement: observation and experiment</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4078"><a href="/about-darwin/darwin-and-experimental-life/fools-experiments">Fool's experiments</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4075"><a href="/about-darwin/darwin-and-experimental-life/experimenting-emotions">Experimenting with emotions</a></li> <li class="last leaf menu-mlid-4072"><a href="/about-darwin/darwin-and-experimental-life/animals-ethics-and-progress-science">Animals, ethics, and the progress of science</a></li> </ul></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3366"><a href="/fake-darwin">Fake Darwin: myths and misconceptions</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3402"><a href="/darwins-bad-days">Darwin's bad days</a></li> <li class="last leaf menu-mlid-3644"><a href="/people/about-darwin/darwin-s-first-love">Darwin’s first love</a></li> </ul></li> <li class="expanded menu-mlid-800"><a href="/letters" title="">The letters</a><ul class="campl-unstyled-list local-dropdown-menu"><li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-800"><a href="/letters" title="">The letters overview</a></li> <li class="expanded menu-mlid-2080"><a href="/letters/darwins-life-letters">Darwin's life in letters</a><ul class="campl-unstyled-list local-dropdown-menu"><li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-2080"><a href="/letters/darwins-life-letters">Darwin's life in letters overview</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1097"><a href="/letters/darwins-life-letters/darwin-letters-1821-1836-childhood-beagle-voyage">1821-1836: Childhood to the Beagle voyage</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1106"><a href="/letters/darwins-life-letters/darwin-letters-1837-1843-london-years-natural-selection" title="Charles Darwin's life seen through his letters, 1837-43">1837-43: The London years to 'natural selection'</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1107"><a href="/letters/darwins-life-letters/darwin-letters-1844-1846-building-scientific-network">1844-1846: Building a scientific network</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1108"><a href="/letters/darwins-life-letters/darwin-letters-1847-1850-microscopes-and-barnacles">1847-1850: Microscopes and barnacles</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1109"><a href="/letters/darwins-life-letters/darwin-letters-1851-1855-death-daughter">1851-1855: Death of a daughter</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1110"><a href="/letters/darwins-life-letters/darwin-letters-1856-1857-big-book">1856-1857: The 'Big Book'</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-936"><a href="/letters/darwins-life-letters/darwin-letters-1858-1859-origin">1858-1859: Origin</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-937"><a href="/letters/darwins-life-letters/darwin-letters-1860-answering-critics">1860: Answering critics</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1111"><a href="/letters/darwins-life-letters/darwin-letters-1861-gaining-allies">1861: Gaining allies</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1098"><a href="/letters/darwins-life-letters/darwin-letters-1862-multiplicity-experiments">1862: A multiplicity of experiments</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1099"><a href="/letters/darwins-life-letters/darwin-letters-1863-quarrels-home-honours-abroad">1863: Quarrels at home, honours abroad</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1100"><a href="/letters/darwins-life-letters/darwin-letters-1864-failing-health">1864: Failing health</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-935"><a href="/letters/darwins-life-letters/darwin-letters-1865-delays-and-disappointments">1865: Delays and disappointments</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1101"><a href="/letters/darwins-life-letters/darwin-letters1866-survival-fittest">1866: Survival of the fittest</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1102"><a href="/letters/darwins-life-letters/darwin-letters-1867-civilised-dispute">1867: A civilised dispute</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1103"><a href="/letters/darwins-life-letters/darwin-letters-1868-studying-sex">1868: Studying sex</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1104"><a href="/letters/darwins-life-letters/darwin-letters-1869-forward-all-fronts">1869: Forward on all fronts</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1105"><a href="/letters/darwins-life-letters/darwin-letters1870-human-evolution">1870: Human evolution</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1151"><a href="/letters/darwins-life-letters/darwin-letters-1871-emptying-nest">1871: An emptying nest</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1152"><a href="/letters/darwins-life-letters/darwin-letters-1872-job-done">1872: Job done?</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1049"><a href="/letters/darwins-life-letters/darwins-letters-1873-animal-or-vegetable">1873: Animal or vegetable?</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1050"><a href="/letters/darwins-life-letters/darwin-letters-1874-turbulent-year">1874: A turbulent year</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2275"><a href="/letters/darwins-life-letters/darwin-letters-1875-pulling-strings">1875: Pulling strings</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2894"><a href="/letters/darwins-life-letters/darwin-letters-1876-midst-life">1876: In the midst of life</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3363"><a href="/letters/darwins-life-letters/darwin-letters-1877-flowers-and-honours">1877: Flowers and honours</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3383"><a href="/letters/darwins-life-letters/darwin-letters-1878-movement-and-sleep">1878: Movement and sleep</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3394"><a href="/letters/darwins-life-letters/darwin-letters-1879-tracing-roots">1879: Tracing roots</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3661"><a href="/letters/darwins-life-letters/darwin-letters-1880-sensitivity-and-worms">1880: Sensitivity and worms</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4063"><a href="/letters/darwins-life-letters/darwin-letters-1881-old-friends-and-new-admirers">1881: Old friends and new admirers</a></li> <li class="last leaf menu-mlid-4102"><a href="/letters/darwins-life-letters/darwin-letters-1882-nothing-too-great-or-too-small">1882: Nothing too great or too small</a></li> </ul></li> <li class="expanded menu-mlid-3384"><a href="/letters/darwins-works-letters">Darwin's works in letters</a><ul class="campl-unstyled-list local-dropdown-menu"><li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-3384"><a href="/letters/darwins-works-letters">Darwin's works in letters overview</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3385"><a href="/letters/darwins-works-letters/journal-researches">Journal of researches</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3386"><a href="/letters/darwins-works-letters/living-and-fossil-cirripedia">Living and fossil cirripedia</a></li> <li class="expanded menu-mlid-3400"><a href="/letters/darwins-works-letters/origin-big-book">Before Origin: the ‘big book’</a><ul class="menu"><li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-3400"><a href="/letters/darwins-works-letters/origin-big-book">Before Origin: the ‘big book’ overview</a></li> <li class="last leaf menu-mlid-3401"><a href="/letters/darwins-works-letters/origin-big-book/dates-composition-darwins-manuscript-species">Dates of composition of Darwin's manuscript on species</a></li> </ul></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3406"><a href="/letters/darwins-works-letters/origin">Origin</a></li> <li class="expanded menu-mlid-3407"><a href="/letters/darwins-works-letters/rewriting-origin-later-editions">Rewriting Origin - the later editions</a><ul class="menu"><li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-3407"><a href="/letters/darwins-works-letters/rewriting-origin-later-editions">Rewriting Origin - the later editions overview</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3412"><a href="/letters/darwins-works-letters/rewriting-origin-later-editions/how-old-earth">How old is the earth?</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3411"><a href="/letters/darwins-works-letters/rewriting-origin-later-editions/whale-bear">The whale-bear</a></li> <li class="last leaf menu-mlid-3413"><a href="/letters/darwins-works-letters/rewriting-origin-later-editions/origin-lost-changes-second-german">Origin: the lost changes for the second German edition</a></li> </ul></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3404"><a href="/letters/darwins-works-letters/orchids">Orchids</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3662"><a href="/letters/darwins-works-letters/climbing-plants">Climbing plants</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3387"><a href="/letters/darwins-works-letters/descent">Descent</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3388"><a href="/letters/darwins-works-letters/expression">Expression</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3389"><a href="/letters/darwins-works-letters/insectivorous-plants">Insectivorous plants</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3663"><a href="/letters/darwins-works-letters/forms-flowers">Forms of flowers</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4084"><a href="/letters/darwins-works-letters/cross-and-self-fertilisation">Cross and self fertilisation</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3405"><a href="/letters/darwins-works-letters/life-erasmus-darwin">Life of Erasmus Darwin</a></li> <li class="last leaf menu-mlid-3665"><a href="/letters/darwins-works-letters/movement-plants">Movement in Plants</a></li> </ul></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2264"><a href="/letters/about-letters">About the letters</a></li> <li class="expanded menu-mlid-2408"><a href="/letters/lifecycle-letter-film">Lifecycle of a letter film</a><ul class="campl-unstyled-list local-dropdown-menu"><li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-2408"><a href="/letters/lifecycle-letter-film">Lifecycle of a letter film overview</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2411"><a href="/letters/lifecycle-letter-film/editing-letter">Editing a Letter</a></li> <li class="last leaf menu-mlid-2409"><a href="/letters/lifecycle-letter-film/working-darwin-archive">Working in the Darwin archive</a></li> </ul></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2296"><a href="/letters/capturing-darwin-s-voice-audio-selected-letters">Capturing Darwin’s voice: audio of selected letters</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2266"><a href="/letters/correspondence-women">Correspondence with women</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-878"><a href="/hunt-new-letters">The hunt for new letters</a></li> <li class="expanded menu-mlid-1136"><a href="/letters/editorial-policy-and-practice">Editorial policy and practice</a><ul class="campl-unstyled-list local-dropdown-menu"><li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-1136"><a href="/letters/editorial-policy-and-practice">Editorial policy and practice overview</a></li> <li class="last leaf menu-mlid-3646"><a href="/letters/editorial-policy-and-practice/full-notes-editorial-policy">Full notes on editorial policy</a></li> </ul></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2263"><a href="/letters/symbols-and-abbreviations">Symbols and abbreviations</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2905"><a href="/letters/darwins-letters-timeline">Darwin's letters: a timeline</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2909"><a href="/world-map">Darwin's letters: World Map</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3364"><a href="https://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/have-you-read-one-about" title="">Have you read the one about...</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4183"><a href="/letters/charles-darwin-life-letters">Charles Darwin: A Life in Letters</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4158"><a href="/darwin-conversation-exhibition">Darwin in Conversation exhibition</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4099"><a href="/letters/diagrams-and-drawings-letters">Diagrams and drawings in letters</a></li> <li class="expanded menu-mlid-4105"><a href="/letters/favourite-letters">Favourite Letters</a><ul class="campl-unstyled-list local-dropdown-menu"><li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-4105"><a href="/letters/favourite-letters">Favourite Letters overview</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4162"><a href="/letters/favourite-letters/be-envious-ripe-oranges-w-d-fox-may-1832">Be envious of ripe oranges: To W. D. Fox, May 1832</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4111"><a href="/letters/favourite-letters/monstrous-stain-j-m-herbert-2-june-1833">That monstrous stain: To J. M. Herbert, 2 June 1833</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4166"><a href="/letters/favourite-letters/my-most-solemn-request-emma-darwin-5-july-1844">My most solemn request: To Emma Darwin, 5 July 1844</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4178"><a href="/letters/favourite-letters/our-poor-dear-dear-child-emma-darwin-23-april-1851">Our poor dear dear child: To Emma Darwin, [23 April 1851]</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4174"><a href="/letters/favourite-letters/i-beg-million-pardons-john-lubbock-3-september-1862">I beg a million pardons: To John Lubbock, [3 September 1862]</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4129"><a href="/letters/favourite-letters/prize-possessions-henry-denny-17-january-1865">Prize possessions: To Henry Denny, 17 January [1865]</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4114"><a href="/letters/favourite-letters/how-manage-it-j-d-hooker-17-june-1865">How to manage it: To J. D. Hooker, [17 June 1865]</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4117"><a href="/letters/favourite-letters/fly-flower-hermann-m-ller-23-october-1867">A fly on the flower: From Hermann Müller, 23 October 1867</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4138"><a href="/letters/favourite-letters/reading-my-roommate-s-illustrious-ancestor-t-h-huxley-10-june-1868">Reading my roommate’s illustrious ancestor: To T. H. Huxley, 10 June 1868</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4169"><a href="/letters/favourite-letters/beginning-something-j-d-hooker-22-january-1869">A beginning, & that is something: To J. D. Hooker, [22 January 1869]</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4135"><a href="/letters/favourite-letters/perfect-copper-plate-hand-adolf-reuter-30-may-1869">Perfect copper-plate hand: From Adolf Reuter, 30 May 1869</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4132"><a href="/letters/favourite-letters/darwin-s-favourite-photographer-o-g-rejlander-30-april-1871">Darwin’s favourite photographer: From O. G. Rejlander, 30 April 1871</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4172"><a href="/letters/favourite-letters/your-letter-eternalized-us-n-d-doedes-27-march-1873">Your letter eternalized before us: From N. D. Doedes, 27 March 1873</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4120"><a href="/letters/favourite-letters/lost-translation-auguste-forel-12-november-1874">Lost in translation: From Auguste Forel, 12 November 1874</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4182"><a href="/letters/favourite-letters/i-never-trusted-drosera-e-f-lubbock-after-2-july-1875">I never trusted Drosera: From E. F. Lubbock, [after 2 July] 1875</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4126"><a href="/letters/favourite-letters/argus-pheasant-mivart-r-wallace-17-june-1876">From Argus pheasant to Mivart: To A. R. Wallace, 17 June 1876</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4141"><a href="/letters/favourite-letters/wearing-his-knowledge-lightly-fritz-m-ller-5-april-1878">Wearing his knowledge lightly: From Fritz Müller, 5 April 1878</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4123"><a href="/letters/favourite-letters/terms-engagement-julius-wiesner-25-october-1881">Terms of engagement: To Julius Wiesner, 25 October 1881</a></li> <li class="last leaf menu-mlid-4108"><a href="/letters/favourite-letters/intellectual-capacities-caroline-kennard-26-december-1881">Intellectual capacities: From Caroline Kennard, 26 December 1881</a></li> </ul></li> <li class="expanded menu-mlid-4144"><a href="/letters/darwin-plays">Darwin plays</a><ul class="campl-unstyled-list local-dropdown-menu"><li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-4144"><a href="/letters/darwin-plays">Darwin plays overview</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4150"><a href="/letters/darwin-plays/emma-audio-play">'Emma' audio play</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4147"><a href="/letters/darwin-plays/frank-audio-play">'Frank' audio play</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4153"><a href="/letters/darwin-plays/confessing-murder-audio-play">'Like confessing a murder' audio play</a></li> <li class="last expanded menu-mlid-2294"><a href="/letters/darwin-plays/re-design-dramatisation">'Re: Design' dramatisation</a><ul class="menu"><li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-2294"><a href="/letters/darwin-plays/re-design-dramatisation">'Re: Design' dramatisation overview</a></li> <li class="last leaf menu-mlid-1134"><a href="/commentary/religion/re-design-dramatisation/dramatisation-script">Dramatisation script</a></li> </ul></li> </ul></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3377"><a href="https://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/search?sort=date&keyword=darwin&f1-document-type=letter" title="">Browse all Darwin letters in date order</a></li> <li class="last leaf menu-mlid-3391"><a href="/letters/list-correspondents">List of correspondents</a></li> </ul></li> <li class="expanded active-trail menu-mlid-824"><a href="/commentary" class="active-trail campl-selected">Commentary</a><ul class="campl-unstyled-list local-dropdown-menu"><li class="first collapsed active-trail menu-mlid-824"><a href="/commentary" class="active-trail">Commentary overview</a></li> <li class="expanded menu-mlid-2269"><a href="/commentary/evolution" title="">Evolution</a><ul class="campl-unstyled-list local-dropdown-menu"><li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-2269"><a href="/commentary/evolution" title="">Evolution overview</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2262"><a href="/commentary/evolution/natural-selection">Natural selection</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2293"><a href="/commentary/evolution/sexual-selection">Sexual selection</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2299"><a href="/commentary/evolution/inheritance">Inheritance</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2298"><a href="/commentary/evolution/divergence">Divergence</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3410"><a href="/commentary/evolution/correlation-growth-deaf-blue-eyed-cats-pigs-and-poison">Correlation of growth: deaf blue-eyed cats, pigs, and poison</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3414"><a href="/commentary/evolution/natural-selection-trouble-terminology-part-i">Natural Selection: the trouble with terminology Part I</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3415"><a href="/commentary/evolution/survival-fittest-trouble-terminology-part-ii">Survival of the fittest: the trouble with terminology Part II</a></li> <li class="last leaf menu-mlid-3671"><a href="/commentary/evolution/darwin-s-species-notebooks-i-think">Darwin’s species notebooks: ‘I think . . .’</a></li> </ul></li> <li class="expanded menu-mlid-871"><a href="/commentary/geology" title="">Geology</a><ul class="campl-unstyled-list local-dropdown-menu"><li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-871"><a href="/commentary/geology" title="">Geology overview</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2259"><a href="/commentary/geology/darwin-geology">Darwin and geology</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1127"><a href="/topics/geology/darwin-s-introduction-geology">Darwin’s introduction to geology</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1270"><a href="/commentary/geology/geology-beagle-voyage">The geology of the Beagle voyage</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1122"><a href="/commentary/geology/darwin-coral-reefs">Darwin and coral reefs</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2258"><a href="/commentary/geology/darwin-s-earthquakes">Darwin’s earthquakes</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2257"><a href="/topics/geology/darwin-geological-society" title="">Darwin and the Geological Society</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1123"><a href="/commentary/geology/darwin-glen-roy">Darwin and Glen Roy</a></li> <li class="last leaf menu-mlid-1087"><a href="/topics/geology/bibliography-darwin-s-geological-publications">Bibliography of Darwin’s geological publications</a></li> </ul></li> <li class="expanded menu-mlid-2247"><a href="/commentary/life-sciences" title="">Life sciences</a><ul class="campl-unstyled-list local-dropdown-menu"><li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-2247"><a href="/commentary/life-sciences" title="">Life sciences overview</a></li> <li class="expanded menu-mlid-1117"><a href="/commentary/life-sciences/darwin-and-down">Darwin and Down</a><ul class="menu"><li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-1117"><a href="/commentary/life-sciences/darwin-and-down">Darwin and Down overview</a></li> <li class="last leaf menu-mlid-1149"><a href="/commentary/life-sciences/darwin-and-down/darwin-s-hothouse-and-lists-hothouse-plants">Darwin’s hothouse and lists of hothouse plants</a></li> </ul></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4087"><a href="/commentary/life-sciences/species-and-varieties">Species and varieties</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1058"><a href="/commentary/life-sciences/evolution-honeycomb">The evolution of honeycomb</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1083"><a href="/commentary/life-sciences/tale-two-bees">A tale of two bees</a></li> <li class="expanded menu-mlid-1088"><a href="/commentary/life-sciences/beauty-and-seed">Beauty and the seed</a><ul class="menu"><li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-1088"><a href="/commentary/life-sciences/beauty-and-seed">Beauty and the seed overview</a></li> <li class="last leaf menu-mlid-1055"><a href="/commentary/life-sciences/beauty-and-seed/mauro-galetti-profile-ecologist">Mauro Galetti: profile of an ecologist</a></li> </ul></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2261"><a href="/commentary/life-sciences/casting-about-darwin-worms">Casting about: Darwin on worms</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1081"><a href="/commentary/life-sciences/was-darwin-ecologist">Was Darwin an ecologist?</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3641"><a href="/commentary/life-sciences/dipsacus-and-drosera-frank-s-favourite-carnivores">Dipsacus and Drosera</a></li> <li class="expanded menu-mlid-2318"><a href="/commentary/life-sciences/darwin-and-barnacles">Darwin and barnacles</a><ul class="menu"><li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-2318"><a href="/commentary/life-sciences/darwin-and-barnacles">Darwin and barnacles overview</a></li> <li class="last leaf menu-mlid-2317"><a href="/commentary/life-sciences/darwin-and-barnacles/darwin-s-study-cirripedia">Darwin’s study of the Cirripedia</a></li> </ul></li> <li class="expanded menu-mlid-2280"><a href="/commentary/life-sciences/darwin-and-vivisection">Darwin and vivisection</a><ul class="menu"><li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-2280"><a href="/commentary/life-sciences/darwin-and-vivisection">Darwin and vivisection overview</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2284"><a href="/topics/life-sciences/darwin-and-vivisection/vivisection-draft-petition">Vivisection: draft petition</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2285"><a href="/topics/life-sciences/darwin-and-vivisection/vivisection-baas-committee-report">Vivisection: BAAS committee report</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2286"><a href="/topics/life-sciences/darwin-and-vivisection/vivisection-first-sketch-bill">Vivisection: first sketch of the bill</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2287"><a href="/topics/life-sciences/darwin-and-vivisection/vivisection-darwins-testimony-royal-commission">Vivisection: Darwin's testimony</a></li> <li class="last leaf menu-mlid-2288"><a href="/topics/life-sciences/darwin-and-vivisection/appeal-against-animal-cruelty">'An Appeal' against animal cruelty</a></li> </ul></li> <li class="last leaf menu-mlid-2916"><a href="/commentary/life-sciences/biodiversity-and-its-histories">Biodiversity and its histories</a></li> </ul></li> <li class="expanded active-trail menu-mlid-873"><a href="/commentary/human-nature" title="" class="active-trail">Human nature</a><ul class="campl-unstyled-list local-dropdown-menu"><li class="first collapsed active-trail menu-mlid-873"><a href="/commentary/human-nature" title="" class="active-trail">Human nature overview</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2604"><a href="/commentary/human-nature/darwin-human-evolution">Darwin on human evolution</a></li> <li class="expanded menu-mlid-1269"><a href="/commentary/human-nature/expression-emotions">The expression of emotions</a><ul class="menu"><li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-1269"><a href="/commentary/human-nature/expression-emotions">The expression of emotions overview</a></li> <li class="expanded menu-mlid-1262"><a href="/commentary/human-nature/expression-emotions/emotion-experiment">Emotion experiment</a><ul class="menu"><li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-1262"><a href="/commentary/human-nature/expression-emotions/emotion-experiment">Emotion experiment overview</a></li> <li class="last leaf menu-mlid-1263"><a href="/commentary/human-nature/expression-emotions/emotion-experiment/results-darwin-online-emotions">Results of the Darwin Online Emotions Experiment</a></li> </ul></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2256"><a href="/commentary/human-nature/expression-emotions/face-emotion">Face of emotion</a></li> <li class="last leaf menu-mlid-2292"><a href="/commentary/human-nature/expression-emotions/darwin-s-queries-expression">Darwin’s queries on expression</a></li> </ul></li> <li class="expanded active-trail menu-mlid-1052"><a href="/commentary/human-nature/origin-language" class="active-trail">The origin of language</a><ul class="menu"><li class="first collapsed active-trail menu-mlid-1052"><a href="/commentary/human-nature/origin-language" class="active-trail">The origin of language overview</a></li> <li class="leaf active-trail active menu-mlid-1053 campl-current-page"><a href="/commentary/human-nature/origin-language/language-key-letters" class="active-trail active">Language: key letters</a></li> <li class="last leaf menu-mlid-1153"><a href="/commentary/human-nature/origin-language/language-interview-gregory-radick">Language: Interview with Gregory Radick</a></li> </ul></li> <li class="last leaf menu-mlid-1140"><a href="/commentary/human-nature/darwin-and-human-nature-film-series">Film series podcasts</a></li> </ul></li> <li class="expanded menu-mlid-874"><a href="/commentary/religion" title="">Religion</a><ul class="campl-unstyled-list local-dropdown-menu"><li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-874"><a href="/commentary/religion" title="">Religion overview</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1033"><a href="/commentary/religion/darwin-and-design">Darwin and design</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1288"><a href="/commentary/religion/what-did-darwin-believe">What did Darwin believe?</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1034"><a href="/commentary/religion/darwin-and-church">Darwin and the Church</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1089"><a href="/commentary/religion/british-association-meeting-1860">British Association meeting 1860</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1121"><a href="/commentary/religion/darwin-and-religion-america">Darwin and religion in America</a></li> <li class="expanded menu-mlid-1045"><a href="/commentary/religion/essays-reviews-asa-gray">Essays and reviews by Asa Gray</a><ul class="menu"><li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-1045"><a href="/commentary/religion/essays-reviews-asa-gray">Essays and reviews by Asa Gray overview</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2271"><a href="/commentary/religion/essays-reviews-asa-gray/darwiniana-preface">Darwiniana – Preface</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2272"><a href="/commentary/religion/essays-reviews-asa-gray/essay-design-versus-necessity">Essay: Design versus necessity</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1046"><a href="/commentary/religion/essays-reviews-asa-gray/essay-natural-selection-natural-theology">Essay: Natural selection & natural theology</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1146"><a href="/commentary/religion/essays-reviews-asa-gray/essay-evolution-theology">Essay: Evolution and theology</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2273"><a href="/commentary/religion/essays-reviews-asa-gray/essay-what-darwinism">Essay: What is Darwinism?</a></li> <li class="last leaf menu-mlid-2274"><a href="/commentary/religion/essays-reviews-asa-gray/essay-evolutionary-teleology">Essay: Evolutionary teleology</a></li> </ul></li> <li class="last expanded menu-mlid-2249"><a href="/commentary/religion/science-and-religion-interviews">Science and religion Interviews</a><ul class="menu"><li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-2249"><a href="/commentary/religion/science-and-religion-interviews">Science and religion Interviews overview</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2250"><a href="/commentary/religion/science-and-religion-interviews/interview-emily-ballou">Interview with Emily Ballou</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2251"><a href="/commentary/religion/science-and-religion-interviews/interview-simon-conway-morris">Interview with Simon Conway Morris</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2252"><a href="/commentary/religion/science-and-religion-interviews/interview-john-hedley-brooke">Interview with John Hedley Brooke</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2253"><a href="/commentary/religion/science-and-religion-interviews/interview-randal-keynes">Interview with Randal Keynes</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2254"><a href="/commentary/religion/science-and-religion-interviews/interview-tim-lewens">Interview with Tim Lewens</a></li> <li class="last leaf menu-mlid-2255"><a href="/commentary/religion/science-and-religion-interviews/interview-pietro-corsi">Interview with Pietro Corsi</a></li> </ul></li> </ul></li> <li class="last expanded menu-mlid-3395"><a href="/commentary/curious" title="">For the curious...</a><ul class="campl-unstyled-list local-dropdown-menu"><li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-3395"><a href="/commentary/curious" title="">For the curious... overview</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4155"><a href="/commentary/curious/cordillera-beagle-expedition">Cordillera Beagle expedition</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4096"><a href="/commentary/curious/darwin-family">The Darwin family</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4093"><a href="/commentary/curious/darwin-s-plant-experiments">Darwin’s plant experiments</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4090"><a href="/commentary/curious/behind-scenes">Behind the scenes</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3664"><a href="/commentary/curious/darwin-s-networks">Darwin’s Networks</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3643"><a href="/commentary/curious/darwin-and-beagle-voyage">Darwin and the Beagle voyage</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3403"><a href="/commentary/curious/darwin-and-working-home">Darwin and working from home</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3409"><a href="/commentary/curious/darwin-cats-and-cat-shows">Darwin, cats and cat shows</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3396"><a href="/commentary/curious/darwin-and-dogs">Darwin and dogs</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3397"><a href="/commentary/curious/darwins-illness">Darwin's illness</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3398"><a href="/commentary/curious/plant-or-animal-or-don-t-try-home">Plant or animal? (Or: Don’t try this at home!)</a></li> <li class="last leaf menu-mlid-3399"><a href="/commentary/curious/strange-things-sent-darwin-post">Strange things sent to Darwin in the post</a></li> </ul></li> </ul></li> <li class="expanded menu-mlid-823"><a href="/people">People</a><ul class="campl-unstyled-list local-dropdown-menu"><li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-823"><a href="/people">People overview</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2150"><a href="/commentary/key-correspondents" title="">Key correspondents</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2153"><a href="/commentary/beagle-voyage-networks" title="">Beagle voyage networks</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2152"><a href="/commentary/family-and-friends" title="">Family and friends</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2159"><a href="/commentary/darwins-scientific-network" title="">Darwin's scientific network</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2155"><a href="/tags/readers-and-critics" title="">Readers and critics</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2162"><a href="/tags/publishers-artists-and-illustrators" title="">Publishers, artists and illustrators</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3381"><a href="/correspondents-alphabetical" title="">People pages in alphabetical order</a></li> <li class="expanded menu-mlid-3367"><a href="/people/german-and-dutch-photograph-albums">German and Dutch photograph albums</a><ul class="campl-unstyled-list local-dropdown-menu"><li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-3367"><a href="/people/german-and-dutch-photograph-albums">German and Dutch photograph albums overview</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3372"><a href="/people/german-and-dutch-photograph-albums/photograph-album-german-and-austrian-scientists">Photograph album of German and Austrian scientists</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3371"><a href="/people/german-and-dutch-photograph-albums/photograph-album-dutch-admirers">Photograph album of Dutch admirers</a></li> <li class="last leaf menu-mlid-3370"><a href="/german-poems-presented-darwin">German poems presented to Darwin</a></li> </ul></li> <li class="last leaf menu-mlid-3380"><a href="https://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/search?text=%22%22;f1-document-type=people;sort=name" title="">List of all people mentioned in letters</a></li> </ul></li> <li class="expanded menu-mlid-825"><a href="/learning-resources" title="">Learning</a><ul class="campl-unstyled-list local-dropdown-menu"><li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-825"><a href="/learning-resources" title="">Learning overview</a></li> <li class="expanded menu-mlid-1739"><a href="/learning/7-11">Ages 7-11</a><ul class="campl-unstyled-list local-dropdown-menu"><li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-1739"><a href="/learning/7-11">Ages 7-11 overview</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2601"><a href="/learning/7-11/darwin-the-collector">Darwin The Collector</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2602"><a href="/learning/7-11/detecting-darwin">Detecting Darwin</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2603"><a href="/learning/7-11/darwin-and-evolution">Darwin And Evolution</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2600"><a href="/learning/7-11/darwins-fantastical-voyage">Darwin's Fantastical Voyage</a></li> <li class="last leaf menu-mlid-3408"><a href="/learning/7-11/home-learning-7-11-years">Home learning: 7-11 years</a></li> </ul></li> <li class="expanded menu-mlid-1744"><a href="/learning/11-14">Ages 11-14</a><ul class="campl-unstyled-list local-dropdown-menu"><li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-1744"><a href="/learning/11-14">Ages 11-14 overview</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2899"><a href="/learning/11-14/darwin-and-religion">Darwin and Religion</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2898"><a href="/learning/11-14/doing-darwins-experiments">Doing Darwin’s Experiments</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2900"><a href="/learning/11-14/how-dangerous-was-darwin">How dangerous was Darwin?</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2901"><a href="/learning/11-14/offer-of-a-lifetime">Offer of a lifetime</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2903"><a href="/learning/11-14/darwin-and-slavery">Darwin and slavery</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2902"><a href="/learning/11-14/beagle-voyage">Beagle Voyage</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2904"><a href="/learning/11-14/darwins-scientific-women">Darwin’s scientific women</a></li> <li class="last leaf menu-mlid-1154"><a href="/case-studies-using-darwin%E2%80%99s-letters-classroom">Schools Gallery: Using Darwin’s letters in the classroom</a></li> </ul></li> <li class="expanded menu-mlid-833"><a href="/learning/universities">Universities</a><ul class="campl-unstyled-list local-dropdown-menu"><li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-833"><a href="/learning/universities">Universities overview</a></li> <li class="expanded menu-mlid-1063"><a href="/learning/universities/letters-primary-source" title="">Letters as a primary source</a><ul class="menu"><li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-1063"><a href="/learning/universities/letters-primary-source" title="">Letters as a primary source overview</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2276"><a href="/learning/universities/letters-primary-source/scientific-networks">Scientific networks</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2277"><a href="/learning/universities/letters-primary-source/scientific-practice">Scientific practice</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2278"><a href="/learning/universities/letters-primary-source/controversy">Controversy</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2279"><a href="/learning/universities/letters-primary-source/religion">Religion</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1066"><a href="/learning/universities/letters-primary-source/discussion-questions-and-essay-questions">Discussion questions and essay questions</a></li> <li class="last leaf menu-mlid-1286"><a href="/learning/universities/letters-primary-source/suggested-reading">Suggested reading</a></li> </ul></li> <li class="expanded menu-mlid-1550"><a href="/learning/universities/getting-know-darwins-science">Getting to know Darwin's science</a><ul class="menu"><li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-1550"><a href="/learning/universities/getting-know-darwins-science">Getting to know Darwin's science overview</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2144"><a href="/learning/universities/getting-know-darwins-science/early-days">Early days</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1086"><a href="/learning/universities/getting-know-darwins-science/barnacles">Barnacles</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-932"><a href="/learning/universities/getting-know-darwins-science/biogeography">Biogeography</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1287"><a href="/learning/universities/getting-know-darwins-science/variation-under-domestication">Variation under domestication</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1259"><a href="/learning/universities/getting-know-darwins-science/orchids">Orchids</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1150"><a href="/learning/universities/getting-know-darwins-science/instinct-and-evolution-mind">Instinct and the evolution of mind</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1048"><a href="/learning/universities/getting-know-darwins-science/insectivorous-plants">Insectivorous plants</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1095"><a href="/learning/universities/getting-know-darwins-science/climbing-plants">Climbing plants</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1141"><a href="/learning/universities/getting-know-darwins-science/floral-dimorphism">Floral dimorphism</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1260"><a href="/learning/universities/getting-know-darwins-science/power-movement-plants">Power of movement in plants</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1135"><a href="/learning/universities/getting-know-darwins-science/earthworms">Earthworms</a></li> <li class="last leaf menu-mlid-1132"><a href="/learning/universities/getting-know-darwins-science/dining-down-house">Dining at Down House</a></li> </ul></li> <li class="expanded menu-mlid-2314"><a href="/learning/universities/darwin-and-human-nature">Darwin and human nature</a><ul class="menu"><li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-2314"><a href="/learning/universities/darwin-and-human-nature">Darwin and human nature overview</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1155"><a href="/learning/universities/darwin-and-human-nature/moral-nature">Moral nature</a></li> <li class="last leaf menu-mlid-1261"><a href="/learning/universities/darwin-and-human-nature/race-civilization-and-progress">Race, civilization, and progress</a></li> </ul></li> <li class="last expanded menu-mlid-1289"><a href="/learning/universities/women-and-science">Women and science</a><ul class="menu"><li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-1289"><a href="/learning/universities/women-and-science">Women and science overview</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2281"><a href="/learning/universities/women-and-science/women-s-scientific-participation">Women’s scientific participation</a></li> <li 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typeof="foaf:Document"> <span property="dc:title" content="Language: key letters" class="rdf-meta element-hidden"></span><span property="sioc:num_replies" content="0" datatype="xsd:integer" class="rdf-meta element-hidden"></span> <div class="content campl-content-container"> <div class="field field-name-field-image field-type-file field-label-hidden"><div class="field-items"><div class="field-item even"><div id="file-466" class="file file-image file-image-jpeg"> <h2 class="element-invisible"><a href="/file/max-muller-f-01-03233jpg">MAX-MULLER-F-01-03233.jpg</a></h2> <div class="content"> <a href="https://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/sites/default/files/MAX-MULLER-F-01-03233.jpg"><img typeof="foaf:Image" class="campl-scale-with-grid" src="https://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/sites/default/files/MAX-MULLER-F-01-03233.jpg" width="615" height="800" alt="Friedrich Max-Müller" title="Friedrich Max-Müller" /></a><div class="field field-name-field-file-reference field-type-text field-label-hidden"><div class="field-items"><div class="field-item even">http://www.npg.org.uk/collections/search/portrait/mw04326/Friedrich-Max-Mller?</div></div></div><div class="field field-name-field-file-caption field-type-text field-label-hidden"><div class="field-items"><div class="field-item even">Friedrich Max-Müller, by Lewis Carroll (Charles Lutwidge Dodgson), circa 1856, NPG P7(25)</div></div></div><div class="field field-name-field-file-identifier field-type-text field-label-hidden"><div class="field-items"><div class="field-item even">mw04326</div></div></div><div class="field field-name-field-credit field-type-text field-label-hidden"><div class="field-items"><div class="field-item even">© National Portrait Gallery, London</div></div></div><div class="field field-name-field-file-copyright field-type-text field-label-hidden"><div class="field-items"><div class="field-item even">CC BY-NC-ND 3.0</div></div></div> </div> </div> </div></div></div><div class="field field-name-body field-type-text-with-summary field-label-hidden"><div class="field-items"><div class="field-item even" property="content:encoded"><p>The origin of language was investigated in a wide range of disciplines in the nineteenth century. How and why language evolved bore on larger questions about the evolution of the human species, and the relationship between man and animals. Darwin presented his views on the development of human speech from animal sounds in The Descent of Man (1871), but he had been interested in the origin of language since the late 1830s, when he first began to reflect on the transmutation of species. Darwin’s correspondence reveals the scope of his thinking about the evolution of language, how his views changed over time, and the array of people—from expert linguists, to naval officers, to bankers—with whom he exchanged information and ideas.</p> <h4><a href="/DCP-LETT-346">Letter 346: Darwin, C. R. to Darwin, C. S., 27 Feb 1837</a></h4> <p>Darwin’s first letter on the development of language was written to his sister Caroline shortly before he set off on his voyage around the world. He comments on the views of the natural philosopher, John Herschell, regarding the slow development of languages, which casts doubt on the chronology of human history as given in the Bible. “You tell me you do not see what is new in Sir J. Herschell’s idea about the chronology of the old Testament being wrong.— I have used the word Chronology in dubious manner, it is not to the days of Creation which he refers, but to the lapse of years since the first man made his wonderful appearance on this world— As far as I know everyone has yet thought that the six thousand odd years has been the right period but Sir J. thinks that a far greater number must have passed since the Chinese, the [space left in copy], the Caucasian languages separated from one stock.”</p> <h4><a href="/DCP-LETT-2070">Letter 2070: Wedgwood, Hensleigh to Darwin, C. R., [before 29 Sept 1857]</a></h4> <p>Darwin’s brother-in-law, the etymologist Hensleigh Wedgwood, traced the common origin of apparently dissimilar words (such as the French “évêque” and the English “bishop”) and compared the development of language to the process of geological change, involving evolution, extinction, and transitional forms. “I have often thought that there is much resemblance between language & geology in another way. We all consider English a very mixed language because we can trace the elements into Latin, German &c. but I see much the same sort of thing in Latin itself & I believe that if we were but acquainted with the previous state of things we should find all languages made up of the debris of former tongues just as every geological formation is the grinding down of former continents.”</p> <h4><a href="/DCP-LETT-3054">Letter 3054: Darwin, C. R. to Lyell, Charles, 2 Feb [1861]</a></h4> <p>If the descent of languages was seen by some as analogous to the ‘descent of man’ by natural selection, opponents of evolution might insist that languages, like species, were separately created. Darwin writes to the geologist Charles Lyell about the views of the Harvard naturalist Louis Agassiz and the philosopher Francis Bowen, both of whom asserted the independent origins of “evidently affiliated” languages. “I wish I had time to write you an account of the very absurd lengths to which Bowen & Agassiz—each in their own way—are going. The first denying all heredity (all transmission except specific) whatever. The second coming near to deny that we are genetically descended from our grt-grt-grandfather; & insisting that evidently affiliated languages e.g. Latin Greek Sanscrit owe none of their similarities to a community of origin,—are all autochtonal. Agassiz (foolish man) admits that the derivation of languages & that of Species or forms stand on the same foundation, & that he must allow the latter if he allows the former,—which I tell him is perfectly logical.”</p> <h4><a href="/DCP-LETT-5605">Letter 5605: Darwin, C. R. to Müller, J. F. T., 15 Aug [1867]</a></h4> <p>Darwin asks Fritz Müller, a German naturalist who had emigrated to Brazil, to observe the facial expressions of crying monkeys. Darwin explored parallels between humans and other animals in The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals (1872), arguing that similarities in facial movement and gesture showed that human language originated in the instinctual behaviour of animals. “I know very well that I am quite unreasonable in making so many requests & asking so many questions; but there is one point, about which I am very curious & possibly you might obtain information for me.— Some American monkeys cry a little (Rengger & Humbolldt): now when they cry from grief or pain, do they wrinkle up & close their eyes like a Baby always does when screaming & crying? When they cry, especially whilst young, do they scream & make loud noise?”</p> <h4><a href="/DCP-LETT-7040">Letter 7040: Wedgwood, Hensleigh to Darwin, C. R., [1868-70?]</a></h4> <p>As Darwin began to work on the Descent of Man, he corresponded further with his cousin, Hensleigh Wedgwood, about the conditions required for the formation of human language. Wedgwood argued against the commonly held view that language required a high level of civilization and that it developed as a result of conscious design. “Perhaps the best answer to this assertion would be to point out that language was never formed designedly…. Every change would be an instinctive, not a meditated operation and therefore there is no reason why it should not have been carried to any extent by those who had no thought of their modes of expression at all Practically we see that people in the rudest stage do understand these complex modes of speech. Therefore as it appears to me there can be nothing in the uncivilised condition of life that could have hindered speech from gradually growing to such a stage”</p> <h4><a href="/DCP-LETT-8367">Letter 8367: Darwin, C. R. to Wright, Chauncey, 3 June [1872]</a></h4> <p>In this letter to the American philosopher and mathematician, Chauncey Wright, Darwin discusses William Dwight Whitney’s theory that language evolves through the will of man. Darwin suggests that language change is a result of “unconscious selection”, the same process he had described in Origin of Species as governing the production of new breeds of domestic animals. “I have been … reading an article by your Prof. Whitney …. He argues because each step of change in language is made by the will of man, the whole language so changes; but I do not think that this is so, as man has no intention or wish to change the language. It is a parallel case with what I have called “unconscious selection” which depends on man consciously preserving the best individuals & thus unconsciously altering the breed.</p> <h4><a href="/DCP-LETT-8962">Letter 8962: Darwin, C. R. to Max Müller, Friedrich, 3 July 1873</a></h4> <p>In the 1870s, Darwin corresponded with the German philologist and Oxford professor Friedrich Max Müller, who opposed Darwin’s theory of evolution and its extension to language. Darwin presents himself modestly and tries to avoid adversity despite their disagreements. “As far as language is concerned I am not worthy to be your adversary…. I should have been glad to have avoided the whole subject, but was compelled to take it up as well as I could. He who is fully convinced, as I am, that man is descended from some lower animal, is almost forced to believe a priori that articulate language has been developed from inarticulate cries; and he is therefore hardly a fair judge of the arguments opposed to this belief[.]”</p> <h4><a href="/DCP-LETT-10194">Letter 10194: Max Müller, Friedrich to Darwin, C. R., 13 Oct [1875]</a></h4> <p>For Müller, human and animal language were profoundly different, not only in degree, but in kind. Science, he claimed, had yet to find any evidence to bridge this divide, and so the question of the origin of language remained unanswered. “In the higher animals the potential traces of language are smaller than in some of the lower, but even where the phonetic organs are most perfect, there has never been the slightest attempt at language in the true sense of the word. Why should natural science be unwilling to admit this— why should it not at all events leave the question an open question until some truly scientific evidence has been brought forward showing at least the potentiality of language in any known animal. “More facts & fewer theories” is what we want, at least in the Science of Language […]”</p> <h4><a href="/DCP-LETT-9887">Letter 9887: Dawkins, W. B. to Darwin, C. R., 14 Mar 1875</a></h4> <p>The relationship between language and race was a widely debated and controversial subject in Victorian anthropology. William Boyd Dawkins, professor of geology at Owens College, Manchester, and the author of a book on early humans (Cave Dwellers) remarks on recent discussions about whether the Basque language (the only non-Indo-European language on the European continent) is a mark of racial distinction. “The philologers … have been laying down the law that language is a test of race, and have assumed that, as I did not take up its evidence on the Basque question, language had been altogether ignored in the enquiry. On the question being put to Prince Lucien Buonaparte, Sayce, Rhys, and Van Eys the other evening, “whether they considered that the Ethiopian could change his skin and whole physique as easily as his speech?”, the answer was obviously “no”. So that as the case stands at present three distinguished philologers hold that language is not a test of race […]”</p> <h4><a href="/DCP-LETT-11074">Letter 11074: Sayce, A. H. to Darwin, C. R., 27 July 1877</a></h4> <p>Darwin’s study of human nature had involved extensive observations of his own children as they developed from infancy. The Orientalist and comparative philologist Archibald Sayce wrote to Darwin with a series of detailed questions about language acquisition, including how a child first uttered the word ‘mum’. In his reply, Darwin told Sayce “that ‘mum’ arose from opening & shutting the mouth repeatedly as a sign of wanting to eat, for this movement makes a sound like the letter m.” “For some time past I have been collecting facts relative to the first attempts of children at speaking, & after making the allowance for inherited capacities & the existence of a fully-formed language round the child it seems to me that these facts will throw much light on the origin of language. (1) Were you able to trace the sound of mum from an inarticulate into an articulate stage of pronunciation?</p> </div></div></div><div class="field field-name-field-terms field-type-taxonomy-term-reference field-label-above"><div class="field-label">Terms: </div><div class="field-items"><div class="field-item even"><a href="/commentary/human-nature" typeof="skos:Concept" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" datatype="">Human nature</a></div><div class="field-item odd"><a href="/tags/language" typeof="skos:Concept" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" datatype="">language</a></div><div class="field-item even"><a href="/tags/key-letters" typeof="skos:Concept" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" datatype="">key letters</a></div></div></div><div class="field field-name-field-term-related-letters field-type-text field-label-above"><div class="field-label">Related letters: </div><div class="field-items"><div class="field-item even">346</div><div class="field-item odd">2070</div><div class="field-item even">3054</div><div class="field-item odd">5605</div><div class="field-item even">7040</div><div class="field-item odd">8367</div><div class="field-item even">8962</div><div class="field-item odd">10194</div><div class="field-item even">9887</div><div class="field-item odd">11074</div></div></div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="campl-column3 campl-secondary-content "> <div class="region region-sidebar"> <div id="block-menu-block-3" class="block block-menu-block"> <div class="campl-content-container campl-no-bottom-padding"> <div class="campl-heading-container"> <h2>In this section:</h2> </div> </div> <div class="campl-content-container"> <div class="menu-block-wrapper menu-block-3 menu-name-main-menu parent-mlid-0 menu-level-3"> <ul class="menu"><li class="first leaf active-trail active menu-mlid-1053 with-rh-icon" style="background-image:url(https://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/sites/default/files/styles/rh-icon/public/MAX-MULLER-F-01-03233.jpg?itok=7HI_ZCZN)"><a href="/commentary/human-nature/origin-language/language-key-letters" class="active-trail active">Language: key letters</a></li> <li class="last leaf menu-mlid-1153 with-rh-icon" style="background-image:url(https://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/sites/default/files/styles/rh-icon/public/Picture-Greg-Radick.jpg?itok=qW9BK-I_)"><a href="/commentary/human-nature/origin-language/language-interview-gregory-radick">Language: Interview with Gregory Radick</a></li> </ul></div> </div> </div> <div id="block-cudl-related-letters" class="block block-cudl"> <div class="campl-content-container campl-no-bottom-padding"> <div class="campl-heading-container"> <h2>Related letters</h2> </div> </div> <div class="campl-content-container"> <div class="letter even"> <h3><a href="/letter/?docId=letters/DCP-LETT-346.xml">To Caroline Darwin 27 February 1837</a></h3> <div class="summary"><p>Has just given a paper [on "Sand tubes"] at Cambridge Philosophical Society and exhibited some specimens. It went well, with Whewell and Sedgwick taking an active part.</p><p>Herschel thinks 6000–odd years since the creation not nearly long enough to explain the separations from a single stock.</p></div> </div><div class="letter odd"> <h3><a href="/letter/?docId=letters/DCP-LETT-2070.xml">From Hensleigh Wedgwood [before 29 September 1857]</a></h3> <div class="summary"><p>Suggests CD use the common origin of the French "chef" and the English "head" or "évêque" and "bishop" to illustrate the parallels between extinction and transitional forms in language and palaeontology [see <i>Natural selection</i>, p. 384].</p></div> </div><div class="letter even"> <h3><a href="/letter/?docId=letters/DCP-LETT-3054.xml">To Charles Lyell 2 February [1861]</a></h3> <div class="summary"><p>Quotes passage from letter from Asa Gray dealing with views of Francis Bowen on heredity and Agassiz "(foolish man)" on heredity and languages.</p><p>Sent CL the <i>Calcutta Review</i> [with Edward Blyth’s review of <i>Origin</i>, 35 (1860): 64–88].</p></div> </div><div class="letter odd"> <h3><a href="/letter/?docId=letters/DCP-LETT-5605.xml">To Fritz Müller 15 August [1867]</a></h3> <div class="summary"><p>Queries about expressions in crying monkeys.</p><p>Has received letter from Hermann Müller on orchid fertilisation.</p></div> </div><div class="letter even"> <h3><a href="/letter/?docId=letters/DCP-LETT-7040.xml">From Hensleigh Wedgwood [1868–70?]</a></h3> <div class="summary"><p>Development of complex language does not require an early civilisation. [See <i>Descent</i> 1: 56ff.]</p></div> </div><div class="letter odd"> <h3><a href="/letter/?docId=letters/DCP-LETT-8367.xml">To Chauncey Wright 3 June [1872]</a></h3> <div class="summary"><p>CW’s article responding to Mivart [see <span class="doubleUnderline">8351</span>] on the fixity of species is very clear.</p><p>On evolution of language, CD doubts W. D. Whitney’s claim that changes are effected by the will of man. Asks CW when a thing may properly be said to be so effected.</p></div> </div><div class="letter even"> <h3><a href="/letter/?docId=letters/DCP-LETT-8962.xml">To Friedrich Max Müller 3 July 1873</a></h3> <div class="summary"><p>Thanks FMM for his "Lectures [on Mr Darwin’s philosophy of language", <i>Fraser’s Mag.</i> n.s. 7 (1873): 525–41, 659–78].</p><p>CD is not worthy to be FMM’s adversary as he knows very little about language and, being fully convinced man is descended from some lower animal, he is forced to believe <i>a priori</i> that language has developed from inarticulate cries.</p></div> </div><div class="letter odd"> <h3><a href="/letter/?docId=letters/DCP-LETT-9887.xml">From W. B. Dawkins 14 March 1875</a></h3> <div class="summary"><p>Is glad CD is pleased with his book [<i>Cave hunting</i> (1874)].</p><p>Relationship between language and race. The Basques.</p></div> </div><div class="letter even"> <h3><a href="/letter/?docId=letters/DCP-LETT-10194.xml">From Friedrich Max Müller 13 October [1875]</a></h3> <div class="summary"><p>Sends CD his answers to W. D. Whitney’s articles. Sees man as separated from other animals by the possession of language. There is no scientific evidence for even the slightest attempt at language in the higher animals, which cannot, therefore, be reasonably regarded as "stunted man". [See "In self-defence", <i>Chips from a German workshop</i> 4 (1875): 473–549.]</p></div> </div><div class="letter odd"> <h3><a href="/letter/?docId=letters/DCP-LETT-11074.xml">From A. H. Sayce 27 July 1877</a></h3> <div class="summary"><p>Having read CD’s article in <i>Mind</i> ["Biographical sketch of an infant", <i>Collected papers</i> 2: 191–200], AHS questions CD about the child’s first attempts at speech, hoping to throw light on the origin of language.</p></div> </div> </div> </div> <div id="block-views-my-sidebar-block" class="block block-views"> <div> <div class="view view-my-sidebar view-id-my_sidebar view-display-id-block view-dom-id-d406a00ec61277c9698a7b72704cd2a3"> <div class="view-content"> <div class="views-row views-row-1 views-row-odd views-row-first views-row-last"> <div class="views-field views-field-field-side-text"> <div class="field-content"></div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div id="block-block-57" class="block block-block"> <div class="campl-content-container campl-no-bottom-padding"> <div class="campl-heading-container"> <h2>Darwin's letters: a timeline</h2> </div> </div> <div class="campl-content-container"> <p><a 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