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vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Prehistory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prehistory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1 Prehistory </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prehistory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Antiquity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Antiquity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Antiquity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Antiquity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Early history </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Early_history-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Early history subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Early_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Early_Slavs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_Slavs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Early Slavs </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_Slavs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kievan_Rus'_(862–1240)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kievan_Rus'_(862–1240)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Kievan Rus' (862–1240) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kievan_Rus'_(862–1240)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mongol_invasion_and_vassalage_(1223–1480)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mongol_invasion_and_vassalage_(1223–1480)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Mongol invasion and vassalage (1223–1480) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mongol_invasion_and_vassalage_(1223–1480)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Grand_Duchy_of_Moscow_(1283–1547)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Grand_Duchy_of_Moscow_(1283–1547)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Grand Duchy of Moscow (1283–1547) </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Grand_Duchy_of_Moscow_(1283–1547)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Grand Duchy of Moscow (1283–1547) subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Grand_Duchy_of_Moscow_(1283–1547)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Rise_of_Moscow" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rise_of_Moscow"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Rise of Moscow </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rise_of_Moscow-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ivan_III,_the_Great" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ivan_III,_the_Great"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Ivan III, the Great </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ivan_III,_the_Great-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tsardom_of_Russia_(1547–1721)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tsardom_of_Russia_(1547–1721)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Tsardom of Russia (1547–1721) </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Tsardom_of_Russia_(1547–1721)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Tsardom of Russia (1547–1721) subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Tsardom_of_Russia_(1547–1721)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ivan_IV,_the_Terrible" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ivan_IV,_the_Terrible"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Ivan IV, the Terrible </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ivan_IV,_the_Terrible-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Time_of_Troubles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Time_of_Troubles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Time of Troubles </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Time_of_Troubles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Accession_of_the_Romanovs_and_early_rule" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Accession_of_the_Romanovs_and_early_rule"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Accession of the Romanovs and early rule </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Accession_of_the_Romanovs_and_early_rule-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Russian_Empire_(1721–1917)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Russian_Empire_(1721–1917)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Russian Empire (1721–1917) </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Russian_Empire_(1721–1917)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Russian Empire (1721–1917) subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Russian_Empire_(1721–1917)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Population" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Population"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Population </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Population-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Peter_the_Great" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Peter_the_Great"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Peter the Great </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Peter_the_Great-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Catherine_the_Great" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Catherine_the_Great"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 Catherine the Great </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Catherine_the_Great-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ruling_the_Empire_(1725–1825)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ruling_the_Empire_(1725–1825)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4 Ruling the Empire (1725–1825) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ruling_the_Empire_(1725–1825)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Alexander_I_and_victory_over_Napoleon" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Alexander_I_and_victory_over_Napoleon"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.5 Alexander I and victory over Napoleon </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Alexander_I_and_victory_over_Napoleon-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nicholas_I_and_the_Decembrist_Revolt" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nicholas_I_and_the_Decembrist_Revolt"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.6 Nicholas I and the Decembrist Revolt </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nicholas_I_and_the_Decembrist_Revolt-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Russian_Army" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Russian_Army"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.7 Russian Army </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Russian_Army-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Russian_society_in_the_first_half_of_19th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Russian_society_in_the_first_half_of_19th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.8 Russian society in the first half of 19th century </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Russian_society_in_the_first_half_of_19th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Crimean_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Crimean_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.9 Crimean War </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Crimean_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Alexander_II_and_the_abolition_of_serfdom" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Alexander_II_and_the_abolition_of_serfdom"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.10 Alexander II and the abolition of serfdom </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Alexander_II_and_the_abolition_of_serfdom-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Russian_society_in_the_second_half_of_19th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Russian_society_in_the_second_half_of_19th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.11 Russian society in the second half of 19th century </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Russian_society_in_the_second_half_of_19th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Autocracy_and_reaction_under_Alexander_III" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Autocracy_and_reaction_under_Alexander_III"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.12 Autocracy and reaction under Alexander III </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Autocracy_and_reaction_under_Alexander_III-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nicholas_II_and_new_revolutionary_movement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nicholas_II_and_new_revolutionary_movement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.13 Nicholas II and new revolutionary movement </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nicholas_II_and_new_revolutionary_movement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Revolution_of_1905" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Revolution_of_1905"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.14 Revolution of 1905 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Revolution_of_1905-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-World_War_I" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#World_War_I"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.15 World War I </div> </a> <ul id="toc-World_War_I-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Russian_Civil_War_(1917–1922)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Russian_Civil_War_(1917–1922)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Russian Civil War (1917–1922) </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Russian_Civil_War_(1917–1922)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Russian Civil War (1917–1922) subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Russian_Civil_War_(1917–1922)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Russian_Revolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Russian_Revolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Russian Revolution </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Russian_Revolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Russian_Civil_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Russian_Civil_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Russian Civil War </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Russian_Civil_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Soviet_Union_(1922–1991)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Soviet_Union_(1922–1991)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Soviet Union (1922–1991) </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Soviet_Union_(1922–1991)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Soviet Union (1922–1991) subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Soviet_Union_(1922–1991)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Creation_of_the_Soviet_Union" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Creation_of_the_Soviet_Union"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Creation of the Soviet Union </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Creation_of_the_Soviet_Union-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-War_Communism_and_the_New_Economic_Policy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#War_Communism_and_the_New_Economic_Policy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2 War Communism and the New Economic Policy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-War_Communism_and_the_New_Economic_Policy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Changes_to_Russian_society" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Changes_to_Russian_society"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.3 Changes to Russian society </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Changes_to_Russian_society-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Industrialization_and_collectivization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Industrialization_and_collectivization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.4 Industrialization and collectivization </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Industrialization_and_collectivization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Stalinist_repression" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Stalinist_repression"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.5 Stalinist repression </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Stalinist_repression-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Soviet_Union_on_the_international_stage" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Soviet_Union_on_the_international_stage"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.6 Soviet Union on the international stage </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Soviet_Union_on_the_international_stage-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-World_War_II" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#World_War_II"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.7 World War II </div> </a> <ul id="toc-World_War_II-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cold_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cold_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.8 Cold War </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cold_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-De-Stalinization_and_the_era_of_stagnation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#De-Stalinization_and_the_era_of_stagnation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.9 De-Stalinization and the era of stagnation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-De-Stalinization_and_the_era_of_stagnation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Soviet_space_program" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Soviet_space_program"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.10 Soviet space program </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Soviet_space_program-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Perestroika_and_breakup_of_the_Union" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Perestroika_and_breakup_of_the_Union"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.11 Perestroika and breakup of the Union </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Perestroika_and_breakup_of_the_Union-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Russian_Federation_(1991–present)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Russian_Federation_(1991–present)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Russian Federation (1991–present) </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Russian_Federation_(1991–present)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Russian Federation (1991–present) subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Russian_Federation_(1991–present)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Liberal_reforms_of_the_1990s" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Liberal_reforms_of_the_1990s"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1 Liberal reforms of the 1990s </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Liberal_reforms_of_the_1990s-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Era_of_Putin" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Era_of_Putin"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2 Era of Putin </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Era_of_Putin-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Historiography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historiography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Historiography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historiography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 Further reading </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Further reading subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Surveys" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Surveys"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13.1 Surveys </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Surveys-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Russian_Empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Russian_Empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13.2 Russian Empire </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Russian_Empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Soviet_era" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Soviet_era"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13.3 Soviet era </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Soviet_era-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Post-Soviet_era" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Post-Soviet_era"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13.4 Post-Soviet era </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Post-Soviet_era-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Atlases,_geography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Atlases,_geography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13.5 Atlases, geography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Atlases,_geography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Historiography_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historiography_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13.6 Historiography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historiography_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Primary_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Primary_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13.7 Primary sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Primary_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc 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class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 79 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-79" aria-hidden="true" > 79 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE_%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%A7" title="تاريخ روسيا – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تاريخ روسيا" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_de_Rusia" title="Historia de Rusia – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Historia de Rusia" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rusiya_tarixi" title="Rusiya tarixi – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Rusiya tarixi" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8" title="রাশিয়ার ইতিহাস – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="রাশিয়ার ইতিহাস" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D3%99%D1%81%D3%99%D0%B9_%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%85%D1%8B" title="Рәсәй тарихы – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Рәсәй тарихы" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%8F_%D0%A0%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%96%D1%96" title="Гісторыя Расіі – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Гісторыя Расіі" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%A0%D1%83%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="История на Русия – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="История на Русия" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historija_Rusije" title="Historija Rusije – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Historija Rusije" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istor_Rusia" title="Istor Rusia – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Istor Rusia" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D1%82%D2%AF%D2%AF%D1%85%D1%8D" title="Оросой түүхэ – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Оросой түүхэ" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target">Буряад</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hist%C3%B2ria_de_R%C3%BAssia" title="Història de Rússia – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Història de Rússia" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C4%9Bjiny_Ruska" title="Dějiny Ruska – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Dějiny Ruska" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanes_Rwsia" title="Hanes Rwsia – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Hanes Rwsia" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruslands_historie" title="Ruslands historie – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Ruslands historie" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geschichte_Russlands" title="Geschichte Russlands – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Geschichte Russlands" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venemaa_ajalugu" title="Venemaa ajalugu – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Venemaa ajalugu" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%99%CF%83%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%81%CE%AF%CE%B1_%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%82_%CE%A1%CF%89%CF%83%CE%AF%CE%B1%CF%82" title="Ιστορία της Ρωσίας – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ιστορία της Ρωσίας" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_de_Rusia" title="Historia de Rusia – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Historia de Rusia" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historio_de_Rusio" title="Historio de Rusio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Historio de Rusio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Errusiako_historia" title="Errusiako historia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Errusiako historia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE_%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B3%DB%8C%D9%87" title="تاریخ روسیه – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="تاریخ روسیه" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histoire_de_la_Russie" title="Histoire de la Russie – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Histoire de la Russie" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stair_na_R%C3%BAise" title="Stair na Rúise – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Stair na Rúise" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_de_Rusia" title="Historia de Rusia – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Historia de Rusia" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%9F%AC%EC%8B%9C%EC%95%84%EC%9D%98_%EC%97%AD%EC%82%AC" title="러시아의 역사 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="러시아의 역사" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8C%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%BD%D5%A1%D5%BD%D5%BF%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%AB_%D5%BA%D5%A1%D5%BF%D5%B4%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Ռուսաստանի պատմություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ռուսաստանի պատմություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B8_%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8" title="रूस का इतिहास – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="रूस का इतिहास" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Povijest_Rusije" title="Povijest Rusije – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Povijest Rusije" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historio_di_Rusia" title="Historio di Rusia – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Historio di Rusia" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sejarah_Rusia" title="Sejarah Rusia – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Sejarah Rusia" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storia_della_Russia" title="Storia della Russia – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Storia della Russia" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%99%D7%A1%D7%98%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%94_%D7%A9%D7%9C_%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%A1%D7%99%D7%94" title="היסטוריה של רוסיה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="היסטוריה של רוסיה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A0%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A1%E1%83%94%E1%83%97%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="რუსეთის ისტორია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="რუსეთის ისტორია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_ya_Urusi" title="Historia ya Urusi – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Historia ya Urusi" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C3%AEroka_R%C3%BBsyay%C3%AA" title="Dîroka Rûsyayê – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Dîroka Rûsyayê" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_Russiae" title="Historia Russiae – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Historia Russiae" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krievijas_v%C4%93sture" title="Krievijas vēsture – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Krievijas vēsture" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geschicht_vu_Russland" title="Geschicht vu Russland – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Geschicht vu Russland" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rusijos_istorija" title="Rusijos istorija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Rusijos istorija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oroszorsz%C3%A1g_t%C3%B6rt%C3%A9nelme" title="Oroszország történelme – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Oroszország történelme" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%A0%D1%83%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Историја на Русија – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Историја на Русија" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8" title="रशियाचा इतिहास – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="रशियाचा इतिहास" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A0%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A1%E1%83%94%E1%83%97%E1%83%98%E1%83%A8_%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="რუსეთიშ ისტორია – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="რუსეთიშ ისტორია" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sejarah_Rusia" title="Sejarah Rusia – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Sejarah Rusia" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/St%C3%B3ria_de_la_R%C3%BAssia" title="Stória de la Rússia – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Stória de la Rússia" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Mirandés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%8B%D0%BD_%D1%82%D2%AF%D2%AF%D1%85" title="Оросын түүх – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Оросын түүх" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%9B%E1%80%AF%E1%80%9B%E1%80%BE%E1%80%AC%E1%80%B8_%E1%80%9E%E1%80%99%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8" title="ရုရှား သမိုင်း – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ရုရှား သမိုင်း" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geschiedenis_van_Rusland" title="Geschiedenis van Rusland – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Geschiedenis van Rusland" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%AD%E3%82%B7%E3%82%A2%E3%81%AE%E6%AD%B4%E5%8F%B2" title="ロシアの歴史 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ロシアの歴史" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russlands_historie" title="Russlands historie – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Russlands historie" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russisk_historie" title="Russisk historie – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Russisk historie" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ist%C3%B2ria_de_Russia" title="Istòria de Russia – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Istòria de Russia" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B0%E0%A9%82%E0%A8%B8_%E0%A8%A6%E0%A8%BE_%E0%A8%87%E0%A8%A4%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%B9%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B8" title="ਰੂਸ ਦਾ ਇਤਿਹਾਸ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਰੂਸ ਦਾ ਇਤਿਹਾਸ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ami mw-list-item"><a href="https://ami.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rikisi_no_Rosiya" title="Rikisi no Rosiya – Amis" lang="ami" hreflang="ami" data-title="Rikisi no Rosiya" data-language-autonym="Pangcah" data-language-local-name="Amis" class="interlanguage-link-target">Pangcah</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B3_%D8%AF%DB%8C_%D8%AA%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE" title="روس دی تریخ – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="روس دی تریخ" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B3%DB%8C%DB%90_%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE" title="د روسیې تاریخ – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د روسیې تاریخ" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_Rosji" title="Historia Rosji – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Historia Rosji" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li 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class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storia_d%C3%A2_Russia" title="Storia dâ Russia – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Storia dâ Russia" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%94%E0%B7%83%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%99%E0%B7%84%E0%B7%92_%E0%B6%89%E0%B6%AD%E0%B7%92%E0%B7%84%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%83%E0%B6%BA" title="රුසියාවෙහි ඉතිහාසය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="රුසියාවෙහි ඉතිහාසය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Russia" title="History of Russia – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="History of Russia" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dejiny_Ruska" title="Dejiny Ruska – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Dejiny Ruska" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zgodovina_Rusije" title="Zgodovina Rusije – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Zgodovina Rusije" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a 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.sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1041539562">.mw-parser-output .citation{word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks vcard"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><div class="sidebar-pretitle" style="margin: -0.2em 0; font-size:69%; font-weight:normal;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_Russia" title="Category:History of Russia">a series</a> on the</div></th> </tr><tr> <th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style=""><a class="mw-selflink selflink">History of Russia</a></th> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Coat_of_Arms_of_the_Russian_Federation.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Coat_of_Arms_of_the_Russian_Federation.svg/80px-Coat_of_Arms_of_the_Russian_Federation.svg.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="95" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Coat_of_Arms_of_the_Russian_Federation.svg/120px-Coat_of_Arms_of_the_Russian_Federation.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Coat_of_Arms_of_the_Russian_Federation.svg/160px-Coat_of_Arms_of_the_Russian_Federation.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="437" data-file-height="517" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Periods</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Prehistory">Prehistory</a>  • <a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Antiquity">Antiquity</a>  • <a href="/wiki/Early_Slavs" title="Early Slavs">Early Slavs</a> <table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Rus%27_people" title="Rus' people">Rus' people</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> pre-9th century</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">     <a href="/wiki/Rus%27_Khaganate" title="Rus' Khaganate">Rus' Khaganate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">     <a href="/wiki/Arthania" title="Arthania">Arthania</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">     <a href="/wiki/Gar%C3%B0ar%C3%ADki" title="Garðaríki">Garðaríki</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr></tbody></table> <hr /> <div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;"> <div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold;"><div><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div>879–1240: <a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Ancient Rus'</a><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div></div></div> <ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin-left: 0;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Rurik" title="Rurik">Rurik</a> • <a href="/wiki/Baptism_of_Rus%27" class="mw-redirect" title="Baptism of Rus'">Baptism of Rus'</a> • <a href="/wiki/Russkaya_Pravda" title="Russkaya Pravda">Russkaya Pravda</a><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div></li></ul> </div> <table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Novgorod_Land" title="Novgorod Land">Novgorod Land</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 882–1136</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Polotsk" title="Principality of Polotsk">Principality of Polotsk</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 987–1397</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Chernigov" title="Principality of Chernigov">Principality of Chernigov</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 988–1402</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Rostov-Suzdal" class="mw-redirect" title="Rostov-Suzdal">Rostov-Suzdal</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1093–1157</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">     <a href="/wiki/List_of_tribes_and_states_in_Belarus,_Russia_and_Ukraine#Early_Middle_Ages_(c._500_–_1097)" title="List of tribes and states in Belarus, Russia and Ukraine">full list...</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr></tbody></table> <hr /> <div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;"> <div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold;"><div><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div>1240–1480: <a href="/wiki/List_of_tribes_and_states_in_Belarus,_Russia_and_Ukraine#Council_of_Liubech_and_after_(1097–1237)" title="List of tribes and states in Belarus, Russia and Ukraine">Feudal Rus'</a><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div></div></div> <ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin-left: 0;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Liubech" title="Council of Liubech">Council of Liubech</a> • <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Uvetichi" title="Council of Uvetichi">Council of Uvetichi</a> • <a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Kievan_Rus%27" title="Mongol invasion of Kievan Rus'">Mongol conquest</a> • <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kulikovo" title="Battle of Kulikovo">Battle of Kulikovo</a><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div></li></ul> </div> <table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Novgorod_Republic" title="Novgorod Republic">Novgorod Republic</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1136–1478</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Vladimir-Suzdal" title="Vladimir-Suzdal">Vladimir-Suzdal</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1157–1331</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Moscow" title="Principality of Moscow">Principality of Moscow</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1263–1547</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">     <a href="/wiki/List_of_tribes_and_states_in_Belarus,_Russia_and_Ukraine#Council_of_Liubech_and_after_(1097–1237)" title="List of tribes and states in Belarus, Russia and Ukraine">full list...</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr></tbody></table> <hr /> <div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;"> <div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold;"><div><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div>1480–1917: <a href="/wiki/Tsarist_autocracy" title="Tsarist autocracy">Tsarist Russia</a><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div></div></div> <ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin-left: 0;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Great_Stand_on_the_Ugra_River" title="Great Stand on the Ugra River">Great Stand on the Ugra River</a> • <a href="/wiki/Time_of_Troubles" title="Time of Troubles">Time of Troubles</a> • <a href="/wiki/Zemsky_Sobor" title="Zemsky Sobor">Zemsky Sobor</a> • <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Nystad" title="Treaty of Nystad">Treaty of Nystad</a> • <a href="/wiki/Government_reform_of_Peter_the_Great" title="Government reform of Peter the Great">Petrovian reforms</a> • <a href="/wiki/1812_Patriotic_War" class="mw-redirect" title="1812 Patriotic War">1812 Patriotic War</a> • <a href="/wiki/Decembrist_Revolt" class="mw-redirect" title="Decembrist Revolt">Decembrist Revolt</a> • <a href="/wiki/Emancipation_reform_of_1861" title="Emancipation reform of 1861">Emancipation reform</a> • <a href="/wiki/Russo-Japanese_War" title="Russo-Japanese War">Russo-Japanese War</a> • <a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution_of_1905" title="Russian Revolution of 1905">1905 Revolution</a> • <a href="/wiki/October_Manifesto" title="October Manifesto">October Manifesto</a> • <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Front_(World_War_I)" title="Eastern Front (World War I)">Second Patriotic War</a><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div></li></ul> </div> <table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Tsardom_of_Russia" title="Tsardom of Russia">Tsardom of Russia</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1547–1721</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1721–1917</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">      <a href="/wiki/Russian_America" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian America">Russian America</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1799–1867</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">      <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Finland" title="Grand Duchy of Finland">Grand Duchy of Finland</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1809–1917</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">      <a href="/wiki/Congress_Poland" title="Congress Poland">Congress Poland</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1867–1915</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">      <a href="/wiki/Russian_Manchuria_(China)" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian Manchuria (China)">Russian Manchuria</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1900–1905</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">      <a href="/wiki/Uryankhay_Krai" title="Uryankhay Krai">Uryankhay Krai</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1914–1921</td></tr></tbody></table> <hr /> <div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;"> <div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold;"><div><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div>1917–1923: <a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian Revolution</a><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div></div></div> <ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin-left: 0;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/February_Revolution" title="February Revolution">February Revolution</a> • <a href="/wiki/Russian_Provisional_Government" title="Russian Provisional Government">Provisional Government</a> • <a href="/wiki/Dual_power" title="Dual power">Dvoyevlastiye</a> • <a href="/wiki/July_Days" title="July Days">July Days</a> • <a href="/wiki/Kornilov_affair" title="Kornilov affair">Kornilov affair</a> • <a href="/wiki/Directorate_(Russia)" title="Directorate (Russia)">Directorate</a> • <a href="/wiki/Russian_Constituent_Assembly" title="Russian Constituent Assembly">Constituent Assembly</a> (<a href="/wiki/1917_Russian_Constituent_Assembly_election" title="1917 Russian Constituent Assembly election">election</a>) • <a href="/wiki/Bolshevik_Coup" class="mw-redirect" title="Bolshevik Coup">Bolshevik Coup</a> • <a href="/wiki/Russian_Civil_War" title="Russian Civil War">Civil War</a> • <a href="/wiki/White_movement" title="White movement">White Guard</a> • <a href="/wiki/Red_Army" title="Red Army">Red Army</a> • <a href="/wiki/Soviet-Polish_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet-Polish War">Soviet-Polish War</a> • <a href="/wiki/Provisional_Priamurye_Government" title="Provisional Priamurye Government">Priamurye Govt.</a> • <a href="/wiki/War_Communism" class="mw-redirect" title="War Communism">War Communism</a> • <a href="/wiki/Treaty_on_the_Creation_of_the_Union_of_Soviet_Socialist_Republics" title="Treaty on the Creation of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics">USSR</a> • <a href="/wiki/White_%C3%A9migr%C3%A9" title="White émigré">Emigrants</a><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div></li></ul> </div> <table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Russian_Republic" title="Russian Republic">Russian Republic</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1917–1918</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">      <a href="/wiki/General_Secretariat_of_Ukraine" title="General Secretariat of Ukraine">General Secretariat of Ukraine</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1917–1918</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Russian_SFSR#Early_years_(1917–1920)" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian SFSR">Russian SFSR</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1917–1922</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">      <a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_SSR" class="mw-redirect" title="Ukrainian SSR">Ukrainian SSR</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1919–1922</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">      <a href="/wiki/Byelorussian_SSR" class="mw-redirect" title="Byelorussian SSR">Byelorussian SSR</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1920–1922</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">      <a href="/wiki/Transcaucasian_SFSR" class="mw-redirect" title="Transcaucasian SFSR">Transcaucasian SFSR</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1922–1922</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Russian_State_(1918%E2%80%931920)" title="Russian State (1918–1920)">Russian State</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1918–1920</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">      <a href="/wiki/Provisional_Priamurye_Government" title="Provisional Priamurye Government">Provisional Priamurye Govt.</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1921–1923</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">     <a href="/wiki/Leaders_of_the_Russian_Civil_War" title="Leaders of the Russian Civil War">full list...</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr></tbody></table> <hr /> <div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;"> <div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold;"><div><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div>1923–1991: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="History of the Soviet Union">Soviet Era</a><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div></div></div> <ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin-left: 0;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/New_Economic_Policy" title="New Economic Policy">NEP</a> • <a href="/wiki/Cultural_Revolution_in_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Cultural Revolution in the Soviet Union">Cultural revolution</a> • <a href="/wiki/Korenization" class="mw-redirect" title="Korenization">Korenization</a> • <a href="/wiki/Stalinism" title="Stalinism">Stalinism</a> • <a href="/wiki/Collectivization" class="mw-redirect" title="Collectivization">Collectivization</a> • <a href="/wiki/Industrialization_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Industrialization in the Soviet Union">Industrialization</a> • <a href="/wiki/GULAG" class="mw-redirect" title="GULAG">GULAG</a> • <a href="/wiki/Great_Purge" title="Great Purge">Great Purge</a> • <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Front_(WWII)" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Front (WWII)">Great Patriotic War</a> • <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a> • <a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Pact" title="Warsaw Pact">Warsaw Pact</a> • <a href="/wiki/Comecon" title="Comecon">Comecon</a> • <a href="/wiki/1954_transfer_of_Crimea" class="mw-redirect" title="1954 transfer of Crimea">Crimea transfer</a> • <a href="/wiki/Era_of_Stagnation" title="Era of Stagnation">Era of Stagnation</a> • <a href="/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Afghan_War" title="Soviet–Afghan War">Afghan War</a> • <a href="/wiki/Perestroika" title="Perestroika">Perestroika</a> • <a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_disaster" title="Chernobyl disaster">Chernobyl disaster</a> • <a href="/wiki/First_Nagorno-Karabakh_War" title="First Nagorno-Karabakh War">Karabakh War</a> • <a href="/wiki/Parade_of_sovereignties" title="Parade of sovereignties">Parade of sovereignties</a> (<a href="/wiki/War_of_Laws" title="War of Laws">War of Laws</a>)<div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div></li></ul> </div> <table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1922–1991</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">      <a href="/wiki/Russian_SFSR" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian SFSR">Russian SFSR</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1922–1991</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">      <a href="/wiki/Karelo-Finnish_SSR" class="mw-redirect" title="Karelo-Finnish SSR">Karelo-Finnish SSR</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">1940–1956</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">         <a href="/wiki/Republics_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Republics of the Soviet Union">full list...</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Tuvan_People%27s_Republic" title="Tuvan People's Republic">Tannu Tuva</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">1921–1944</td></tr></tbody></table> <hr /> <div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;"> <div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold;"><div><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div>since 1991: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Russia_(1991%E2%80%93present)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Russia (1991–present)">Modern Russia</a><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div></div></div> <ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin-left: 0;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/1991_August_Coup" class="mw-redirect" title="1991 August Coup">August Coup</a> • <a href="/wiki/Belavezha_Accords" class="mw-redirect" title="Belavezha Accords">Belavezha Accords</a> • <a href="/wiki/Alma-Ata_Protocol" title="Alma-Ata Protocol">Alma-Ata Protocol</a> • <a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Dissolution of the Soviet Union">USSR dissolution</a> • <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Independent_States" title="Commonwealth of Independent States">CIS</a> • "<a href="/wiki/Near_abroad" title="Near abroad">Near abroad</a>" • <a href="/wiki/1993_Russian_constitutional_crisis" title="1993 Russian constitutional crisis">Constitutional crisis</a> • <a href="/wiki/Privatization_in_Russia" title="Privatization in Russia">Privatization</a> • <a href="/wiki/Collective_Security_Treaty_Organization" title="Collective Security Treaty Organization">CSTO</a> • <a href="/wiki/Chechen%E2%80%93Russian_conflict#Post-Soviet_era" title="Chechen–Russian conflict">Chechen wars</a> (<a href="/wiki/First_Chechen_War" title="First Chechen War">1st</a> • <a href="/wiki/Second_Chechen_War" title="Second Chechen War">2nd</a>) • <a href="/wiki/Loans_for_shares_scheme" title="Loans for shares scheme">Oligarchy</a> • <a href="/wiki/Putinism" title="Putinism">Putinism</a> • <a href="/wiki/Russo-Georgian_War" title="Russo-Georgian War">Five-Days War</a> • <a href="/wiki/2008_amendments_to_the_Constitution_of_Russia" title="2008 amendments to the Constitution of Russia">Presidential terms amendments</a> • <a href="/wiki/Eurasian_Economic_Union" title="Eurasian Economic Union">Eurasian Economic Union</a> • <a href="/wiki/Annexation_of_Crimea_by_the_Russian_Federation" title="Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation">Annexation of Crimea</a> • <a href="/wiki/War_in_Donbas" title="War in Donbas">War in Donbas</a> • <a href="/wiki/2020_amendments_to_the_Constitution_of_Russia" title="2020 amendments to the Constitution of Russia">2020 amendments</a> • <a href="/wiki/Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" title="Russian invasion of Ukraine">Invasion of Ukraine</a> (<a href="/wiki/Prelude_to_the_2022_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" class="mw-redirect" title="Prelude to the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine">Prelude</a> • <a href="/wiki/Russian_emigration_following_the_invasion_of_Ukraine_(2022%E2%80%93present)" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian emigration following the invasion of Ukraine (2022–present)">Mass emigration</a> • <a href="/wiki/2022_Russian_debt_default" title="2022 Russian debt default">Debt default</a> • <a href="/wiki/International_sanctions_during_the_2022_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" class="mw-redirect" title="International sanctions during the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine">Sanctions</a> • <a href="/wiki/2022_Russian_mobilization" title="2022 Russian mobilization">Mobilization</a> • <a href="/wiki/Russian_annexation_of_Donetsk,_Kherson,_Luhansk_and_Zaporizhzhia_oblasts" title="Russian annexation of Donetsk, Kherson, Luhansk and Zaporizhzhia oblasts">2022 annexation</a>)<div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div></li></ul> </div> <table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Russian_Federation" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian Federation">Russian Federation</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1991–present</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">      <a href="/wiki/Tatarstan" title="Tatarstan">Republic of Tatarstan</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> <a href="/wiki/Tatarstan#Present-day" title="Tatarstan">1994</a>–present</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">      <a href="/wiki/Chechnya" title="Chechnya">Chechen Republic</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> <a href="/wiki/Second_Chechen_War" title="Second Chechen War">2000</a>–present</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">      <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Crimea_(Russia)" title="Republic of Crimea (Russia)">Republic of Crimea</a><a href="#endnote_alpha">A</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> <a href="/wiki/Annexation_of_Crimea_by_the_Russian_Federation" title="Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation">2014</a>–present</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">      <a href="/wiki/Donetsk_People%27s_Republic" title="Donetsk People's Republic">Donetsk People's Republic</a><a href="#endnote_alpha">A</a><a href="#endnote_beta">B</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> <a href="/wiki/Russian_annexation_of_Donetsk,_Kherson,_Luhansk_and_Zaporizhzhia_oblasts" title="Russian annexation of Donetsk, Kherson, Luhansk and Zaporizhzhia oblasts">2022</a>–present</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">      <a href="/wiki/Luhansk_People%27s_Republic" title="Luhansk People's Republic">Luhansk People's Republic</a><a href="#endnote_alpha">A</a><a href="#endnote_beta">B</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> <a href="/wiki/Russian_annexation_of_Donetsk,_Kherson,_Luhansk_and_Zaporizhzhia_oblasts" title="Russian annexation of Donetsk, Kherson, Luhansk and Zaporizhzhia oblasts">2022</a>–present</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">      <a href="/wiki/Russian_occupation_of_Kherson_Oblast" title="Russian occupation of Kherson Oblast">Kherson Oblast</a><a href="#endnote_alpha">A</a><a href="#endnote_beta">B</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> <a href="/wiki/Russian_annexation_of_Donetsk,_Kherson,_Luhansk_and_Zaporizhzhia_oblasts" title="Russian annexation of Donetsk, Kherson, Luhansk and Zaporizhzhia oblasts">2022</a>–present</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">      <a href="/wiki/Russian_occupation_of_Zaporizhzhia_Oblast" title="Russian occupation of Zaporizhzhia Oblast">Zaporizhzhia Oblast</a><a href="#endnote_alpha">A</a><a href="#endnote_beta">B</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> <a href="/wiki/Russian_annexation_of_Donetsk,_Kherson,_Luhansk_and_Zaporizhzhia_oblasts" title="Russian annexation of Donetsk, Kherson, Luhansk and Zaporizhzhia oblasts">2022</a>–present</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">         <a href="/wiki/List_of_Russian_federal_subjects" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Russian federal subjects">full list...</a> <div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div> <a href="#ref_alpha">^A</a> Not internationally recognized. <a href="#ref_beta">^B</a> Not fully controlled. </td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.2em; border-top:#aaa 1px solid;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Timeline</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Russian_history" title="Timeline of Russian history">860–1721</a> • <a href="/wiki/History_of_Russia_(1721%E2%80%931796)" title="History of Russia (1721–1796)">1721–1796</a> • <a href="/wiki/History_of_Russia_(1796%E2%80%931855)" title="History of Russia (1796–1855)">1796–1855</a> <a href="/wiki/History_of_Russia_(1855%E2%80%931894)" title="History of Russia (1855–1894)">1855–1894</a> • <a href="/wiki/History_of_Russia_(1894%E2%80%931917)" title="History of Russia (1894–1917)">1894–1917</a> • <a href="/wiki/History_of_Soviet_Russia_and_the_Soviet_Union_(1917%E2%80%931927)" title="History of Soviet Russia and the Soviet Union (1917–1927)">1917–1927</a> <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Soviet_Union_(1927%E2%80%931953)" title="History of the Soviet Union (1927–1953)">1927–1953</a> • <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Soviet_Union_(1953%E2%80%931964)" title="History of the Soviet Union (1953–1964)">1953–1964</a> • <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Soviet_Union_(1964%E2%80%931982)" title="History of the Soviet Union (1964–1982)">1964–1982</a> <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Soviet_Union_(1982%E2%80%931991)" title="History of the Soviet Union (1982–1991)">1982–1991</a> • <a href="/wiki/History_of_Russia_(1991%E2%80%93present)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Russia (1991–present)">1991–present</a><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="border-top:#aaa 1px solid; border-bottom:#aaa 1px solid;"> <img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/16px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/24px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/32px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 2x" 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<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA_%D1%82%D1%8B%D1%81%D1%8F%D1%87%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%8E_%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B8_2013_06.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA_%D1%82%D1%8B%D1%81%D1%8F%D1%87%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%8E_%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B8_2013_06.JPG/220px-%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA_%D1%82%D1%8B%D1%81%D1%8F%D1%87%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%8E_%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B8_2013_06.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA_%D1%82%D1%8B%D1%81%D1%8F%D1%87%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%8E_%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B8_2013_06.JPG/330px-%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA_%D1%82%D1%8B%D1%81%D1%8F%D1%87%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%8E_%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B8_2013_06.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA_%D1%82%D1%8B%D1%81%D1%8F%D1%87%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%8E_%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B8_2013_06.JPG/440px-%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA_%D1%82%D1%8B%D1%81%D1%8F%D1%87%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%8E_%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B8_2013_06.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3456" data-file-height="5184" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Millennium_of_Russia" title="Millennium of Russia">Millennium of Russia</a> monument in <a href="/wiki/Veliky_Novgorod" title="Veliky Novgorod">Veliky Novgorod</a> (unveiled on 8 September 1862)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Europe_in_1470.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Europe_in_1470.PNG/220px-Europe_in_1470.PNG" decoding="async" width="220" height="238" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Europe_in_1470.PNG/330px-Europe_in_1470.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Europe_in_1470.PNG/440px-Europe_in_1470.PNG 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="650" /></a><figcaption>Medieval <a href="/wiki/List_of_tribes_and_states_in_Belarus,_Russia_and_Ukraine" title="List of tribes and states in Belarus, Russia and Ukraine">Russian states</a> around 1470, including <a href="/wiki/Novgorod_Republic" title="Novgorod Republic">Novgorod</a>, <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Tver" title="Principality of Tver">Tver</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pskov_Republic" title="Pskov Republic">Pskov</a>, <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Ryazan" title="Principality of Ryazan">Ryazan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rostov,_Yaroslavl_Oblast" title="Rostov, Yaroslavl Oblast">Rostov</a> and <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Moscow" class="mw-redirect" title="Grand Duchy of Moscow">Moscow</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Territorial_Expansion_of_Russia.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Territorial_Expansion_of_Russia.svg/220px-Territorial_Expansion_of_Russia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="171" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Territorial_Expansion_of_Russia.svg/330px-Territorial_Expansion_of_Russia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Territorial_Expansion_of_Russia.svg/440px-Territorial_Expansion_of_Russia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1944" data-file-height="1511" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Expansion_of_Russia_(1500%E2%80%931800)" title="Expansion of Russia (1500–1800)">Expansion</a> and <a href="/wiki/Territorial_evolution_of_Russia" title="Territorial evolution of Russia">territorial evolution</a> of the Grand Duchy of Moscow, Tsardom of Russia and Russian Empire between the 14th and 20th centuries</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Soviet_Union_Administrative_Divisions_1989.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Soviet_Union_Administrative_Divisions_1989.jpg/220px-Soviet_Union_Administrative_Divisions_1989.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Soviet_Union_Administrative_Divisions_1989.jpg/330px-Soviet_Union_Administrative_Divisions_1989.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Soviet_Union_Administrative_Divisions_1989.jpg/440px-Soviet_Union_Administrative_Divisions_1989.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1887" data-file-height="1313" /></a><figcaption>Location of the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic" title="Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic">Russian SFSR</a> within the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> in 1956–1991</figcaption></figure> The history of Russia begins with the histories of the <a href="/wiki/East_Slavs" title="East Slavs">East Slavs</a>.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> The traditional start date of specifically Russian history is the establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Rus%27_people" title="Rus' people">Rus'</a> state in the north in the year 862, ruled by <a href="/wiki/Varangians" title="Varangians">Varangians</a>.<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> In 882, Prince <a href="/wiki/Oleg_of_Novgorod" class="mw-redirect" title="Oleg of Novgorod">Oleg of Novgorod</a> seized <a href="/wiki/Kiev" class="mw-redirect" title="Kiev">Kiev</a>, uniting the northern and southern lands of the Eastern Slavs under one authority, moving the governance center to Kiev by the end of the 10th century, and maintaining northern and southern parts with significant autonomy from each other. The state <a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Kievan_Rus%27" title="Christianization of Kievan Rus'">adopted Christianity from the Byzantine Empire</a> in 988, beginning the synthesis of <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Slavs" title="Slavs">Slavic</a> cultures that defined <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russian culture</a> for the next millennium. <a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a> ultimately disintegrated as a state due to the <a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Rus%27" class="mw-redirect" title="Mongol invasion of Rus'">Mongol invasions</a> in 1237–1240. After the 13th century, <a href="/wiki/Moscow" title="Moscow">Moscow</a> emerged as a significant political and cultural force, driving the <a href="/wiki/Collector_of_Russian_lands" class="mw-redirect" title="Collector of Russian lands">unification of Russian territories</a>.<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> By the end of the 15th century, many of the <a href="/wiki/Petty_kingdom" title="Petty kingdom">petty principalities</a> around Moscow had been united with the <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Moscow" class="mw-redirect" title="Grand Duchy of Moscow">Grand Duchy of Moscow</a>, which took full control of its own sovereignty under <a href="/wiki/Ivan_III_of_Russia" title="Ivan III of Russia">Ivan the Great</a>. <a href="/wiki/Ivan_the_Terrible" title="Ivan the Terrible">Ivan the Terrible</a> transformed the Grand Duchy into the <a href="/wiki/Tsardom_of_Russia" title="Tsardom of Russia">Tsardom of Russia</a> in 1547. However, the death of Ivan's son <a href="/wiki/Feodor_I_of_Russia" title="Feodor I of Russia">Feodor I</a> without <a href="/wiki/Issue_(genealogy)" title="Issue (genealogy)">issue</a> in 1598 created a <a href="/wiki/Succession_crisis" title="Succession crisis">succession crisis</a> and led Russia into a period of chaos and civil war known as the <a href="/wiki/Time_of_Troubles" title="Time of Troubles">Time of Troubles</a>, ending with the coronation of <a href="/wiki/Michael_of_Russia" title="Michael of Russia">Michael Romanov</a> as the first Tsar of the <a href="/wiki/Romanov_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Romanov dynasty">Romanov dynasty</a> in 1613. During the rest of the seventeenth century, Russia completed the <a href="/wiki/Russian_conquest_of_Siberia" title="Russian conquest of Siberia">exploration and conquest of Siberia</a>, claiming lands as far as the Pacific Ocean by the end of the century. Domestically, Russia faced numerous uprisings of the various ethnic groups under their control, as exemplified by the <a href="/wiki/Cossack" class="mw-redirect" title="Cossack">Cossack</a> leader <a href="/wiki/Stenka_Razin" title="Stenka Razin">Stenka Razin</a>, who led a revolt in 1670–1671. In 1721, in the wake of the <a href="/wiki/Great_Northern_War" title="Great Northern War">Great Northern War</a>, Tsar <a href="/wiki/Peter_the_Great" title="Peter the Great">Peter the Great</a> renamed the state as the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a>; he is also noted for establishing <a href="/wiki/St._Petersburg" class="mw-redirect" title="St. Petersburg">St. Petersburg</a> as the new capital of his Empire, and for his introducing Western European culture to Russia. In 1762, Russia came under the control of <a href="/wiki/Catherine_the_Great" title="Catherine the Great">Catherine the Great</a>, who continued the westernizing policies of Peter the Great, and ushered in the era of the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Enlightenment" title="Russian Enlightenment">Russian Enlightenment</a>. Catherine's grandson, <a href="/wiki/Alexander_I_of_Russia" title="Alexander I of Russia">Alexander I</a>, repulsed an <a href="/wiki/French_invasion_of_Russia" title="French invasion of Russia">invasion by the French Emperor Napoleon</a>, leading Russia into the status of one of the <a href="/wiki/Great_power" title="Great power">great powers</a>. Peasant revolts intensified during the nineteenth century, culminating with <a href="/wiki/Alexander_II_of_Russia" title="Alexander II of Russia">Alexander II</a> <a href="/wiki/Emancipation_reform_of_1861" title="Emancipation reform of 1861">abolishing</a> <a href="/wiki/Serfdom_in_Russia" title="Serfdom in Russia">Russian serfdom</a> in 1861. In the following decades, reform efforts such as the <a href="/wiki/Stolypin_reform" title="Stolypin reform">Stolypin reforms</a> of 1906–1914, the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Constitution_of_1906" title="Russian Constitution of 1906">constitution of 1906</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/State_Duma_(Russian_Empire)" title="State Duma (Russian Empire)">State Duma</a> (1906–1917) attempted to open and liberalize the economy and political system, but the emperors refused to relinquish <a href="/wiki/Tsarist_autocracy" title="Tsarist autocracy">autocratic rule</a> and resisted sharing their power. A combination of economic breakdown, mismanagement over <a href="/wiki/Russia_in_World_War_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Russia in World War I">Russia's involvement in World War I</a>, and discontent with the autocratic system of government triggered the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian Revolution</a> in 1917. The <a href="/wiki/February_Revolution" title="February Revolution">end of the monarchy</a> initially brought into office a coalition of liberals and moderate socialists, but their failed policies led to the <a href="/wiki/October_Revolution" title="October Revolution">October Revolution</a>. In 1922, <a href="/wiki/Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic" title="Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic">Soviet Russia</a>, along with the <a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_SSR" class="mw-redirect" title="Ukrainian SSR">Ukrainian SSR</a>, <a href="/wiki/Byelorussian_SSR" class="mw-redirect" title="Byelorussian SSR">Byelorussian SSR</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Transcaucasian_SFSR" class="mw-redirect" title="Transcaucasian SFSR">Transcaucasian SFSR</a> signed the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_on_the_Creation_of_the_USSR" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaty on the Creation of the USSR">Treaty on the Creation of the USSR</a>, officially merging all four republics to form the Soviet Union as a single state. Between 1922 and 1991 the history of Russia essentially became the <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="History of the Soviet Union">history of the Soviet Union</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Neutral_point_of_view/FAQ#Assert_facts,_not_opinions" title="Wikipedia:Neutral point of view/FAQ">opinion</a>] During this period, the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> was one of <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II" title="Allies of World War II">the victors</a> in <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union_in_World_War_II" title="Soviet Union in World War II">World War II</a> after recovering from a <a href="/wiki/Operation_Barbarossa" title="Operation Barbarossa">surprise invasion in 1941</a> by <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a> and its <a href="/wiki/Collaboration_with_Nazi_Germany_and_Fascist_Italy" title="Collaboration with Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy">collaborators</a>, which had previously signed a <a href="/wiki/Molotov%E2%80%93Ribbentrop_Pact" title="Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact">non-aggression pact</a> with the Soviet Union. The Soviet Union's network of <a href="/wiki/Satellite_state" title="Satellite state">satellite states</a> in Eastern Europe, which were brought into its <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet Empire">sphere of influence</a> in the closing stages of World War II, helped the country become a <a href="/wiki/Superpower" title="Superpower">superpower</a> competing with fellow superpower the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> and other Western countries in the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a>. By the mid-1980s, with the weaknesses of Soviet economic and political structures becoming acute, <a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev" title="Mikhail Gorbachev">Mikhail Gorbachev</a> embarked on major reforms, which eventually led to the weakening of the <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Communist Party of the Soviet Union">communist party</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Dissolution of the Soviet Union">dissolution of the Soviet Union</a>, leaving Russia again on its own and marking the start of the <a href="/wiki/History_of_Russia_(1991%E2%80%93present)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Russia (1991–present)">history of post-Soviet Russia</a>. The Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic renamed itself as the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Federation" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian Federation">Russian Federation</a> and became the primary <a href="/wiki/Lisbon_Protocol" title="Lisbon Protocol">successor state to the Soviet Union</a>.<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> Russia retained its <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_arsenal" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear arsenal">nuclear arsenal</a> but lost its <a href="/wiki/Superpower" title="Superpower">superpower</a> status. Scrapping the <a href="/wiki/Planned_economy" title="Planned economy">central planning</a> and state-ownership of property of the Soviet era in the 1990s, new leaders, led by President <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Putin" title="Vladimir Putin">Vladimir Putin</a>, took political and economic power after 2000 and engaged in an assertive <a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="Foreign policy of Russia">foreign policy</a>. Coupled with economic growth, Russia has since regained significant global status as a world power. Russia's 2014 <a href="/wiki/Annexation_of_Crimea_by_the_Russian_Federation" title="Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation">annexation of the Crimean Peninsula</a> led to economic sanctions imposed by the United States and the <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a>. Russia's 2022 <a href="/wiki/2022_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" class="mw-redirect" title="2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine">invasion of Ukraine</a> led to significantly expanded <a href="/wiki/International_sanctions_during_the_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" title="International sanctions during the Russian invasion of Ukraine">sanctions</a>. Under Putin's leadership, <a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Russia" title="Corruption in Russia">corruption in Russia</a> is rated as the worst in Europe, and Russia's <a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Russia" title="Human rights in Russia">human rights situation</a> has been increasingly criticized by international observers. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Prehistory">Prehistory</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Russia&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Prehistory">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Steppe_nomads" class="mw-redirect" title="Steppe nomads">Steppe nomads</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scythians" title="Scythians">Scythians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scythia" title="Scythia">Scythia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Proto-Uralic" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Uralic">Proto-Uralic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paleo-Siberian" class="mw-redirect" title="Paleo-Siberian">Paleo-Siberian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pontic%E2%80%93Caspian_steppe" title="Pontic–Caspian steppe">Pontic–Caspian steppe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Domestication_of_the_horse" title="Domestication of the horse">Domestication of the horse</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kama_culture" title="Kama culture">Kama culture</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Pit%E2%80%93Comb_Ware_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Pit–Comb Ware culture">Pit–Comb Ware culture</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:IE_expansion.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/IE_expansion.png/300px-IE_expansion.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="183" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5a/IE_expansion.png 1.5x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="275" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Kurgan_hypothesis" title="Kurgan hypothesis">Kurgan hypothesis</a>: South Russia as the <a href="/wiki/Urheimat" class="mw-redirect" title="Urheimat">urheimat</a> of <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-Europeans" title="Proto-Indo-Europeans">Indo-European peoples</a></figcaption></figure> The first human settlement on the territory of Russia dates back to the <a href="/wiki/Oldowan" title="Oldowan">Oldowan</a> period in the early <a href="/wiki/Lower_Paleolithic" title="Lower Paleolithic">Lower Paleolithic</a>. About 2 million years ago, representatives of <a href="/wiki/Homo_erectus" title="Homo erectus">Homo erectus</a> migrated from Western Asia to the North Caucasus (archaeological site of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Kermek&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kermek (page does not exist)">Kermek</a> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BA_(%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%8F%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%B0)" class="extiw" title="ru:Кермек (стоянка)">ru</a>] on the <a href="/wiki/Taman_Peninsula" title="Taman Peninsula">Taman Peninsula</a><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a>). At <a href="/w/index.php?title=Bogatyri/Sinyaya_balka&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bogatyri/Sinyaya balka (page does not exist)">Bogatyri/Sinyaya balka</a> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%8B%D1%80%D0%B8/%D0%A1%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%8F%D1%8F_%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BA%D0%B0" class="extiw" title="ru:Богатыри/Синяя балка">ru</a>], in a skull of <a href="/wiki/Elasmotherium" title="Elasmotherium">Elasmotherium caucasicum</a>, which lived 1.5–1.2 million years ago, a stone tool was found.<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> 1.5-million-year-old <a href="/wiki/Oldowan" title="Oldowan">Oldowan</a> flint tools have been discovered in the <a href="/wiki/Dagestan" title="Dagestan">Dagestan</a> Akusha region of the north Caucasus, demonstrating the presence of early humans in the territory of present-day Russia.<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> Fossils of <a href="/wiki/Denisova_hominin" class="mw-redirect" title="Denisova hominin">Denisovans</a> in Russia date to about 110,000 years ago.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> DNA from a bone fragment found in <a href="/wiki/Denisova_Cave" title="Denisova Cave">Denisova Cave</a>, belonging to a female who died about 90,000 years ago, shows that she was a <a href="/wiki/Denny_(hybrid_hominin)" title="Denny (hybrid hominin)">hybrid of a Neanderthal mother and a Denisovan father</a>.<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> Russia was also home to some of the last surviving <a href="/wiki/Neanderthal" title="Neanderthal">Neanderthals</a> - the partial skeleton of a Neanderthal infant in <a href="/wiki/Mezmaiskaya_cave" title="Mezmaiskaya cave">Mezmaiskaya cave</a> in <a href="/wiki/Adygea" title="Adygea">Adygea</a> showed a carbon-dated age of only 45,000 years.<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> In 2008, Russian <a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">archaeologists</a> from the Institute of Archaeology and Ethnology of <a href="/wiki/Novosibirsk" title="Novosibirsk">Novosibirsk</a>, working at the site of <a href="/wiki/Denisova_Cave" title="Denisova Cave">Denisova Cave</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Altai_Mountains" title="Altai Mountains">Altai Mountains</a> of <a href="/wiki/Siberia" title="Siberia">Siberia</a>, uncovered a 40,000-year-old small bone fragment from the fifth finger of a juvenile <a href="/wiki/Hominin" class="mw-redirect" title="Hominin">hominin</a>, which DNA analysis revealed to be a previously unknown species of human, which was named the <a href="/wiki/Denisova_hominin" class="mw-redirect" title="Denisova hominin">Denisova hominin</a>.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> The first trace of Homo sapiens on the large expanse of Russian territory dates back to 45,000 years, in central Siberia (<a href="/wiki/Ust%27-Ishim_man" title="Ust'-Ishim man">Ust'-Ishim man</a>). The discovery of some of the earliest evidence for the presence of <a href="/wiki/Anatomically-modern_human" class="mw-redirect" title="Anatomically-modern human">anatomically modern humans</a> found anywhere in Europe was reported in 2007 from the <a href="/wiki/Kostyonki%E2%80%93Borshchyovo_archaeological_complex" class="mw-redirect" title="Kostyonki–Borshchyovo archaeological complex">Kostenki archaeological site</a> near the <a href="/wiki/Don_(river)" title="Don (river)">Don River</a> in Russia (dated to at least 40,000 years ago<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a>) and at <a href="/wiki/Sungir" title="Sungir">Sungir</a> (34,600 years ago). Humans reached Arctic Russia (<a href="/wiki/Mamontovaya_Kurya" title="Mamontovaya Kurya">Mamontovaya Kurya</a>) by 40,000 years ago. During the prehistoric eras the vast <a href="/wiki/Steppe" title="Steppe">steppes</a> of Southern Russia were home to <a href="/wiki/Tribe" title="Tribe">tribes</a> of <a href="/wiki/Nomadic_pastoralists" class="mw-redirect" title="Nomadic pastoralists">nomadic pastoralists</a>. (In classical antiquity, the <a href="/wiki/Pontic_Steppe" class="mw-redirect" title="Pontic Steppe">Pontic Steppe</a> was known as "<a href="/wiki/Scythia" title="Scythia">Scythia</a>".<a href="#cite_note-Belinskij-15">[15]</a>) Remnants of these long-gone steppe cultures were discovered in the course of the 20th century in such places as <a href="/wiki/Ipatovo_kurgan" title="Ipatovo kurgan">Ipatovo</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Belinskij-15">[15]</a> <a href="/wiki/Sintashta" title="Sintashta">Sintashta</a>,<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> <a href="/wiki/Arkaim" title="Arkaim">Arkaim</a>,<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pazyryk_burials" title="Pazyryk burials">Pazyryk</a>.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Antiquity">Antiquity</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Russia&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Antiquity">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Scythia" title="Scythia">Scythia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bosporan_Kingdom" title="Bosporan Kingdom">Bosporan Kingdom</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_colonies" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greek colonies">Ancient Greek colonies</a>, <a href="/wiki/Goths" title="Goths">Goths</a>, <a href="/wiki/Huns" title="Huns">Huns</a>, <a href="/wiki/Turkic_migration" title="Turkic migration">Turkic migration</a>, <a href="/wiki/Khazaria" class="mw-redirect" title="Khazaria">Khazaria</a>, and <a href="/wiki/History_of_Siberia" title="History of Siberia">History of Siberia</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Grave_stele_03_pushkin.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Grave_stele_03_pushkin.jpg/170px-Grave_stele_03_pushkin.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="313" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Grave_stele_03_pushkin.jpg/255px-Grave_stele_03_pushkin.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Grave_stele_03_pushkin.jpg/340px-Grave_stele_03_pushkin.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1777" data-file-height="3269" /></a><figcaption>Stele with two <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_armies" title="Hellenistic armies">Hellenistic soldiers</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Bosporan_Kingdom" title="Bosporan Kingdom">Bosporan Kingdom</a>; from <a href="/wiki/Taman_Peninsula" title="Taman Peninsula">Taman Peninsula</a> (Yubileynoe), <a href="/wiki/Southern_Russia" title="Southern Russia">southern Russia</a>, 3rd quarter of the 4th century BC; marble, <a href="/wiki/Pushkin_Museum" title="Pushkin Museum">Pushkin Museum</a></figcaption></figure> In the later part of the 8th century BCE, Greek merchants brought <a href="/wiki/Classical_civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical civilization">classical civilization</a> to the trade emporiums in <a href="/wiki/Tanais" title="Tanais">Tanais</a> and <a href="/wiki/Phanagoria" title="Phanagoria">Phanagoria</a>.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> <a href="/wiki/Gelonus" title="Gelonus">Gelonus</a> was described by <a href="/wiki/Herodotus" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</a> as a huge (Europe's biggest) earth- and wood-fortified <a href="/wiki/Grad_(Slavic_settlement)" class="mw-redirect" title="Grad (Slavic settlement)">grad</a> inhabited around 500 BC by Heloni and <a href="/wiki/Budini" title="Budini">Budini</a>. In 513 BC, the king of the <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Darius_the_Great" title="Darius the Great">Darius I</a>, would launch a military campaign around the <a href="/wiki/Black_Sea" title="Black Sea">Black Sea</a> into Scythia, modern-day Ukraine, eventually reaching the Tanais river (now known as the <a href="/wiki/Don_(river)" title="Don (river)">Don</a>). Greeks, mostly from the city-state of <a href="/wiki/Miletus" title="Miletus">Miletus</a>, would colonize large parts of modern-day Crimea and the <a href="/wiki/Sea_of_Azov" title="Sea of Azov">Sea of Azov</a> during the seventh and sixth centuries BC, eventually unifying into the <a href="/wiki/Bosporan_Kingdom" title="Bosporan Kingdom">Bosporan Kingdom</a> by 480 BC, and would be incorporated into the large <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Pontus" title="Kingdom of Pontus">Kingdom of Pontus</a> in 107 BC. The Kingdom would eventually be conquered by the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a>, and the Bosporan Kingdom would become a client state of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>. At about the 2nd century AD Goths migrated to the Black Sea, and in the 3rd and 4th centuries AD, a semi-legendary Gothic kingdom of <a href="/wiki/Oium" title="Oium">Oium</a> existed in Southern Russia until it was overrun by <a href="/wiki/Huns" title="Huns">Huns</a>. Between the 3rd and 6th centuries AD, the Bosporan Kingdom was also overwhelmed by successive waves of nomadic invasions,<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> led by warlike tribes which would often move on to Europe, as was the case with the <a href="/wiki/Huns" title="Huns">Huns</a> and <a href="/wiki/Avars_(Carpathians)" class="mw-redirect" title="Avars (Carpathians)">Turkish Avars</a>. In the second millennium BC, the territories between the Kama and the Irtysh Rivers were the home of a Proto-Uralic-speaking population that had contacts with Proto-Indo-European speakers from the south. The woodland population is the ancestor of the modern Ugrian inhabitants of Trans-Uralia. Other researchers say that the <a href="/wiki/Khanty" title="Khanty">Khanty</a> people originated in the south Ural steppe and moved northwards into their current location about 500 AD. A Turkic people, the <a href="/wiki/Khazars" title="Khazars">Khazars</a>, ruled the lower <a href="/wiki/Volga_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Volga River">Volga</a> basin <a href="/wiki/Steppe" title="Steppe">steppes</a> between the <a href="/wiki/Caspian_Sea" title="Caspian Sea">Caspian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Black_Sea" title="Black Sea">Black Seas</a> through to the 8th century.<a href="#cite_note-Christian-21">[21]</a> Noted for their laws, tolerance, and cosmopolitanism,<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> the Khazars were the main commercial link between the Baltic and the Muslim <a href="/wiki/Abbasid" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbasid">Abbasid</a> empire centered in <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a>.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> They were important allies of the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Eastern Roman Empire</a>,<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> and waged a series of successful wars against the <a href="/wiki/Arab" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab">Arab</a> <a href="/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate">Caliphates</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Christian-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-Frank-25">[25]</a> In the 8th century, the Khazars embraced Judaism.<a href="#cite_note-Frank-25">[25]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_history">Early history</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Russia&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Early history">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_Slavs">Early Slavs</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Russia&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Early Slavs">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/East_Slavs" title="East Slavs">East Slavs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rus%27_Khaganate" title="Rus' Khaganate">Rus' Khaganate</a></div> Some of the ancestors of the modern <a href="/wiki/Russians" title="Russians">Russians</a> were the <a href="/wiki/Slavic_peoples" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavic peoples">Slavic tribes</a>, whose original home is thought by some scholars to have been the <a href="/wiki/Pripet_Marshes" class="mw-redirect" title="Pripet Marshes">Pripet Marshes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Early_East_Slavs" class="mw-redirect" title="Early East Slavs">Early East Slavs</a> gradually settled <a href="/wiki/Western_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Russia">Western Russia</a> in two waves: one moving from <a href="/wiki/Kiev" class="mw-redirect" title="Kiev">Kiev</a> (present-day <a href="/wiki/Ukraine" title="Ukraine">Ukraine</a>) towards present-day <a href="/wiki/Suzdal" title="Suzdal">Suzdal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Murom" title="Murom">Murom</a> and another from <a href="/wiki/Polotsk" title="Polotsk">Polotsk</a> (present-day <a href="/wiki/Belarus" title="Belarus">Belarus</a>) towards <a href="/wiki/Novgorod" class="mw-redirect" title="Novgorod">Novgorod</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rostov,_Yaroslavl_Oblast" title="Rostov, Yaroslavl Oblast">Rostov</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Christian2-27">[27]</a> From the 7th century onwards, East Slavs constituted the bulk of the population in Western Russia<a href="#cite_note-Christian2-27">[27]</a> and slowly conquered and assimilated the native <a href="/wiki/Finnic_peoples" title="Finnic peoples">Finnic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Baltic_peoples" class="mw-redirect" title="Baltic peoples">Baltic tribes</a>, such as the <a href="/wiki/Merya_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Merya people">Merya</a>,<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Muromians" class="mw-redirect" title="Muromians">Muromians</a>,<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Meshchera" class="mw-redirect" title="Meshchera">Meshchera</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Mongait-30">[30]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kievan_Rus'_(862–1240)">Kievan Rus' (862–1240)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Russia&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Kievan Rus' (862–1240)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%92%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8F%D0%B3%D0%B8.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/%D0%92%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8F%D0%B3%D0%B8.jpg/220px-%D0%92%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8F%D0%B3%D0%B8.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/%D0%92%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8F%D0%B3%D0%B8.jpg/330px-%D0%92%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8F%D0%B3%D0%B8.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/%D0%92%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8F%D0%B3%D0%B8.jpg/440px-%D0%92%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8F%D0%B3%D0%B8.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3425" data-file-height="2418" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Calling_of_the_Varangians" title="Calling of the Varangians">Calling of the Varangians</a> by <a href="/wiki/Viktor_Vasnetsov" title="Viktor Vasnetsov">Viktor Vasnetsov</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Scandinavia" title="Scandinavia">Scandinavian</a> Norsemen, known as <a href="/wiki/Vikings" title="Vikings">Vikings</a> in Western Europe and <a href="/wiki/Varangian" class="mw-redirect" title="Varangian">Varangians</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMagocsi201055,_59–60-31">[31]</a> in the East, combined <a href="/wiki/Piracy" title="Piracy">piracy</a> and trade throughout Northern Europe. In the mid-9th century, they began to venture along the waterways from the eastern <a href="/wiki/Baltic_Sea" title="Baltic Sea">Baltic</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Black_Sea" title="Black Sea">Black</a> and <a href="/wiki/Caspian_Sea" title="Caspian Sea">Caspian Seas</a>.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> According to the legendary <a href="/wiki/Calling_of_the_Varangians" title="Calling of the Varangians">Calling of the Varangians</a>, recorded in several <a href="/wiki/Rus%27_chronicle" title="Rus' chronicle">Rus' chronicles</a> such as the <a href="/wiki/Novgorod_First_Chronicle" title="Novgorod First Chronicle">Novgorod First Chronicle</a> and <a href="/wiki/Primary_Chronicle" title="Primary Chronicle">Primary Chronicle</a>, the Varangians <a href="/wiki/Rurik" title="Rurik">Rurik</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sineus_and_Truvor" title="Sineus and Truvor">Sineus and Truvor</a> were invited in the 860s to restore order in three towns – either <a href="/wiki/Novgorod" class="mw-redirect" title="Novgorod">Novgorod</a> (most texts) or <a href="/wiki/Staraya_Ladoga" title="Staraya Ladoga">Staraya Ladoga</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hypatian_Codex" title="Hypatian Codex">Hypatian Codex</a>); <a href="/wiki/Beloozero" class="mw-redirect" title="Beloozero">Beloozero</a>; and <a href="/wiki/Izborsk" title="Izborsk">Izborsk</a> (most texts) or "Slovensk" (Pskov Third Chronicle), respectively.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMartin2009b3-33">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMagocsi201055,_59–60-31">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrossSherbowitz-Wetzor195338–39-34">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-Curtis-35">[35]</a> Their successors allegedly moved south and extended their authority to <a href="/wiki/Kiev" class="mw-redirect" title="Kiev">Kiev</a>,<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> which had been previously dominated by the Khazars.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> Thus, the first East Slavic state, <a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus" class="mw-redirect" title="Kievan Rus">Rus'</a>, emerged in the 9th century along the <a href="/wiki/Dnieper_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Dnieper River">Dnieper River</a> valley.<a href="#cite_note-Curtis-35">[35]</a> A coordinated group of princely states with a common interest in maintaining trade along the river routes, Kievan Rus' controlled <a href="/wiki/Trade_route_from_the_Varangians_to_the_Greeks" class="mw-redirect" title="Trade route from the Varangians to the Greeks">the trade route for furs, wax, and slaves</a> between Scandinavia and the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> along the <a href="/wiki/Volkhov_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Volkhov River">Volkhov</a> and Dnieper Rivers.<a href="#cite_note-Curtis-35">[35]</a> By the end of the 10th century, the minority <a href="/wiki/Old_Norse_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Norse language">Norse</a> military aristocracy had merged with the native Slavic population,<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> which also absorbed <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Greece" title="Byzantine Greece">Greek</a> Christian influences in the course of the multiple <a href="/wiki/Rus%27%E2%80%93Byzantine_War_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Rus'–Byzantine War (disambiguation)">campaigns</a> to loot <a href="/wiki/Tsargrad" title="Tsargrad">Tsargrad</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a>.<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> One such campaign claimed the life of the foremost Slavic <a href="/wiki/Druzhina" title="Druzhina">druzhina</a> leader, <a href="/wiki/Svyatoslav_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Svyatoslav I">Svyatoslav I</a>, who was renowned for having crushed the power of the <a href="/wiki/Khazars" title="Khazars">Khazars</a> on the Volga.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kievan-rus-1015-1113-(en).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Kievan-rus-1015-1113-%28en%29.png/220px-Kievan-rus-1015-1113-%28en%29.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="270" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Kievan-rus-1015-1113-%28en%29.png/330px-Kievan-rus-1015-1113-%28en%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Kievan-rus-1015-1113-%28en%29.png/440px-Kievan-rus-1015-1113-%28en%29.png 2x" data-file-width="2166" data-file-height="2659" /></a><figcaption>Kievan Rus' after the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Liubech" title="Council of Liubech">Council of Liubech</a> in 1097</figcaption></figure> Kievan Rus' is important for its introduction of a <a href="/wiki/Russian_Orthodox_Church" title="Russian Orthodox Church">Slavic variant</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodoxy" title="Eastern Orthodoxy">Eastern Orthodox</a> religion,<a href="#cite_note-Curtis-35">[35]</a> dramatically deepening a synthesis of Byzantine and Slavic cultures that defined Russian culture for the next thousand years. The region <a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Kievan_Rus%27" title="Christianization of Kievan Rus'">adopted Christianity in 988</a> by the official act of public <a href="/wiki/Baptism" title="Baptism">baptism</a> of Kiev inhabitants by <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_I_of_Kiev" class="mw-redirect" title="Vladimir I of Kiev">Prince Vladimir I</a>.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> Some years later the first code of laws, <a href="/wiki/Russkaya_Pravda" title="Russkaya Pravda">Russkaya Pravda</a>, was introduced by <a href="/wiki/Yaroslav_the_Wise" title="Yaroslav the Wise">Yaroslav the Wise</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Smith-42">[42]</a> From the onset, the Kievan princes followed the Byzantine example and kept the Church dependent on them.<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> By the 11th century, particularly during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Yaroslav_the_Wise" title="Yaroslav the Wise">Yaroslav the Wise</a>, Kievan Rus' displayed an economy and achievements in architecture and literature superior to those that then existed in the western part of the continent.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> Compared with the languages of European Christendom, the <a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian language</a> was little influenced by the <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a> and <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> of early Christian writings.<a href="#cite_note-Curtis-35">[35]</a> This was because <a href="/wiki/Church_Slavonic" title="Church Slavonic">Church Slavonic</a> was used directly in <a href="/wiki/Liturgy" title="Liturgy">liturgy</a> instead.<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> A nomadic Turkic people, the <a href="/wiki/Kipchaks" title="Kipchaks">Kipchaks</a> (also known as the Cumans), replaced the earlier <a href="/wiki/Pechenegs" title="Pechenegs">Pechenegs</a> as the dominant force in the south steppe regions neighbouring to Rus' at the end of the 11th century and founded a nomadic state in the steppes along the Black Sea (Desht-e-Kipchak). Repelling their regular attacks, especially in Kiev, was a heavy burden for the southern areas of Rus'. The nomadic incursions caused a massive influx of Slavs to the safer, heavily forested regions of the north, particularly to the area known as <a href="/wiki/Zalesye" title="Zalesye">Zalesye</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Kievan Rus' ultimately disintegrated as a state because of in-fighting between members of the princely family that ruled it collectively. Kiev's dominance waned, to the benefit of <a href="/wiki/Vladimir-Suzdal" title="Vladimir-Suzdal">Vladimir-Suzdal</a> in the north-east, <a href="/wiki/Novgorod_Republic" title="Novgorod Republic">Novgorod</a> in the north, and <a href="/wiki/Halych-Volhynia" class="mw-redirect" title="Halych-Volhynia">Halych-Volhynia</a> in the south-west. Conquest by the <a href="/wiki/Mongol" class="mw-redirect" title="Mongol">Mongol</a> <a href="/wiki/Golden_Horde" title="Golden Horde">Golden Horde</a> in the 13th century was the final blow. Kiev was destroyed.<a href="#cite_note-Hamm-46">[46]</a> Halych-Volhynia would eventually be absorbed into the <a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Curtis-35">[35]</a> while the Mongol-dominated Vladimir-Suzdal and independent <a href="/wiki/Novgorod_Republic" title="Novgorod Republic">Novgorod Republic</a>, two regions on the periphery of Kiev, would establish the basis for the modern Russian nation.<a href="#cite_note-Curtis-35">[35]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mongol_invasion_and_vassalage_(1223–1480)">Mongol invasion and vassalage (1223–1480)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Russia&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Mongol invasion and vassalage (1223–1480)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Kievan_Rus%27" title="Mongol invasion of Kievan Rus'">Mongol invasion of Kievan Rus'</a> and <a href="/wiki/Great_Troubles" title="Great Troubles">Great Troubles</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mongols_vladimir.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Mongols_vladimir.jpg/220px-Mongols_vladimir.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="374" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Mongols_vladimir.jpg/330px-Mongols_vladimir.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Mongols_vladimir.jpg/440px-Mongols_vladimir.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="1360" /></a><figcaption>The sacking of <a href="/wiki/Vladimir,_Russia" title="Vladimir, Russia">Vladimir</a> by <a href="/wiki/Batu_Khan" title="Batu Khan">Batu Khan</a> in February 1238</figcaption></figure> The invading <a href="/wiki/Mongols" title="Mongols">Mongols</a> accelerated the fragmentation of the <a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Rus</a>'. In 1223, the disunited southern princes faced a Mongol raiding party at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Kalka_River" title="Battle of the Kalka River">Kalka River</a> and were soundly defeated.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> In 1237–1238 the Mongols burnt down the city of <a href="/wiki/Vladimir,_Russia" title="Vladimir, Russia">Vladimir</a> (4 February 1238)<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> and other major cities of northeast Russia, routed the Russians <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Sit_River" title="Battle of the Sit River">at the Sit' River</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMartin2004139-49">[49]</a> and then moved west into <a href="/wiki/Poland" title="Poland">Poland</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hungary" title="Hungary">Hungary</a>. By then they had conquered most of the Russian principalities.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> Only the <a href="/wiki/Novgorod_Republic" title="Novgorod Republic">Novgorod Republic</a> escaped occupation and continued to flourish in the orbit of the <a href="/wiki/Hanseatic_League" title="Hanseatic League">Hanseatic League</a>.<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> The impact of the Mongol invasion on the territories of Kievan Rus' was uneven. The advanced city culture was almost completely destroyed. As older centers such as Kiev and Vladimir never recovered from the devastation of the initial attack,<a href="#cite_note-Hamm-46">[46]</a> the new cities of Moscow,<a href="#cite_note-Curtis2-52">[52]</a> <a href="/wiki/Tver" title="Tver">Tver</a><a href="#cite_note-Curtis2-52">[52]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nizhny_Novgorod" title="Nizhny Novgorod">Nizhny Novgorod</a><a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> began to compete for hegemony in the Mongol-dominated <a href="/wiki/Rus%27_principalities" class="mw-redirect" title="Rus' principalities">Rus' principalities</a> under the suzerainty of the <a href="/wiki/Golden_Horde" title="Golden Horde">Golden Horde</a>. Although a coalition of Rus' princes led by <a href="/wiki/Dmitry_Donskoy" title="Dmitry Donskoy">Dmitry Donskoy</a> defeated Mongol warlord <a href="/wiki/Mamai" title="Mamai">Mamai</a> at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kulikovo" title="Battle of Kulikovo">Kulikovo</a> in 1380,<a href="#cite_note-Kulikovo-54">[54]</a> forces of the new khan <a href="/wiki/Tokhtamysh" title="Tokhtamysh">Tokhtamysh</a> and his Rus' allies immediately <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Moscow_(1382)" title="Siege of Moscow (1382)">sacked Moscow in 1382</a> as punishment for resisting Mongol authority.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalperin198773–75-55">[55]</a> Mongol domination of the Rus' principalities, along with tax collection by various overlords such as the <a href="/wiki/Crimean_Khanate" title="Crimean Khanate">Crimean Khans</a>, continued into the early 16th century, despite later claims of Muscovite bookmen that the <a href="/wiki/Great_Stand_on_the_Ugra_River" title="Great Stand on the Ugra River">indecisive standoff at the Ugra in 1480</a> had signified "the end of the Tatar yoke" and the "liberation of Russia".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalperin198777–78-56">[56]</a> The Mongols dominated the lower reaches of the Volga and held Russia in sway from their western capital at <a href="/wiki/Sarai_(city)" title="Sarai (city)">Sarai</a>,<a href="#cite_note-history_world-57">[57]</a> one of the largest cities of the medieval world. The princes had to pay tribute to the Mongols of the Golden Horde, commonly called <a href="/wiki/Tatars" title="Tatars">Tatars</a>;<a href="#cite_note-history_world-57">[57]</a> but in return they received charters authorizing them to act as deputies to the khans. In general, the princes were allowed considerable freedom to rule as they wished,<a href="#cite_note-history_world-57">[57]</a> while the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Orthodox_Church" title="Russian Orthodox Church">Russian Orthodox Church</a> even experienced a spiritual revival. The Mongols left their impact on the Russians in such areas as military tactics and transportation. Under Mongol occupation, Muscovy also developed its postal road network, census, fiscal system, and military organization.<a href="#cite_note-Curtis-35">[35]</a> At the same time, Prince of Novgorod, <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Nevsky" title="Alexander Nevsky">Alexander Nevsky</a>, managed to <a href="/wiki/Battle_on_the_Ice" title="Battle on the Ice">repel the offensive</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Crusades" title="Northern Crusades">Northern Crusades</a> against <a href="/wiki/Novgorod_Republic" title="Novgorod Republic">Novgorod</a> from the West. Despite this, becoming the Grand Prince, Alexander declared himself a vassal to the Golden Horde, not having the strength to resist its power.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Neutral_point_of_view" title="Wikipedia:Neutral point of view">neutrality</a> is <a href="/wiki/Talk:History_of_Russia" title="Talk:History of Russia">disputed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Grand_Duchy_of_Moscow_(1283–1547)">Grand Duchy of Moscow (1283–1547)</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Russia&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Grand Duchy of Moscow (1283–1547)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Moscow" class="mw-redirect" title="Grand Duchy of Moscow">Grand Duchy of Moscow</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rise_of_Moscow">Rise of Moscow</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Russia&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Rise of Moscow">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dmitry_Donskoy_in_the_Battle_of_Kulikovo.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Dmitry_Donskoy_in_the_Battle_of_Kulikovo.jpg/220px-Dmitry_Donskoy_in_the_Battle_of_Kulikovo.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="264" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Dmitry_Donskoy_in_the_Battle_of_Kulikovo.jpg/330px-Dmitry_Donskoy_in_the_Battle_of_Kulikovo.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Dmitry_Donskoy_in_the_Battle_of_Kulikovo.jpg/440px-Dmitry_Donskoy_in_the_Battle_of_Kulikovo.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="2302" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Dmitry_Donskoy" title="Dmitry Donskoy">Dmitry Donskoy</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kulikovo" title="Battle of Kulikovo">Battle of Kulikovo</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Daniil_Aleksandrovich" class="mw-redirect" title="Daniil Aleksandrovich">Daniil Aleksandrovich</a>, the youngest son of Alexander Nevsky, founded the <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Moscow" class="mw-redirect" title="Grand Duchy of Moscow">principality of Moscow</a> (known as Muscovy in English),<a href="#cite_note-Curtis2-52">[52]</a> which first cooperated with and ultimately expelled the Tatars from Russia. Well-situated in the central river system of Russia and surrounded by protective forests and marshes, Moscow was at first only a <a href="/wiki/Vassal" title="Vassal">vassal</a> of Vladimir, but soon it absorbed its parent state. A major factor in the ascendancy of Moscow was the cooperation of its rulers with the Mongol overlords, who granted them the title of Grand Prince of Moscow and made them agents for collecting the Tatar tribute from the Russian principalities. The principality's prestige was further enhanced when it became the center of the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Orthodox_Church" title="Russian Orthodox Church">Russian Orthodox Church</a>. Its head, the <a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_bishop" title="Metropolitan bishop">Metropolitan</a>, fled from Kiev to <a href="/wiki/Vladimir-Suzdal" title="Vladimir-Suzdal">Vladimir</a> in 1299 and a few years later established the permanent headquarters of the Church in Moscow under the original title of Kiev Metropolitan. By the middle of the 14th century, the power of the Mongols was declining, and the Grand Princes felt able to openly oppose the <a href="/wiki/Mongol_yoke" class="mw-redirect" title="Mongol yoke">Mongol yoke</a>. In 1380, at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kulikovo" title="Battle of Kulikovo">Battle of Kulikovo</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Don_River,_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="Don River, Russia">Don River</a>, the Mongols were defeated,<a href="#cite_note-Kulikovo-54">[54]</a> and although this hard-fought victory did not end Tatar rule of Russia, it did bring great fame to the Grand Prince <a href="/wiki/Dmitry_Donskoy" title="Dmitry Donskoy">Dmitry Donskoy</a>. Moscow's leadership in Russia was now firmly based and by the middle of the 14th century its territory had greatly expanded through purchase, war, and marriage. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ivan_III,_the_Great">Ivan III, the Great</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Russia&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Ivan III, the Great">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ivan_III_of_Russia" title="Ivan III of Russia">Ivan III of Russia</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%98%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD_III_%D0%92%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/%D0%98%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD_III_%D0%92%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9.JPG/220px-%D0%98%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD_III_%D0%92%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/%D0%98%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD_III_%D0%92%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9.JPG/330px-%D0%98%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD_III_%D0%92%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/%D0%98%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD_III_%D0%92%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9.JPG/440px-%D0%98%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD_III_%D0%92%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4912" data-file-height="2760" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ivan_III_of_Russia" title="Ivan III of Russia">Ivan III of Russia</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Millennium_of_Russia" title="Millennium of Russia">Millennium of Russia</a>. At his feet, defeated: Tatar, Lithuanian and Baltic German.</figcaption></figure> In the 15th century, the grand princes of Moscow continued to consolidate Russian land to increase their population and wealth. The most successful practitioner of this process was <a href="/wiki/Ivan_III_of_Russia" title="Ivan III of Russia">Ivan III</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Curtis2-52">[52]</a> who laid the foundations for a Russian national state. Ivan competed with his powerful northwestern rival, the <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Lithuania" title="Grand Duchy of Lithuania">Grand Duchy of Lithuania</a>, for control over some of the semi-independent <a href="/wiki/Upper_Principalities" class="mw-redirect" title="Upper Principalities">Upper Principalities</a> in the upper <a href="/wiki/Dnieper_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Dnieper River">Dnieper</a> and <a href="/wiki/Oka_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Oka River">Oka River</a> basins.<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a><a href="#cite_note-EB_IvanIII-59">[59]</a> Through the defections of some princes, border skirmishes, and a long war with the Novgorod Republic, Ivan III was able to annex Novgorod and Tver.<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> As a result, the <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Moscow" class="mw-redirect" title="Grand Duchy of Moscow">Grand Duchy of Moscow</a> tripled in size under his rule.<a href="#cite_note-Curtis2-52">[52]</a> During his conflict with Pskov, a monk named <a href="/wiki/Filofei" class="mw-redirect" title="Filofei">Filofei</a> (Philotheus of Pskov) composed a letter to Ivan III, with the prophecy that the latter's kingdom would be the <a href="/wiki/Third_Rome" class="mw-redirect" title="Third Rome">Third Rome</a>.<a href="#cite_note-EB3R-61">[61]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">Fall of Constantinople</a> and the death of the last Greek Orthodox Christian emperor contributed to this new idea of <a href="/wiki/Moscow,_third_Rome" title="Moscow, third Rome">Moscow as New Rome</a> and the seat of Orthodox Christianity, as did Ivan's 1472 marriage to Byzantine Princess <a href="/wiki/Sophia_Palaiologina" title="Sophia Palaiologina">Sophia Palaiologina</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Curtis2-52">[52]</a> Under Ivan III, the first central government bodies were created in Russia: <a href="/wiki/Prikaz" title="Prikaz">Prikaz</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Sudebnik_of_1497" title="Sudebnik of 1497">Sudebnik</a> was adopted, the first set of laws since the 11th century. The double-headed eagle was adopted as the <a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_Russia" title="Coat of arms of Russia">coat of arms of Russia</a>. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Muscovy_1390_1525.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Muscovy_1390_1525.png/220px-Muscovy_1390_1525.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="213" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Muscovy_1390_1525.png/330px-Muscovy_1390_1525.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2d/Muscovy_1390_1525.png 2x" data-file-width="440" data-file-height="425" /></a><figcaption>Grand Duchy of Moscow (Territorial expansion between 1300 and 1547)</figcaption></figure> Ivan proclaimed his absolute sovereignty over all Russian princes and nobles. Refusing further tribute to the Tatars, Ivan initiated a series of attacks that opened the way for the complete defeat of the declining <a href="/wiki/Golden_Horde" title="Golden Horde">Golden Horde</a>, now divided into several <a href="/wiki/Khanate" title="Khanate">Khanates</a> and hordes. Ivan and his successors sought to protect the southern boundaries of their domain against attacks of the <a href="/wiki/Khanate_of_Crimea" class="mw-redirect" title="Khanate of Crimea">Crimean Tatars</a> and other hordes.<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> To achieve this aim, they sponsored the construction of the <a href="/wiki/Great_Abatis_Belt" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Abatis Belt">Great Abatis Belt</a> and granted manors to nobles, who were obliged to serve in the military. The manor system provided a basis for an emerging cavalry-based army. In this way, internal consolidation accompanied outward expansion of the state. By the 16th century, the rulers of Moscow considered the entire Russian territory their collective property. Various semi-independent princes still claimed specific territories,<a href="#cite_note-EB_IvanIII-59">[59]</a> but Ivan III forced the lesser princes to acknowledge the grand prince of Moscow and his descendants as unquestioned rulers with control over military, judicial, and foreign affairs. Gradually, the Russian ruler emerged as a powerful, autocratic ruler, a tsar. The first Russian ruler to officially crown himself "<a href="/wiki/Tsar" title="Tsar">Tsar</a>" was <a href="/wiki/Ivan_IV" class="mw-redirect" title="Ivan IV">Ivan IV</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Curtis2-52">[52]</a> Ivan III tripled the territory of his state, ended the dominance of the <a href="/wiki/Golden_Horde" title="Golden Horde">Golden Horde</a> over the Rus', renovated the <a href="/wiki/Moscow_Kremlin" class="mw-redirect" title="Moscow Kremlin">Moscow Kremlin</a>, and laid the foundations of the Russian state. Biographer Fennell concludes that his reign was "militarily glorious and economically sound," and especially points to his territorial annexations and his centralized control over local rulers. However, Fennell argues that his reign was also "a period of cultural depression and spiritual barrenness. Freedom was stamped out within the Russian lands. By his bigoted anti-Catholicism Ivan brought down the curtain between Russia and the west. For the sake of territorial aggrandizement he deprived his country of the fruits of Western learning and civilization."<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Tsardom_of_Russia_(1547–1721)">Tsardom of Russia (1547–1721)</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Russia&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Tsardom of Russia (1547–1721)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Tsardom_of_Russia" title="Tsardom of Russia">Tsardom of Russia</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ivan_IV,_the_Terrible">Ivan IV, the Terrible</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Russia&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Ivan IV, the Terrible">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ivan_IV_the_Terrible_portrait_by_Weigel_1882.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Ivan_IV_the_Terrible_portrait_by_Weigel_1882.jpg/220px-Ivan_IV_the_Terrible_portrait_by_Weigel_1882.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="276" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Ivan_IV_the_Terrible_portrait_by_Weigel_1882.jpg/330px-Ivan_IV_the_Terrible_portrait_by_Weigel_1882.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Ivan_IV_the_Terrible_portrait_by_Weigel_1882.jpg/440px-Ivan_IV_the_Terrible_portrait_by_Weigel_1882.jpg 2x" data-file-width="548" data-file-height="688" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ivan_IV" class="mw-redirect" title="Ivan IV">Ivan IV</a> was the <a href="/wiki/Grand_Prince_of_Moscow" class="mw-redirect" title="Grand Prince of Moscow">Grand Prince of Moscow</a> from 1533 to 1547, then "Tsar of All the Russias" until his death in 1584.</figcaption></figure> The development of the Tsar's autocratic powers reached a peak during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Ivan_IV_of_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="Ivan IV of Russia">Ivan IV</a> (1547–1584), known as "Ivan the Terrible".<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> He strengthened the position of the monarch to an unprecedented degree, as he ruthlessly subordinated the nobles to his will, exiling or executing many on the slightest provocation.<a href="#cite_note-Curtis2-52">[52]</a> Nevertheless, Ivan is often seen as a farsighted statesman who reformed Russia as he promulgated a new code of laws (<a href="/wiki/Sudebnik_of_1550" title="Sudebnik of 1550">Sudebnik of 1550</a>),<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> established the first Russian feudal representative body (<a href="/wiki/Zemsky_Sobor" title="Zemsky Sobor">Zemsky Sobor</a>), curbed the influence of the clergy,<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> and introduced local self-management in rural regions.<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> Tsar also created the first regular army in Russia: <a href="/wiki/Streltsy" title="Streltsy">Streltsy</a>. His long <a href="/wiki/Livonian_War" title="Livonian War">Livonian War</a> (1558–1583) for control of the Baltic coast and access to the sea trade ultimately proved a costly failure.<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> Ivan managed to annex the <a href="/wiki/Khanate_of_Kazan" title="Khanate of Kazan">Khanates of Kazan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Khanate_of_Astrakhan" class="mw-redirect" title="Khanate of Astrakhan">Astrakhan</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Siberia_Khanate" class="mw-redirect" title="Siberia Khanate">Siberia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMartin2004395-70">[70]</a> These conquests complicated the migration of aggressive nomadic hordes from Asia to Europe via the Volga and <a href="/wiki/Urals" class="mw-redirect" title="Urals">Urals</a>. Through these conquests, Russia acquired a significant Muslim Tatar population and emerged as a <a href="/wiki/Multiethnic" class="mw-redirect" title="Multiethnic">multiethnic</a> and <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/multiconfessional" class="extiw" title="wikt:multiconfessional">multiconfessional</a> state. Also around this period, the mercantile <a href="/wiki/Stroganov" class="mw-redirect" title="Stroganov">Stroganov</a> family established a firm foothold in the Urals and recruited Russian <a href="/wiki/Cossacks" title="Cossacks">Cossacks</a> to colonise Siberia.<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> In the later part of his reign, Ivan divided his realm in two. In the zone known as the <a href="/wiki/Oprichnina" title="Oprichnina">oprichnina</a>, Ivan's followers carried out a series of bloody purges of the feudal aristocracy (whom he suspected of treachery after prince <a href="/wiki/Andrey_Kurbsky" title="Andrey Kurbsky">Andrey Kurbsky</a>'s betrayal), culminating in the <a href="/wiki/Massacre_of_Novgorod" title="Massacre of Novgorod">Massacre of Novgorod</a> in 1570. This combined with the military losses, epidemics, and poor harvests so weakened Russia that the <a href="/wiki/Crimean_Tatars" title="Crimean Tatars">Crimean Tatars</a> were able to sack central Russian regions and <a href="/wiki/Russo%E2%80%93Crimean_War_(1571)" class="mw-redirect" title="Russo–Crimean War (1571)">burn down Moscow in 1571</a>.<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> However, in 1572 the Russians defeated the Crimean Tatar army at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Molodi" title="Battle of Molodi">Battle of Molodi</a> and Ivan abandoned the oprichnina.<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a><a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> At the end of Ivan IV's reign the Polish–Lithuanian and Swedish armies carried out a powerful intervention in Russia, devastating its northern and northwest regions.<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Time_of_Troubles">Time of Troubles</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Russia&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Time of Troubles">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Time_of_Troubles" title="Time of Troubles">Time of Troubles</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lissner.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Lissner.jpg/220px-Lissner.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Lissner.jpg/330px-Lissner.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Lissner.jpg/440px-Lissner.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1937" data-file-height="1423" /></a><figcaption>The Poles surrender the <a href="/wiki/Moscow_Kremlin" class="mw-redirect" title="Moscow Kremlin">Moscow Kremlin</a> to <a href="/wiki/Prince_Pozharsky" class="mw-redirect" title="Prince Pozharsky">Prince Pozharsky</a> in 1612</figcaption></figure> The death of Ivan's childless son <a href="/wiki/Feodor_I_of_Russia" title="Feodor I of Russia">Feodor</a> was followed by a period of civil wars and foreign intervention known as the <a href="/wiki/Time_of_Troubles" title="Time of Troubles">Time of Troubles</a> (1606–13).<a href="#cite_note-Curtis2-52">[52]</a> Extremely cold summers (1601–1603) wrecked crops,<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> which led to the <a href="/wiki/Russian_famine_of_1601%E2%80%931603" title="Russian famine of 1601–1603">Russian famine of 1601–1603</a> and increased the social disorganization. <a href="/wiki/Boris_Godunov" title="Boris Godunov">Boris Godunov</a>'s reign ended in chaos, civil war combined with foreign intrusion, devastation of many cities and depopulation of the rural regions. The country rocked by internal chaos also attracted several waves of interventions by the <a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</a>.<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> During the <a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Muscovite_War_(1605%E2%80%931618)" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish–Muscovite War (1605–1618)">Polish–Muscovite War (1605–1618)</a>, Polish–Lithuanian forces reached Moscow and installed the impostor <a href="/wiki/False_Dmitriy_I" class="mw-redirect" title="False Dmitriy I">False Dmitriy I</a> in 1605, then supported <a href="/wiki/False_Dmitry_II" title="False Dmitry II">False Dmitry II</a> in 1607. The decisive moment came when a combined Russian-Swedish army was routed by the Polish forces under <a href="/wiki/Hetman" title="Hetman">hetman</a> <a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_%C5%BB%C3%B3%C5%82kiewski" title="Stanisław Żółkiewski">Stanisław Żółkiewski</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Klushino" title="Battle of Klushino">Battle of Klushino</a> on 4 July [<a href="/wiki/Old_Style_and_New_Style_dates" title="Old Style and New Style dates">O.S.</a> 24 June] 1610. As the result of the battle, the <a href="/wiki/Seven_Boyars" title="Seven Boyars">Seven Boyars</a>, a group of Russian nobles, deposed the tsar <a href="/wiki/Vasily_Shuysky" class="mw-redirect" title="Vasily Shuysky">Vasily Shuysky</a> on 27 July [<a href="/wiki/Old_Style_and_New_Style_dates" title="Old Style and New Style dates">O.S.</a> 17 July] 1610, and recognized the Polish prince <a href="/wiki/W%C5%82adys%C5%82aw_IV_Vasa" title="Władysław IV Vasa">Władysław IV Vasa</a> as the Tsar of Russia on 6 September [<a href="/wiki/Old_Style_and_New_Style_dates" title="Old Style and New Style dates">O.S.</a> 27 August] 1610.<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a><a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_occupation_of_Moscow" title="Polish–Lithuanian occupation of Moscow">Poles occupied Moscow</a> on 21 September [<a href="/wiki/Old_Style_and_New_Style_dates" title="Old Style and New Style dates">O.S.</a> 11 September] 1610. Moscow revolted but riots there were brutally suppressed and the city was set on fire.<a href="#cite_note-Vern-80">[80]</a><a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a><a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a> The crisis provoked a patriotic national uprising against the <a href="/wiki/Invasion" title="Invasion">invasion</a>, both in 1611 and 1612. A volunteer army, led by the merchant <a href="/wiki/Kuzma_Minin" title="Kuzma Minin">Kuzma Minin</a> and prince <a href="/wiki/Dmitry_Pozharsky" title="Dmitry Pozharsky">Dmitry Pozharsky</a>, expelled the foreign forces from the capital on 4 November [<a href="/wiki/Old_Style_and_New_Style_dates" title="Old Style and New Style dates">O.S.</a> 22 October] 1612.<a href="#cite_note-Dunning-83">[83]</a><a href="#cite_note-ToT-84">[84]</a><a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a> The Russian statehood survived the "Time of Troubles" and the rule of weak or corrupt Tsars because of the strength of the government's central bureaucracy. Government functionaries continued to serve, regardless of the ruler's legitimacy or the faction controlling the throne.<a href="#cite_note-Curtis2-52">[52]</a> However, the Time of Troubles caused the loss of much territory to the <a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</a> in <a href="/wiki/Russo-Polish_War_(1605-1618)" class="mw-redirect" title="Russo-Polish War (1605-1618)">the Russo-Polish war</a>, as well as to the <a href="/wiki/Swedish_Empire" title="Swedish Empire">Swedish Empire</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Ingrian_War" title="Ingrian War">Ingrian War</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Accession_of_the_Romanovs_and_early_rule">Accession of the Romanovs and early rule</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Russia&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Accession of the Romanovs and early rule">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Election_of_Michael_I_of_Russia_by_A._Krivshenko.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Election_of_Michael_I_of_Russia_by_A._Krivshenko.jpg/220px-Election_of_Michael_I_of_Russia_by_A._Krivshenko.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Election_of_Michael_I_of_Russia_by_A._Krivshenko.jpg/330px-Election_of_Michael_I_of_Russia_by_A._Krivshenko.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Election_of_Michael_I_of_Russia_by_A._Krivshenko.jpg/440px-Election_of_Michael_I_of_Russia_by_A._Krivshenko.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="885" /></a><figcaption>Election of 16-year-old <a href="/wiki/Michael_I_of_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="Michael I of Russia">Mikhail Romanov</a>, the first Tsar of the <a href="/wiki/Romanov_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Romanov dynasty">Romanov dynasty</a></figcaption></figure> In February 1613, after the chaos and expulsion of the Poles from Moscow, a <a href="/wiki/Zemsky_Sobor" title="Zemsky Sobor">national assembly</a> elected <a href="/wiki/Michael_I_of_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="Michael I of Russia">Michael Romanov</a>, the young son of <a href="/wiki/Patriarch_Filaret_(Feodor_Romanov)" class="mw-redirect" title="Patriarch Filaret (Feodor Romanov)">Patriarch Filaret</a>, to the throne. The <a href="/wiki/Romanov" class="mw-redirect" title="Romanov">Romanov</a> dynasty ruled Russia until 1917. The immediate task of the new monarch was to restore peace. Fortunately for Moscow, its major enemies, the <a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sweden" title="Sweden">Sweden</a>, were engaged in a bitter conflict with each other, which provided Russia the opportunity to make peace with Sweden in 1617 and to sign a truce with the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1619. Recovery of lost territories began in the mid-17th century, when the <a href="/wiki/Chmielnicki_Uprising" class="mw-redirect" title="Chmielnicki Uprising">Khmelnitsky Uprising</a> (1648–1657) in Ukraine against Polish rule brought about the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Pereyaslav" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaty of Pereyaslav">Treaty of Pereyaslav</a> between Russia and the <a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_Cossacks" class="mw-redirect" title="Ukrainian Cossacks">Ukrainian Cossacks</a>. In the treaty, Russia granted protection to the <a href="/wiki/Cossack_Hetmanate" title="Cossack Hetmanate">Cossacks state</a> in <a href="/wiki/Left-bank_Ukraine" title="Left-bank Ukraine">Left-bank Ukraine</a>, formerly under Polish control. This triggered a prolonged <a href="/wiki/Russo-Polish_War_(1654%E2%80%931667)" title="Russo-Polish War (1654–1667)">Russo-Polish War (1654–1667)</a>, which ended with the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Andrusovo" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaty of Andrusovo">Treaty of Andrusovo</a>, where Poland accepted the loss of Left-bank Ukraine, <a href="/wiki/Kiev" class="mw-redirect" title="Kiev">Kiev</a> and <a href="/wiki/Smolensk" title="Smolensk">Smolensk</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Curtis2-52">[52]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Russian_conquest_of_Siberia" title="Russian conquest of Siberia">Russian conquest of Siberia</a>, begun at the end of the 16th century, continued in the 17th century. By the end of the 1640s, the Russians reached the Pacific Ocean, the Russian explorer <a href="/wiki/Semyon_Dezhnev" title="Semyon Dezhnev">Semyon Dezhnev</a>, discovered the strait between Asia and America. Russian expansion in the Far East faced resistance from <a href="/wiki/Qing_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Qing China">Qing China</a>. After the war between Russia and China, the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Nerchinsk" title="Treaty of Nerchinsk">Treaty of Nerchinsk</a> was signed, delimiting the territories in the Amur region. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0_2.jpg/220px-%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0_2.jpg/330px-%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0_2.jpg/440px-%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3990" data-file-height="2660" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Sobornoye_Ulozheniye" title="Sobornoye Ulozheniye">Sobornoye Ulozheniye</a> was a legal code promulgated in 1649.</figcaption></figure> Rather than risk their estates in more civil war, the boyars cooperated with the first Romanovs, enabling them to finish the work of bureaucratic centralization. Thus, the state required service from both the old and the new nobility, primarily in the military. In return, the tsars allowed the boyars to complete the process of enserfing the peasants. In the preceding century, the state had gradually curtailed peasants' rights to move from one landlord to another. With the state now fully sanctioning <a href="/wiki/Russian_serfdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian serfdom">serfdom</a>, runaway peasants became state fugitives, and the power of the landlords over the peasants "attached" to their land had become almost complete. Together, the state and the nobles placed an overwhelming burden of taxation on the peasants, whose rate was 100 times greater in the mid-17th century than it had been a century earlier. Likewise, middle-class urban tradesmen and craftsmen were assessed taxes, and were forbidden to change residence. All segments of the population were subject to military levy and special taxes.<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a> Riots among peasants and citizens of Moscow at this time were endemic and included the <a href="/wiki/Salt_Riot" class="mw-redirect" title="Salt Riot">Salt Riot</a> (1648),<a href="#cite_note-Kotilaine-87">[87]</a> <a href="/wiki/Copper_Riot" title="Copper Riot">Copper Riot</a> (1662),<a href="#cite_note-Kotilaine-87">[87]</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Moscow_Uprising_of_1682" class="mw-redirect" title="Moscow Uprising of 1682">Moscow Uprising</a> (1682).<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a> By far the greatest peasant uprising in 17th-century Europe erupted in 1667. As the free settlers of South Russia, the <a href="/wiki/Cossacks" title="Cossacks">Cossacks</a>, reacted against the growing centralization of the state, serfs escaped from their landlords and joined the rebels. The Cossack leader <a href="/wiki/Stenka_Razin" title="Stenka Razin">Stenka Razin</a> led his followers up the Volga River, inciting peasant uprisings and replacing local governments with Cossack rule.<a href="#cite_note-Curtis2-52">[52]</a> The tsar's army finally crushed his forces in 1670; a year later Stenka was captured and beheaded. Yet, less than half a century later, the strains of military expeditions produced another <a href="/wiki/Bulavin_Rebellion" title="Bulavin Rebellion">revolt in Astrakhan</a>, ultimately subdued. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Russian_Empire_(1721–1917)">Russian Empire (1721–1917)</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Russia&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Russian Empire (1721–1917)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Population">Population</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Russia&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Population">edit</a>]</div> Much of Russia's expansion occurred in the 17th century, culminating in the <a href="/wiki/History_of_Siberia" title="History of Siberia">first Russian colonisation of the Pacific</a> in the mid-17th century, the <a href="/wiki/Russo-Polish_War_(1654%E2%80%931667)" title="Russo-Polish War (1654–1667)">Russo-Polish War (1654–1667)</a> that incorporated left-bank Ukraine, and the <a href="/wiki/Russian_conquest_of_Siberia" title="Russian conquest of Siberia">Russian conquest of Siberia</a>. Poland was divided in the 1790–1815 era, with much of the land and population going to Russia. Most of the 19th century growth came from adding territory in Asia, south of Siberia.<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <td width="60">Year </td> <td width="240pt">Population of Russia (millions)<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> </td> <td width="300pt">Notes </td></tr> <tr> <td>1720</td> <td>15.5</td> <td>includes new Baltic & Polish territories </td></tr> <tr> <td>1795</td> <td>37.6</td> <td>includes part of Poland </td></tr> <tr> <td>1812</td> <td>42.8</td> <td>includes Finland </td></tr> <tr> <td>1816</td> <td>73.0</td> <td>includes Congress Poland, Bessarabia </td></tr> <tr> <td>1914</td> <td>170.0</td> <td>includes new Asian territories </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Peter_the_Great">Peter the Great</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Russia&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Peter the Great">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Peter_de_Grote.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Peter_de_Grote.jpg/220px-Peter_de_Grote.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="309" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Peter_de_Grote.jpg/330px-Peter_de_Grote.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Peter_de_Grote.jpg/440px-Peter_de_Grote.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="1687" /></a><figcaption>Peter I, called "Peter the Great"</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Peter_the_Great" title="Peter the Great">Peter the Great</a> (Peter I, 1672–1725) brought centralized autocracy into Russia and played a major role in bringing his country into the European state system.<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> Russia was now the largest country in the world, stretching from the Baltic Sea to the Pacific Ocean. The vast majority of the land was unoccupied, and travel was slow. Much of its expansion had taken place in the 17th century, culminating in the first Russian settlement of the Pacific in the mid-17th century, the reconquest of Kiev, and the pacification of the Siberian tribes.<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a> However, a population of only 14 million was stretched across this vast landscape. With a short growing season, grain yields trailed behind those in the West and potato farming was not yet widespread. As a result, the great majority of the population workforce was occupied with agriculture. Russia remained isolated from the sea trade and its internal trade, communication and manufacturing were seasonally dependent.<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> Peter reformed the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Russian_Army" title="Imperial Russian Army">Russian army</a> and created the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Russian_Navy" title="Imperial Russian Navy">Russian navy</a>. Peter's first military efforts were directed against the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Turks</a>. His aim was to establish a Russian foothold on the Black Sea by <a href="/wiki/Azov_campaigns_(1695%E2%80%931696)" title="Azov campaigns (1695–1696)">taking</a> the town of <a href="/wiki/Azov" title="Azov">Azov</a>.<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> His attention then turned to the north. Peter still lacked a secure northern seaport except at <a href="/wiki/Arkhangelsk" title="Arkhangelsk">Archangel</a> on the <a href="/wiki/White_Sea" title="White Sea">White Sea</a>, whose harbor was frozen nine months a year. Access to the Baltic was blocked by Sweden, whose territory enclosed it on three sides. Peter's ambitions for a "window to the sea" led him in 1699 to make a secret alliance with the <a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</a> and Denmark against Sweden resulting in the <a href="/wiki/Great_Northern_War" title="Great Northern War">Great Northern War</a>. The war ended in 1721 when an exhausted Sweden sued for peace with Russia. Peter acquired four provinces situated south and east of the Gulf of Finland, thus securing his coveted access to the sea. There, in 1703, he had already founded the city that was to become Russia's new capital, <a href="/wiki/Saint_Petersburg" title="Saint Petersburg">Saint Petersburg</a>. Russian intervention in the Commonwealth marked, with the <a href="/wiki/Silent_Sejm" title="Silent Sejm">Silent Sejm</a>, the beginning of a 200-year domination of that region by the Russian Empire. In celebration of his conquests, Peter assumed the title of emperor, and the Russian Tsardom officially became the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a> in 1721. Peter re-organized his government based on the latest Western models, molding Russia into an <a href="/wiki/Absolutism_(European_history)" title="Absolutism (European history)">absolutist</a> state. He replaced the old boyar <a href="/wiki/Duma" title="Duma">Duma</a> (council of nobles) with a <a href="/wiki/Governing_Senate" title="Governing Senate">Senate</a>, in effect a supreme council of state. The countryside was also divided into new <a href="/wiki/Guberniya" class="mw-redirect" title="Guberniya">provinces</a> and districts. Peter told the senate that its mission was to collect taxes. In turn tax revenues tripled over the course of his reign.<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a> Administrative <a href="/wiki/Collegium_(ministry)" title="Collegium (ministry)">Collegia</a> (ministries) were established in St. Petersburg, to replace the old governmental departments. In 1722, Peter promulgated his famous <a href="/wiki/Table_of_ranks" class="mw-redirect" title="Table of ranks">Table of ranks</a>. As part of the government reform, the Orthodox Church was partially incorporated into the country's administrative structure, in effect making it a tool of the state. Peter abolished the <a href="/wiki/Patriarchate" title="Patriarchate">patriarchate</a> and replaced it with a collective body, the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Synod" title="Holy Synod">Holy Synod</a>, led by a lay government official. Peter continued and intensified his predecessors' requirement of state service for all nobles. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%27The_Victory_at_Poltava%27_by_Alexander_Evstafyevich_Kotzebue,_1862,_Hermitage.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/%27The_Victory_at_Poltava%27_by_Alexander_Evstafyevich_Kotzebue%2C_1862%2C_Hermitage.JPG/220px-%27The_Victory_at_Poltava%27_by_Alexander_Evstafyevich_Kotzebue%2C_1862%2C_Hermitage.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/%27The_Victory_at_Poltava%27_by_Alexander_Evstafyevich_Kotzebue%2C_1862%2C_Hermitage.JPG/330px-%27The_Victory_at_Poltava%27_by_Alexander_Evstafyevich_Kotzebue%2C_1862%2C_Hermitage.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/%27The_Victory_at_Poltava%27_by_Alexander_Evstafyevich_Kotzebue%2C_1862%2C_Hermitage.JPG/440px-%27The_Victory_at_Poltava%27_by_Alexander_Evstafyevich_Kotzebue%2C_1862%2C_Hermitage.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="1289" /></a><figcaption>Russian victory at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Poltava" title="Battle of Poltava">Battle of Poltava</a></figcaption></figure> By then, the once powerful Persian <a href="/wiki/Safavid_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Safavid Empire">Safavid Empire</a> to the south was heavily declining. Taking advantage, Peter launched the <a href="/wiki/Russo-Persian_War_(1722%E2%80%931723)" title="Russo-Persian War (1722–1723)">Russo-Persian War (1722–1723)</a>, known as "The Persian Expedition of Peter the Great" by Russian histographers, in order to be the first Russian emperor to establish Russian influence in the <a href="/wiki/Caucasus" title="Caucasus">Caucasus</a> and Caspian Sea region. After considerable success and the capture of many provinces and cities in the Caucasus and northern mainland Persia, the Safavids were forced to hand over the territories to Russia. However, by 12 years later, all the territories were ceded back to Persia, which was now led by the charismatic military genius <a href="/wiki/Nader_Shah" title="Nader Shah">Nader Shah</a>, as part of the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Resht" title="Treaty of Resht">Treaty of Resht</a> and <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Ganja" title="Treaty of Ganja">Treaty of Ganja</a> and the Russo-Persian alliance against the Ottoman Empire,<a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a> the common neighbouring rivalling enemy. Peter the Great died in 1725, leaving an unsettled succession, but Russia had become a great power by the end of his reign. Peter I was succeeded by his second wife, <a href="/wiki/Catherine_I_of_Russia" title="Catherine I of Russia">Catherine I</a> (1725–1727), who was merely a figurehead for a powerful group of high officials, then by his minor grandson, <a href="/wiki/Peter_II_of_Russia" title="Peter II of Russia">Peter II</a> (1727–1730), then by his niece, <a href="/wiki/Anna_of_Russia" title="Anna of Russia">Anna</a> (1730–1740), daughter of Tsar <a href="/wiki/Ivan_V" class="mw-redirect" title="Ivan V">Ivan V</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Ivan_VI_of_Russia" title="Ivan VI of Russia">heir to Anna</a> was soon deposed in a coup and <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_of_Russia" title="Elizabeth of Russia">Elizabeth</a>, daughter of Peter I, ruled from 1741 to 1762. During her reign, Russia took part in the <a href="/wiki/Seven_Years%27_War" title="Seven Years' War">Seven Years' War</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Catherine_the_Great">Catherine the Great</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Russia&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Catherine the Great">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dmitry_Levitsky_-_%D0%95%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0_II_%D0%B2_%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B5_%D0%97%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%86%D1%8B_%D0%B2_%D1%85%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B5_%D0%B1%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%8F_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Dmitry_Levitsky_-_%D0%95%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0_II_%D0%B2_%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B5_%D0%97%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%86%D1%8B_%D0%B2_%D1%85%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B5_%D0%B1%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%8F_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/220px-Dmitry_Levitsky_-_%D0%95%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0_II_%D0%B2_%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B5_%D0%97%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%86%D1%8B_%D0%B2_%D1%85%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B5_%D0%B1%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%8F_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="326" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Dmitry_Levitsky_-_%D0%95%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0_II_%D0%B2_%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B5_%D0%97%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%86%D1%8B_%D0%B2_%D1%85%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B5_%D0%B1%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%8F_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/330px-Dmitry_Levitsky_-_%D0%95%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0_II_%D0%B2_%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B5_%D0%97%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%86%D1%8B_%D0%B2_%D1%85%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B5_%D0%B1%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%8F_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Dmitry_Levitsky_-_%D0%95%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0_II_%D0%B2_%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B5_%D0%97%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%86%D1%8B_%D0%B2_%D1%85%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B5_%D0%B1%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%8F_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/440px-Dmitry_Levitsky_-_%D0%95%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0_II_%D0%B2_%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B5_%D0%97%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%86%D1%8B_%D0%B2_%D1%85%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B5_%D0%B1%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%8F_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2697" data-file-height="4000" /></a><figcaption>Catherine the Great</figcaption></figure> Nearly 40 years passed before a comparably ambitious ruler appeared. <a href="/wiki/Catherine_II_of_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="Catherine II of Russia">Catherine II</a>, "the Great" (r. 1762–1796), was a German princess who married the German heir to the Russian crown. Catherine overthrew him in a coup in 1762, becoming queen regnant.<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a><a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> Catherine enthusiastically supported the ideals of <a href="/wiki/The_Enlightenment" class="mw-redirect" title="The Enlightenment">The Enlightenment</a>, thus earning the status of an <a href="/wiki/Enlightened_despot" class="mw-redirect" title="Enlightened despot">enlightened despot</a>. She patronized the arts, science and learning.<a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a> She contributed to the resurgence of the Russian nobility that began after the death of Peter the Great. Catherine promulgated the <a href="/wiki/Charter_to_the_Gentry" title="Charter to the Gentry">Charter to the Gentry</a> reaffirming rights and freedoms of the Russian nobility and abolishing mandatory state service. She seized control of all the church lands, drastically reduced the size of the monasteries, and put the surviving clergy on a tight budget.<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> Catherine spent heavily to promote an expansive foreign policy. She extended Russian political control over the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth with actions, including the support of the <a href="/wiki/Targowica_Confederation" title="Targowica Confederation">Targowica Confederation</a>. The cost of her campaigns, plus the oppressive social system that required serfs to spend almost all their time laboring on the land of their lords, provoked a major <a href="/wiki/Pugachev%27s_Rebellion" title="Pugachev's Rebellion">peasant uprising in 1773</a>. Inspired by a Cossack named <a href="/wiki/Yemelyan_Pugachev" title="Yemelyan Pugachev">Yemelyan Pugachev</a>, with the emphatic cry of "Hang all the landlords!", the rebels threatened to take Moscow until Catherine crushed the rebellion. Like the other enlightened despots of Europe, Catherine made certain of her own power and formed an alliance with the nobility.<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a> Catherine successfully waged two wars (<a href="/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_(1768%E2%80%931774)" title="Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774)">1768–1774</a>, <a href="/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_(1787%E2%80%931792)" title="Russo-Turkish War (1787–1792)">1787–1792</a>) against the decaying Ottoman Empire<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a> and advanced Russia's southern boundary to the Black Sea. In 1775 she <a href="/wiki/Liquidation_of_the_Zaporozhian_Sich" title="Liquidation of the Zaporozhian Sich">liquidated the Zaporozhian Sich</a>, and on the former lands of the Ukrainian Cossacks in the places of theirs settlements was created <a href="/wiki/Novorossiya_Governorate" title="Novorossiya Governorate">Novorossiya Governorate</a>, in which new cities were formed: <a href="/wiki/Dnipro" title="Dnipro">Yekaterinoslav</a> (1776), <a href="/wiki/Kropyvnytskyi" title="Kropyvnytskyi">Yelisavetgrad</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kherson" title="Kherson">Kherson</a> (1778), <a href="/wiki/Odessa" class="mw-redirect" title="Odessa">Odessa</a> (1794).<a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a><a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a><a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a><a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a> Russia <a href="/wiki/Annexation_of_Crimea_by_the_Russian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Empire">annexed Crimea</a> in 1783 and created the Black Sea fleet. Then, by allying with the rulers of <a href="/wiki/Austrian_Empire" title="Austrian Empire">Austria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Prussia" title="Prussia">Prussia</a>, she incorporated the territories of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, where after a century of Russian rule non-Catholic, mainly Orthodox population prevailed<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Partitions_of_Poland" title="Partitions of Poland">Partitions of Poland</a>, pushing the Russian frontier westward into Central Europe.<a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a> In accordance to Russia's <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Georgievsk" title="Treaty of Georgievsk">treaty</a> with the Georgians to protect them against any new invasion of their Persian suzerains and further political aspirations, Catherine waged a new war <a href="/wiki/Persian_Expedition_of_1796" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian Expedition of 1796">against Persia</a> in 1796 after they had again invaded Georgia and established rule over it about a <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Krtsanisi" title="Battle of Krtsanisi">year prior</a>, and had expelled the newly established Russian garrisons in the <a href="/wiki/Caucasus" title="Caucasus">Caucasus</a>. In 1798–1799, Russian troops participated in the <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Second_Coalition" title="War of the Second Coalition">anti-French coalition</a>, the troops under the command of Alexander Suvorov <a href="/wiki/Italian_and_Swiss_expedition" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian and Swiss expedition">defeated the French in Northern Italy</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ruling_the_Empire_(1725–1825)">Ruling the Empire (1725–1825)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Russia&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Ruling the Empire (1725–1825)">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9C%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%82_%D0%B8_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%9D%D0%B5%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%82_%D0%B8_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%9D%D0%B5%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F.jpg/220px-%D0%9C%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%82_%D0%B8_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%9D%D0%B5%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%82_%D0%B8_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%9D%D0%B5%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F.jpg/330px-%D0%9C%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%82_%D0%B8_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%9D%D0%B5%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%82_%D0%B8_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%9D%D0%B5%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F.jpg/440px-%D0%9C%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%82_%D0%B8_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%9D%D0%B5%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="718" /></a><figcaption>Moscow University in the 1790s</figcaption></figure> Russian emperors of the 18th century professed the ideas of <a href="/wiki/Enlightened_absolutism" title="Enlightened absolutism">Enlightened absolutism</a>. However, <a href="/wiki/Westernization" title="Westernization">Westernization</a> and modernization affected only the upper classes of Russian society, while the bulk of the population, consisting of peasants, remained in a state of <a href="/wiki/Serfdom" title="Serfdom">serfdom</a>. Powerful Russians resented their privileged positions and alien ideas. The backlash was especially severe after the Napoleonic wars. It produced a powerful anti-western campaign that "led to a wholesale purge of Western specialists and their Russian followers in universities, schools, and government service".<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a> The mid-18th century was marked by the emergence of higher education in Russia. The first two major universities <a href="/wiki/Saint_Petersburg_State_University" title="Saint Petersburg State University">Saint Petersburg State University</a> and <a href="/wiki/Moscow_State_University" title="Moscow State University">Moscow State University</a> were opened. Russian exploration of Siberia and the Far East continued. <a href="/wiki/Great_Northern_Expedition" title="Great Northern Expedition">Great Northern Expedition</a> laid the foundation for the development of Alaska by the Russians. By the end of the 18th century, Alaska became a Russian colony (<a href="/wiki/Russian_America" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian America">Russian America</a>). In the early 19th century, Alaska was used as a base for the <a href="/wiki/First_Russian_circumnavigation" title="First Russian circumnavigation">First Russian circumnavigation</a>. In 1819–1821, Russian sailors discovered Antarctica during an <a href="/wiki/First_Russian_Antarctic_Expedition" title="First Russian Antarctic Expedition">Antarctic expedition</a>. Russia was in a continuous state of financial crisis. While revenue rose from 9 million rubles in 1724 to 40 million in 1794, expenses grew more rapidly, reaching 49 million in 1794. The budget was allocated 46% to the military, 20% to government economic activities, 12% to administration, and 9% for the Imperial Court in St. Petersburg. The deficit required borrowing, primarily from Amsterdam; 5% of the budget was allocated to debt payments. Paper money was issued to pay for expensive wars, thus causing inflation. 18th-century Russia remained "a poor, backward, overwhelmingly agricultural, and illiterate country".<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Alexander_I_and_victory_over_Napoleon">Alexander I and victory over Napoleon</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Russia&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Alexander I and victory over Napoleon">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Napoleons_retreat_from_moscow.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Napoleons_retreat_from_moscow.jpg/220px-Napoleons_retreat_from_moscow.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="168" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Napoleons_retreat_from_moscow.jpg/330px-Napoleons_retreat_from_moscow.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Napoleons_retreat_from_moscow.jpg/440px-Napoleons_retreat_from_moscow.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="762" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Napoleon" title="Napoleon">Napoleon</a>'s retreat from Moscow</figcaption></figure> By the time of her death in 1796, Catherine's expansionist policy had made Russia a major European power. <a href="/wiki/Alexander_I_of_Russia" title="Alexander I of Russia">Alexander I</a> continued this policy, wresting Finland from the weakened kingdom of Sweden in 1809 and <a href="/wiki/Bessarabia" title="Bessarabia">Bessarabia</a> from the Ottomans in 1812. His key advisor was a Polish nobleman <a href="/wiki/Adam_Jerzy_Czartoryski" title="Adam Jerzy Czartoryski">Adam Jerzy Czartoryski</a>.<a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a> After Russian armies liberated allied <a href="/wiki/History_of_Georgia_(country)" title="History of Georgia (country)">Georgia</a> from Persian occupation in 1802, they <a href="/wiki/Russo-Persian_War_(1804%E2%80%931813)" title="Russo-Persian War (1804–1813)">clashed with Persia</a> over control and consolidation over Georgia, as well as the Iranian territories that comprise modern-day <a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan" title="Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dagestan" title="Dagestan">Dagestan</a>. They also became involved in the <a href="/wiki/Caucasian_War" title="Caucasian War">Caucasian War</a> against the <a href="/wiki/Caucasian_Imamate" title="Caucasian Imamate">Caucasian Imamate</a> and <a href="/wiki/Circassia" title="Circassia">Circassia</a>. In 1813, the war with Persia concluded with a Russian victory, forcing <a href="/wiki/Qajar_dynasty" title="Qajar dynasty">Qajar Iran</a> to cede swaths of its territories in the Caucasus to Russia,<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a> which drastically increased its territory in the region. To the south-west, Russia tried to expand at the expense of the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a>, using Georgia at its base for the Caucasus and Anatolian front. In European policy, Alexander I switched Russia back and forth four times in 1804–1812 from neutral peacemaker to anti-Napoleon to an ally of Napoleon, winding up in 1812 as Napoleon's enemy. In 1805, he joined Britain in the <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Third_Coalition" title="War of the Third Coalition">War of the Third Coalition</a> against Napoleon, but after the massive defeat at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Austerlitz" title="Battle of Austerlitz">Battle of Austerlitz</a> he switched and formed an alliance with Napoleon by the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Tilsit" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaty of Tilsit">Treaty of Tilsit</a> (1807) and joined Napoleon's <a href="/wiki/Continental_System" title="Continental System">Continental System</a>. He fought <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Russian_War_(1807%E2%80%931812)" title="Anglo-Russian War (1807–1812)">a small-scale naval war against Britain, 1807–1812</a>. The alliance collapsed by 1810. Russia's economy had been hurt by Napoleon's Continental System, which cut off trade with Britain. As Esdaile notes, "Implicit in the idea of a Russian Poland was, of course, a war against Napoleon".<a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a> Schroeder says Poland was the root cause of the conflict but Russia's refusal to support the Continental System was also a factor.<a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Russparis.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Russparis.jpg/220px-Russparis.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="141" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Russparis.jpg/330px-Russparis.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Russparis.jpg/440px-Russparis.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2500" data-file-height="1602" /></a><figcaption>The entry of Russian troops into <a href="/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</a> in 1814, headed by the Emperor <a href="/wiki/Alexander_I_of_Russia" title="Alexander I of Russia">Alexander I</a></figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Napoleon%27s_invasion_of_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="Napoleon's invasion of Russia">invasion of Russia</a> was a catastrophe for Napoleon and his 450,000 invasion troops. One major battle was fought at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Borodino" title="Battle of Borodino">Borodino</a>; casualties were very high, but it was indecisive, and Napoleon was unable to engage and defeat the Russian armies. He tried to force the Tsar to terms by <a href="/wiki/French_occupation_of_Moscow" title="French occupation of Moscow">capturing Moscow</a> at the onset of winter, even though he had lost most of his men. Instead, the Russians retreated, burning crops and food supplies in a scorched earth policy that multiplied Napoleon's logistic problems: 85%–90% of Napoleon's soldiers died from disease, cold, starvation or ambush by peasant guerrillas. As Napoleon's forces retreated, Russian troops pursued them into Central and Western Europe, defeated Napoleon's army in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Nations" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of the Nations">Battle of the Nations</a> and finally captured Paris.<a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a><a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a> Of a total population of around 43 million people,<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a> Russia lost about 1.5 million in the year 1812; of these about 250,000 to 300,000 were soldiers and the rest peasants and serfs.<a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a> After the defeat of Napoleon, Alexander presided over the redrawing of the map of Europe at the <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Vienna" title="Congress of Vienna">Congress of Vienna</a> (1814–1815), which made him the king of <a href="/wiki/Congress_Poland" title="Congress Poland">Congress Poland</a>. He formed the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Alliance" title="Holy Alliance">Holy Alliance</a> with Austria and Prussia, to suppress revolutionary movements in Europe that he saw as immoral threats to legitimate Christian monarchs. He helped Austria's <a href="/wiki/Klemens_von_Metternich" title="Klemens von Metternich">Klemens von Metternich</a> in suppressing all national and liberal movements.<a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a> Although the Russian Empire would play a leading role on behalf of conservatism as late as 1848, its retention of serfdom precluded economic progress of any significant degree. As West European economic growth accelerated during the Industrial Revolution, sea trade and colonialism which had begun in the second half of the 18th century, Russia began to lag ever farther behind, undermining its ability to field strong armies. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nicholas_I_and_the_Decembrist_Revolt">Nicholas I and the Decembrist Revolt</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Russia&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Nicholas I and the Decembrist Revolt">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kolman_decembrists.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Kolman_decembrists.jpg/220px-Kolman_decembrists.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Kolman_decembrists.jpg/330px-Kolman_decembrists.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Kolman_decembrists.jpg/440px-Kolman_decembrists.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1011" data-file-height="674" /></a><figcaption>The Decembrists at the <a href="/wiki/Decembrists_Square" class="mw-redirect" title="Decembrists Square">Senate Square</a></figcaption></figure> Russia's great power status obscured the inefficiency of its government, the isolation of its people, and its economic backwardness.<a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a> Following the defeat of Napoleon, Alexander I was willing to discuss constitutional reforms, and though a few were introduced, no thoroughgoing changes were attempted.<a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a> The tsar was succeeded by his younger brother, <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_I_of_Russia" title="Nicholas I of Russia">Nicholas I</a> (1825–1855), who at the onset of his reign was confronted with an uprising. The background of this revolt lay in the Napoleonic Wars, when a number of well-educated Russian officers traveled in Europe in the course of the military campaigns, where their exposure to the liberalism of Western Europe encouraged them to seek change on their return. The result was the <a href="/wiki/Decembrist_Revolt" class="mw-redirect" title="Decembrist Revolt">Decembrist Revolt</a> (December 1825), the work of a small circle of liberal nobles and army officers who wanted to install Nicholas' brother as a constitutional monarch. But the revolt was easily crushed, leading Nicholas to turn away from liberal reforms and champion the reactionary doctrine "<a href="/wiki/Orthodoxy,_Autocracy,_and_Nationality" title="Orthodoxy, Autocracy, and Nationality">Orthodoxy, Autocracy, and Nationality</a>".<a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a> In 1826–1828, Russia fought another war <a href="/wiki/Russo-Persian_War_(1826-1828)" class="mw-redirect" title="Russo-Persian War (1826-1828)">against Persia</a>. Russia lost almost all of its recently consolidated territories during the first year but regained them and won the war on highly favourable terms. At the 1828 <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Turkmenchay" title="Treaty of Turkmenchay">Treaty of Turkmenchay</a>, Russia gained <a href="/wiki/Armenia" title="Armenia">Armenia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nakhchivan_Autonomous_Republic" title="Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic">Nakhchivan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nagorno-Karabakh" title="Nagorno-Karabakh">Nagorno-Karabakh</a>, <a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan" title="Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a>, and <a href="/wiki/I%C4%9Fd%C4%B1r_Province" title="Iğdır Province">Iğdır</a>.<a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a> In the 1828–1829 <a href="/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_(1828%E2%80%931829)" title="Russo-Turkish War (1828–1829)">Russo-Turkish War</a> Russia invaded northeastern <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a> and occupied the strategic Ottoman towns of <a href="/wiki/Erzurum" title="Erzurum">Erzurum</a> and <a href="/wiki/G%C3%BCm%C3%BC%C5%9Fhane" title="Gümüşhane">Gümüşhane</a> and, posing as protector and saviour of the <a href="/wiki/Greek_Orthodox" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek Orthodox">Greek Orthodox</a> population, received extensive support from the region's <a href="/wiki/Pontic_Greeks" title="Pontic Greeks">Pontic Greeks</a>. After a brief occupation, the Russian imperial army withdrew into Georgia. By the 1830s, Russia had conquered all Persian territories and major Ottoman territories in the Caucasus.<a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a> In 1831, Nicholas crushed the <a href="/wiki/November_Uprising" title="November Uprising">November Uprising</a> in Poland. The Russian autocracy gave Polish artisans and gentry reason to rebel in 1863 by assailing the national core values of language, religion, and culture.<a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a> The resulting <a href="/wiki/January_Uprising" title="January Uprising">January Uprising</a> was a massive Polish revolt, which also was crushed. France, Britain and Austria tried to intervene in the crisis but were unable. The Russian patriotic press used the Polish uprising to unify the Russian nation, claiming it was Russia's God-given mission to save Poland and the world.<a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a> Poland was punished by losing its distinctive political and judicial rights, with Russianization imposed on its schools and courts.<a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Russian_Army">Russian Army</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Russia&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Russian Army">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:RUS-2016-SPB-Monument_to_Nicholas_I_of_Russia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/RUS-2016-SPB-Monument_to_Nicholas_I_of_Russia.jpg/220px-RUS-2016-SPB-Monument_to_Nicholas_I_of_Russia.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/RUS-2016-SPB-Monument_to_Nicholas_I_of_Russia.jpg/330px-RUS-2016-SPB-Monument_to_Nicholas_I_of_Russia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/RUS-2016-SPB-Monument_to_Nicholas_I_of_Russia.jpg/440px-RUS-2016-SPB-Monument_to_Nicholas_I_of_Russia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5175" data-file-height="3450" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Monument_to_Nicholas_I" title="Monument to Nicholas I">Monument to Nicholas I</a> on <a href="/wiki/St._Isaac%27s_Square" class="mw-redirect" title="St. Isaac's Square">St. Isaac's Square</a>, Saint Petersburg</figcaption></figure> Tsar <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_I_of_Russia" title="Nicholas I of Russia">Nicholas I</a> (reigned 1825–1855) lavished attention on his army.<a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a> In a nation of 60–70 million people, it included a million men. They had outdated equipment and tactics, but the tsar took pride in its smartness on parade. The cavalry horses, for example, were only trained in parade formations, and did poorly in battle. He put generals in charge of most of his civilian agencies regardless of their qualifications. The Army became the vehicle of upward social mobility for noble youths from non-Russian areas, such as Poland, the Baltic, Finland and Georgia.<a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a> On the other hand, many miscreants, petty criminals and undesirables were punished by local officials by enlisting them for life in the Army. Village oligarchies controlled employment, conscription for the army, and local patronage; they blocked reforms and sent the most unpromising peasant youth to the army. The conscription system was unpopular with people, as was the practice of forcing peasants to house the soldiers for six months of the year.<a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a> Finally the <a href="/wiki/Crimean_War" title="Crimean War">Crimean War</a> at the end of his reign showed the world that Russia was militarily weak, technologically backward, and administratively incompetent. Despite his ambitions toward the south and Ottoman Empire, Russia had not built its railroad network in that direction, and communications were poor. The bureaucracy was riddled with corruption and inefficiency and was unprepared for war. The Navy was weak and technologically backward; the Army, although very large, was good only for parades, suffered from colonels who pocketed their men's pay, poor morale, and was even more out of touch with the latest technology. The nation's leaders realized that reforms were urgently needed.<a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Russian_society_in_the_first_half_of_19th_century">Russian society in the first half of 19th century</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Russia&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Russian society in the first half of 19th century">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Painted-portraits-of-writer.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Painted-portraits-of-writer.png/220px-Painted-portraits-of-writer.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="269" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Painted-portraits-of-writer.png/330px-Painted-portraits-of-writer.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Painted-portraits-of-writer.png/440px-Painted-portraits-of-writer.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="1467" /></a><figcaption>«<a href="/wiki/Golden_Age_of_Russian_Poetry" title="Golden Age of Russian Poetry">Golden Age of Russian Poetry</a>» writers: <a href="/wiki/Pushkin" class="mw-redirect" title="Pushkin">Pushkin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ivan_Krylov" title="Ivan Krylov">Krylov</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vasily_Zhukovsky" title="Vasily Zhukovsky">Zhukovsky</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Gnedich" class="mw-redirect" title="Gnedich">Gnedich</a></figcaption></figure> The early 19th century is the time when <a href="/wiki/Russian_literature" title="Russian literature">Russian literature</a> becomes an independent and very striking phenomenon. <a href="/wiki/Westernizers" class="mw-redirect" title="Westernizers">Westernizers</a> favored imitating Western Europe while others renounced the West and called for a return of the traditions of the past. The latter path was championed by <a href="/wiki/Slavophile" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavophile">Slavophiles</a>, who heaped scorn on the "decadent" West. The Slavophiles were opponents of bureaucracy and preferred the <a href="/wiki/Collectivism_and_individualism" class="mw-redirect" title="Collectivism and individualism">collectivism</a> of the medieval Russian <a href="/wiki/Mir_(social)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mir (social)">mir</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Obshchina" title="Obshchina">village community</a>, to the individualism of the West.<a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a> A forerunner of the movement was <a href="/wiki/Pyotr_Chaadayev" title="Pyotr Chaadayev">Pyotr Chaadayev</a>. He exposed the cultural isolation of Russia, from the perspective of Western Europe, in his Philosophical Letters of 1831. He cast doubt on the greatness of the Russian past, and ridiculed Orthodoxy for failing to provide a sound spiritual basis for the Russian mind. He called on Russia to emulate Western Europe, especially in rational and logical thought, its progressive spirit, its leadership in science, and indeed its leadership on the path to freedom.<a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a><a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a> <a href="/wiki/Vissarion_Belinsky" title="Vissarion Belinsky">Vissarion Belinsky</a><a href="#cite_note-135">[135]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Herzen" title="Alexander Herzen">Alexander Herzen</a> were prominent Westernizers.<a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Crimean_War">Crimean War</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Russia&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Crimean War">edit</a>]</div> Since the war against Napoleon, Russia had become deeply involved in the affairs of Europe, as part of the "Holy Alliance." The Holy Alliance was formed to serve as the "policeman of Europe." However, to maintain the alliance required large armies. Prussia, Austria, Britain and France (the other members of the alliance) lacked large armies and needed Russia to supply the required numbers, which fit the philosophy of Nicholas I. The Tsar <a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Revolution_of_1848" title="Hungarian Revolution of 1848">sent his army into Hungary</a> in 1849 at the request of the Austrian Empire and broke the revolt there, while preventing its spread to Russian Poland.<a href="#cite_note-137">[137]</a> The Tsar cracked down on any signs of internal unrest.<a href="#cite_note-138">[138]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Crimea_Sevastopol_Istorychny_boulevard_Memorial_complex-54.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Crimea_Sevastopol_Istorychny_boulevard_Memorial_complex-54.jpg/240px-Crimea_Sevastopol_Istorychny_boulevard_Memorial_complex-54.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="126" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Crimea_Sevastopol_Istorychny_boulevard_Memorial_complex-54.jpg/360px-Crimea_Sevastopol_Istorychny_boulevard_Memorial_complex-54.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Crimea_Sevastopol_Istorychny_boulevard_Memorial_complex-54.jpg/480px-Crimea_Sevastopol_Istorychny_boulevard_Memorial_complex-54.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2848" data-file-height="1498" /></a><figcaption>The eleven-month <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Sevastopol_(1854%E2%80%9355)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Sevastopol (1854–55)">siege</a> of a Russian naval base at <a href="/wiki/Sevastopol_Naval_Base" title="Sevastopol Naval Base">Sevastopol</a> during the Crimean War</figcaption></figure> Russia expected that in exchange for supplying the troops to be the policeman of Europe, it should have a free hand in dealing with the decaying Ottoman Empire—the "sick man of Europe." In 1853, Russia invaded Ottoman-controlled areas leading to the <a href="/wiki/Crimean_War" title="Crimean War">Crimean War</a>. Britain and France came to the rescue of the Ottomans. After a grueling war fought largely in Crimea, with very high death rates from disease, the allies won.<a href="#cite_note-139">[139]</a><a href="#cite_note-140">[140]</a> Historian <a href="/wiki/Orlando_Figes" title="Orlando Figes">Orlando Figes</a> points to the long-term damage Russia suffered: <dl><dd>The demilitarization of the Black Sea was a major blow to Russia, which was no longer able to protect its vulnerable southern coastal frontier against the British or any other fleet.... The destruction of the Russian Black Sea Fleet, Sevastopol and other naval docks was a humiliation. No compulsory disarmament had ever been imposed on a great power previously.... The Allies did not really think that they were dealing with a European power in Russia. They regarded Russia as a semi-Asiatic state....In Russia itself, the Crimean defeat discredited the armed services and highlighted the need to modernize the countries defenses, not just in the strictly military sense, but also through the building of railways, industrialization, sound finances and so on....The image many Russians had built up of their country – the biggest, richest and most powerful in the world – had suddenly been shattered. Russia's backwardness had been exposed....The Crimean disaster had exposed the shortcomings of every institution in Russia – not just the corruption and incompetence of the military command, the technological backwardness of the army and navy, or the inadequate roads and lack of railways the accounted for the chronic problems of supply, but the poor condition and illiteracy of the serfs who made up the armed forces, the inability of the serf economy to sustain a state of war against industrial powers, and the failures of autocracy itself.<a href="#cite_note-141">[141]</a></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Alexander_II_and_the_abolition_of_serfdom">Alexander II and the abolition of serfdom</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Russia&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Alexander II and the abolition of serfdom">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Government_reforms_of_Alexander_II_of_Russia" title="Government reforms of Alexander II of Russia">Government reforms of Alexander II of Russia</a></div> When <a href="/wiki/Alexander_II_of_Russia" title="Alexander II of Russia">Alexander II</a> came to the throne in 1855, the demand for reform was widespread. The most pressing problem confronting the Government was <a href="/wiki/Russian_serfdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian serfdom">serfdom</a>. In 1859, there were 23 million <a href="/wiki/Serfs" class="mw-redirect" title="Serfs">serfs</a> (out of a total population of 67 million).<a href="#cite_note-142">[142]</a> In anticipation of civil unrest that could ultimately foment a revolution, Alexander II chose to preemptively abolish serfdom with the <a href="/wiki/Emancipation_reform_of_1861_in_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="Emancipation reform of 1861 in Russia">emancipation reform</a> in 1861. Emancipation brought a supply of free labor to the cities, stimulated industry, and the middle class grew in number and influence. The freed peasants had to buy land, allotted to them, from the landowners with the state assistance. The Government issued special bonds to the landowners for the land that they had lost, and collected a special tax from the peasants, called redemption payments, at a rate of 5% of the total cost of allotted land yearly. All the land turned over to the peasants was owned collectively by the mir, the village community, which divided the land among the peasants and supervised the various holdings.<a href="#cite_note-143">[143]</a><a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a><a href="#cite_note-145">[145]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Russian_Empire_(1867).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Russian_Empire_%281867%29.svg/220px-Russian_Empire_%281867%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Russian_Empire_%281867%29.svg/330px-Russian_Empire_%281867%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Russian_Empire_%281867%29.svg/440px-Russian_Empire_%281867%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="550" data-file-height="550" /></a><figcaption>The Russian Empire in 1867</figcaption></figure> Alexander was responsible for numerous reforms besides abolishing serfdom. <a href="/wiki/Judicial_reform_of_Alexander_II" title="Judicial reform of Alexander II">He reorganized the judicial system</a>, setting up elected local judges, abolishing capital punishment, promoting local self-government through the zemstvo system, imposing universal military service, ending some of the privileges of the nobility, and promoting the universities.<a href="#cite_note-146">[146]</a> In foreign policy, he <a href="/wiki/Alaska_Purchase" title="Alaska Purchase">sold Alaska</a> to the United States in 1867. He modernized the military command system. He sought peace, and joined with Germany and Austria in the League of the Three Emperors that stabilized the European situation. The Russian Empire expanded in Siberia and in the Caucasus and made gains at the expense of China. Faced with an uprising in Poland in 1863, he stripped that land of its separate Constitution and incorporated it directly into Russia. To counter the rise of a revolutionary and anarchistic movements, he sent thousands of dissidents into exile in Siberia and was proposing additional parliamentary reforms when he was assassinated in 1881.<a href="#cite_note-147">[147]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_defeat_of_Shipka_Peak,_Bulgarian_War_of_Independence.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/The_defeat_of_Shipka_Peak%2C_Bulgarian_War_of_Independence.JPG/220px-The_defeat_of_Shipka_Peak%2C_Bulgarian_War_of_Independence.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/The_defeat_of_Shipka_Peak%2C_Bulgarian_War_of_Independence.JPG/330px-The_defeat_of_Shipka_Peak%2C_Bulgarian_War_of_Independence.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/The_defeat_of_Shipka_Peak%2C_Bulgarian_War_of_Independence.JPG/440px-The_defeat_of_Shipka_Peak%2C_Bulgarian_War_of_Independence.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1134" data-file-height="827" /></a><figcaption>The Russian and Bulgarian <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Shipka_Pass" title="Battle of Shipka Pass">defence of Shipka Pass</a> against Turkish troops was crucial for the independence of Bulgaria</figcaption></figure> In the late 1870s Russia and the Ottoman Empire again clashed in the Balkans. <a href="/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_(1877%E2%80%931878)" title="Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)">The Russo-Turkish War</a> was popular among the Russian people, who supported the independence of their fellow Orthodox Slavs, the Serbs and the Bulgarians. Russia's victory in this war allowed a number of Balkan states to gain independence: <a href="/wiki/United_Principalities_of_Moldavia_and_Wallachia" title="United Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia">Romania</a>, <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Serbia" title="Principality of Serbia">Serbia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Montenegro" title="Principality of Montenegro">Montenegro</a>. In addition, <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Bulgaria" title="Principality of Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a> de facto became independent. However, the war increased tension with <a href="/wiki/Austria-Hungary" title="Austria-Hungary">Austria-Hungary</a>, which also had ambitions in the region. The Tsar was disappointed by the results of the <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Berlin" title="Congress of Berlin">Congress of Berlin</a> in 1878, but abided by the agreement.<a href="#cite_note-148">[148]</a> During this period Russia <a href="/wiki/Russian_conquest_of_Central_Asia" title="Russian conquest of Central Asia">expanded its empire into Central Asia</a>, conquering the khanates of <a href="/wiki/Khanate_of_Kokand" title="Khanate of Kokand">Kokand</a>, <a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_Bukhara" title="Emirate of Bukhara">Bukhara</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Khanate_of_Khiva" title="Khanate of Khiva">Khiva</a>, as well as the <a href="/wiki/Transcaspian_Oblast" title="Transcaspian Oblast">Trans-Caspian region</a>.<a href="#cite_note-149">[149]</a> Russia's advance in Asia led to British fears that the Russians planned aggression against British India. Before 1815 London worried Napoleon would combine with Russia to do that in one mighty campaign. After 1815 London feared Russia alone would do it step by step. However historians report that the Russians never had any intention to move against India.<a href="#cite_note-150">[150]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Russian_society_in_the_second_half_of_19th_century">Russian society in the second half of 19th century</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Russia&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Russian society in the second half of 19th century">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Russian_nihilist_movement" title="Russian nihilist movement">Russian nihilist movement</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Russian_writers_by_Levitsky_1856.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Russian_writers_by_Levitsky_1856.jpg/220px-Russian_writers_by_Levitsky_1856.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="214" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Russian_writers_by_Levitsky_1856.jpg/330px-Russian_writers_by_Levitsky_1856.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Russian_writers_by_Levitsky_1856.jpg/440px-Russian_writers_by_Levitsky_1856.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2500" data-file-height="2436" /></a><figcaption>Russian writers of the second half of the 19th century: <a href="/wiki/Leo_Tolstoy" title="Leo Tolstoy">Leo Tolstoy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dmitry_Grigorovich_(writer)" title="Dmitry Grigorovich (writer)">Dmitry Grigorovich</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ivan_Goncharov" title="Ivan Goncharov">Ivan Goncharov</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ivan_Turgenev" title="Ivan Turgenev">Ivan Turgenev</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Druzhinin" title="Alexander Druzhinin">Alexander Druzhinin</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Ostrovsky" title="Alexander Ostrovsky">Alexander Ostrovsky</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Russa_literacy_1897.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Russa_literacy_1897.jpg/220px-Russa_literacy_1897.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="359" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Russa_literacy_1897.jpg/330px-Russa_literacy_1897.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Russa_literacy_1897.jpg/440px-Russa_literacy_1897.jpg 2x" data-file-width="782" data-file-height="1277" /></a><figcaption>By the end of 19th century, the majority of the Russian population were unable to read and write (map of <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire_census" title="Russian Empire census">1897 census</a> literacy data)</figcaption></figure> In the 1860s, a movement known as <a href="/wiki/Nihilism" title="Nihilism">Nihilism</a> developed in Russia. A term originally coined by <a href="/wiki/Ivan_Turgenev" title="Ivan Turgenev">Ivan Turgenev</a> in his 1862 novel <a href="/wiki/Fathers_and_Sons_(novel)" title="Fathers and Sons (novel)">Fathers and Sons</a>, Nihilists favoured the destruction of human institutions and laws, based on the assumption that they are artificial and corrupt. At its core, Russian nihilism was characterized by the belief that the world lacks comprehensible meaning, objective truth, or value. For some time, many Russian liberals had been dissatisfied by what they regarded as the empty discussions of the <a href="/wiki/Intelligentsia" title="Intelligentsia">intelligentsia</a>. The Nihilists questioned all old values and shocked the Russian establishment.<a href="#cite_note-151">[151]</a> They became involved in the cause of reform and became major political forces. Their path was facilitated by the previous actions of the Decembrists, who revolted in 1825, and the financial and political hardship caused by the Crimean War, which caused many Russians to lose faith in political institutions.<a href="#cite_note-152">[152]</a> Russian nihilists created the manifesto <a href="/wiki/Catechism_of_a_Revolutionary" title="Catechism of a Revolutionary">Catechism of a Revolutionary</a>. After the Nihilists failed to convert the aristocracy and landed gentry to the cause of reform, they turned to the peasants.<a href="#cite_note-153">[153]</a> Their campaign became known as the <a href="/wiki/Narodnik" class="mw-redirect" title="Narodnik">Narodnk ("Populist") movement</a>. It was based on the belief that the common people had the wisdom and peaceful ability to lead the nation.<a href="#cite_note-CurtisT-154">[154]</a> As the Narodnik movement gained momentum, the government moved to extirpate it. In response to the growing reaction of the government, a radical branch of the Narodniks advocated and practiced terrorism.<a href="#cite_note-CurtisT-154">[154]</a> One after another, prominent officials were shot or killed by bombs. This represented the ascendancy of <a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Russia" title="Anarchism in Russia">anarchism in Russia</a> as a powerful revolutionary force. Finally, after several attempts, Alexander II was assassinated by anarchists in 1881, on the very day he had approved a proposal to call a representative assembly to consider new reforms in addition to the abolition of serfdom designed to ameliorate revolutionary demands.<a href="#cite_note-155">[155]</a> The end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th is known as the <a href="/wiki/Silver_Age_of_Russian_Poetry" title="Silver Age of Russian Poetry">Silver Age of Russian culture</a>. The Silver Age was dominated by the artistic movements of <a href="/wiki/Russian_Symbolism" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian Symbolism">Russian Symbolism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Acmeism" class="mw-redirect" title="Acmeism">Acmeism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Russian_Futurism" title="Russian Futurism">Russian Futurism</a>, many poetic schools flourished, including the <a href="/wiki/Mystical_Anarchism" title="Mystical Anarchism">Mystical Anarchism</a> tendency within the Symbolist movement. The <a href="/wiki/Russian_avant-garde" title="Russian avant-garde">Russian avant-garde</a> was a large, influential wave of modern art that flourished in <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a> and <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>, approximately from 1890 to 1930—although some have placed its beginning as early as 1850 and its end as late as 1960. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Autocracy_and_reaction_under_Alexander_III">Autocracy and reaction under Alexander III</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Russia&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Autocracy and reaction under Alexander III">edit</a>]</div> Unlike his father, the new tsar <a href="/wiki/Alexander_III_of_Russia" title="Alexander III of Russia">Alexander III</a> (1881–1894) was throughout his reign a staunch reactionary who revived the maxim of "<a href="/wiki/Orthodoxy,_Autocracy,_and_National_Character" class="mw-redirect" title="Orthodoxy, Autocracy, and National Character">Orthodoxy, Autocracy, and National Character</a>".<a href="#cite_note-156">[156]</a> A committed Slavophile, Alexander III believed that Russia could be saved from chaos only by shutting itself off from the subversive influences of Western Europe. In his reign Russia concluded the <a href="/wiki/Franco-Russian_Alliance" title="Franco-Russian Alliance">union with republican France</a> to contain the growing power of Germany, completed the conquest of Central Asia, and exacted important territorial and commercial concessions from China. The tsar's most influential adviser was <a href="/wiki/Konstantin_Pobedonostsev" title="Konstantin Pobedonostsev">Konstantin Pobedonostsev</a>, tutor to Alexander III and his son Nicholas, and procurator of the Holy Synod from 1880 to 1895. He taught his royal pupils to fear freedom of speech and press and to hate democracy, constitutions, and the parliamentary system.<a href="#cite_note-157">[157]</a> Under Pobedonostsev, revolutionaries were hunted down<a href="#cite_note-158">[158]</a> and a policy of <a href="/wiki/Russification" title="Russification">Russification</a> was carried out.<a href="#cite_note-159">[159]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nicholas_II_and_new_revolutionary_movement">Nicholas II and new revolutionary movement</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Russia&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Nicholas II and new revolutionary movement">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Russia_(1892%E2%80%931917)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Russia (1892–1917)">History of Russia (1892–1917)</a></div> Alexander was succeeded by his son <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_II_of_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="Nicholas II of Russia">Nicholas II</a> (1894–1918). The Industrial Revolution, which began to exert a significant influence in Russia, was meanwhile creating forces that would finally overthrow the tsar. Politically, these opposition forces organized into three competing parties: The liberal elements among the industrial capitalists and nobility, who wanted peaceful social reform and a constitutional monarchy, founded the <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Democratic_party" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitutional Democratic party">Constitutional Democratic party</a> or Kadets in 1905. Followers of the Narodnik tradition established the <a href="/wiki/Socialist-Revolutionary_Party" class="mw-redirect" title="Socialist-Revolutionary Party">Socialist-Revolutionary Party</a> or Esers in 1901, advocating the distribution of land among the peasants who worked it. A third radical group founded the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Social_Democratic_Labour_Party" title="Russian Social Democratic Labour Party">Russian Social Democratic Labour Party</a> or RSDLP in 1898; this party was the primary exponent of <a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a> in Russia. Gathering their support from the radical intellectuals and the urban working class, they advocated complete social, economic and political revolution.<a href="#cite_note-160">[160]</a> In 1903, the RSDLP split into two wings: the radical <a href="/wiki/Bolshevik" class="mw-redirect" title="Bolshevik">Bolsheviks</a>, led by <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Vladimir Lenin</a>, and the relatively moderate <a href="/wiki/Menshevik" class="mw-redirect" title="Menshevik">Mensheviks</a>, led by Yuli Martov. The Mensheviks believed that Russian socialism would grow gradually and peacefully and that the tsar's regime should be succeeded by a democratic republic. The Bolsheviks advocated the formation of a small elite of professional revolutionaries, subject to strong party discipline, to act as the vanguard of the proletariat in order to seize power by force.<a href="#cite_note-161">[161]</a> At the beginning of the 20th century, Russia continued its expansion in the Far East; Chinese Manchuria was in the zone of Russian interests. Russia took an active part in the <a href="/wiki/Boxer_Rebellion" title="Boxer Rebellion">intervention of the great powers in China</a> to suppress the Boxer rebellion. During this war, Russia occupied Manchuria, which caused a clash of interests with Japan. In 1904, the <a href="/wiki/Russo-Japanese_War" title="Russo-Japanese War">Russo-Japanese War</a> began, which ended extremely unfavourably for Russia. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Revolution_of_1905">Revolution of 1905</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Russia&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Revolution of 1905">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Revolution_of_1905" class="mw-redirect" title="Revolution of 1905">Revolution of 1905</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Repin_17October.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Repin_17October.jpg/220px-Repin_17October.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Repin_17October.jpg/330px-Repin_17October.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Repin_17October.jpg/440px-Repin_17October.jpg 2x" data-file-width="8197" data-file-height="4440" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/October_Manifesto" title="October Manifesto">October Manifesto</a> granting <a href="/wiki/Civil_liberties" title="Civil liberties">civil liberties</a> and establishing first <a href="/wiki/State_Duma" title="State Duma">parliament</a></figcaption></figure> The disastrous performance of the Russian armed forces in the <a href="/wiki/Russo-Japanese_War" title="Russo-Japanese War">Russo-Japanese War</a> was a major blow to the Russian State and increased the potential for unrest.<a href="#cite_note-CurtisAut-162">[162]</a> In January 1905, an incident known as "<a href="/wiki/Bloody_Sunday_(1905)" title="Bloody Sunday (1905)">Bloody Sunday</a>" occurred when <a href="/wiki/Father_Gapon" class="mw-redirect" title="Father Gapon">Father Gapon</a> led an enormous crowd to the <a href="/wiki/Winter_Palace" title="Winter Palace">Winter Palace</a> in <a href="/wiki/Saint_Petersburg" title="Saint Petersburg">Saint Petersburg</a> to present a petition to the tsar. When the procession reached the palace, Cossacks opened fire, killing hundreds.<a href="#cite_note-CurtisAut-162">[162]</a> The Russian masses were so aroused over the massacre that a general strike was declared demanding a democratic republic. This marked the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution_of_1905" title="Russian Revolution of 1905">Russian Revolution of 1905</a>. <a href="/wiki/Soviet_(workers_council)" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet (workers council)">Soviets</a> (councils of workers) appeared in most cities to direct revolutionary activity.<a href="#cite_note-163">[163]</a> In October 1905, Nicholas reluctantly issued the <a href="/wiki/October_Manifesto" title="October Manifesto">October Manifesto</a>, which conceded the creation of a national Duma (legislature) to be called without delay.<a href="#cite_note-CurtisAut-162">[162]</a> The right to vote was extended, and no law was to go into force without confirmation by the Duma. The moderate groups were satisfied;<a href="#cite_note-CurtisAut-162">[162]</a> but the socialists rejected the concessions as insufficient and tried to organize new strikes. By the end of 1905, there was disunity among the reformers, and the tsar's position was strengthened.<a href="#cite_note-164">[164]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="World_War_I">World War I</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Russia&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: World War I">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Russian_entry_into_World_War_I" title="Russian entry into World War I">Russian entry into World War I</a> and <a href="/wiki/Russia_in_the_First_World_War" title="Russia in the First World War">Russia in the First World War</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Les_troupes_russe_d%C3%A9filant_devant_Gouraud,_Mailly_oct_1916.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Les_troupes_russe_d%C3%A9filant_devant_Gouraud%2C_Mailly_oct_1916.JPG/220px-Les_troupes_russe_d%C3%A9filant_devant_Gouraud%2C_Mailly_oct_1916.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="132" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Les_troupes_russe_d%C3%A9filant_devant_Gouraud%2C_Mailly_oct_1916.JPG/330px-Les_troupes_russe_d%C3%A9filant_devant_Gouraud%2C_Mailly_oct_1916.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Les_troupes_russe_d%C3%A9filant_devant_Gouraud%2C_Mailly_oct_1916.JPG/440px-Les_troupes_russe_d%C3%A9filant_devant_Gouraud%2C_Mailly_oct_1916.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="958" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Russian_Expeditionary_Force_in_France" title="Russian Expeditionary Force in France">Russian Expeditionary Force in France</a>, October 1916</figcaption></figure> On 28 June 1914, Bosnian Serbs <a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Archduke_Franz_Ferdinand" title="Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand">assassinated Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austro-Hungary.</a> Austro-Hungary issued an ultimatum to Serbia, which it considered a Russian client-state. Russia had no treaty obligation to Serbia, and most Russian leaders wanted to avoid war. But in that crisis they had the support of France, and believed that supporting Serbia was important for Russia's credibility and for its goal of a leadership role in the Balkans.<a href="#cite_note-165">[165]</a> Tsar Nicholas II mobilised Russian forces on 30 July 1914 to defend Serbia. <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Clark" title="Christopher Clark">Christopher Clark</a> states: "The Russian general mobilisation [of 30 July] was one of the most momentous decisions of the <a href="/wiki/July_crisis" class="mw-redirect" title="July crisis">July crisis</a>".<a href="#cite_note-166">[166]</a> Germany responded with its own mobilisation and declaration of War on 1 August 1914. At the opening of hostilities, the Russians took the offensive against both Germany and <a href="/wiki/Austria-Hungary" title="Austria-Hungary">Austria-Hungary</a>.<a href="#cite_note-167">[167]</a> The very large but poorly led and under-equipped Russian army fought tenaciously. Casualties were enormous. In the 1914 campaign, Russian forces defeated Austro-Hungarian forces in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Galicia" title="Battle of Galicia">Battle of Galicia</a>. The success of the Russian army forced the German army to withdraw troops from the western front to the Russian front. However, victories in Poland by the Central Powers in the 1915 campaign, led to a major retreat of the Russian army. In 1916, the Russians again dealt a powerful blow to the Austrians during the <a href="/wiki/Brusilov_offensive" title="Brusilov offensive">Brusilov offensive</a>. By 1915, morale was worsening.<a href="#cite_note-168">[168]</a> Many recruits were sent to the front unarmed. Nevertheless, the Russian army fought on, and tied down large numbers of Germans and Austrians. When the homefront showed an occasional surge of patriotism, the tsar and his entourage failed to exploit it for military benefit. The Russian army neglected to rally the ethnic and religious minorities that were hostile to Austria, such as Poles. The tsar refused to cooperate with the national legislature, the Duma, and listened less to experts than to his wife, who was in thrall to her chief advisor, the holy man <a href="/wiki/Grigori_Rasputin" title="Grigori Rasputin">Grigori Rasputin</a>.<a href="#cite_note-169">[169]</a> More than two million refugees fled.<a href="#cite_note-170">[170]</a> Repeated military failures and bureaucratic ineptitude soon turned large segments of the population against the government.<a href="#cite_note-CurtisAut-162">[162]</a> The German and Ottoman fleets prevented Russia from importing urgently needed supplies through the Baltic and Black seas.<a href="#cite_note-CurtisAut-162">[162]</a> By mid-1915 the impact of the war was demoralizing. Food and fuel were in short supply, casualties kept occurring, and inflation was mounting. Strikes increased among factory workers, and the peasants, who wanted land reforms, were restless.<a href="#cite_note-171">[171]</a> Meanwhile, elite distrust of the regime was deepened by reports that Rasputin was gaining influence; his assassination in late 1916 ended the scandal but did not restore the autocracy's prestige.<a href="#cite_note-CurtisAut-162">[162]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Russian_Civil_War_(1917–1922)">Russian Civil War (1917–1922)</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Russia&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Russian Civil War (1917–1922)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Russian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Dissolution of the Russian Empire">Dissolution of the Russian Empire</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_Soviet_Russia_and_the_Soviet_Union_(1917%E2%80%931927)" title="History of Soviet Russia and the Soviet Union (1917–1927)">History of Soviet Russia and the Soviet Union (1917–1927)</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Russian_Revolution">Russian Revolution</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Russia&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Russian Revolution">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian Revolution</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tleft"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:292px;max-width:292px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:152px;max-width:152px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:199px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Lenin_in_1920_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Lenin_in_1920_%28cropped%29.jpg/150px-Lenin_in_1920_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Lenin_in_1920_%28cropped%29.jpg/225px-Lenin_in_1920_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Lenin_in_1920_%28cropped%29.jpg/300px-Lenin_in_1920_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1835" data-file-height="2447" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Vladimir Lenin</a>, founder of the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> and the leader of the <a href="/wiki/Bolshevik_party" class="mw-redirect" title="Bolshevik party">Bolshevik party</a>.</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:136px;max-width:136px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:199px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-R15068,_Leo_Dawidowitsch_Trotzki.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-R15068%2C_Leo_Dawidowitsch_Trotzki.jpg/134px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-R15068%2C_Leo_Dawidowitsch_Trotzki.jpg" decoding="async" width="134" height="199" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-R15068%2C_Leo_Dawidowitsch_Trotzki.jpg/201px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-R15068%2C_Leo_Dawidowitsch_Trotzki.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-R15068%2C_Leo_Dawidowitsch_Trotzki.jpg/268px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-R15068%2C_Leo_Dawidowitsch_Trotzki.jpg 2x" data-file-width="632" data-file-height="939" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Leon_Trotsky" title="Leon Trotsky">Leon Trotsky</a>, founder of the <a href="/wiki/Red_Army" title="Red Army">Red Army</a> and a key figure in the <a href="/wiki/October_Revolution" title="October Revolution">October Revolution</a>.</div></div></div></div></div> In late February (3 March 1917), a strike occurred in a factory in the capital <a href="/wiki/Petrograd" class="mw-redirect" title="Petrograd">Petrograd</a> (Saint Petersburg). On 23 February (8 March) 1917, thousands of female textile workers walked out of their factories protesting the lack of food and calling on other workers to join them. Within days, nearly all the workers in the city were idle, and street fighting broke out. The tsar ordered the Duma to disband, ordered strikers to return to work, and ordered troops to shoot at demonstrators in the streets. His orders triggered the <a href="/wiki/February_Revolution" title="February Revolution">February Revolution</a>, especially when soldiers sided with the strikers. On 2 March, Nicholas II abdicated.<a href="#cite_note-172">[172]</a><a href="#cite_note-173">[173]</a> To fill the vacuum of authority, the Duma declared a <a href="/wiki/Russian_Provisional_Government" title="Russian Provisional Government">Provisional Government</a>, headed by <a href="/wiki/Georgy_Lvov" title="Georgy Lvov">Prince Lvov</a>, which was collectively known as the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Republic" title="Russian Republic">Russian Republic</a>.<a href="#cite_note-HistoryC-174">[174]</a> Meanwhile, the socialists in Petrograd organized elections among workers and soldiers to form a soviet (council) of workers' and soldiers' deputies, as an organ of popular power that could pressure the "bourgeois" Provisional Government.<a href="#cite_note-HistoryC-174">[174]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Protecci%C3%B3n_del_Palacio_Tauride_durante_el_Segundo_Congreso_Regional_de_los_Soviets.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Protecci%C3%B3n_del_Palacio_Tauride_durante_el_Segundo_Congreso_Regional_de_los_Soviets.jpg/220px-Protecci%C3%B3n_del_Palacio_Tauride_durante_el_Segundo_Congreso_Regional_de_los_Soviets.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Protecci%C3%B3n_del_Palacio_Tauride_durante_el_Segundo_Congreso_Regional_de_los_Soviets.jpg/330px-Protecci%C3%B3n_del_Palacio_Tauride_durante_el_Segundo_Congreso_Regional_de_los_Soviets.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Protecci%C3%B3n_del_Palacio_Tauride_durante_el_Segundo_Congreso_Regional_de_los_Soviets.jpg/440px-Protecci%C3%B3n_del_Palacio_Tauride_durante_el_Segundo_Congreso_Regional_de_los_Soviets.jpg 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="510" /></a><figcaption>The dissolution of the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Constituent_Assembly" title="Russian Constituent Assembly">Constituent Assembly</a> on 6 January 1918. The <a href="/wiki/Tauride_Palace" title="Tauride Palace">Tauride Palace</a> is locked and guarded by <a href="/wiki/Leon_Trotsky" title="Leon Trotsky">Trotsky</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yakov_Sverdlov" title="Yakov Sverdlov">Sverdlov</a>, <a href="/wiki/Grigory_Zinoviev" title="Grigory Zinoviev">Zinoviev</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Lashevich" title="Mikhail Lashevich">Lashevich</a>.</figcaption></figure> In July, following a series of crises that undermined their authority with the public, the head of the Provisional Government resigned and was succeeded by <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Kerensky" title="Alexander Kerensky">Alexander Kerensky</a>, who was more progressive than his predecessor but not radical enough for the Bolsheviks or many Russians discontented with the deepening economic crisis and the war. The socialist-led soviet in Petrograd joined with soviets that formed throughout the country to create a national movement.<a href="#cite_note-175">[175]</a> The German government provided over 40 million gold marks to subsidize Bolshevik publications and activities subversive of the tsarist government, especially focusing on disgruntled soldiers and workers.<a href="#cite_note-176">[176]</a> In April 1917 Germany provided a special sealed train to carry <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Vladimir Lenin</a> back to Russia from his exile in Switzerland. After many behind-the-scenes maneuvers, the soviets seized control of the government in November 1917 and drove Kerensky and his moderate provisional government into exile, in the events that would become known as the <a href="/wiki/October_Revolution" title="October Revolution">October Revolution</a>.<a href="#cite_note-177">[177]</a> Bolshevik figures such as <a href="/wiki/Anatoly_Lunacharsky" title="Anatoly Lunacharsky">Anatoly Lunacharsky</a>, <a href="/wiki/Moisei_Uritsky" title="Moisei Uritsky">Moisei Uritsky</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dmitry_Manuilsky" title="Dmitry Manuilsky">Dmitry Manuilsky</a> agreed that Lenin’s influence on the Bolshevik party was decisive but the October insurrection was carried out according to Trotsky’s, not to Lenin’s plan.<a href="#cite_note-178">[178]</a> When the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Constituent_Assembly" title="Russian Constituent Assembly">national Constituent Assembly</a> (elected in December 1917) refused to become a rubber stamp of the Bolsheviks, it was dissolved by Lenin's troops and all vestiges of democracy were removed. With the handicap of the moderate opposition removed, Lenin was able to free his regime from the war problem by the harsh <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Brest-Litovsk_(Russia%E2%80%93Central_Powers)" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (Russia–Central Powers)">Treaty of Brest-Litovsk</a> (1918) with Germany. Russia lost much of her western borderlands. However, when Germany was defeated the Soviet government repudiated the Treaty.<a href="#cite_note-redvictory-179">[179]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Russian_Civil_War">Russian Civil War</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Russia&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Russian Civil War">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Russian_Civil_War" title="Russian Civil War">Russian Civil War</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Russian_civil_war_in_the_west.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Russian_civil_war_in_the_west.svg/220px-Russian_civil_war_in_the_west.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="281" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Russian_civil_war_in_the_west.svg/330px-Russian_civil_war_in_the_west.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Russian_civil_war_in_the_west.svg/440px-Russian_civil_war_in_the_west.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="567" data-file-height="724" /></a><figcaption>Russian Civil War in the European part of Russia</figcaption></figure> The Bolshevik grip on power was by no means secure, and a lengthy struggle broke out between the new regime and its opponents, which included the Socialist Revolutionaries, the anti-Bolshevik <a href="/wiki/White_movement" title="White movement">White movement</a>, and large numbers of peasants. At the same time the <a href="/wiki/Allied_intervention_in_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="Allied intervention in Russia">Allied powers sent several expeditionary armies</a> to support the anti-Communist forces in an attempt to force Russia to rejoin the world war. The Bolsheviks fought against both these forces and national independence movements in the former Russian Empire. By 1921, they had defeated their internal enemies and brought most of the newly independent states under their control, with the exception of Finland, the Baltic States, the <a href="/wiki/Moldavian_Democratic_Republic" title="Moldavian Democratic Republic">Moldavian Democratic Republic</a> (which was annexed by <a href="/wiki/Romania" title="Romania">Romania</a>), and Poland (with whom they had fought the <a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Soviet_War" title="Polish–Soviet War">Polish–Soviet War</a>).<a href="#cite_note-180">[180]</a> Finland also annexed the <a href="/wiki/Region_Pechenga" class="mw-redirect" title="Region Pechenga">region Pechenga</a> of the Russian <a href="/wiki/Kola_Peninsula" title="Kola Peninsula">Kola Peninsula</a>; Soviet Russia and allied Soviet republics conceded the parts of its territory to Estonia (<a href="/wiki/Petseri_County" title="Petseri County">Petseri County</a> and <a href="/wiki/Leander_Reijo" class="mw-redirect" title="Leander Reijo">Estonian Ingria</a>), Latvia (<a href="/wiki/Pytalovo" title="Pytalovo">Pytalovo</a>), and Turkey (<a href="/wiki/Kars" title="Kars">Kars</a>). Poland incorporated the contested territories of <a href="/wiki/Western_Belarus" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Belarus">Western Belarus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ukraine" title="Ukraine">Western Ukraine</a>, the former parts of the Russian Empire (except <a href="/wiki/Galicia_(Central_Europe)" class="mw-redirect" title="Galicia (Central Europe)">Galicia</a>) east to <a href="/wiki/Curzon_Line" title="Curzon Line">Curzon Line</a>.<a href="#cite_note-redvictory-179">[179]</a> Both sides regularly committed brutal atrocities against civilians. During the civil war era for example, Petlyura and <a href="/wiki/Denikin" class="mw-redirect" title="Denikin">Denikin</a>'s forces massacred 100,000 to 150,000 Jews in Ukraine and southern Russia.<a href="#cite_note-181">[181]</a> Hundreds of thousands of Jews were left homeless and tens of thousands became victims of serious illness. These massacres are now referred to as the <a href="/wiki/White_Terror_(Russia)" title="White Terror (Russia)">White Terror (Russia)</a>. Estimates for the total number of people killed during the <a href="/wiki/Red_Terror" title="Red Terror">Red Terror</a> carried out by the Bolsheviks vary widely. One source asserts that the total number of victims could be 1.3 million,<a href="#cite_note-182">[182]</a> whereas others give estimates ranging from 10,000 in the initial period of repression<a href="#cite_note-183">[183]</a> to 140,000<a href="#cite_note-anatomy-184">[184]</a><a href="#cite_note-185">[185]</a> and an estimate of 28,000 executions per year from December 1917 to February 1922.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERyan20122-186">[186]</a> The most reliable estimations for the total number of killings put the number at about 100,000,<a href="#cite_note-187">[187]</a> whereas others suggest a figure of 200,000.<a href="#cite_note-188">[188]</a> The Russian economy was devastated by the war, with factories and bridges destroyed, cattle and raw materials pillaged, mines flooded and machines damaged. The droughts of 1920 and 1921, as well as the <a href="/wiki/Russian_famine_of_1921" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian famine of 1921">1921 famine</a>, worsened the disaster still further. Disease had reached pandemic proportions, with 3,000,000 dying of <a href="/wiki/Typhus" title="Typhus">typhus</a> alone in 1920. Millions more also died of widespread starvation. By 1922 there were at least 7,000,000 street children in Russia as a result of nearly ten years of devastation from the Great War and the civil war.<a href="#cite_note-189">[189]</a> Another one to two million people, known as the <a href="/wiki/White_%C3%A9migr%C3%A9" title="White émigré">White émigrés</a>, fled Russia, many were <a href="/wiki/Evacuation_of_the_Crimea_(1920)" class="mw-redirect" title="Evacuation of the Crimea (1920)">evacuated from Crimea</a> in the 1920, some through the Far East, others west into the newly independent Baltic countries. These émigrés included a large percentage of the educated and skilled population. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Soviet_Union_(1922–1991)">Soviet Union (1922–1991)</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Russia&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Soviet Union (1922–1991)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="History of the Soviet Union">History of the Soviet Union</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Creation_of_the_Soviet_Union">Creation of the Soviet Union</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Russia&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Creation of the Soviet Union">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:19191107-lenin_second_anniversary_october_revolution_moscow.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/19191107-lenin_second_anniversary_october_revolution_moscow.jpg/220px-19191107-lenin_second_anniversary_october_revolution_moscow.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/19191107-lenin_second_anniversary_october_revolution_moscow.jpg/330px-19191107-lenin_second_anniversary_october_revolution_moscow.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/19191107-lenin_second_anniversary_october_revolution_moscow.jpg/440px-19191107-lenin_second_anniversary_october_revolution_moscow.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2528" data-file-height="1820" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Lenin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Leon_Trotsky" title="Leon Trotsky">Trotsky</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lev_Kamenev" title="Lev Kamenev">Kamenev</a> celebrating the second anniversary of the October Revolution</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lenin_and_stalin_crop.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Lenin_and_stalin_crop.jpg/220px-Lenin_and_stalin_crop.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="252" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Lenin_and_stalin_crop.jpg/330px-Lenin_and_stalin_crop.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Lenin_and_stalin_crop.jpg/440px-Lenin_and_stalin_crop.jpg 2x" data-file-width="788" data-file-height="904" /></a><figcaption>Lenin and Stalin at <a href="/wiki/Gorki_Leninskiye" title="Gorki Leninskiye">Gorki</a> (1922)</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>, established in December 1922 by the leaders of the Russian Communist Party,<a href="#cite_note-190">[190]</a> was roughly coterminous with Russia before the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Brest-Litovsk_(Russia%E2%80%93Central_Powers)" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (Russia–Central Powers)">Treaty of Brest-Litovsk</a>. At that time, the new nation included four constituent republics: the <a href="/wiki/Russian_SFSR" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian SFSR">Russian SFSR</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_SSR" class="mw-redirect" title="Ukrainian SSR">Ukrainian SSR</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Belarusian_SSR" class="mw-redirect" title="Belarusian SSR">Belarusian SSR</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Transcaucasian_SFSR" class="mw-redirect" title="Transcaucasian SFSR">Transcaucasian SFSR</a>.<a href="#cite_note-191">[191]</a> The constitution, adopted in 1924, established a federal system of government based on a pyramid of soviets in each constituent republic which culminated in the All-Union Congress of Soviets. However, while it appeared that the congress exercised sovereign power, this body was actually governed by the Communist Party, which in turn was controlled by the <a href="/wiki/Politburo_of_the_CPSU_Central_Committee" class="mw-redirect" title="Politburo of the CPSU Central Committee">Politburo</a> from Moscow. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="War_Communism_and_the_New_Economic_Policy">War Communism and the New Economic Policy</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Russia&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: War Communism and the New Economic Policy">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Hyperinflation_in_early_Soviet_Russia" title="Hyperinflation in early Soviet Russia">Hyperinflation in early Soviet Russia</a></div> The period from the consolidation of the Bolshevik Revolution in 1917 until 1921 is known as the period of <a href="/wiki/War_communism" title="War communism">war communism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Richman-192">[192]</a> Land, all industry, and small businesses were <a href="/wiki/Nationalization" title="Nationalization">nationalized</a>, and the money economy was restricted. Strong opposition soon developed.<a href="#cite_note-Richman-192">[192]</a> The peasants wanted cash payments for their products and resented having to surrender their surplus grain to the government as a part of its civil war policies. Confronted with peasant opposition, Lenin began a strategic retreat from war communism known as the <a href="/wiki/New_Economic_Policy" title="New Economic Policy">New Economic Policy</a> (NEP).<a href="#cite_note-Richman-192">[192]</a> The peasants were freed from wholesale levies of grain and allowed to sell their surplus produce in the open market. Commerce was stimulated by permitting private retail trading. The state continued to be responsible for banking, transportation, heavy industry, and public utilities. Although the left opposition among the Communists criticized the rich peasants, or <a href="/wiki/Kulak" title="Kulak">kulaks</a>, who benefited from the NEP, the program proved highly beneficial and the economy revived.<a href="#cite_note-Richman-192">[192]</a> The NEP would later come under increasing opposition from within the party following Lenin's death in early 1924.<a href="#cite_note-Richman-192">[192]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Changes_to_Russian_society">Changes to Russian society</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Russia&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Changes to Russian society">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Cultural_Revolution_in_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Cultural Revolution in the Soviet Union">Cultural Revolution in the Soviet Union</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:8marta.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/7/72/8marta.jpg/220px-8marta.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="321" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/7/72/8marta.jpg/330px-8marta.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/7/72/8marta.jpg 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="583" /></a><figcaption>Soviet poster from 1932 symbolizing the reform of "old ways of life", dedicated to liberation of women from traditional roles</figcaption></figure> As the Russian Empire included during this period not only the region of Russia, but also today's territories of Ukraine, Belarus, Poland, Lithuania, Estonia, Latvia, Finland, Moldavia and the Caucasian and Central Asian countries, it is possible to examine the firm formation process in all those regions. One of the main determinants of firm creation for given regions of Russian Empire might be urban demand of goods and supply of industrial and organizational skill.<a href="#cite_note-193">[193]</a> While the Russian economy was being transformed, the social life of the people underwent equally drastic changes. The Family Code of 1918 granted women equal status to men, and permitted a couple to take either the husband or wife's name.<a href="#cite_note-194">[194]</a> <a href="/wiki/Divorce" title="Divorce">Divorce</a> no longer required court procedure,<a href="#cite_note-pushkareva-195">[195]</a> and to make women completely free of the responsibilities of childbearing, abortion was made legal as early as 1920.<a href="#cite_note-196">[196]</a> As a side effect, the emancipation of women increased the labor market. Girls were encouraged to secure an education and pursue a career. Communal nurseries were set up for child care, and efforts were made to shift the center of people's social life from the home to educational and recreational groups, the soviet clubs. The Soviet government pursued a policy of eliminating illiteracy (<a href="/wiki/Likbez" title="Likbez">Likbez</a>). After industrialization, massive <a href="/wiki/Urbanization" title="Urbanization">urbanization</a> began. In the field of national policy in the 1920s, the <a href="/wiki/Korenizatsiya" class="mw-redirect" title="Korenizatsiya">Korenizatsiya</a> was carried out. However, from the mid-30s, the Stalinist government returned to the tsarist policy of <a href="/wiki/Russification" title="Russification">Russification</a> of the outskirts. In particular, the languages of all the nations of the USSR were translated into the Cyrillic alphabet <a href="/wiki/Cyrillization" title="Cyrillization">Cyrillization</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Industrialization_and_collectivization">Industrialization and collectivization</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Russia&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Industrialization and collectivization">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Industrialization_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Industrialization in the Soviet Union">Industrialization in the Soviet Union</a> and <a href="/wiki/Collectivization_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Collectivization in the Soviet Union">Collectivization in the Soviet Union</a></div> The years from 1929 to 1939 comprised a tumultuous decade in Soviet history—a period of massive industrialization and internal struggles as <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Joseph Stalin</a> established near total control over Soviet society, wielding virtually unrestrained power. Following Lenin's death Stalin wrestled to gain control of the Soviet Union with rival factions in the Politburo, especially <a href="/wiki/Leon_Trotsky" title="Leon Trotsky">Leon Trotsky</a>'s. By 1928, with the <a href="/wiki/Trotskyist" class="mw-redirect" title="Trotskyist">Trotskyists</a> either exiled or rendered powerless, Stalin was ready to put a radical programme of industrialisation into action.<a href="#cite_note-Deutscbher-197">[197]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Famine_en_URSS_1933.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Famine_en_URSS_1933.jpg/220px-Famine_en_URSS_1933.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="307" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Famine_en_URSS_1933.jpg/330px-Famine_en_URSS_1933.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Famine_en_URSS_1933.jpg/440px-Famine_en_URSS_1933.jpg 2x" data-file-width="649" data-file-height="905" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Soviet_famine_of_1932%E2%80%931933" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet famine of 1932–1933">Soviet famine of 1932–1933</a>, with areas where the effects of famine were most severe shaded</figcaption></figure> In 1929, Stalin proposed the <a href="/wiki/First_five-year_plan_(Soviet_Union)" title="First five-year plan (Soviet Union)">first five-year plan</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Richman-192">[192]</a> Abolishing the NEP, it was the first of a number of plans aimed at swift accumulation of capital resources through the buildup of heavy industry, the <a href="/wiki/Collectivisation_in_the_USSR" class="mw-redirect" title="Collectivisation in the USSR">collectivization of agriculture</a>, and the restricted manufacture of <a href="/wiki/Consumer_goods_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Consumer goods in the Soviet Union">consumer goods</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Richman-192">[192]</a> For the first time in history a government controlled all economic activity. The rapid growth of production capacity and the volume of production of heavy industry was of great importance for ensuring economic independence from western countries and strengthening the country's defense capability. At this time, the Soviet Union made the transition from an agrarian country to an industrial one. As a part of the plan, the government took control of agriculture through the state and collective farms (<a href="/wiki/Kolkhoz" title="Kolkhoz">kolkhozes</a>).<a href="#cite_note-conquest-coll-198">[198]</a> By a decree of February 1930, about one million individual peasants (<a href="/wiki/Kulaks" class="mw-redirect" title="Kulaks">kulaks</a>) were forced off their land. Many peasants strongly opposed regimentation by the state, often slaughtering their herds when faced with the loss of their land. In some sections they revolted, and countless peasants deemed "kulaks" by the authorities were executed.<a href="#cite_note-199">[199]</a> The combination of bad weather, deficiencies of the hastily established collective farms, and massive confiscation of grain precipitated a serious famine,<a href="#cite_note-conquest-coll-198">[198]</a> and several million peasants <a href="/wiki/Soviet_famine_of_1932-1934" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet famine of 1932-1934">died of starvation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Holodomor" title="Holodomor">mostly in Ukraine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Famine_in_Kazakhstan_of_1932%E2%80%9333" class="mw-redirect" title="Famine in Kazakhstan of 1932–33">Kazakhstan</a> and parts of southwestern Russia.<a href="#cite_note-conquest-coll-198">[198]</a> The deteriorating conditions in the countryside drove millions of desperate peasants to the rapidly growing cities, fueling industrialization, and vastly increasing Russia's urban population. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Stalinist_repression">Stalinist repression</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Russia&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Stalinist repression">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Great_Purges" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Purges">Great Purges</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:5marshals_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/5marshals_01.jpg/220px-5marshals_01.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/5marshals_01.jpg/330px-5marshals_01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/5marshals_01.jpg/440px-5marshals_01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="628" data-file-height="450" /></a><figcaption>The first five <a href="/wiki/Marshals_of_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Marshals of the Soviet Union">Marshals of the Soviet Union</a> in November 1935, clockwise from top left: <a href="/wiki/Semyon_Budyonny" title="Semyon Budyonny">Semyon Budyonny</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vasily_Blyukher" title="Vasily Blyukher">Vasily Blyukher</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Ilyich_Yegorov" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexander Ilyich Yegorov">Alexander Ilyich Yegorov</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kliment_Voroshilov" title="Kliment Voroshilov">Kliment Voroshilov</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Tukhachevsky" title="Mikhail Tukhachevsky">Mikhail Tukhachevsky</a>. Only Budyonny and Voroshilov would survive Stalin's <a href="/wiki/Great_Purge" title="Great Purge">Great Purge</a>.</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/NKVD" title="NKVD">NKVD</a> gathered in tens of thousands of Soviet citizens to face arrest, <a href="/wiki/Population_transfer_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Population transfer in the Soviet Union">deportation</a>, or execution. Of the six original members of the 1920 Politburo who survived Lenin, all were purged by Stalin. Old Bolsheviks who had been loyal comrades of Lenin, high officers in the Red Army, and directors of industry were liquidated in the <a href="/wiki/Great_Purges" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Purges">Great Purges</a>.<a href="#cite_note-conquest-terror-200">[200]</a> Purges in other Soviet republics also helped centralize control in the USSR. Stalin destroyed the opposition in the party consisting of the old Bolsheviks during the <a href="/wiki/Moscow_trials" title="Moscow trials">Moscow trials</a>. The NKVD under the leadership of Stalin's commissar <a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Yezhov" title="Nikolai Yezhov">Nikolai Yezhov</a> carried out a series of <a href="/wiki/Mass_operations_of_the_NKVD" title="Mass operations of the NKVD">massive repressive operations</a> against the kulaks and various national minorities in the USSR. During the Great Purges of 1937–38, about 700,000 people were executed. Penalties were introduced, and many citizens were prosecuted for fictitious crimes of sabotage and espionage. The labor provided by convicts working in the <a href="/wiki/Labor_camp" title="Labor camp">labor camps</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Gulag" title="Gulag">Gulag</a> system became an important component of the industrialization effort, especially in <a href="/wiki/Siberia" title="Siberia">Siberia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-forcedlabor-201">[201]</a><a href="#cite_note-ivanova-202">[202]</a> An estimated 18 million people passed through the Gulag system, and perhaps another 15 million had experience of some other form of forced labor.<a href="#cite_note-203">[203]</a><a href="#cite_note-applebaum-204">[204]</a> After the partition of Poland in 1939, the NKVD executed 20,000 captured Polish officers in the <a href="/wiki/Katyn_massacre" title="Katyn massacre">Katyn massacre</a>. In the late 30s - first half of the 40s, the Stalinist government carried out <a href="/wiki/Population_transfer_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Population transfer in the Soviet Union">massive deportations of various nationalities</a>. A number of ethnic groups were deported from their settlement to Central Asia. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Soviet_Union_on_the_international_stage">Soviet Union on the international stage</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Russia&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Soviet Union on the international stage">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Foreign relations of the Soviet Union">Foreign relations of the Soviet Union</a> and <a href="/wiki/Soviet_imperialism" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet imperialism">Soviet imperialism</a></div> The Soviet Union viewed the 1933 accession of fervently <a href="/wiki/Anti-Communist" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Communist">anti-Communist</a> <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler" title="Adolf Hitler">Hitler</a> to power in <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Germany</a> with alarm, especially since Hitler proclaimed the <a href="/wiki/Drang_nach_Osten" title="Drang nach Osten">Drang nach Osten</a> as one of the major objectives in his vision of the German strategy of <a href="/wiki/Lebensraum" title="Lebensraum">Lebensraum</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Lebensraum-205">[205]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research">non-primary source needed</a>] The Soviets supported the republicans of Spain who struggled against fascist German and Italian troops in the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Civil_War" title="Spanish Civil War">Spanish Civil War</a>.<a href="#cite_note-206">[206]</a><a href="#cite_note-207">[207]</a> In 1938–1939, the Soviet Union successfully fought against <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Japan" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial Japan">Imperial Japan</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Japanese_border_conflicts" title="Soviet–Japanese border conflicts">Soviet–Japanese border conflicts</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Far_East" title="Russian Far East">Russian Far East</a>, which led to <a href="/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Japanese_Neutrality_Pact" title="Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact">Soviet-Japanese neutrality</a> and the tense border peace that lasted until August 1945.<a href="#cite_note-208">[208]</a><a href="#cite_note-209">[209]</a> In 1938, Germany <a href="/wiki/Anschluss" title="Anschluss">annexed Austria</a> and, together with major Western European powers, signed the <a href="/wiki/Munich_Agreement" title="Munich Agreement">Munich Agreement</a> following which Germany, Hungary and Poland divided parts of Czechoslovakia between themselves. German plans for further eastward expansion, as well as the lack of resolve from Western powers to oppose it, became more apparent. Despite the Soviet Union strongly opposing the Munich deal and repeatedly reaffirming its readiness to militarily back commitments given earlier to Czechoslovakia, the <a href="/wiki/Western_Betrayal" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Betrayal">Western Betrayal</a> led to the end of Czechoslovakia and further increased fears in the Soviet Union of a coming German attack. This led the Soviet Union to rush the modernization of its military industry and to carry out its own diplomatic maneuvers. In 1939, the Soviet Union signed the <a href="/wiki/Molotov%E2%80%93Ribbentrop_Pact" title="Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact">Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact</a>: a non-aggression pact with Nazi Germany dividing Eastern Europe into two separate spheres of influence.<a href="#cite_note-210">[210]</a> Following the pact, the USSR normalized <a href="/wiki/Germany%E2%80%93Soviet_Union_relations,_1918%E2%80%931941" title="Germany–Soviet Union relations, 1918–1941">relations with Nazi Germany</a> and resumed Soviet–German trade.<a href="#cite_note-211">[211]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="World_War_II">World War II</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Russia&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: World War II">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Front_(World_War_II)" title="Eastern Front (World War II)">Eastern Front (World War II)</a></div> On 17 September 1939, the <a href="/wiki/Red_Army" title="Red Army">Red Army</a> <a href="/wiki/Soviet_invasion_of_Poland" title="Soviet invasion of Poland">invaded eastern Poland</a>, stating as justification the "need to protect Ukrainians and Belarusians" there, after the "cessation of existence" of the Polish state.<a href="#cite_note-212">[212]</a><a href="#cite_note-213">[213]</a> As a result, the Belarusian and Ukrainian Soviet republics' western borders were moved westward, and the new Soviet western border was drawn close to the original <a href="/wiki/Curzon_line" class="mw-redirect" title="Curzon line">Curzon line</a>. In the meantime negotiations with <a href="/wiki/Finland" title="Finland">Finland</a> over a Soviet-proposed land swap that would redraw the Soviet-Finnish border further away from <a href="/wiki/Leningrad" class="mw-redirect" title="Leningrad">Leningrad</a> failed, and in December 1939 the USSR invaded Finland, beginning a campaign known as the <a href="/wiki/Winter_War" title="Winter War">Winter War</a> (1939–1940), with the goal of annexing Finland into the Soviet Union.<a href="#cite_note-214">[214]</a><a href="#cite_note-215">[215]</a> The war took a heavy death toll on the <a href="/wiki/Red_Army" title="Red Army">Red Army</a> and the Soviets failed to conquer Finland, but forced Finland to sign the <a href="/wiki/Moscow_Peace_Treaty" title="Moscow Peace Treaty">Moscow Peace Treaty</a> and cede the <a href="/wiki/Karelian_Isthmus" title="Karelian Isthmus">Karelian Isthmus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ladoga_Karelia" title="Ladoga Karelia">Ladoga Karelia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-216">[216]</a><a href="#cite_note-217">[217]</a> In summer 1940 the USSR issued an <a href="/wiki/June_1940_Soviet_Ultimatum" class="mw-redirect" title="June 1940 Soviet Ultimatum">ultimatum to Romania</a> forcing it to cede the territories of <a href="/wiki/Bessarabia" title="Bessarabia">Bessarabia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Northern_Bukovina" class="mw-redirect" title="Northern Bukovina">Northern Bukovina</a>. At the same time, the Soviet Union also occupied the three <a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Baltic_states" class="mw-redirect" title="Occupation of Baltic states">formerly independent Baltic states</a> (<a href="/wiki/Estonia" title="Estonia">Estonia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Latvia" title="Latvia">Latvia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lithuania" title="Lithuania">Lithuania</a>).<a href="#cite_note-218">[218]</a><a href="#cite_note-219">[219]</a><a href="#cite_note-220">[220]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-E0406-0022-001,_Russland,_Kesselschlacht_Stalingrad.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-E0406-0022-001%2C_Russland%2C_Kesselschlacht_Stalingrad.jpg/220px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-E0406-0022-001%2C_Russland%2C_Kesselschlacht_Stalingrad.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-E0406-0022-001%2C_Russland%2C_Kesselschlacht_Stalingrad.jpg/330px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-E0406-0022-001%2C_Russland%2C_Kesselschlacht_Stalingrad.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-E0406-0022-001%2C_Russland%2C_Kesselschlacht_Stalingrad.jpg/440px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-E0406-0022-001%2C_Russland%2C_Kesselschlacht_Stalingrad.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="493" /></a><figcaption>Soviet soldiers during the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Stalingrad" title="Battle of Stalingrad">Battle of Stalingrad</a>, the largest and bloodiest battle in the history of warfare, the turning point on the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Front_(World_War_II)" title="Eastern Front (World War II)">Eastern Front</a> and in the entire WWII</figcaption></figure> The peace with Germany was tense, as both sides were preparing for the military conflict,<a href="#cite_note-Isaev10-221">[221]</a><a href="#cite_note-222">[222]</a> and abruptly ended when the <a href="/wiki/Axis_forces" class="mw-redirect" title="Axis forces">Axis forces</a> led by Germany <a href="/wiki/Operation_Barbarossa" title="Operation Barbarossa">swept across the Soviet border</a> on 22 June 1941. By the autumn the <a href="/wiki/Wehrmacht" title="Wehrmacht">German army</a> had <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kiev_(1941)" title="Battle of Kiev (1941)">seized Ukraine</a>, laid a <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Leningrad" title="Siege of Leningrad">siege of Leningrad</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Moscow" title="Battle of Moscow">threatened to capture the capital</a>, Moscow, itself.<a href="#cite_note-223">[223]</a><a href="#cite_note-224">[224]</a><a href="#cite_note-225">[225]</a> Despite the fact that in December 1941 the Red Army <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Moscow" title="Battle of Moscow">threw off the German forces from Moscow</a> in a successful counterattack, the Germans retained the strategic initiative for approximately another year and held a deep offensive in the south-eastern direction, reaching the <a href="/wiki/Volga" title="Volga">Volga</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Caucasus" title="Caucasus">Caucasus</a>. However, two major German defeats in <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Stalingrad" title="Battle of Stalingrad">Stalingrad</a> and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kursk" title="Battle of Kursk">Kursk</a> proved decisive and reversed the course of the entire <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War</a> as the Germans never regained the strength to sustain their offensive operations and the Soviet Union recaptured the initiative for the rest of the conflict.<a href="#cite_note-226">[226]</a> By the end of 1943, the Red Army had broken through the German siege of Leningrad and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Dnieper" title="Battle of the Dnieper">liberated much of Ukraine</a>, much of Western Russia and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Smolensk_(1943)" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Smolensk (1943)">moved into Belarus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-227">[227]</a> During the 1944 campaign, the Red Army defeated German forces in a series of offensive campaigns known as <a href="/wiki/Stalin%27s_ten_blows" title="Stalin's ten blows">Stalin's ten blows</a>. By the end of 1944, the front had moved beyond the 1939 Soviet frontiers into eastern Europe. Soviet forces drove into eastern Germany, <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Berlin" title="Battle of Berlin">capturing Berlin</a> in May 1945.<a href="#cite_note-228">[228]</a> The war with Germany thus ended triumphantly for the Soviet Union. As agreed at the <a href="/wiki/Yalta_Conference" title="Yalta Conference">Yalta Conference</a>, three months after the <a href="/wiki/Victory_Day_(Eastern_Europe)" class="mw-redirect" title="Victory Day (Eastern Europe)">Victory Day in Europe</a> the USSR launched the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_invasion_of_Manchuria" title="Soviet invasion of Manchuria">Soviet invasion of Manchuria</a>, defeating the Japanese troops in neighboring <a href="/wiki/Manchuria" title="Manchuria">Manchuria</a>, the last Soviet battle of World War II.<a href="#cite_note-229">[229]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Raising_a_flag_over_the_Reichstag_-_Restoration.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Raising_a_flag_over_the_Reichstag_-_Restoration.jpg/220px-Raising_a_flag_over_the_Reichstag_-_Restoration.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Raising_a_flag_over_the_Reichstag_-_Restoration.jpg/330px-Raising_a_flag_over_the_Reichstag_-_Restoration.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Raising_a_flag_over_the_Reichstag_-_Restoration.jpg/440px-Raising_a_flag_over_the_Reichstag_-_Restoration.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4349" data-file-height="3139" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Raising_a_Flag_over_the_Reichstag" title="Raising a Flag over the Reichstag">Raising a Flag over the Reichstag</a></figcaption></figure> Although the Soviet Union was victorious in World War II, the war resulted in around 26–27 million Soviet deaths (estimates vary)<a href="#cite_note-230">[230]</a> and had devastated the Soviet economy in the struggle. Some 70,000 settlements were destroyed.<a href="#cite_note-231">[231]</a> The occupied territories suffered from the ravages of German occupation and deportations of <a href="/wiki/Slave_labor" class="mw-redirect" title="Slave labor">slave labor</a> by Germany.<a href="#cite_note-232">[232]</a> Thirteen million Soviet citizens became victims of the repressive policies of Germany and its allies in occupied territories, where people died because of mass murders, <a href="/wiki/Famine" title="Famine">famine</a>, absence of medical aid and slave labor.<a href="#cite_note-233">[233]</a><a href="#cite_note-234">[234]</a><a href="#cite_note-235">[235]</a><a href="#cite_note-gumer1-236">[236]</a> <a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">The Holocaust</a>, carried out by German <a href="/wiki/Einsatzgruppen" title="Einsatzgruppen">Einsatzgruppen</a> along with local collaborators, resulted in almost complete annihilation of the Jewish population over the entire territory temporarily occupied by Germany and <a href="/wiki/Axis_forces" class="mw-redirect" title="Axis forces">its allies</a>.<a href="#cite_note-237">[237]</a><a href="#cite_note-238">[238]</a><a href="#cite_note-239">[239]</a><a href="#cite_note-240">[240]</a> During the occupation, the Leningrad region lost around a quarter of its population,<a href="#cite_note-gumer1-236">[236]</a> Soviet Belarus lost from a quarter to a third of its population, and 3.6 million Soviet <a href="/wiki/Prisoners_of_war" class="mw-redirect" title="Prisoners of war">prisoners of war</a> (of 5.5 million) died in German camps.<a href="#cite_note-241">[241]</a><a href="#cite_note-242">[242]</a><a href="#cite_note-243">[243]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cold_War">Cold War</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Russia&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Cold War">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:US_Army_tanks_face_off_against_Soviet_tanks,_Berlin_1961.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/US_Army_tanks_face_off_against_Soviet_tanks%2C_Berlin_1961.jpg/220px-US_Army_tanks_face_off_against_Soviet_tanks%2C_Berlin_1961.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/US_Army_tanks_face_off_against_Soviet_tanks%2C_Berlin_1961.jpg/330px-US_Army_tanks_face_off_against_Soviet_tanks%2C_Berlin_1961.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/US_Army_tanks_face_off_against_Soviet_tanks%2C_Berlin_1961.jpg/440px-US_Army_tanks_face_off_against_Soviet_tanks%2C_Berlin_1961.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1507" /></a><figcaption>US Army tanks <a href="/wiki/Berlin_Crisis_of_1961" title="Berlin Crisis of 1961">face off</a> against Soviet armor at <a href="/wiki/Checkpoint_Charlie" title="Checkpoint Charlie">Checkpoint Charlie</a>, Berlin, October 1961.</figcaption></figure> Collaboration among the major Allies had won the war and was supposed to serve as the basis for postwar reconstruction and security. USSR became one of the founders of the <a href="/wiki/UN" class="mw-redirect" title="UN">UN</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Permanent_members_of_the_United_Nations_Security_Council" title="Permanent members of the United Nations Security Council">permanent member</a> of the UN Security Council. However, the conflict between Soviet and U.S. national interests, known as the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a>, came to dominate the international stage. The Cold War emerged from a conflict between Stalin and U.S. President <a href="/wiki/Harry_Truman" class="mw-redirect" title="Harry Truman">Harry Truman</a> over the future of Eastern Europe during the <a href="/wiki/Potsdam_Conference" title="Potsdam Conference">Potsdam Conference</a> in the summer of 1945.<a href="#cite_note-244">[244]</a> Stalin's goal was to establish a buffer zone of states between Germany and the Soviet Union.<a href="#cite_note-Gaddis-245">[245]</a> Truman charged that Stalin had betrayed the <a href="/wiki/Yalta" title="Yalta">Yalta</a> agreement.<a href="#cite_note-theoharis-orginsOfColdWar-246">[246]</a> With Eastern Europe under Red Army occupation, Stalin was also biding his time, as his own <a href="/wiki/Soviet_atomic_bomb_project" title="Soviet atomic bomb project">atomic bomb project</a> was steadily and secretly progressing.<a href="#cite_note-247">[247]</a><a href="#cite_note-248">[248]</a> In April 1949 the United States sponsored the <a href="/wiki/North_Atlantic_Treaty_Organization" class="mw-redirect" title="North Atlantic Treaty Organization">North Atlantic Treaty Organization</a> (NATO), a mutual defense pact. The Soviet Union established an Eastern counterpart to NATO in 1955, dubbed the <a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Pact" title="Warsaw Pact">Warsaw Pact</a>.<a href="#cite_note-249">[249]</a><a href="#cite_note-250">[250]</a><a href="#cite_note-251">[251]</a> The division of Europe into Western and Soviet blocks later took on a more global character, especially after 1949, when the U.S. nuclear monopoly ended with the testing of <a href="/wiki/Joe-1" class="mw-redirect" title="Joe-1">a Soviet bomb</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Communist Party of China">Communist</a> takeover in <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>. The foremost objectives of Soviet foreign policy were the maintenance and enhancement of national security and the maintenance of <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Bloc" title="Eastern Bloc">hegemony over Eastern Europe</a>. The Soviet Union maintained its dominance over the Warsaw Pact through crushing the <a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Revolution_of_1956" title="Hungarian Revolution of 1956">Hungarian Revolution of 1956</a>,<a href="#cite_note-252">[252]</a> suppressing the <a href="/wiki/Prague_Spring" title="Prague Spring">Prague Spring</a> in Czechoslovakia in 1968, and supporting the suppression of the <a href="/wiki/Solidarity_(Polish_trade_union)" title="Solidarity (Polish trade union)">Solidarity</a> movement in Poland in the early 1980s. The Soviet Union opposed the United States in a number of <a href="/wiki/Proxy_conflicts" class="mw-redirect" title="Proxy conflicts">proxy conflicts</a> all over the world, including the <a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a>. As the Soviet Union continued to maintain tight control over its sphere of influence in Eastern Europe, the Cold War gave way to <a href="/wiki/D%C3%A9tente" title="Détente">Détente</a> and a more complicated pattern of international relations in the 1970s. The <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_race" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear race">nuclear race</a> continued, the number of nuclear weapons in the hands of the USSR and the United States reached a menacing scale, giving them the ability to destroy the planet multiple times. Less powerful countries had more room to assert their independence, and the two <a href="/wiki/Superpower" title="Superpower">superpowers</a> were partially able to recognize their common interest in trying to check the further spread and proliferation of nuclear weapons in treaties such as <a href="/wiki/SALT_I" class="mw-redirect" title="SALT I">SALT I</a>, <a href="/wiki/SALT_II" class="mw-redirect" title="SALT II">SALT II</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Anti-Ballistic_Missile_Treaty" title="Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty">Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty</a>. U.S.–Soviet relations deteriorated following the beginning of the nine-year <a href="/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Afghan_War" title="Soviet–Afghan War">Soviet–Afghan War</a> in 1979 and the <a href="/wiki/1980_U.S._presidential_election" class="mw-redirect" title="1980 U.S. presidential election">1980 election of Ronald Reagan</a>, a staunch <a href="/wiki/Anti-communist" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-communist">anti-communist</a>, but improved as the <a href="/wiki/Communist_bloc" class="mw-redirect" title="Communist bloc">communist bloc</a> started to unravel in the late 1980s. With the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, Russia lost the superpower status that it had won in the Second World War. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="De-Stalinization_and_the_era_of_stagnation">De-Stalinization and the era of stagnation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Russia&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: De-Stalinization and the era of stagnation">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Khrushchev_Thaw" title="Khrushchev Thaw">Khrushchev Thaw</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Soviet_Union_(1953%E2%80%931964)" title="History of the Soviet Union (1953–1964)">History of the Soviet Union (1953–1964)</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Soviet_Union_(1964%E2%80%931982)" title="History of the Soviet Union (1964–1982)">History of the Soviet Union (1964–1982)</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Era_of_Stagnation" title="Era of Stagnation">Era of Stagnation</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Nikita_Khrushchev" title="Nikita Khrushchev">Nikita Khrushchev</a> solidified his position in a speech before the <a href="/wiki/20th_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="20th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Twentieth Congress of the Communist Party</a> in 1956 detailing Stalin's atrocities.<a href="#cite_note-CNN_Khrushchev-253">[253]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Carter_Brezhnev_sign_SALT_II.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Carter_Brezhnev_sign_SALT_II.jpg/220px-Carter_Brezhnev_sign_SALT_II.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Carter_Brezhnev_sign_SALT_II.jpg/330px-Carter_Brezhnev_sign_SALT_II.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Carter_Brezhnev_sign_SALT_II.jpg/440px-Carter_Brezhnev_sign_SALT_II.jpg 2x" data-file-width="630" data-file-height="425" /></a><figcaption>President <a href="/wiki/Jimmy_Carter" title="Jimmy Carter">Jimmy Carter</a> and Soviet General Secretary <a href="/wiki/Leonid_Brezhnev" title="Leonid Brezhnev">Leonid Brezhnev</a> sign the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT II) treaty, 18 June 1979.</figcaption></figure> In 1964, Khrushchev was <a href="/wiki/Impeachment" title="Impeachment">impeached</a> by the Communist Party's Central Committee, charging him with a host of errors that included Soviet setbacks such as the <a href="/wiki/Cuban_Missile_Crisis" title="Cuban Missile Crisis">Cuban Missile Crisis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-CNN_Khrushchev-253">[253]</a> After a period of <a href="/wiki/Collective_leadership" title="Collective leadership">collective leadership</a> led by <a href="/wiki/Leonid_Brezhnev" title="Leonid Brezhnev">Leonid Brezhnev</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alexei_Kosygin" title="Alexei Kosygin">Alexei Kosygin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Podgorny" title="Nikolai Podgorny">Nikolai Podgorny</a>, Brezhnev took Khrushchev's place as <a href="/wiki/Soviet_leader" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet leader">Soviet leader</a>.<a href="#cite_note-254">[254]</a> Brezhnev emphasized heavy industry,<a href="#cite_note-History_Guide_Brezhnev-255">[255]</a> instituted the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_economic_reform_of_1965" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet economic reform of 1965">Soviet economic reform of 1965</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Duke-256">[256]</a> and also attempted to ease relationships with the United States.<a href="#cite_note-History_Guide_Brezhnev-255">[255]</a> Soviet science and industry peaked in the Khrushchev and Brezhnev years. The world's first <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_plant" title="Nuclear power plant">nuclear power plant</a> was established in 1954 <a href="/wiki/Obninsk_Nuclear_Power_Plant" title="Obninsk Nuclear Power Plant">in Obninsk</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Baikal_Amur_Mainline" class="mw-redirect" title="Baikal Amur Mainline">Baikal Amur Mainline</a> was built. In the 1950s the USSR became a leading producer and exporter of petroleum and natural gas.<a href="#cite_note-257">[257]</a> In 1980 Moscow hosted the <a href="/wiki/1980_Summer_Olympics" title="1980 Summer Olympics">Summer Olympic Games</a>. While all modernized economies were rapidly moving to computerization after 1965, the USSR fell behind. Moscow's decision to copy the IBM 360 of 1965 proved a decisive mistake for it locked scientists into an antiquated system they were unable to improve. They had enormous difficulties in manufacturing the necessary chips reliably and in quantity, in programming workable and efficient programs, in coordinating entirely separate operations, and in providing support to computer users.<a href="#cite_note-258">[258]</a><a href="#cite_note-259">[259]</a> One of the greatest strengths of Soviet economy was its vast supplies of oil and gas; world oil prices quadrupled in 1973–1974, and rose again in 1979–1981, making the energy sector the chief driver of the Soviet economy, and was used to cover multiple weaknesses. At one point, Soviet Premier <a href="/wiki/Alexei_Kosygin" title="Alexei Kosygin">Alexei Kosygin</a> told the head of oil and gas production, "things are bad with bread. Give me 3 million tons [of oil] over the plan."<a href="#cite_note-260">[260]</a> Former prime minister <a href="/wiki/Yegor_Gaidar" title="Yegor Gaidar">Yegor Gaidar</a>, an economist looking back three decades, in 2007 wrote: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">The hard currency from oil exports stopped the growing food supply crisis, increased the import of equipment and consumer goods, ensured a financial base for the arms race and the achievement of nuclear parity with the United States, and permitted the realization of such risky foreign-policy actions as the war in Afghanistan.<a href="#cite_note-261">[261]</a></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Soviet_space_program">Soviet space program</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Russia&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Soviet space program">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Yuri_Gagarin_(1961)_-_Restoration.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Yuri_Gagarin_%281961%29_-_Restoration.jpg/220px-Yuri_Gagarin_%281961%29_-_Restoration.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="275" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Yuri_Gagarin_%281961%29_-_Restoration.jpg/330px-Yuri_Gagarin_%281961%29_-_Restoration.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Yuri_Gagarin_%281961%29_-_Restoration.jpg/440px-Yuri_Gagarin_%281961%29_-_Restoration.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2213" data-file-height="2767" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Yuri_Gagarin" title="Yuri Gagarin">Yuri Gagarin</a>, first human to travel into space</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Soviet_space_program" title="Soviet space program">Soviet space program</a>, founded by <a href="/wiki/Sergey_Korolev" class="mw-redirect" title="Sergey Korolev">Sergey Korolev</a>, was especially successful. On 4 October 1957, the Soviet Union launched the first <a href="/wiki/Satellite" title="Satellite">satellite</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sputnik" class="mw-redirect" title="Sputnik">Sputnik</a>.<a href="#cite_note-NASA_Sputnik-262">[262]</a> On 12 April 1961, <a href="/wiki/Yuri_Gagarin" title="Yuri Gagarin">Yuri Gagarin</a> became the first human to travel into space in the Soviet spaceship <a href="/wiki/Vostok_1" title="Vostok 1">Vostok 1</a>.<a href="#cite_note-263">[263]</a> Other achievements of Russian space program include: the first photo of the <a href="/wiki/Far_side_of_the_Moon" title="Far side of the Moon">far side of the Moon</a>; exploration of <a href="/wiki/Venus" title="Venus">Venus</a>; the first <a href="/wiki/Extra-vehicular_activity" class="mw-redirect" title="Extra-vehicular activity">spacewalk</a> by <a href="/wiki/Alexei_Leonov" title="Alexei Leonov">Alexei Leonov</a>; first female spaceflight by <a href="/wiki/Valentina_Tereshkova" title="Valentina Tereshkova">Valentina Tereshkova</a>. In 1970 and 1973, the world's first planetary rovers were sent to the moon: <a href="/wiki/Lunokhod_1" title="Lunokhod 1">Lunokhod 1</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lunokhod_2" title="Lunokhod 2">Lunokhod 2</a>. More recently, the Soviet Union produced the world's first space station, <a href="/wiki/Salyut" class="mw-redirect" title="Salyut">Salyut</a>, which in 1986 was replaced by <a href="/wiki/Mir" title="Mir">Mir</a>, the first consistently inhabited long-term space station, that served from 1986 to 2001. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Perestroika_and_breakup_of_the_Union">Perestroika and breakup of the Union</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Russia&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Perestroika and breakup of the Union">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Soviet_Union_(1982%E2%80%931991)" title="History of the Soviet Union (1982–1991)">History of the Soviet Union (1982–1991)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Dissolution of the Soviet Union">Dissolution of the Soviet Union</a></div> Two developments dominated the decade that followed: the increasingly apparent crumbling of the Soviet Union's economic and political structures, and the patchwork attempts at reforms to reverse that process. After the rapid succession of <a href="/wiki/Yuri_Andropov" title="Yuri Andropov">Yuri Andropov</a> and <a href="/wiki/Konstantin_Chernenko" title="Konstantin Chernenko">Konstantin Chernenko</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev" title="Mikhail Gorbachev">Mikhail Gorbachev</a> implemented <a href="/wiki/Perestroika" title="Perestroika">perestroika</a> in an attempt to modernize Soviet communism, and made significant changes in the party leadership.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] However, Gorbachev's social reforms led to unintended consequences. His policy of <a href="/wiki/Glasnost" title="Glasnost">glasnost</a> facilitated public access to information after decades of government repression, and social problems received wider public attention, undermining the Communist Party's authority. Glasnost allowed ethnic and nationalist disaffection to reach the surface,[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] and many constituent republics, especially the <a href="/wiki/Baltic_republics" class="mw-redirect" title="Baltic republics">Baltic republics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Georgian_SSR" class="mw-redirect" title="Georgian SSR">Georgian SSR</a> and <a href="/wiki/Moldavian_SSR" class="mw-redirect" title="Moldavian SSR">Moldavian SSR</a>, sought greater autonomy, which Moscow was unwilling to provide. In the <a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1989" title="Revolutions of 1989">revolutions of 1989</a> the USSR lost its allies in Eastern Europe. Gorbachev's attempts at economic reform were not sufficient, and the Soviet government left intact most of the fundamental elements of communist economy. Suffering from low pricing of petroleum and natural gas, the ongoing <a href="/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Afghan_War" title="Soviet–Afghan War">war in Afghanistan</a>, and outdated industry and pervasive corruption, the Soviet <a href="/wiki/Planned_economy" title="Planned economy">planned economy</a> proved to be ineffective, and by 1990 the Soviet government had lost control over economic conditions. Due to <a href="/wiki/Price_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Price control">price control</a>, there were shortages of almost all products. Control over the constituent republics was also relaxed, and they began to assert their national sovereignty. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:President_Ronald_Reagan_and_Soviet_General_Secretary_Mikhail_Gorbachev_at_the_first_Summit_in_Geneva,_Switzerland.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/President_Ronald_Reagan_and_Soviet_General_Secretary_Mikhail_Gorbachev_at_the_first_Summit_in_Geneva%2C_Switzerland.jpg/220px-President_Ronald_Reagan_and_Soviet_General_Secretary_Mikhail_Gorbachev_at_the_first_Summit_in_Geneva%2C_Switzerland.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/President_Ronald_Reagan_and_Soviet_General_Secretary_Mikhail_Gorbachev_at_the_first_Summit_in_Geneva%2C_Switzerland.jpg/330px-President_Ronald_Reagan_and_Soviet_General_Secretary_Mikhail_Gorbachev_at_the_first_Summit_in_Geneva%2C_Switzerland.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/President_Ronald_Reagan_and_Soviet_General_Secretary_Mikhail_Gorbachev_at_the_first_Summit_in_Geneva%2C_Switzerland.jpg/440px-President_Ronald_Reagan_and_Soviet_General_Secretary_Mikhail_Gorbachev_at_the_first_Summit_in_Geneva%2C_Switzerland.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="2651" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan" title="Ronald Reagan">Ronald Reagan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev" title="Mikhail Gorbachev">Mikhail Gorbachev</a> in Geneva, November 1985</figcaption></figure> The tension between Soviet Union and Russian SFSR authorities came to be personified in the power struggle between Gorbachev and <a href="/wiki/Boris_Yeltsin" title="Boris Yeltsin">Boris Yeltsin</a>.<a href="#cite_note-264">[264]</a> Squeezed out of Union politics by Gorbachev in 1987, Yeltsin, who represented himself as a committed democrat, presented a significant opposition to Gorbachev's authority.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] In a remarkable reversal of fortunes, he gained election as chairman of the Russian republic's new Supreme Soviet in May 1990.<a href="#cite_note-265">[265]</a> The following month, he secured legislation <a href="/wiki/Declaration_of_State_Sovereignty_of_the_Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic" title="Declaration of State Sovereignty of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic">giving Russian laws priority over Soviet laws</a> and withholding two-thirds of the budget.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] In the <a href="/wiki/1991_Russian_presidential_election" title="1991 Russian presidential election">first Russian presidential election</a> in 1991 Yeltsin became president of the Russian SFSR. At last Gorbachev <a href="/wiki/New_Union_Treaty" title="New Union Treaty">attempted to restructure</a> the Soviet Union into a less centralized state. However, on 19 August 1991, a <a href="/wiki/1991_Soviet_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat_attempt" class="mw-redirect" title="1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt">coup against Gorbachev</a> was attempted. The coup faced wide popular opposition and collapsed in three days, but disintegration of the Union became imminent. The Russian government took over most of the Soviet Union government institutions on its territory. Because of the dominant position of Russians in the Soviet Union, most gave little thought to any distinction between Russia and the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> before the late 1980s. In the Soviet Union, only Russian SFSR lacked its own republic-level Communist Party branch, <a href="/wiki/Trade_union" title="Trade union">trade union</a> councils, <a href="/wiki/Academy_of_Sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Academy of Sciences">Academy of Sciences</a>, and the like.<a href="#cite_note-266">[266]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Communist Party of the Soviet Union</a> was banned in Russia in 1991–1992, although no <a href="/wiki/Lustration" title="Lustration">lustration</a> has ever taken place, and many of its members became top Russian officials. However, as the Soviet government was still opposed to market reforms, the economic situation continued to deteriorate. By December 1991, the shortages had resulted in the introduction of food <a href="/wiki/Rationing" title="Rationing">rationing</a> in Moscow and Saint Petersburg for the first time since World War II. Russia received humanitarian food aid from abroad. After the <a href="/wiki/Belavezha_Accords" class="mw-redirect" title="Belavezha Accords">Belavezha Accords</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Soviet_of_Russia" title="Supreme Soviet of Russia">Supreme Soviet of Russia</a> withdrew Russia from the Soviet Union on 12 December. The Soviet Union officially ended on 25 December 1991,<a href="#cite_note-BBC_Timeline-267">[267]</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russian Federation</a> (formerly the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic" title="Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic">Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic</a>)<a href="#cite_note-268">[268]</a> took power on 26 December.<a href="#cite_note-BBC_Timeline-267">[267]</a> The Russian government lifted price control in January 1992. Prices rose dramatically, but shortages disappeared. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Russian_Federation_(1991–present)">Russian Federation (1991–present)</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Russia&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Russian Federation (1991–present)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Russian_Federation" title="History of the Russian Federation">History of the Russian Federation</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Liberal_reforms_of_the_1990s">Liberal reforms of the 1990s</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Russia&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Liberal reforms of the 1990s">edit</a>]</div> Although Yeltsin came to power on a wave of optimism, he never recovered his popularity after endorsing <a href="/wiki/Yegor_Gaidar" title="Yegor Gaidar">Yegor Gaidar</a>'s "<a href="/wiki/Shock_therapy_(economics)" title="Shock therapy (economics)">shock therapy</a>" of ending Soviet-era price controls, drastic cuts in state spending, and an open foreign trade regime in early 1992 (see <a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Russia#History" title="Economy of Russia">Russian economic reform in the 1990s</a>). The reforms immediately devastated the living standards of much of the population. In the 1990s Russia suffered an economic downturn that was, in some ways, more severe than the United States or Germany had undergone six decades earlier in the Great Depression.<a href="#cite_note-269">[269]</a> <a href="/wiki/Hyperinflation" title="Hyperinflation">Hyperinflation</a> hit the ruble, due to <a href="/wiki/Monetary_overhang" title="Monetary overhang">monetary overhang</a> from the days of the planned economy. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Boris_Yeltsin-2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Boris_Yeltsin-2.jpg/220px-Boris_Yeltsin-2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="329" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Boris_Yeltsin-2.jpg/330px-Boris_Yeltsin-2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dc/Boris_Yeltsin-2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="334" data-file-height="500" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Boris_Yeltsin" title="Boris Yeltsin">Boris Yeltsin</a>—first president of Russian Federation in 1999</figcaption></figure> Meanwhile, the profusion of small parties and their aversion to coherent alliances left the legislature chaotic. During 1993, Yeltsin's rift with the parliamentary leadership led to the <a href="/wiki/Russian_constitutional_crisis_of_1993" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian constitutional crisis of 1993">September–October 1993 constitutional crisis</a>. The crisis climaxed on 3 October, when Yeltsin chose a radical solution to settle his dispute with parliament: he called up tanks to shell the <a href="/wiki/White_House_of_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="White House of Russia">Russian White House</a>, blasting out his opponents. As Yeltsin was taking the unconstitutional step of dissolving the legislature, Russia came close to a serious civil conflict. Yeltsin was then free to impose the <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Russian_Federation" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitution of the Russian Federation">current Russian constitution</a> with strong presidential powers, which was approved by referendum in December 1993. The cohesion of the Russian Federation was also threatened when the republic of <a href="/wiki/Chechnya" title="Chechnya">Chechnya</a> attempted to break away, leading to the <a href="/wiki/First_Chechen_War" title="First Chechen War">First</a> and <a href="/wiki/Second_Chechen_War" title="Second Chechen War">Second Chechen Wars</a>. Economic reforms also consolidated a semi-criminal oligarchy with roots in the old Soviet system. Advised by Western governments, the <a href="/wiki/World_Bank" title="World Bank">World Bank</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/International_Monetary_Fund" title="International Monetary Fund">International Monetary Fund</a>, Russia embarked on the largest and fastest <a href="/wiki/Privatization" title="Privatization">privatization</a> ever to reform the fully <a href="/wiki/Nationalization" title="Nationalization">nationalized</a> Soviet economy. By mid-decade, retail, trade, services, and small industry was in private hands. Most big enterprises were acquired by their old managers, engendering a new rich (<a href="/wiki/Russian_oligarch" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian oligarch">Russian tycoons</a>) in league with <a href="/wiki/Russian_Mafia" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian Mafia">criminal mafias</a> or Western investors.<a href="#cite_note-270">[270]</a> <a href="/wiki/Corporate_raider" class="mw-redirect" title="Corporate raider">Corporate raiders</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Andrei_Volgin_(businessman)" title="Andrei Volgin (businessman)">Andrei Volgin</a> engaged in <a href="/wiki/Hostile_takeover" class="mw-redirect" title="Hostile takeover">hostile takeovers</a> of corrupt corporations by the mid-1990s. By the mid-1990s Russia had a system of multiparty electoral politics.<a href="#cite_note-271">[271]</a> But it was harder to establish a representative government because of the struggle between president and parliament and the anarchic party system. Meanwhile, the central government had lost control of the localities, bureaucracy, and economic fiefdoms, and tax revenues had collapsed. Still in a deep depression, Russia's economy was hit further by the <a href="/wiki/1998_Russian_financial_crisis" title="1998 Russian financial crisis">financial crash of 1998</a>. At the end of 1999, Yeltsin made a surprise announcement of his resignation, leaving the government in the hands of the Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Putin" title="Vladimir Putin">Vladimir Putin</a>.<a href="#cite_note-272">[272]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Era_of_Putin">Era of Putin</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Russia&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: Era of Putin">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Russia_under_Vladimir_Putin" title="Russia under Vladimir Putin">Russia under Vladimir Putin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Opposition_to_Vladimir_Putin_in_Russia" title="Opposition to Vladimir Putin in Russia">Opposition to Vladimir Putin in Russia</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Moscow_rally_12_June_2012,_Trubnaya_Square_(01).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Moscow_rally_12_June_2012%2C_Trubnaya_Square_%2801%29.jpg/220px-Moscow_rally_12_June_2012%2C_Trubnaya_Square_%2801%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="134" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Moscow_rally_12_June_2012%2C_Trubnaya_Square_%2801%29.jpg/330px-Moscow_rally_12_June_2012%2C_Trubnaya_Square_%2801%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Moscow_rally_12_June_2012%2C_Trubnaya_Square_%2801%29.jpg/440px-Moscow_rally_12_June_2012%2C_Trubnaya_Square_%2801%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4995" data-file-height="3032" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/2011%E2%80%932013_Russian_protests" title="2011–2013 Russian protests">2011–2013 Russian protests</a> against the conduct of Russia's parliamentary elections</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Putin_with_Vladimir_Konstantinov,_Sergey_Aksyonov_and_Alexey_Chaly_4.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Putin_with_Vladimir_Konstantinov%2C_Sergey_Aksyonov_and_Alexey_Chaly_4.jpeg/220px-Putin_with_Vladimir_Konstantinov%2C_Sergey_Aksyonov_and_Alexey_Chaly_4.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Putin_with_Vladimir_Konstantinov%2C_Sergey_Aksyonov_and_Alexey_Chaly_4.jpeg/330px-Putin_with_Vladimir_Konstantinov%2C_Sergey_Aksyonov_and_Alexey_Chaly_4.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Putin_with_Vladimir_Konstantinov%2C_Sergey_Aksyonov_and_Alexey_Chaly_4.jpeg/440px-Putin_with_Vladimir_Konstantinov%2C_Sergey_Aksyonov_and_Alexey_Chaly_4.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="4091" data-file-height="2722" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Putin" title="Vladimir Putin">Vladimir Putin</a> and pro-Russian Crimea leaders sign the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_on_Accession_of_the_Republic_of_Crimea_to_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaty on Accession of the Republic of Crimea to Russia">Treaty on Accession of the Republic of Crimea to Russia</a> in 2014.</figcaption></figure> In 2000, the new acting president won the presidential election on 26 March and won in a landslide four years later.<a href="#cite_note-BBC_Putin_Elections-273">[273]</a> The Second Chechen war ended with the victory of Russia. After the 11 September terrorist attacks, there was a rapprochement between Russia and the United States. Putin created a system of <a href="/wiki/Guided_democracy" title="Guided democracy">guided democracy</a> in Russia by subjugating parliament, suppressing independent media and placing major oil and gas companies under state control. International observers were alarmed by moves in late 2004 to further tighten the presidency's control over parliament, civil society, and regional officeholders.<a href="#cite_note-BBC_Putin_Elections2-274">[274]</a> In 2008, <a href="/wiki/Dmitri_Medvedev" class="mw-redirect" title="Dmitri Medvedev">Dmitri Medvedev</a>, Putin's head of staff, was elected President. In 2012, Putin became president again, prompting <a href="/wiki/2011%E2%80%932013_Russian_protests" title="2011–2013 Russian protests">massive protests in Moscow</a>. Russia's long-term problems include a shrinking workforce, rampant corruption, and underinvestment in infrastructure.<a href="#cite_note-cia-275">[275]</a> Nevertheless, reversion to a <a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">socialist</a> <a href="/wiki/Command_economy" class="mw-redirect" title="Command economy">command economy</a> seemed almost impossible.<a href="#cite_note-276">[276]</a> The economic problems are aggravated by massive capital outflows, as well as extremely difficult conditions for doing business, due to pressure from the security forces <a href="/wiki/Siloviki" class="mw-redirect" title="Siloviki">Siloviki</a> and government agencies. Due to high oil prices, from 2000 to 2008, Russia's GDP at PPP doubled.<a href="#cite_note-277">[277]</a> Although high oil prices and a relatively cheap ruble initially drove this growth, since 2003 consumer demand and, more recently, investment have played a significant role.<a href="#cite_note-cia-275">[275]</a> Russia is well ahead of most other resource-rich countries in its economic development, with a long tradition of education, science, and industry.<a href="#cite_note-278">[278]</a> Russia hosted the <a href="/wiki/2014_Winter_Olympic_Games" class="mw-redirect" title="2014 Winter Olympic Games">2014 Winter Olympic Games</a> in Sochi.<a href="#cite_note-279">[279]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kyiv_after_Russian_shelling,_2022-10-10_(073).webp" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Kyiv_after_Russian_shelling%2C_2022-10-10_%28073%29.webp/220px-Kyiv_after_Russian_shelling%2C_2022-10-10_%28073%29.webp.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Kyiv_after_Russian_shelling%2C_2022-10-10_%28073%29.webp/330px-Kyiv_after_Russian_shelling%2C_2022-10-10_%28073%29.webp.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Kyiv_after_Russian_shelling%2C_2022-10-10_%28073%29.webp/440px-Kyiv_after_Russian_shelling%2C_2022-10-10_%28073%29.webp.png 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1365" /></a><figcaption>A street in <a href="/wiki/Kyiv" title="Kyiv">Kyiv</a> following <a href="/wiki/Attacks_on_civilians_in_the_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" title="Attacks on civilians in the Russian invasion of Ukraine">Russian missile strikes</a> on 10 October 2022</figcaption></figure> In 2014, following a controversial <a href="/wiki/2014_Crimean_status_referendum" title="2014 Crimean status referendum">referendum</a>, in which separation was favored by a large majority of voters according to official results,<a href="#cite_note-280">[280]</a> the Russian leadership announced the accession of Crimea into the Russian Federation,<a href="#cite_note-281">[281]</a> thus starting the <a href="/wiki/Russo-Ukrainian_War" title="Russo-Ukrainian War">Russo-Ukrainian War</a>. Following Russia's <a href="/wiki/Annexation_of_Crimea_by_the_Russian_Federation" title="Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation">annexation of Crimea</a> and alleged Russian interference in the <a href="/wiki/War_in_Donbas_(2014%E2%80%932022)" class="mw-redirect" title="War in Donbas (2014–2022)">war in eastern Ukraine</a>, <a href="/wiki/International_sanctions_during_the_Russo-Ukrainian_War" title="International sanctions during the Russo-Ukrainian War">international sanctions</a> were imposed on Russia.<a href="#cite_note-282">[282]</a> On 4 December 2011, <a href="/wiki/2011_Russian_legislative_election" title="2011 Russian legislative election">elections to the State Duma</a> were held, as a result of which <a href="/wiki/United_Russia" title="United Russia">United Russia</a> won for the third time in a row. The official voting results caused <a href="/wiki/2011%E2%80%932013_Russian_protests" title="2011–2013 Russian protests">significant protests</a> in the country; a number of political scientists and journalists noted various falsifications on election day.<a href="#cite_note-283">[283]</a> In 2012, according to another pre-election agreement, a "<a href="/wiki/Castling" title="Castling">castling</a>" took place;<a href="#cite_note-284">[284]</a> Vladimir Putin again became president and Dmitry Medvedev took over as chairman of the government, after which the protests acquired an anti-Putin orientation, but soon began to decline.<a href="#cite_note-285">[285]</a> Since 2015, Russia has been conducting <a href="/wiki/Russian_military_intervention_in_the_Syrian_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian military intervention in the Syrian Civil War">military intervention in Syria</a> in support of the Bashar al-Assad regime.<a href="#cite_note-286">[286]</a> In 2018, Vladimir Putin was re-elected for a fourth presidential term.<a href="#cite_note-287">[287]</a> In 2022, Russia launched the <a href="/wiki/2022_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" class="mw-redirect" title="2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine">invasion of Ukraine</a>,<a href="#cite_note-288">[288]</a> which was denounced by <a href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">NATO</a> and the <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a>. They aided Ukraine and imposed massive <a href="/wiki/International_sanctions_during_the_2022_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" class="mw-redirect" title="International sanctions during the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine">International sanctions during the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine</a>.<a href="#cite_note-289">[289]</a> A leading banker in Moscow said the damage might take a decade to recover, as half of its international trade has been lost.<a href="#cite_note-290">[290]</a> Despite international opposition, Russia officially annexed the <a href="/wiki/Donetsk_People%27s_Republic" title="Donetsk People's Republic">Donetsk People's Republic</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Luhansk_People%27s_Republic" title="Luhansk People's Republic">Luhansk People's Republic</a>, along with most of the <a href="/wiki/Kherson_Oblast" title="Kherson Oblast">Kherson</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zaporizhzhia_Oblast" title="Zaporizhzhia Oblast">Zaporizhzhia Oblasts</a> on 30 September.<a href="#cite_note-291">[291]</a> According to the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a>, Russia has committed <a href="/wiki/War_crimes_in_the_2022_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" class="mw-redirect" title="War crimes in the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine">war crimes</a> during the invasion.<a href="#cite_note-292">[292]</a> On 23 June 2023, the <a href="/wiki/Wagner_Group" title="Wagner Group">Wagner Group</a>, a Russian paramilitary organization led by <a href="/wiki/Yevgeny_Prigozhin" title="Yevgeny Prigozhin">Yevgeny Prigozhin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wagner_Group_rebellion" title="Wagner Group rebellion">rebelled</a> against the government.<a href="#cite_note-293">[293]</a> As of August 2023, the total number of Russian and Ukrainian soldiers <a href="/wiki/Casualties_of_the_Russo-Ukrainian_War" title="Casualties of the Russo-Ukrainian War">killed or wounded</a> during the Russian invasion of Ukraine was nearly 500,000.<a href="#cite_note-294">[294]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Historiography">Historiography</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Russia&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: Historiography">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Historiography_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Historiography in the Soviet Union">Historiography in the Soviet Union</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_Russian_historians" title="List of Russian historians">List of Russian historians</a>, and <a href="/wiki/List_of_Slavic_studies_journals" title="List of Slavic studies journals">List of Slavic studies journals</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Russia&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 22em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Dissolution of the Soviet Union">Dissolution of the Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rulers_of_Russia_family_tree" class="mw-redirect" title="Rulers of Russia family tree">Family tree of the Russian monarchs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_Secretary_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Central_Asia" title="History of Central Asia">History of Central Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Siberia" title="History of Siberia">History of Siberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_administrative_division_of_Russia" title="History of the administrative division of Russia">History of the administrative division of Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Caucasus" title="History of the Caucasus">History of the Caucasus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Russia" title="History of the Jews in Russia">History of the Jews in Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="History of the Soviet Union">History of the Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_heads_of_government_of_Russia" title="List of heads of government of Russia">List of heads of government of Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Mongol_and_Tatar_raids_against_Rus%27" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Mongol and Tatar raids against Rus'">List of Mongol and Tatar raids against Rus'</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_Russia" title="List of presidents of Russia">List of presidents of Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Russian_explorers" title="List of Russian explorers">List of Russian explorers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Russian_rulers" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Russian rulers">List of Russian rulers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_wars_involving_Russia" title="List of wars involving Russia">List of wars involving Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_Russian_Empire" title="Military history of the Russian Empire">Military history of the Russian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Military history of the Soviet Union">Military history of the Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Russia" title="Politics of Russia">Politics of Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Armed_Forces" title="Russian Armed Forces">Russian Armed Forces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_colonization_of_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian colonization of the Americas">Russian colonization of the Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Moscow" title="Timeline of Moscow">Timeline of Moscow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Russian_history" title="Timeline of Russian history">Timeline of Russian history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Russian_innovation" title="Timeline of Russian innovation">Timeline of Russian innovation</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Russia&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?historyid=ac14">"History of Russia – Slavs in Russia: from 1500 BC"</a>. Historyworld.net. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060309013907/http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?historyid=ac14">Archived</a> from the original on 9 March 2006. Retrieved 14 July 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=History+of+Russia+%E2%80%93+Slavs+in+Russia%3A+from+1500+BC&rft.pub=Historyworld.net&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.historyworld.net%2Fwrldhis%2FPlainTextHistories.asp%3Fhistoryid%3Dac14&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Russia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoskingService1998" class="citation book cs1">Hosking, Geoffrey; Service, Robert, eds. (1998). Russian Nationalism, Past and Present. Springer. p. 8. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781349265329" title="Special:BookSources/9781349265329"><bdi>9781349265329</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Russian+Nationalism%2C+Past+and+Present&rft.pages=8&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=9781349265329&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Russia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrey2015" class="citation book cs1">Grey, Ian (2015). Russia: A History. New Word City. p. 5. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781612309019" title="Special:BookSources/9781612309019"><bdi>9781612309019</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Russia%3A+A+History&rft.pages=5&rft.pub=New+Word+City&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9781612309019&rft.aulast=Grey&rft.aufirst=Ian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Russia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKetolaVihavainen2014" class="citation book cs1">Ketola, Kari; Vihavainen, Timo (2014). Changing Russia? : history, culture and business (1. ed.). Helsinki: Finemor. p. 1. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9527124017" title="Special:BookSources/978-9527124017"><bdi>978-9527124017</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Changing+Russia%3F+%3A+history%2C+culture+and+business&rft.place=Helsinki&rft.pages=1&rft.edition=1.&rft.pub=Finemor&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-9527124017&rft.aulast=Ketola&rft.aufirst=Kari&rft.au=Vihavainen%2C+Timo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Russia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCurtis1998" class="citation book cs1">Curtis, Glenn Eldon (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/books/edition/Russia/UKi80AEACAAJ">Russia: A Country Study</a>. Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. p. 12. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8444-0866-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8444-0866-8"><bdi>978-0-8444-0866-8</bdi></a>. <q>Muscovy gained full sovereignty over the ethnically Russian lands... by the beginning of the sixteenth century virtually all those lands were united</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Russia%3A+A+Country+Study&rft.pages=12&rft.pub=Federal+Research+Division%2C+Library+of+Congress&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-8444-0866-8&rft.aulast=Curtis&rft.aufirst=Glenn+Eldon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.com%2Fbooks%2Fedition%2FRussia%2FUKi80AEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Russia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://2009-2017.state.gov/documents/organization/27389.pdf">Article 1 of the Lisbon Protocol</a> from the U.S. State Department website. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190528160416/https://2009-2017.state.gov/documents/organization/27389.pdf">Archived</a> 28 May 2019 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> Щелинский В. Е. и др. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.archaeolog.ru/media/ksia/ksia-239.pdf">Раннеплейстоценовая стоянка Кермек в Западном Предкавказье (предварительные результаты комплексных исследований)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210321163415/https://www.archaeolog.ru/media/ksia/ksia-239.pdf">Archived</a> 21 March 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> // Краткие сообщения ИА РАН. Вып. 239, 2015. </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> Щелинский В. Е. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.archaeolog.ru/media/ksia/ksia-254-redu.pdf#page=34">"Об охоте на крупных млекопитающих и использовании водных пищевых ресурсов в раннем палеолите (по материалам раннеашельских стоянок Южного Приазовья)"</a> (PDF). www.archaeolog.ru (in Russian). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230607214948/https://www.archaeolog.ru/media/ksia/ksia-254-redu.pdf#page=34">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 7 June 2023. Retrieved 17 December 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.archaeolog.ru&rft.atitle=%D0%9E%D0%B1+%D0%BE%D1%85%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B5+%D0%BD%D0%B0+%D0%BA%D1%80%D1%83%D0%BF%D0%BD%D1%8B%D1%85+%D0%BC%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%8E%D1%89%D0%B8%D1%85+%D0%B8+%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B8+%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BD%D1%8B%D1%85+%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%89%D0%B5%D0%B2%D1%8B%D1%85+%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%83%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%B2+%D0%B2+%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BC+%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5+%28%D0%BF%D0%BE+%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BC+%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B0%D1%88%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%85+%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%8F%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BA+%D0%AE%D0%B6%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE+%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%8C%D1%8F%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.archaeolog.ru%2Fmedia%2Fksia%2Fksia-254-redu.pdf%23page%3D34&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Russia" class="Z3988"> // Краткие сообщения Института археологии. Вып. 254. 2019 </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChepalygaAmirkhanovTrubikhinSadchikova2011" class="citation web cs1">Chepalyga, A.L.; Amirkhanov, Kh.A.; Trubikhin, V.M.; Sadchikova, T.A.; Pirogov, A.N.; Taimazov, A.I. (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130520090413/http://paleogeo.org/article3.html">"Geoarchaeology of the earliest paleolithic sites (Oldowan) in the North Caucasus and the East Europe"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://paleogeo.org/article3.html">the original</a> on 20 May 2013. Retrieved 18 December 2013. <q>Early Paleolithic cultural layers with tools of oldowan type was discovered in East Caucasus (Dagestan, Russia) by Kh. Amirkhanov (2006) [...]</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Geoarchaeology+of+the+earliest+paleolithic+sites+%28Oldowan%29+in+the+North+Caucasus+and+the+East+Europe&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Chepalyga&rft.aufirst=A.L.&rft.au=Amirkhanov%2C+Kh.A.&rft.au=Trubikhin%2C+V.M.&rft.au=Sadchikova%2C+T.A.&rft.au=Pirogov%2C+A.N.&rft.au=Taimazov%2C+A.I.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpaleogeo.org%2Farticle3.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Russia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.1700186">A fourth Denisovan individual</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220815123645/https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.1700186">Archived</a> 15 August 2022 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, 2017. </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> Matthew Warren, «Mum's a Neanderthal, Dad's a Denisovan: First discovery of an ancient-human hybrid - Genetic analysis uncovers a direct descendant of two different groups of early humans», Nature, vol. 560, 23 August 2018, pp. 417-418. </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIgor_V._OvchinnikovAnders_GötherströmGalina_P._RomanovaVitaliy_M._Kharitonov2000" class="citation journal cs1">Igor V. Ovchinnikov; Anders Götherström; Galina P. Romanova; Vitaliy M. Kharitonov; Kerstin Lidén; William Goodwin (30 March 2000). "Molecular analysis of Neanderthal DNA from the northern Caucasus". <a href="/wiki/Nature_(journal)" title="Nature (journal)">Nature</a>. 404 (6777): 490–493. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2000Natur.404..490O">2000Natur.404..490O</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F35006625">10.1038/35006625</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10761915">10761915</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:3101375">3101375</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Molecular+analysis+of+Neanderthal+DNA+from+the+northern+Caucasus&rft.volume=404&rft.issue=6777&rft.pages=490-493&rft.date=2000-03-30&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F35006625&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A3101375%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F10761915&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2000Natur.404..490O&rft.au=Igor+V.+Ovchinnikov&rft.au=Anders+G%C3%B6therstr%C3%B6m&rft.au=Galina+P.+Romanova&rft.au=Vitaliy+M.+Kharitonov&rft.au=Kerstin+Lid%C3%A9n&rft.au=William+Goodwin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Russia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMitchell2012" class="citation news cs1">Mitchell, Alanna (30 January 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2012/01/31/science/gains-in-dna-are-speeding-research-into-human-origins.html?_r=2&nl=todaysheadlines&emc=tha210/&">"Gains in DNA Are Speeding Research into Human Origins"</a>. The New York Times. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170912024249/http://www.nytimes.com/2012/01/31/science/gains-in-dna-are-speeding-research-into-human-origins.html?_r=2&nl=todaysheadlines&emc=tha210/&">Archived</a> from the original on 12 September 2017. Retrieved 27 February 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Gains+in+DNA+Are+Speeding+Research+into+Human+Origins&rft.date=2012-01-30&rft.aulast=Mitchell&rft.aufirst=Alanna&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2012%2F01%2F31%2Fscience%2Fgains-in-dna-are-speeding-research-into-human-origins.html%3F_r%3D2%26nl%3Dtodaysheadlines%26emc%3Dtha210%2F%26&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Russia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFK._Kris_Hirst_Archaeology_Expert" class="citation web cs1">K. Kris Hirst Archaeology Expert. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210321163447/https://www.thoughtco.com/kostenki-human-migrations-into-europe-171471">"Pre-Aurignacian Levels Discovered at the Kostenki Site"</a>. Archaeology.about.com. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archaeology.about.com/od/earlymansites/a/kostenki.htm">the original</a> on 21 March 2021. Retrieved 18 May 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Pre-Aurignacian+Levels+Discovered+at+the+Kostenki+Site&rft.pub=Archaeology.about.com&rft.au=K.+Kris+Hirst+Archaeology+Expert&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farchaeology.about.com%2Fod%2Fearlymansites%2Fa%2Fkostenki.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Russia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Belinskij-15">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Belinskij_15-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Belinskij_15-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBelinskijH._Härke1999" class="citation journal cs1">Belinskij, Andrej; H. Härke (March–April 1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080610043326/http://cat.he.net/~archaeol/9903/newsbriefs/ipatovo.html">"The 'Princess' of Ipatovo"</a>. Archeology. 52 (2). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cat.he.net/~archaeol/9903/newsbriefs/ipatovo.html">the original</a> on 10 June 2008. Retrieved 26 December 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Archeology&rft.atitle=The+%27Princess%27+of+Ipatovo&rft.volume=52&rft.issue=2&rft.date=1999-03%2F1999-04&rft.aulast=Belinskij&rft.aufirst=Andrej&rft.au=H.+H%C3%A4rke&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcat.he.net%2F~archaeol%2F9903%2Fnewsbriefs%2Fipatovo.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Russia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDrews2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Drews" title="Robert Drews">Drews, Robert</a> (2004). Early Riders: The beginnings of mounted warfare in Asia and Europe. New York: Routledge. p. 50. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-32624-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-32624-9"><bdi>0-415-32624-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Early+Riders%3A+The+beginnings+of+mounted+warfare+in+Asia+and+Europe&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=50&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0-415-32624-9&rft.aulast=Drews&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Russia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> Dr. Ludmila Koryakova, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.csen.org/koryakova2/Korya.Sin.Ark.html">"Sintashta-Arkaim Culture"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190228104055/http://www.csen.org/koryakova2/Korya.Sin.Ark.html">Archived</a> 28 February 2019 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> - The Center for the Study of the Eurasian Nomads (CSEN). Retrieved 20 July 2007. </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/transcripts/2517siberian.html">1998 NOVA documentary: "Ice Mummies: Siberian Ice Maiden"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110513234433/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/transcripts/2517siberian.html">Archived</a> 13 May 2011 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Transcript. </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> Esther Jacobson, The Art of the Scythians: The Interpenetration of Cultures at the Edge of the Hellenic World, Brill, 1995, p. 38. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-04-09856-9" title="Special:BookSources/90-04-09856-9">90-04-09856-9</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> Peter Turchin, Historical Dynamics: Why States Rise and Fall, Princeton University Press, 2003, pp. 185–186. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-11669-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-691-11669-5">0-691-11669-5</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-Christian-21">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Christian_21-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Christian_21-1">b</a> David Christian, A History of Russia, Central Asia and Mongolia, Blackwell Publishing, 1998, pp. 286–288. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-631-20814-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-631-20814-3">0-631-20814-3</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> Frank Northen Magill, Magill's Literary Annual, 1977 Salem Press, 1977, p. 818. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-89356-077-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-89356-077-4">0-89356-077-4</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> André Wink, Al-Hind, the Making of an Indo-Islamic World, Brill, 2004, p. 35. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-04-09249-8" title="Special:BookSources/90-04-09249-8">90-04-09249-8</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> András Róna-Tas, Hungarians and Europe in the Early Middle Ages: An Introduction to Early Hungarian History, Central European University Press, 1999, p. 257. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/963-9116-48-3" title="Special:BookSources/963-9116-48-3">963-9116-48-3</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-Frank-25">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Frank_25-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Frank_25-1">b</a> Daniel H. Frank and Oliver Leaman, History of Jewish Philosophy, Routledge, 1997, p. 196. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-08064-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-08064-9">0-415-08064-9</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> For a discussion of Slavic origins, see Paul M. Barford, The Early Slavs, Cornell University Press, 2001, pp. 15–16. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8014-3977-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-8014-3977-9">0-8014-3977-9</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-Christian2-27">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Christian2_27-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Christian2_27-1">b</a> David Christian, op cit., pp. 6–7. </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> Henry K Paszkiewicz, The Making of the Russian Nation, Darton, Longman & Todd, 1963, p. 262. </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> Ed. <a href="/wiki/Timothy_Reuter" title="Timothy Reuter">Timothy Reuter</a>, The New Cambridge Medieval History, Volume 3, Cambridge University Press, 1995, pp. 494-497. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-36447-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-36447-7">0-521-36447-7</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-Mongait-30"><a href="#cite_ref-Mongait_30-0">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Aleksandr_L%CA%B9vovich_Monga%C4%ADt" class="mw-redirect" title="Aleksandr Lʹvovich Mongaĭt">Aleksandr Lʹvovich Mongaĭt</a>, Archeology in the U.S.S.R., Foreign Languages Publishing House, 1959, p. 335. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMagocsi201055,_59–60-31">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMagocsi201055,_59–60_31-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMagocsi201055,_59–60_31-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMagocsi2010">Magocsi 2010</a>, p. 55, 59–60. </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> Dimitri Obolensky, Byzantium and the Slavs, St Vladimir's Seminary Press, 1994, p. 42. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-88141-008-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-88141-008-X">0-88141-008-X</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMartin2009b3-33"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMartin2009b3_33-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMartin2009b">Martin 2009b</a>, p. 3. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECrossSherbowitz-Wetzor195338–39-34"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECrossSherbowitz-Wetzor195338–39_34-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCrossSherbowitz-Wetzor1953">Cross & Sherbowitz-Wetzor 1953</a>, p. 38–39. </li> <li id="cite_note-Curtis-35">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Curtis_35-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Curtis_35-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Curtis_35-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Curtis_35-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Curtis_35-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Curtis_35-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Curtis_35-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Curtis_35-7">h</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.shsu.edu/~his_ncp/Kievan.html">Kievan Rus' and Mongol Periods</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070927230631/http://www.shsu.edu/~his_ncp/Kievan.html">Archived</a> 27 September 2007 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, excerpted from Glenn E. Curtis (ed.), Russia: A Country Study, Department of the Army, 1998. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-16-061212-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-16-061212-8">0-16-061212-8</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> James Westfall Thompson, and Edgar Nathaniel Johnson, An Introduction to Medieval Europe, 300–1500, W. W. Norton & Co., 1937, p. 268. </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> David Christian, Op cit. p. 343. </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> Particularly among the aristocracy. See <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070718120101/http://history-world.org/BYZ4.htm">World History</a><a href="/wiki/Template:Usurped/doc" title="Template:Usurped/doc">[usurped]</a>. Retrieved 22 July 2007. </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> See Dimitri Obolensky, "Russia's Byzantine Heritage," in Byzantium & the Slavs, St Vladimir's Seminary Press, 1994, pp. 75–108. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-88141-008-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-88141-008-X">0-88141-008-X</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> Serhii Plokhy, The Origins of the Slavic Nations: Premodern Identities in Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus, Cambridge University Press, 2006, p. 13. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-86403-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-86403-8">0-521-86403-8</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> See <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dur.ac.uk/a.k.harrington/christin.html">The Christianisation of Russia</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070727221316/http://www.dur.ac.uk/a.k.harrington/christin.html">Archived</a> 27 July 2007 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, an account of Vladimir's baptism, followed by the baptism of the entire population of Kiev, as described in The Russian Primary Chronicle. </li> <li id="cite_note-Smith-42"><a href="#cite_ref-Smith_42-0">^</a> Gordon Bob Smith, Reforming the Russian Legal System, Cambridge University Press, 1996, pp. 2–3. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-45669-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-45669-X">0-521-45669-X</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> P. N. Fedosejev, The Comparative Historical Method in Soviet Mediaeval Studies, USSR Academy of Sciences, 1979. p. 90. </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> Russell Bova, Russia and Western Civilization: Cultural and Historical Encounters, M.E. Sharpe, 2003, p. 13. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7656-0976-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-7656-0976-2">0-7656-0976-2</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> Timothy Ware: The Orthodox Church (Penguin, 1963; 1997 revision) p. 74 </li> <li id="cite_note-Hamm-46">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hamm_46-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hamm_46-1">b</a> In 1240. See Michael Franklin Hamm, Kiev: A Portrait, 1800–1917, Princeton University Press, 1993. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-02585-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-691-02585-1">0-691-02585-1</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> See <a href="/wiki/David_Nicolle" title="David Nicolle">David Nicolle</a>, Kalka River 1223: Genghis Khan's Mongols Invade Russia, Osprey Publishing, 2001. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-84176-233-4" title="Special:BookSources/1-84176-233-4">1-84176-233-4</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> Tatyana Shvetsova, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.vor.ru/English/homeland/home_004.html">The Vladimir Suzdal Principality</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080320070136/http://www.vor.ru/English/homeland/home_004.html">Archived</a> 20 March 2008 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Retrieved 21 July 2007. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMartin2004139-49"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMartin2004139_49-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMartin2004">Martin 2004</a>, p. 139. </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20110427075859/https://tspace.library.utoronto.ca/citd/RussianHeritage/4.PEAS/4.L/12.III.5.html">"The Destruction of Kiev"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://tspace.library.utoronto.ca/citd/RussianHeritage/4.PEAS/4.L/12.III.5.html">the original</a> on 27 April 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Destruction+of+Kiev&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftspace.library.utoronto.ca%2Fcitd%2FRussianHeritage%2F4.PEAS%2F4.L%2F12.III.5.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Russia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> Jennifer Mills, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://depts.washington.edu/baltic/papers/hansa.html">The Hanseatic League in the Eastern Baltic</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110629134048/http://depts.washington.edu/baltic/papers/hansa.html">Archived</a> 29 June 2011 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, SCAND 344, May 1998. Retrieved 21 July 2007. </li> <li id="cite_note-Curtis2-52">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Curtis2_52-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Curtis2_52-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Curtis2_52-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Curtis2_52-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Curtis2_52-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Curtis2_52-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Curtis2_52-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Curtis2_52-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Curtis2_52-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Curtis2_52-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Curtis2_52-10">k</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Curtis2_52-11">l</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://countrystudies.us/russia/3.htm">Muscovy</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110920102514/http://countrystudies.us/russia/3.htm">Archived</a> 20 September 2011 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, excerpted from Glenn E. Curtis (ed.), Russia: A Country Study, Department of the Army, 1998. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-16-061212-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-16-061212-8">0-16-061212-8</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> Sigfried J. De Laet, History of Humanity: Scientific and Cultural Development, Taylor & Francis, 2005, p. 196. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/92-3-102814-6" title="Special:BookSources/92-3-102814-6">92-3-102814-6</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-Kulikovo-54">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kulikovo_54-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kulikovo_54-1">b</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fanaticus.org/DBA/battles/Kulikovo/index.html">The Battle of Kulikovo (8 September 1380)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070607151328/http://www.fanaticus.org/DBA/battles/Kulikovo/index.html">Archived</a> 7 June 2007 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Retrieved 22 July 2007. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalperin198773–75-55"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHalperin198773–75_55-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHalperin1987">Halperin 1987</a>, p. 73–75. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalperin198777–78-56"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHalperin198777–78_56-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHalperin1987">Halperin 1987</a>, p. 77–78. </li> <li id="cite_note-history_world-57">^ <a href="#cite_ref-history_world_57-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-history_world_57-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-history_world_57-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?historyid=aa76">"History of the Mongols"</a>. History World. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181028151842/http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?historyid=aa76">Archived</a> from the original on 28 October 2018. Retrieved 26 July 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=History+of+the+Mongols&rft.pub=History+World&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.historyworld.net%2Fwrldhis%2FPlainTextHistories.asp%3Fhistoryid%3Daa76&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Russia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bartleby.com/65/iv/Ivan3.html">Ivan III</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070806175518/http://bartleby.com/65/iv/Ivan3.html">Archived</a> 6 August 2007 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Columbia_Encyclopedia" class="mw-redirect" title="The Columbia Encyclopedia">The Columbia Encyclopedia</a>, Sixth Edition. 2001–05. </li> <li id="cite_note-EB_IvanIII-59">^ <a href="#cite_ref-EB_IvanIII_59-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-EB_IvanIII_59-1">b</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-3598">Ivan III</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071215072314/http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-3598">Archived</a> 15 December 2007 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a>. 2007 </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> Donald Ostrowski in The Cambridge History of Russia, Cambridge University Press, 2006, p. 234. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-81227-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-81227-5">0-521-81227-5</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-EB3R-61"><a href="#cite_ref-EB3R_61-0">^</a> See e.g. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/ebc/article-60463">Eastern Orthodoxy</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071018051458/http://www.britannica.com/ebc/article-60463">Archived</a> 18 October 2007 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a>. 2007. Encyclopædia Britannica. </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171108032646/http://www.allempires.info/article/index.php?q=The_Crimean_Khanate">"The Tatar Khanate of Crimea"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.allempires.info/article/index.php?q=The_Crimean_Khanate">the original</a> on 8 November 2017. Retrieved 12 July 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Tatar+Khanate+of+Crimea&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.allempires.info%2Farticle%2Findex.php%3Fq%3DThe_Crimean_Khanate&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Russia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a> J. L. I. Fennell, Ivan the Great of Moscow (1961) p. 354 </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcDaniel1991" class="citation book cs1">McDaniel, Tim (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0yIABAAAQBAJ&pg=PA46">Autocracy, Modernization, and Revolution in Russia and Iran</a>. Princeton University Press. p. 46. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-03147-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-691-03147-9"><bdi>0-691-03147-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Autocracy%2C+Modernization%2C+and+Revolution+in+Russia+and+Iran&rft.pages=46&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=0-691-03147-9&rft.aulast=McDaniel&rft.aufirst=Tim&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0yIABAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA46&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Russia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'Connor2003" class="citation book cs1">O'Connor, Kevin (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=b3b5nU4bnw4C&pg=PA23">The History of the Baltic States</a>. Greenwood Press. p. 23. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-313-32355-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-313-32355-0"><bdi>0-313-32355-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221030013948/https://books.google.com/books?id=b3b5nU4bnw4C&pg=PA23&">Archived</a> from the original on 30 October 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+the+Baltic+States&rft.pages=23&rft.pub=Greenwood+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-313-32355-0&rft.aulast=O%27Connor&rft.aufirst=Kevin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Db3b5nU4bnw4C%26pg%3DPA23&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Russia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070718145812/http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/history/russia/ivantheterrible.html">"Ivan the Terrible"</a>. Minnesota State University Mankato. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/history/russia/ivantheterrible.html">the original</a> on 18 July 2007. Retrieved 23 July 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Minnesota+State+University+Mankato&rft.atitle=Ivan+the+Terrible&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mnsu.edu%2Femuseum%2Fhistory%2Frussia%2Fivantheterrible.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Russia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZenkovsky1957" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Serge_Aleksandr_Zenkovsky" class="mw-redirect" title="Serge Aleksandr Zenkovsky">Zenkovsky, Serge A.</a> (October 1957). "The Russian Church Schism: Its Background and Repercussions". Russian Review. 16 (4). Blackwell Publishing: 37–58. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F125748">10.2307/125748</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/125748">125748</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Russian+Review&rft.atitle=The+Russian+Church+Schism%3A+Its+Background+and+Repercussions&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=37-58&rft.date=1957-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F125748&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F125748%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Zenkovsky&rft.aufirst=Serge+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Russia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a> Skrynnikov R., "Ivan Grosny", p. 58, M., AST, 2001 </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUrban1983" class="citation web cs1">Urban, William (Fall 1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20020530071736/http://www.lituanus.org/1983_3/83_3_02.htm">"The Origin of the Livonian War, 1558"</a>. Lithuanian Quarterly Journal of Arts and Sciences. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lituanus.org/1983_3/83_3_02.htm">the original</a> on 30 May 2002. Retrieved 16 July 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Lithuanian+Quarterly+Journal+of+Arts+and+Sciences&rft.atitle=The+Origin+of+the+Livonian+War%2C+1558&rft.ssn=fall&rft.date=1983&rft.aulast=Urban&rft.aufirst=William&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.lituanus.org%2F1983_3%2F83_3_02.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Russia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMartin2004395-70"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMartin2004395_70-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMartin2004">Martin 2004</a>, p. 395. </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Siberian_Chronicles" class="mw-redirect" title="Siberian Chronicles">Siberian Chronicles</a>, Строгановская Сибирская Летопись. изд. Спаским, СПб, 1821 </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a> Skrynnikov R. "Ivan Grozny", M, 2001, pp. 142–173 </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Robert_I._Frost" title="Robert I. Frost">Robert I. Frost</a> The Northern Wars: 1558–1721 (Longman, 2000) pp. 26–27 </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071011214606/http://www.economist.com/cities/printStory.cfm?obj_id=9141603&city_id=MCW">"Moscow – Historical background"</a>. The Economist: City Guide. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.economist.com/cities/printStory.cfm?obj_id=9141603&city_id=MCW">the original</a> on 11 October 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Economist%3A+City+Guide&rft.atitle=Moscow+%E2%80%93+Historical+background&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.economist.com%2Fcities%2FprintStory.cfm%3Fobj_id%3D9141603%26city_id%3DMCW&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Russia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a> Skrynnikov. "Ivan Grozny", M, 2001, pp. 222–223 </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a> Borisenkov E, Pasetski V. "The thousand-year annals of the extreme meteorological phenomena", <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/5-244-00212-0" title="Special:BookSources/5-244-00212-0">5-244-00212-0</a>, p. 190 </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a> Solovyov. "History of Russia...", v.7, pp. 533–535, 543–568 </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Lev_Gumilev" title="Lev Gumilev">Lev Gumilev</a> (1992), Ot Rusi k Rossii. Ocherki e'tnicheskoj istorii [From Rus' to Russia], Moscow: Ekopros. </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a> Michel Heller (1997), Histoire de la Russie et de son empire [A history of Russia and its empire], Paris: Plon. </li> <li id="cite_note-Vern-80"><a href="#cite_ref-Vern_80-0">^</a> <a href="/wiki/George_Vernadsky" title="George Vernadsky">George Vernadsky</a>, "A History of Russia", Volume 5, Yale University Press, (1969). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.spsl.nsc.ru/history/vernad/vol5/vgv522.htm">Russian translation</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150924105306/http://www.spsl.nsc.ru/history/vernad/vol5/vgv522.htm">Archived</a> 24 September 2015 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a> Mikolaj Marchocki "Historia Wojny Moskiewskiej", ch. "Slaughter in the capital", <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.vostlit.info/Texts/rus8/Marchockij/pred.phtml?id=902">Russian translation</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170704181638/http://www.vostlit.info/Texts/rus8/Marchockij/pred.phtml?id=902">Archived</a> 4 July 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a> Sergey Solovyov. History of Russia... Vol. 8, p. 847 </li> <li id="cite_note-Dunning-83"><a href="#cite_ref-Dunning_83-0">^</a> Chester S L Dunning, Russia's First Civil War: The Time of Troubles and the Founding of the Romanov Dynasty, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9NUYtSJaO8cC&dq=moscow+minin+patriot&pg=PA434">p. 434</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221030013949/https://books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN0271020741&id=9NUYtSJaO8cC&pg=PA434&lpg=PA434&dq=moscow+minin+patriot">Archived</a> 30 October 2022 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Penn State Press, 2001, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-271-02074-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-271-02074-1">0-271-02074-1</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-ToT-84"><a href="#cite_ref-ToT_84-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9073517">Troubles, Time of</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201128/http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9073517">Archived</a> 18 December 2007 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>." <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a>. 2006 </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bartleby.com/65/e-/E-Pozharsk.html">Pozharski, Dmitri Mikhailovich, Prince</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081211151400/http://www.bartleby.com/65/e-/E-Pozharsk.html">Archived</a> 11 December 2008 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>", <a href="/wiki/Columbia_Encyclopedia" title="Columbia Encyclopedia">Columbia Encyclopedia</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a> For a discussion of the development of the class structure in Tsarist Russia see <a href="/wiki/Theda_Skocpol" title="Theda Skocpol">Skocpol, Theda</a>. <a href="/wiki/States_and_Social_Revolutions" title="States and Social Revolutions">States and Social Revolutions</a>: A Comparative Analysis of France, Russia, and China. Cambridge University Press, 1988. </li> <li id="cite_note-Kotilaine-87">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kotilaine_87-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kotilaine_87-1">b</a> Jarmo Kotilaine and Marshall Poe, Modernizing Muscovy: Reform and Social Change in Seventeenth-Century Russia, Routledge, 2004, p. 264. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-30751-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-30751-1">0-415-30751-1</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a> (in Russian) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://militera.lib.ru/common/solovyev1/13_03.html">Moscow Uprising of 1682</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170701155153/http://militera.lib.ru/common/solovyev1/13_03.html">Archived</a> 1 July 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> in the History of Russia of <a href="/wiki/Sergey_Solovyov_(historian)" title="Sergey Solovyov (historian)">Sergey Solovyov</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a> Brian Catchpole, A Map History of Russia (1974) pp 8–31; Martin Gilbert, Atlas of Russian history (1993) pp. 33–74. </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a> Brian Catchpole, A Map History of Russia (1974) p. 25. </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a> James Cracraft, The Revolution of Peter the Great (2003) </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a> Basil Dmytryshyn, "Russian expansion to the Pacific, 1580–1700: a historiographical review." Slavic Studies 25 (1980): 1–25. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://eprints.lib.hokudai.ac.jp/dspace/bitstream/2115/5095/1/KJ00000113075.pdf">online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190925140056/https://eprints.lib.hokudai.ac.jp/dspace/bitstream/2115/5095/1/KJ00000113075.pdf">Archived</a> 25 September 2019 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090418120252/http://bookz.ru/authors/milov-lv/milovlv01/1-milovlv01.html">"Milov L.V. "Russian peasant and features of the Russian historical process", the research of Russian economic history of 15th–18th centuries"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bookz.ru/authors/milov-lv/milovlv01/1-milovlv01.html">the original</a> on 18 April 2009. Retrieved 6 August 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Milov+L.V.+%22Russian+peasant+and+features+of+the+Russian+historical+process%22%2C+the+research+of+Russian+economic+history+of+15th%E2%80%9318th+centuries.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbookz.ru%2Fauthors%2Fmilov-lv%2Fmilovlv01%2F1-milovlv01.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Russia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a> Lord Kinross, The Ottoman Centuries: The Rise and Fall of the Turkish Empire (1979) p. 353. </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHughes2000" class="citation book cs1">Hughes, Lindsey (2000). Russia in the Age of Peter the Great. Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780300082661" title="Special:BookSources/9780300082661"><bdi>9780300082661</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Russia+in+the+Age+of+Peter+the+Great&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=9780300082661&rft.aulast=Hughes&rft.aufirst=Lindsey&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Russia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStephen_J._Lee2013" class="citation book cs1">Stephen J. Lee (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CXl-02q1YwsC&pg=PA31">Peter the Great</a>. Routledge. p. 31. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781136453250" title="Special:BookSources/9781136453250"><bdi>9781136453250</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230122071933/https://books.google.com/books?id=CXl-02q1YwsC&pg=PA31">Archived</a> from the original on 22 January 2023. Retrieved 25 October 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Peter+the+Great&rft.pages=31&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9781136453250&rft.au=Stephen+J.+Lee&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DCXl-02q1YwsC%26pg%3DPA31&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Russia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlexander1988" class="citation book cs1">Alexander, John T. (1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/catherinegreatli0000alex">Catherine the Great: Life and Legend</a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199878857" title="Special:BookSources/9780199878857"><bdi>9780199878857</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Catherine+the+Great%3A+Life+and+Legend&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=9780199878857&rft.aulast=Alexander&rft.aufirst=John+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcatherinegreatli0000alex&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Russia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFde_Madariaga2002" class="citation book cs1">de Madariaga, Isabel (2002). Catherine the Great: A Short History. Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780300097221" title="Special:BookSources/9780300097221"><bdi>9780300097221</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Catherine+the+Great%3A+A+Short+History&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=9780300097221&rft.aulast=de+Madariaga&rft.aufirst=Isabel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Russia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a> Nancy Whitelaw, Catherine the Great and the Enlightenment in Russia (Morgan Reynolds, 2005) pp 33–34.<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/catherinegreaten00nanc">online</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFde_Madariaga2002" class="citation book cs1">de Madariaga, Isabel (2002). Russia in the Age of Catherine the Great. Phoenix. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781842125113" title="Special:BookSources/9781842125113"><bdi>9781842125113</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Russia+in+the+Age+of+Catherine+the+Great&rft.pub=Phoenix&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=9781842125113&rft.aulast=de+Madariaga&rft.aufirst=Isabel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Russia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCampbell2015" class="citation book cs1">Campbell (28 January 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=A2JsBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA86">Western Civilization</a>. Routledge. p. 86. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781317452300" title="Special:BookSources/9781317452300"><bdi>9781317452300</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230122071933/https://books.google.com/books?id=A2JsBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA86">Archived</a> from the original on 22 January 2023. Retrieved 25 October 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Western+Civilization&rft.pages=86&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2015-01-28&rft.isbn=9781317452300&rft.au=Campbell&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DA2JsBgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA86&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Russia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100121024544/http://www.parallelsixty.com/history-russia.shtml">"History"</a>. Parallel 60. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.parallelsixty.com/history-russia.shtml">the original</a> on 21 January 2010. Retrieved 23 July 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Parallel+60&rft.atitle=History&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.parallelsixty.com%2Fhistory-russia.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Russia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a> К. М. Корольков «Столетний юбилей города Екатеринослава (1787 — 9-го мая — 1887)» (Екатеринослав, 1887). </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a> Місто і люди. Єлисаветград — Кіровоград, 1754—2004. Ілюстрована енциклопедія., Кіровоград:, «Імекс-ЛТД», 2004, 303 стор. </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a> Бобух А.І. Херсон: Путівник. — Херсон : Степ, 1994. — 60 с. </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a> Балабанова Д. А., Веприцкая В. Н. Становление адвокатуры в Южноукраинских губерниях Российской империи в первой половине XIX века (на примере Одессы) // Раціональний та почуттєво-емоційний аспекти правосвідомості та поведінки суб’єктів права. — 2012.  </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a> According to Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary: 1891 Grodno province – Catholics 384,696, total population 1,509,728 <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://gatchina3000.ru/brockhaus-and-efron-encyclopedic-dictionary/031/31772.htm">[1]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070930185013/http://gatchina3000.ru/brockhaus-and-efron-encyclopedic-dictionary/031/31772.htm">Archived</a> 30 September 2007 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>; Curland province – Catholics 68,722, total population 555,003 <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://gatchina3000.ru/brockhaus-and-efron-encyclopedic-dictionary/057/57501.htm">[2]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070930201549/http://gatchina3000.ru/brockhaus-and-efron-encyclopedic-dictionary/057/57501.htm">Archived</a> 30 September 2007 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>; Volyhnia Province – Catholics 193,142, total population 2,059,870 <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://gatchina3000.ru/brockhaus-and-efron-encyclopedic-dictionary/022/22861.htm">[3]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160303223104/http://gatchina3000.ru/brockhaus-and-efron-encyclopedic-dictionary/031/31772.htm">Archived</a> 3 March 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a> Thomas McLean, The Other East and Nineteenth-Century British Literature: Imagining Poland and the Russian Empire (Palgrave Macmillan, 2012) pp. 14-40. </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a> Alfred J. Rieber, "Persistent factors in Russian foreign policy: an interpretive essay". In Hugh Ragsdale, ed., Imperial Russian Foreign Policy (1993), p. 328. </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRiasanovsky1984" class="citation book cs1">Riasanovsky, Nicholas (1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofrussia00rias">A History of Russia</a> (4th ed.). Oxford University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofrussia00rias/page/284">284</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0195033618" title="Special:BookSources/978-0195033618"><bdi>978-0195033618</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Russia&rft.pages=284&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=978-0195033618&rft.aulast=Riasanovsky&rft.aufirst=Nicholas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoryofrussia00rias&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Russia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a> Charles Morley, "Czartoryski's attempts at a new foreign policy under Alexander I." American Slavic and East European Review 12.4 (1953): 475-485. </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a> Timothy C. Dowling <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KTq2BQAAQBAJ&pg=PA728">Russia at War: From the Mongol Conquest to Afghanistan, Chechnya, and Beyond</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221021003937/https://books.google.com/books?id=KTq2BQAAQBAJ&pg=PA728">Archived</a> 21 October 2022 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> pp. 728–729 ABC-CLIO, 2 December 2014 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1598849484" title="Special:BookSources/1598849484">1598849484</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a> Charles Esdaile, Napoleon's Wars: An International History, 1803–1815 (2007) p. 438 </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a> Paul W. Schroeder, The Transformation of European Politics: 1763–1848 (1994) p. 419 </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a> Esdaile, Napoleon's Wars: An International History, 1803–1815 (2007) pp. 460–480 </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPalmer2014" class="citation book cs1">Palmer, Alan (2014). Alexander I: Tsar of War and Peace. Faber & Faber. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780571305872" title="Special:BookSources/9780571305872"><bdi>9780571305872</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Alexander+I%3A+Tsar+of+War+and+Peace&rft.pub=Faber+%26+Faber&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9780571305872&rft.aulast=Palmer&rft.aufirst=Alan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Russia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFParker1968" class="citation book cs1">Parker, W.H. (1968). An historical geography of Russia. University of London Press. p. 193. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0340069400" title="Special:BookSources/978-0340069400"><bdi>978-0340069400</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+historical+geography+of+Russia&rft.pages=193&rft.pub=University+of+London+Press&rft.date=1968&rft.isbn=978-0340069400&rft.aulast=Parker&rft.aufirst=W.H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Russia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a> Geoffrey Best, War and Society in Revolutionary Europe, 1770–1870 (1998) p. 187 </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a> Henry A. Delfiner, "Alexander I, the holy alliance and Clemens Metternich: A reappraisal." East European Quarterly 37.2 (2003): 127+. </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a> Riasonovsky A History of Russia (fifth ed.) pp. 302–303; Charques A Short History of Russia (Phoenix, second ed. 1962) p. 125 </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a> Riasonovsky pp. 302-307 </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChristopher_BrowningMarko_Lehti2009" class="citation book cs1">Christopher Browning; Marko Lehti (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=a86NAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA36">The Struggle for the West: A Divided and Contested Legacy</a>. Routledge. p. 36. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781135259792" title="Special:BookSources/9781135259792"><bdi>9781135259792</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230122071933/https://books.google.com/books?id=a86NAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA36">Archived</a> from the original on 22 January 2023. Retrieved 30 October 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Struggle+for+the+West%3A+A+Divided+and+Contested+Legacy&rft.pages=36&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9781135259792&rft.au=Christopher+Browning&rft.au=Marko+Lehti&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Da86NAgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA36&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Russia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a> Timothy C. Dowling <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KTq2BQAAQBAJ&pg=PA728">Russia at War: From the Mongol Conquest to Afghanistan, Chechnya, and Beyond</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221021003937/https://books.google.com/books?id=KTq2BQAAQBAJ&pg=PA728">Archived</a> 21 October 2022 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (2014) p. 729 </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a> Riasonovsky p. 308 </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a> Stephen R. Burant, "The January Uprising of 1863 in Poland: Sources of Disaffection and the Arenas of Revolt." European History Quarterly 15#2 (1985): 131–156. </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a> Olga E. Maiorova, "War as Peace: The Trope of War in Russian Nationalist Discourse during the Polish Uprising of 1863." Kritika: Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History 6#3 (2005): 501–534. </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a> Norman Davies: God's Playground: A History of Poland (OUP, 1981) vol. 2, pp. 315–333, 352-363 </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a> John Shelton Curtiss, "The Army of Nicholas I: Its Role and Character," American Historical Review, 63#4 (1958), pp. 880-889 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/1848945">online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210727192308/https://www.jstor.org/stable/1848945">Archived</a> 27 July 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a> Elise Kimerling Wirtschafter, From Serf to Russian Soldier (1990) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Russian-Soldier-Elise-Kimerling-Wirtschafter/dp/0691055858/">excerpt</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130629164645/http://www.amazon.com/Russian-Soldier-Elise-Kimerling-Wirtschafter/dp/0691055858">Archived</a> 29 June 2013 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a> Edgar Melton, "Enlightened seigniorialism and its dilemmas in serf Russia, 1750-1830." Journal of Modern History 62.4 (1990): 676–708. </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a> E. Willis Brooks, "Reform in the Russian Army, 1856–1861." Slavic Review 43.1 (1984): 63-82 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/2498735">online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210728050926/https://www.jstor.org/stable/2498735">Archived</a> 28 July 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChapman2001" class="citation book cs1">Chapman, Tim (2001). Imperial Russia: 1801–1905. Routledge. pp. 60–65. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0415231091" title="Special:BookSources/978-0415231091"><bdi>978-0415231091</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Imperial+Russia%3A+1801%E2%80%931905&rft.pages=60-65&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0415231091&rft.aulast=Chapman&rft.aufirst=Tim&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Russia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a> Janko Lavrin, "Chaadayev and the West." Russian Review 22.3 (1963): 274–288 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/126270">online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200325102200/https://www.jstor.org/stable/126270">Archived</a> 25 March 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a> Raymond T. McNally, "The Significance of Chaadayev's Weltanschauung." Russian Review 23.4 (1964): 352–361. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/126212">online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220531155448/https://www.jstor.org/stable/126212">Archived</a> 31 May 2022 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a> Neil Cornwell, "Belinsky and V.F. Odoyevsky." Slavonic and East European Review 62.1 (1984): 6–24. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4208792">online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220531231253/https://www.jstor.org/stable/4208792">Archived</a> 31 May 2022 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKantor2012" class="citation journal cs1">Kantor, Vladimir K. (2012). "The tragedy of Herzen, or seduction by radicalism". Russian Studies in Philosophy. 51 (3): 40–57. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2753%2Frsp1061-1967510303">10.2753/rsp1061-1967510303</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145712584">145712584</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Russian+Studies+in+Philosophy&rft.atitle=The+tragedy+of+Herzen%2C+or+seduction+by+radicalism&rft.volume=51&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=40-57&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2753%2Frsp1061-1967510303&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145712584%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Kantor&rft.aufirst=Vladimir+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Russia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a> W.B. Lincoln, "Russia and the European Revolutions of 1848" History Today (Jan 1973), Vol. 23 Issue 1, pp. 53-59 online. </li> <li id="cite_note-138"><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMichael_Kort2008" class="citation book cs1">Michael Kort (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=i8_RH3hhsAMC&pg=PA92">A Brief History of Russia</a>. Infobase. p. 92. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781438108292" title="Special:BookSources/9781438108292"><bdi>9781438108292</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Brief+History+of+Russia&rft.pages=92&rft.pub=Infobase&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9781438108292&rft.au=Michael+Kort&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Di8_RH3hhsAMC%26pg%3DPA92&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Russia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a> Rene Albrecht-Carrie, A Diplomatic History of Europe Since the Congress of Vienna (1973) pp. 84–94 </li> <li id="cite_note-140"><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFiges2011" class="citation book cs1">Figes, Orlando (2011). The Crimean War: A History. Henry Holt and Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781429997249" title="Special:BookSources/9781429997249"><bdi>9781429997249</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Crimean+War%3A+A+History&rft.pub=Henry+Holt+and+Company&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9781429997249&rft.aulast=Figes&rft.aufirst=Orlando&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Russia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a> Orlando Figes, The Crimean War, (2010) pp. 442–443. </li> <li id="cite_note-142"><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://demoscope.ru/weekly/2007/0293/nauka02.php">Excerpt from "Enserfed population in Russia"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170722042430/http://demoscope.ru/weekly/2007/0293/nauka02.php">Archived</a> 22 July 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> published at Демоскоп Weekly, No 293 – 294, 18 June 1 July 2007 </li> <li id="cite_note-143"><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEmmons1970" class="citation book cs1">Emmons, Terence, ed. (1970). Emancipation of the Russian Serfs. Holt, Rinehart and Winston. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780030773600" title="Special:BookSources/9780030773600"><bdi>9780030773600</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Emancipation+of+the+Russian+Serfs&rft.pub=Holt%2C+Rinehart+and+Winston&rft.date=1970&rft.isbn=9780030773600&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Russia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a> David Moon, The Abolition of Serfdom in Russia: 1762-1907 (Routledge, 2014). </li> <li id="cite_note-145"><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Evgeny_Finkel" title="Evgeny Finkel">Evgeny Finkel</a>, Scott Gehlbach, and Tricia D. Olsen. "Does reform prevent rebellion? Evidence from Russia's emancipation of the serfs." Comparative Political Studies 48.8 (2015): 984-1019. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.econ.yale.edu/~egcenter/GelbachFinkelPaper.pdf">online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200801193855/http://www.econ.yale.edu/~egcenter/GelbachFinkelPaper.pdf">Archived</a> 1 August 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-146"><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a> W. Bruce Lincoln, The Great Reforms: Autocracy, Bureaucracy, and the Politics of Change in Imperial Russia (1990). </li> <li id="cite_note-147"><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMosse1958" class="citation book cs1">Mosse, W. E. (1958). Alexander II and the Modernization of Russia.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Alexander+II+and+the+Modernization+of+Russia&rft.date=1958&rft.aulast=Mosse&rft.aufirst=W.+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Russia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-148"><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a> Riasonovsky pp. 386–387 </li> <li id="cite_note-149"><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a> Riasonovsky p. 349 </li> <li id="cite_note-150"><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a> David Fromkin, "The Great Game in Asia" Foreign Affairs 58#4 (1980), pp. 936-951 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/20040512">online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210718202141/https://www.jstor.org/stable/20040512">Archived</a> 18 July 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-151"><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a> Riasonovsky pp. 381–382, 447–448 </li> <li id="cite_note-152"><a href="#cite_ref-152">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFI._K._Shakhnovskiĭ1921" class="citation book cs1">I. K. Shakhnovskiĭ (1921). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cu31924026645790">A Short History of Russian Literature</a>. K. Paul, Trench, Trubner. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cu31924026645790/page/n156">147</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Short+History+of+Russian+Literature&rft.pages=147&rft.pub=K.+Paul%2C+Trench%2C+Trubner&rft.date=1921&rft.au=I.+K.+Shakhnovski%C4%AD&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcu31924026645790&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Russia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-153"><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFE._Heier2012" class="citation book cs1">E. Heier (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tuvVBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA6">Religious Schism in the Russian Aristocracy 1860–1900: Radstockism and Pashkovism</a>. Springer. pp. 5–7. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789401032285" title="Special:BookSources/9789401032285"><bdi>9789401032285</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230122071933/https://books.google.com/books?id=tuvVBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA6">Archived</a> from the original on 22 January 2023. Retrieved 19 September 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Religious+Schism+in+the+Russian+Aristocracy+1860%E2%80%931900%3A+Radstockism+and+Pashkovism&rft.pages=5-7&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9789401032285&rft.au=E.+Heier&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DtuvVBQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Russia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-CurtisT-154">^ <a href="#cite_ref-CurtisT_154-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-CurtisT_154-1">b</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://countrystudies.us/russia/6.htm">Transformation of Russia in the Nineteenth Century</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161103012030/http://countrystudies.us/russia/6.htm">Archived</a> 3 November 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, excerpted from Glenn E. Curtis (ed.), Russia: A Country Study, Department of the Army, 1998. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-16-061212-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-16-061212-8">0-16-061212-8</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-155"><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWaldron2006" class="citation journal cs1">Waldron, Peter (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://link.galegroup.com/apps/doc/CX3446900026/WHIC?xid=d0bae6e0">"Alexander II"</a>. Europe 1789–1914: Encyclopedia of the Age of Industry and Empire. 1: 40. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220112083436/https://galeapps.gale.com/apps/auth?userGroupName=&origURL=https%3A%2F%2Fgo.gale.com%2Fps%2Fi.do%3Fp%3DWHIC%26u%3D%26id%3DGALE%7CCX3446900026%26v%3D2.1%26it%3Dr%26asid%3Dd0bae6e0&prodId=WHIC">Archived</a> from the original on 12 January 2022. Retrieved 23 July 2019 – via GALE World History in Context.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Europe+1789%E2%80%931914%3A+Encyclopedia+of+the+Age+of+Industry+and+Empire&rft.atitle=Alexander+II&rft.volume=1&rft.pages=40&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Waldron&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flink.galegroup.com%2Fapps%2Fdoc%2FCX3446900026%2FWHIC%3Fxid%3Dd0bae6e0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Russia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-156"><a href="#cite_ref-156">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9057487/Orthodoxy-Autocracy-and-Nationality">"Orthodoxy, Autocracy, and Nationality"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a>. 26 January 2016. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080426082306/http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9057487/Orthodoxy-Autocracy-and-Nationality">Archived</a> from the original on 26 April 2008. Retrieved 23 June 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Orthodoxy%2C+Autocracy%2C+and+Nationality&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.date=2016-01-26&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Feb%2Farticle-9057487%2FOrthodoxy-Autocracy-and-Nationality&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Russia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-157"><a href="#cite_ref-157">^</a> Hugo S. Cunninggam, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cyberussr.com/rus/pobedonostsev.html">Konstantin Petrovich Pobedonostsev (1827–1907): Reactionary Views on Democracy, General Education</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070612014154/http://www.cyberussr.com/rus/pobedonostsev.html">Archived</a> 12 June 2007 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Retrieved 21 July 2007. </li> <li id="cite_note-158"><a href="#cite_ref-158">^</a> Robert F. Byrnes, "Pobedonostsev: His Life and Thought" in Political Science Quarterly, Vol. 85, No. 3 (September 1970), pp. 528–530. </li> <li id="cite_note-159"><a href="#cite_ref-159">^</a> Arthur E. Adams, "Pobedonostsev's Religious Politics" in Church History, Vol. 22, No. 4 (December 1953), pp. 314–326. </li> <li id="cite_note-160"><a href="#cite_ref-160">^</a> Hugh Seton-Watson, The Russian Empire 1801–1917 (Oxford History of Modern Europe) (1967), pp. 598–627 </li> <li id="cite_note-161"><a href="#cite_ref-161">^</a> For an analysis of the reaction of the elites to the revolutionaries see Roberta Manning, The Crisis of the Old Order in Russia: Gentry and Government. (1982). </li> <li id="cite_note-CurtisAut-162">^ <a href="#cite_ref-CurtisAut_162-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-CurtisAut_162-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-CurtisAut_162-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-CurtisAut_162-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-CurtisAut_162-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-CurtisAut_162-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-CurtisAut_162-6">g</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://countrystudies.us/russia/7.htm">The Last Years of the Autocracy</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161103012034/http://countrystudies.us/russia/7.htm">Archived</a> 3 November 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, excerpted from Glenn E. Curtis (ed.), Russia: A Country Study, Department of the Army, 1998. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-16-061212-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-16-061212-8">0-16-061212-8</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-163"><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a> Orlando Figes, Revolutionary Russia, 1891–1991: A History (2014) pp. 1–33 </li> <li id="cite_note-164"><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a> Figes, Revolutionary Russia, 1891–1991: A History (2014) pp. 33–43 </li> <li id="cite_note-165"><a href="#cite_ref-165">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLevyMulligan2017" class="citation journal cs1">Levy, Jack S.; Mulligan, William (2017). "Shifting power, preventive logic, and the response of the target: Germany, Russia, and the First World War". Journal of Strategic Studies. 40 (5): 731–769. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F01402390.2016.1242421">10.1080/01402390.2016.1242421</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:157837365">157837365</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Strategic+Studies&rft.atitle=Shifting+power%2C+preventive+logic%2C+and+the+response+of+the+target%3A+Germany%2C+Russia%2C+and+the+First+World+War&rft.volume=40&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=731-769&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F01402390.2016.1242421&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A157837365%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Levy&rft.aufirst=Jack+S.&rft.au=Mulligan%2C+William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Russia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-166"><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a> Clark, Christopher (2013). The Sleepwalkers: How Europe Went to War in 1914. HarperCollins. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-06-219922-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-06-219922-5">978-0-06-219922-5</a>. p. 509. </li> <li id="cite_note-167"><a href="#cite_ref-167">^</a> W. Bruce Lincoln, Passage Through Armageddon: The Russians in War and Revolution, 1914–1918 (1986) </li> <li id="cite_note-168"><a href="#cite_ref-168">^</a> Allan K. Wildman, The End of the Russian Imperial Army (Princeton University Press, 1980) pp 76–125. </li> <li id="cite_note-169"><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a> Nicholas Riasanovsky, A History of Russia (4th ed. 1984) pp. 418-20 </li> <li id="cite_note-170"><a href="#cite_ref-170">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/refugees_russian_empire">"Refugees (Russian Empire) | International Encyclopedia of the First World War (WW1)"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170419101232/http://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/refugees_russian_empire">Archived</a> from the original on 19 April 2017. Retrieved 18 April 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Refugees+%28Russian+Empire%29+%26%23124%3B+International+Encyclopedia+of+the+First+World+War+%28WW1%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fencyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net%2Farticle%2Frefugees_russian_empire&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Russia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-171"><a href="#cite_ref-171">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRichard_Charques1974" class="citation book cs1">Richard Charques (1974). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PbUYPD6AY6wC&pg=PA232">The Twilight of Imperial Russia</a>. Oxford U.P. p. 232. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780195345872" title="Special:BookSources/9780195345872"><bdi>9780195345872</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230122071934/https://books.google.com/books?id=PbUYPD6AY6wC&pg=PA232">Archived</a> from the original on 22 January 2023. Retrieved 25 October 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Twilight+of+Imperial+Russia&rft.pages=232&rft.pub=Oxford+U.P.&rft.date=1974&rft.isbn=9780195345872&rft.au=Richard+Charques&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPbUYPD6AY6wC%26pg%3DPA232&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Russia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-172"><a href="#cite_ref-172">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRex_A._Wade2005" class="citation book cs1">Rex A. Wade (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uBfnjdxFUkUC&pg=PA29">The Russian Revolution, 1917</a>. Cambridge U.P. pp. 29–50. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521841559" title="Special:BookSources/9780521841559"><bdi>9780521841559</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230122071934/https://books.google.com/books?id=uBfnjdxFUkUC&pg=PA29">Archived</a> from the original on 22 January 2023. Retrieved 25 October 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Russian+Revolution%2C+1917&rft.pages=29-50&rft.pub=Cambridge+U.P.&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=9780521841559&rft.au=Rex+A.+Wade&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DuBfnjdxFUkUC%26pg%3DPA29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Russia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-173"><a href="#cite_ref-173">^</a> Riasanovsky, A History of Russia (4th ed. 1984) pp. 455–56 </li> <li id="cite_note-HistoryC-174">^ <a href="#cite_ref-HistoryC_174-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-HistoryC_174-1">b</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070927175125/http://www.history.com/encyclopedia.do?articleId=221104">The Russian Revolution</a> in the <a href="/wiki/History_(U.S._TV_channel)" class="mw-redirect" title="History (U.S. TV channel)">History Channel</a> Encyclopedia. </li> <li id="cite_note-175"><a href="#cite_ref-175">^</a> Riasanovsky, A History of Russia (4th ed. 1984) pp. 456–460 </li> <li id="cite_note-176"><a href="#cite_ref-176">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRichard_Pipes2011" class="citation book cs1">Richard Pipes (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XtE54LuhFzEC&pg=PA411">The Russian Revolution</a>. Knopf Doubleday Publishing. p. 411. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780307788573" title="Special:BookSources/9780307788573"><bdi>9780307788573</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Russian+Revolution&rft.pages=411&rft.pub=Knopf+Doubleday+Publishing&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9780307788573&rft.au=Richard+Pipes&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXtE54LuhFzEC%26pg%3DPA411&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Russia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-177"><a href="#cite_ref-177">^</a> Riasanovsky, A History of Russia (4th ed. 1984) pp. 460–461 </li> <li id="cite_note-178"><a href="#cite_ref-178">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDeutscher2015" class="citation book cs1">Deutscher, Isaac (5 January 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YGznDwAAQBAJ&q=isaac+deutscher+trotsky+the+prophet">The Prophet: The Life of Leon Trotsky</a>. Verso Books. p. 1283. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78168-721-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-78168-721-5"><bdi>978-1-78168-721-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Prophet%3A+The+Life+of+Leon+Trotsky&rft.pages=1283&rft.pub=Verso+Books&rft.date=2015-01-05&rft.isbn=978-1-78168-721-5&rft.aulast=Deutscher&rft.aufirst=Isaac&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYGznDwAAQBAJ%26q%3Disaac%2Bdeutscher%2Btrotsky%2Bthe%2Bprophet&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Russia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-redvictory-179">^ <a href="#cite_ref-redvictory_179-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-redvictory_179-1">b</a> W. Bruce Lincoln, Red Victory: A History of the Russian Civil War, 1918–1921 (1999) </li> <li id="cite_note-180"><a href="#cite_ref-180">^</a> See Orlando Figes: A People's Tragedy (Pimlico, 1996) passim </li> <li id="cite_note-181"><a href="#cite_ref-181">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFlorinsky1961" class="citation book cs1">Florinsky, Michael T. (1961). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=x6RAAAAAYAAJ&q=100,000+jews+denikin++Petlyura+Florinsky">Encyclopedia of Russia and the Soviet Union</a>. McGraw-Hill. p. 258. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230122071934/https://books.google.com/books?id=x6RAAAAAYAAJ&q=100,000+jews+denikin++Petlyura+Florinsky">Archived</a> from the original on 22 January 2023. Retrieved 22 July 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Russia+and+the+Soviet+Union&rft.pages=258&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill&rft.date=1961&rft.aulast=Florinsky&rft.aufirst=Michael+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dx6RAAAAAYAAJ%26q%3D100%2C000%2Bjews%2Bdenikin%2B%2BPetlyura%2BFlorinsky&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Russia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-182"><a href="#cite_ref-182">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRinkeWildt2017" class="citation book cs1">Rinke, Stefan; Wildt, Michael (2017). Revolutions and Counter-Revolutions: 1917 and Its Aftermath from a Global Perspective. Campus Verlag. pp. 57–58. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3593507057" title="Special:BookSources/978-3593507057"><bdi>978-3593507057</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Revolutions+and+Counter-Revolutions%3A+1917+and+Its+Aftermath+from+a+Global+Perspective&rft.pages=57-58&rft.pub=Campus+Verlag&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-3593507057&rft.aulast=Rinke&rft.aufirst=Stefan&rft.au=Wildt%2C+Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Russia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-183"><a href="#cite_ref-183">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRyan2012" class="citation book cs1">Ryan, James (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.routledge.com/Lenins-Terror-The-Ideological-Origins-of-Early-Soviet-State-Violence/Ryan/p/book/9781138815681">Lenin's Terror: The Ideological Origins of Early Soviet State Violence</a>. London: <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. p. 114. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-138-81568-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-138-81568-1"><bdi>978-1-138-81568-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201111070149/https://www.routledge.com/Lenins-Terror-The-Ideological-Origins-of-Early-Soviet-State-Violence/Ryan/p/book/9781138815681">Archived</a> from the original on 11 November 2020. Retrieved 10 September 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lenin%27s+Terror%3A+The+Ideological+Origins+of+Early+Soviet+State+Violence&rft.place=London&rft.pages=114&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-138-81568-1&rft.aulast=Ryan&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.routledge.com%2FLenins-Terror-The-Ideological-Origins-of-Early-Soviet-State-Violence%2FRyan%2Fp%2Fbook%2F9781138815681&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Russia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-anatomy-184"><a href="#cite_ref-anatomy_184-0">^</a> The Anatomy of Revolution Revisited: A Comparative Analysis of England, France, and Russia. Bailey Stone. Cambridge University Press, 25 November 2013. p. 335 </li> <li id="cite_note-185"><a href="#cite_ref-185">^</a> "The Russian Revolution", Richard Pipes, Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group, 13 July 2011, p. 838 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERyan20122-186"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERyan20122_186-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRyan2012">Ryan (2012)</a>, p. 2. </li> <li id="cite_note-187"><a href="#cite_ref-187">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLincoln1989" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/W._Bruce_Lincoln" title="W. Bruce Lincoln">Lincoln, W. Bruce</a> (1989). Red Victory: A History of the Russian Civil War. Simon & Schuster. p. 384. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0671631667" title="Special:BookSources/0671631667"><bdi>0671631667</bdi></a>. <q>...the best estimates set the probable number of executions at about a hundred thousand.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Red+Victory%3A+A+History+of+the+Russian+Civil+War&rft.pages=384&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=0671631667&rft.aulast=Lincoln&rft.aufirst=W.+Bruce&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Russia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-188"><a href="#cite_ref-188">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLowe2002" class="citation book cs1">Lowe, Norman (2002). Mastering Twentieth Century Russian History. Palgrave. p. 151. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780333963074" title="Special:BookSources/9780333963074"><bdi>9780333963074</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mastering+Twentieth+Century+Russian+History&rft.pages=151&rft.pub=Palgrave&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=9780333963074&rft.aulast=Lowe&rft.aufirst=Norman&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Russia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-189"><a href="#cite_ref-189">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130621173456/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3763/is_/ai_n8801575">And Now My Soul Is Hardened: Abandoned Children in Soviet Russia, 1918–1930</a>, Thomas J. Hegarty, Canadian Slavonic Papers </li> <li id="cite_note-190"><a href="#cite_ref-190">^</a> "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://library.thinkquest.org/27629/themes/society/rsussr.html">Tsar Killed, USSR Formed</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121019221033/http://library.thinkquest.org/27629/themes/society/rsussr.html">Archived</a> 19 October 2012 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>," in 20th Century Russia. Retrieved 21 July 2007. </li> <li id="cite_note-191"><a href="#cite_ref-191">^</a> Soviet Union Information Bureau, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.marxists.org/history/ussr/government/1928/sufds/ch01.htm">Area and Population</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170903221828/https://www.marxists.org/history/ussr/government/1928/sufds/ch01.htm">Archived</a> 3 September 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Retrieved 21 July 2007. </li> <li id="cite_note-Richman-192">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Richman_192-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Richman_192-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Richman_192-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Richman_192-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Richman_192-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Richman_192-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Richman_192-6">g</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRichman1981" class="citation journal cs1">Richman, Sheldon L. (1981). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mises.org/journals/jls/5_1/5_1_5.pdf">"War Communism to NEP: The Road to Serfdom"</a> (PDF). The Journal of Libertarian Studies. 5 (1): 89–97. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140914003928/http://mises.org/journals/jls/5_1/5_1_5.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 14 September 2014. Retrieved 3 October 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Libertarian+Studies&rft.atitle=War+Communism+to+NEP%3A+The+Road+to+Serfdom&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=89-97&rft.date=1981&rft.aulast=Richman&rft.aufirst=Sheldon+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.mises.org%2Fjournals%2Fjls%2F5_1%2F5_1_5.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Russia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-193"><a href="#cite_ref-193">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBatenBehle2010" class="citation journal cs1">Baten, Jörg; Behle, Dominic (2010). "Regional Determinants of Firm Creation in the Russian Empire. Evidence from the 1870 Industrial Exhibition". Russian Economic History Yearbook. 01 – via ResearchGate.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Russian+Economic+History+Yearbook&rft.atitle=Regional+Determinants+of+Firm+Creation+in+the+Russian+Empire.+Evidence+from+the+1870+Industrial+Exhibition&rft.volume=01&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Baten&rft.aufirst=J%C3%B6rg&rft.au=Behle%2C+Dominic&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Russia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-194"><a href="#cite_ref-194">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcElvanney" class="citation web cs1">McElvanney, Katie. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200801145838/https://www.bl.uk/russian-revolution/articles/women-and-the-russian-revolution">"Women and the Russian Revolution"</a>. British Library. 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Retrieved 11 May 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=British+Library&rft.atitle=Women+and+the+Russian+Revolution&rft.aulast=McElvanney&rft.aufirst=Katie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bl.uk%2Frussian-revolution%2Farticles%2Fwomen-and-the-russian-revolution&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Russia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-pushkareva-195"><a href="#cite_ref-pushkareva_195-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPushkareva" class="citation web cs1">Pushkareva, Natalia. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iisg.nl/~womhist/pushkareva.doc">"Marriage in Twentieth Century Russia: Traditional Precepts and Innovative Experiments"</a> (.doc). Russian Academy of Sciences. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070726224821/http://www.iisg.nl/%7Ewomhist/pushkareva.doc">Archived</a> from the original on 26 July 2007. Retrieved 23 July 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Marriage+in+Twentieth+Century+Russia%3A+Traditional+Precepts+and+Innovative+Experiments&rft.pub=Russian+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.aulast=Pushkareva&rft.aufirst=Natalia&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iisg.nl%2F~womhist%2Fpushkareva.doc&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Russia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-196"><a href="#cite_ref-196">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRemennick1991" class="citation journal cs1">Remennick, Larissa (1991). "Epidemiology and Determinants of Induced Abortion in the USSR". Soc. Sci. Med. 33 (7): 841–848. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0277-9536%2891%2990389-T">10.1016/0277-9536(91)90389-T</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1948176">1948176</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Soc.+Sci.+Med.&rft.atitle=Epidemiology+and+Determinants+of+Induced+Abortion+in+the+USSR&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=841-848&rft.date=1991&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0277-9536%2891%2990389-T&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F1948176&rft.aulast=Remennick&rft.aufirst=Larissa&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Russia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Deutscbher-197"><a href="#cite_ref-Deutscbher_197-0">^</a> I. Deutscher, Stalin: A Political Biography, Oxford University Press, 1949, pp. 294–344. </li> <li id="cite_note-conquest-coll-198">^ <a href="#cite_ref-conquest-coll_198-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-conquest-coll_198-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-conquest-coll_198-2">c</a> <a href="/wiki/Conquest,_Robert" class="mw-redirect" title="Conquest, Robert">Conquest, Robert</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Harvest_of_Sorrow" title="The Harvest of Sorrow">The Harvest of Sorrow</a>: Soviet Collectivization and the Terror-Famine. New York: Oxford University Press, 1987. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-505180-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-505180-7">0-19-505180-7</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-199"><a href="#cite_ref-199">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Lynne_Viola" title="Lynne Viola">Viola, Lynne</a>. Peasant Rebels under Stalin. Collectivization and the Culture of Peasant Resistance. 2nd ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 1998. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-513104-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-513104-5">0-19-513104-5</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-conquest-terror-200"><a href="#cite_ref-conquest-terror_200-0">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Conquest,_Robert" class="mw-redirect" title="Conquest, Robert">Conquest, Robert</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Great_Terror:_A_Reassessment" class="mw-redirect" title="The Great Terror: A Reassessment">The Great Terror: A Reassessment</a>. New York: Oxford University Press, 1990. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-507132-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-507132-8">0-19-507132-8</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-forcedlabor-201"><a href="#cite_ref-forcedlabor_201-0">^</a> Gregory, Paul R. & Valery Lazarev (eds.). The Economics of Forced Labor: The Soviet Gulag. Stanford: Hoover Institution Press, 2003. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8179-3942-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-8179-3942-3">0-8179-3942-3</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-ivanova-202"><a href="#cite_ref-ivanova_202-0">^</a> Ivanova, Galina M. Labor Camp Socialism: The Gulag in the Soviet Totalitarian System. Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 2000. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7656-0427-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-7656-0427-2">0-7656-0427-2</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-203"><a href="#cite_ref-203">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081015012139/http://www.anneapplebaum.com/communism/2000/06_15_nyrb_gulag.html">"Anne Applebaum – Inside the Gulag"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.anneapplebaum.com/communism/2000/06_15_nyrb_gulag.html">the original</a> on 15 October 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Anne+Applebaum+%E2%80%93+Inside+the+Gulag&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.anneapplebaum.com%2Fcommunism%2F2000%2F06_15_nyrb_gulag.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Russia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-applebaum-204"><a href="#cite_ref-applebaum_204-0">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Applebaum,_Anne" class="mw-redirect" title="Applebaum, Anne">Applebaum, Anne</a>. Gulag: A History of the Soviet Camps. London: Penguin Books, 2003. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7139-9322-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-7139-9322-7">0-7139-9322-7</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-Lebensraum-205"><a href="#cite_ref-Lebensraum_205-0">^</a> See, e.g. <a href="/wiki/Mein_Kampf" title="Mein Kampf">Mein Kampf</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-206"><a href="#cite_ref-206">^</a> Payne, Stanley G. The Spanish Civil War, the Soviet Union, and Communism. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2004. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-300-10068-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-300-10068-X">0-300-10068-X</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-207"><a href="#cite_ref-207">^</a> Radosh, Ronald, Mary Habeck & Grigory Sevostianov (eds.). Spain Betrayed: The Soviet Union in the Spanish Civil War. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2001. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-300-08981-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-300-08981-3">0-300-08981-3</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-208"><a href="#cite_ref-208">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Alvin_Coox" title="Alvin Coox">Coox, Alvin D.</a> The Anatomy of a Small War: The Soviet-Japanese Struggle for Changkufeng/Khasan, 1938. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1977. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8371-9479-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-8371-9479-2">0-8371-9479-2</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-209"><a href="#cite_ref-209">^</a> Coox, Alvin D. Nomonhan: Japan against Russia, 1939. 2 vols. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1990. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8047-1835-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-8047-1835-0">0-8047-1835-0</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-210"><a href="#cite_ref-210">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoberts,_Geoffrey1992" class="citation journal cs1">Roberts, Geoffrey (1992). "The Soviet Decision for a Pact with Nazi Germany". <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Studies" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet Studies">Soviet Studies</a>. 44 (1): 57–78. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F09668139208411994">10.1080/09668139208411994</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/00385859">00385859</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Soviet+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Soviet+Decision+for+a+Pact+with+Nazi+Germany&rft.volume=44&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=57-78&rft.date=1992&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F09668139208411994&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F00385859%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.au=Roberts%2C+Geoffrey&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Russia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-211"><a href="#cite_ref-211">^</a> Ericson, Edward E. Feeding the German Eagle: Soviet Economic Aid to Nazi Germany, 1933–1941. New York: Praeger, 1999. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-275-96337-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-275-96337-3">0-275-96337-3</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-212"><a href="#cite_ref-212">^</a> Gross, Jan Tomasz. Revolution from Abroad: The Soviet Conquest of Poland's Western Ukraine and Western Belorussia. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2002. 2nd ed. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-09603-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-691-09603-1">0-691-09603-1</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-213"><a href="#cite_ref-213">^</a> Zaloga, Steven & Victor Madej. The Polish Campaign 1939. 2nd ed. New York: Hippocrene Books, 1991. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87052-013-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-87052-013-X">0-87052-013-X</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-214"><a href="#cite_ref-214">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Manninen2008" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Ohto_Manninen" title="Ohto Manninen">Manninen, Ohto</a> (2008). Miten Suomi valloitetaan: Puna-armeijan operaatiosuunnitelmat 1939–1944 [How to Conquer Finland: Operational Plans of the Red Army 1939–1944] (in Finnish). Edita. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-951-37-5278-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-951-37-5278-1"><bdi>978-951-37-5278-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Miten+Suomi+valloitetaan%3A+Puna-armeijan+operaatiosuunnitelmat+1939%E2%80%931944&rft.pub=Edita&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-951-37-5278-1&rft.aulast=Manninen&rft.aufirst=Ohto&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Russia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-215"><a href="#cite_ref-215">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Clemmesen" class="citation book cs1">Clemmesen, Michael H.; Faulkner, Marcus, eds. (2013). Northern European Overture to War, 1939–1941: From Memel to Barbarossa. Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-24908-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-24908-0"><bdi>978-90-04-24908-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Northern+European+Overture+to+War%2C+1939%E2%80%931941%3A+From+Memel+to+Barbarossa&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-90-04-24908-0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Russia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-216"><a href="#cite_ref-216">^</a> Vehviläinen, Olli. Finland in the Second World War: Between Germany and Russia. New York: Palgrave, 2002. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-333-80149-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-333-80149-0">0-333-80149-0</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-217"><a href="#cite_ref-217">^</a> Van Dyke, Carl. The Soviet Invasion of Finland 1939–1940. London: Frank Cass, 1997. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7146-4314-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-7146-4314-9">0-7146-4314-9</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-218"><a href="#cite_ref-218">^</a> Dima, Nicholas. Bessarabia and Bukovina: The Soviet-Romanian Territorial Dispute. Boulder, CO: East European Monographs, 1982. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-88033-003-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-88033-003-1">0-88033-003-1</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-219"><a href="#cite_ref-219">^</a> Tarulis, Albert N. Soviet Policy Toward the Baltic States 1918–1940. Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1959. </li> <li id="cite_note-220"><a href="#cite_ref-220">^</a> Misiunas, Romuald J. & Rein Taagepera. The Baltic States: The Years of Dependence, 1940–90. 2nd ed. London: Hurst & Co, 1993. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85065-157-4" title="Special:BookSources/1-85065-157-4">1-85065-157-4</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-Isaev10-221"><a href="#cite_ref-Isaev10_221-0">^</a> А. В. Десять мифов Второй мировой. – М.: Эксмо, Яуза, 2004, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/5-699-07634-4" title="Special:BookSources/5-699-07634-4">5-699-07634-4</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-222"><a href="#cite_ref-222">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Meltyukhov" title="Mikhail Meltyukhov">Mikhail Meltyukhov</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stalin%27s_Missed_Chance" title="Stalin's Missed Chance">Stalin's Missed Chance</a>, М. И. Мельтюхов Упущенный шанс Сталина: Советский Союз и борьба за Европу 1939–1941 гг. : Документы, факты, суждения. Изд. 2-е, испр., доп. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/5-7838-1196-3" title="Special:BookSources/5-7838-1196-3">5-7838-1196-3</a> (second edition) </li> <li id="cite_note-223"><a href="#cite_ref-223">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Gilbert,_Martin" class="mw-redirect" title="Gilbert, Martin">Gilbert, Martin</a>. The Second World War: A Complete History. 2nd ed. New York: Owl Books, 1991. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8050-1788-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-8050-1788-7">0-8050-1788-7</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-224"><a href="#cite_ref-224">^</a> Thurston, Robert W. & Bernd Bonwetsch (ed.). The People's War: Responses to World War II in the Soviet Union. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2000. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-252-02600-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-252-02600-4">0-252-02600-4</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-225"><a href="#cite_ref-225">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Clark,_Alan" class="mw-redirect" title="Clark, Alan">Clark, Alan</a>. Barbarossa: The Russian-German Conflict, 1941–1945. New York: Harper Perennial, 1985. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-688-04268-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-688-04268-6">0-688-04268-6</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-226"><a href="#cite_ref-226">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Beevor,_Antony" class="mw-redirect" title="Beevor, Antony">Beevor, Antony</a>. <a href="/wiki/Stalingrad_(Beevor_book)" title="Stalingrad (Beevor book)">Stalingrad, The Fateful Siege: 1942–1943</a>. New York: Viking, 1998. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-670-87095-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-670-87095-1">0-670-87095-1</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-227"><a href="#cite_ref-227">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Glantz,_David_M." class="mw-redirect" title="Glantz, David M.">Glantz, David M.</a> & <a href="/wiki/Jonathan_House" title="Jonathan House">Jonathan M. House</a>. When Titans Clashed: How the Red Army Stopped Hitler. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1998. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7006-0717-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-7006-0717-X">0-7006-0717-X</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-228"><a href="#cite_ref-228">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Beevor,_Antony" class="mw-redirect" title="Beevor, Antony">Beevor, Antony</a>. Berlin: The Downfall, 1945. 3rd ed. London: Penguin Books, 2004. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-14-101747-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-14-101747-3">0-14-101747-3</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-229"><a href="#cite_ref-229">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Glantz,_David_M." class="mw-redirect" title="Glantz, David M.">Glantz, David M.</a> The Soviet 1945 Strategic Offensive in Manchuria: 'August Storm'. London: Routledge, 2003. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7146-5279-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-7146-5279-2">0-7146-5279-2</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-230"><a href="#cite_ref-230">^</a> This is far higher than the original number of 7 million given by Stalin, and, indeed, the number has increased under various Soviet and Russian Federation leaders. See Mark Harrison, The Economics of World War II: Six Great Powers in International Comparison, Cambridge University Press, 1998, p. 291 (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-78503-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-78503-0">0-521-78503-0</a>), for more information. </li> <li id="cite_note-231"><a href="#cite_ref-231">^</a> As evidenced at the post-war <a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_Trials" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuremberg Trials">Nuremberg Trials</a>. See Ginsburg, George, The Nuremberg Trial and International Law, Martinus Nijhoff, 1990, p. 160. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7923-0798-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-7923-0798-4">0-7923-0798-4</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-232"><a href="#cite_ref-232">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.dw.com/en/final-compensation-pending-for-former-nazi-forced-laborers/a-1757323">"Final Compensation Pending for Former Nazi Forced Laborers | DW | 27.10.2005"</a>. DW.COM. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120122194402/http://www.dw-world.de/dw/article/0,2144,1757323,00.html">Archived</a> from the original on 22 January 2012. Retrieved 18 April 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=DW.COM&rft.atitle=Final+Compensation+Pending+for+Former+Nazi+Forced+Laborers+%26%23124%3B+DW+%26%23124%3B+27.10.2005&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.dw.com%2Fen%2Ffinal-compensation-pending-for-former-nazi-forced-laborers%2Fa-1757323&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Russia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-233"><a href="#cite_ref-233">^</a> Gerlach, C. "Kalkulierte Morde" Hamburger Edition, Hamburg, 1999 </li> <li id="cite_note-234"><a href="#cite_ref-234">^</a> Россия и СССР в войнах ХХ века", М. "Олма- Пресс", 2001 год </li> <li id="cite_note-235"><a href="#cite_ref-235">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tr.rkrp-rpk.ru/get.php?1379">Цена войны (Борис ЯЧМЕНЕВ) – "Трудовая Россия"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070927001441/http://www.tr.rkrp-rpk.ru/get.php?1379">Archived</a> 27 September 2007 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Tr.rkrp-rpk.ru. Retrieved 16 February 2011. </li> <li id="cite_note-gumer1-236">^ <a href="#cite_ref-gumer1_236-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-gumer1_236-1">b</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gumer.info/bibliotek_Buks/History/Article/_Rubak_VelOtech.php">Рыбаковский Л. Великая отечественная: людские потери России</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070927183814/http://www.gumer.info/bibliotek_Buks/History/Article/_Rubak_VelOtech.php">Archived</a> 27 September 2007 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Gumer.info. Retrieved 16 February 2011. </li> <li id="cite_note-237"><a href="#cite_ref-237">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090113204945/http://www.un.int/russia/other/latv1941.htm">"Involvement of the Lettish SS Legion in War Crimes in 1941–1945 and the Attempts to Revise the Verdict of the Nuremberg Tribunal in Latvia"</a>. Permanent Mission of the Russian Federation to the United Nations. United Nations. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.un.int/russia/other/latv1941.htm">the original</a> on 13 January 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Permanent+Mission+of+the+Russian+Federation+to+the+United+Nations&rft.atitle=Involvement+of+the+Lettish+SS+Legion+in+War+Crimes+in+1941%E2%80%931945+and+the+Attempts+to+Revise+the+Verdict+of+the+Nuremberg+Tribunal+in+Latvia&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.un.int%2Frussia%2Fother%2Flatv1941.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Russia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-238"><a href="#cite_ref-238">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.un.int/russia/other/eest1941.htm#english">Permanent Mission of the Russian Federation to the United Nations (Russian Federation. 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Aufl. 1978), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-8012-5016-4" title="Special:BookSources/3-8012-5016-4">3-8012-5016-4</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-244"><a href="#cite_ref-244">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090214004725/http://jfklibrary.org/Historical+Resources/JFK+in+History/The+Cold+War.htm">"The Cold War"</a>. John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jfklibrary.org/Historical+Resources/JFK+in+History/The+Cold+War.htm">the original</a> on 14 February 2009. 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"Roosevelt and Truman on Yalta: The Origins of the Cold War". Political Science Quarterly. 87 (2): 226. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2147826">10.2307/2147826</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2147826">2147826</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Political+Science+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Roosevelt+and+Truman+on+Yalta%3A+The+Origins+of+the+Cold+War&rft.volume=87&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=226&rft.date=1972&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2147826&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2147826%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Theoharis&rft.aufirst=Athan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Russia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-247"><a href="#cite_ref-247">^</a> Cochran, Thomas B., Robert S. Norris & Oleg Bukharin. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://docs.nrdc.org/nuclear/nuc_01019501a_138.pdf">Making the Russian Bomb: From Stalin to Yeltsin</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070809124538/http://docs.nrdc.org/nuclear/nuc_01019501a_138.pdf">Archived</a> 9 August 2007 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (PDF). Boulder,. CO:. Westview Press, 1995. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8133-2328-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-8133-2328-2">0-8133-2328-2</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-248"><a href="#cite_ref-248">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Gaddis,_John_Lewis" class="mw-redirect" title="Gaddis, John Lewis">Gaddis, John Lewis</a>. We Now Know: Rethinking Cold War History. Oxford: Clarendon press, 1997. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-878071-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-878071-0">0-19-878071-0</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-249"><a href="#cite_ref-249">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Vojtech_Mastny_(historian)" title="Vojtech Mastny (historian)">Mastny, Vojtech</a>, Malcolm Byrne & Magdalena Klotzbach (eds.). Cardboard Castle?: An Inside History of the Warsaw Pact, 1955–1991. 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Oxford: Blackwell, 1989. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-631-16775-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-631-16775-7">0-631-16775-7</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-252"><a href="#cite_ref-252">^</a> Litvan, Gyorgy, Janos M. Bak & Lyman Howard Legters (eds.). The Hungarian Revolution of 1956: Reform, Revolt and Repression, 1953–1963. London – New York: Longman, 1996. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-582-21504-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-582-21504-8">0-582-21504-8</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-CNN_Khrushchev-253">^ <a href="#cite_ref-CNN_Khrushchev_253-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-CNN_Khrushchev_253-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080613043811/http://www.cnn.com/SPECIALS/cold.war/kbank/profiles/khrushchev/">"Nikita Sergeyevich Khrushchev"</a>. CNN. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cnn.com/SPECIALS/cold.war/kbank/profiles/khrushchev/">the original</a> on 13 June 2008. Retrieved 22 July 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Nikita+Sergeyevich+Khrushchev&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cnn.com%2FSPECIALS%2Fcold.war%2Fkbank%2Fprofiles%2Fkhrushchev%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Russia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-254"><a href="#cite_ref-254">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080613043927/http://www.cnn.com/SPECIALS/cold.war/kbank/profiles/brezhnev/">"Leonid Ilyich Brezhnev"</a>. CNN. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cnn.com/SPECIALS/cold.war/kbank/profiles/brezhnev/">the original</a> on 13 June 2008. 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Retrieved 22 July 2007. <q>During the 1970s Brezhnev attempted to normalize relations between <a href="/wiki/West_Germany" title="West Germany">West Germany</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Pact" title="Warsaw Pact">Warsaw Pact</a> and to ease tensions with the United States through the policy known as détente. At the same time, he saw to it that the Soviet Union's military-industrial complex was greatly expanded and modernized.", "After his death, he was criticized for a gradual slide in living standards, the spread of corruption and cronyism within the Soviet <a href="/wiki/Bureaucracy" title="Bureaucracy">bureaucracy</a>, and the generally <a href="/wiki/Era_of_Stagnation" title="Era of Stagnation">stagnant and dispiriting character of Soviet life</a> in the late 1970s and early '80s.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+History+Guide&rft.atitle=Leonid+Brezhnev%2C+1906%E2%80%931982&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.historyguide.org%2Feurope%2Fbrezhnev.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Russia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Duke-256"><a href="#cite_ref-Duke_256-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20121210193915/http://econ.duke.edu/pub/treml/brezhnev.293">"Soviet and Post-Soviet Economic Structure And Performance"</a>. 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Cortada, "Public Policies and the Development of National Computer Industries in Britain, France, and the Soviet Union, 1940—80." Journal of Contemporary History (2009) 44#3 pp. 493–512, especially pp. 509-510. </li> <li id="cite_note-259"><a href="#cite_ref-259">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCain2005" class="citation journal cs1">Cain, Frank (2005). "Computers and the Cold War: United States Restrictions on the Export of Computers to the Soviet Union and Communist China". 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Retrieved 4 October 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=Crimea+referendum%3A+Voters+%27back+Russia+union%27&rft.date=2014-03-16&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.com%2Fnews%2Fworld-europe-26606097&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Russia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-281"><a href="#cite_ref-281">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMyersBarry2014" class="citation news cs1">Myers, Steven Lee; Barry, Ellen (18 March 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2014/03/19/world/europe/ukraine.html">"Putin Reclaims Crimea for Russia and Bitterly Denounces the West"</a>. 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Retrieved 4 October 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=NPR&rft.atitle=Putin+illegally+annexes+territories+in+Ukraine%2C+in+spite+of+global+opposition&rft.date=2022-09-30&rft.aulast=Maynes&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.npr.org%2F2022%2F09%2F30%2F1126020895%2Frussia-ukraine-putin-annexation&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Russia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-292"><a href="#cite_ref-292">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://news.un.org/en/story/2022/09/1127691">"War crimes have been committed in Ukraine conflict, top UN human rights inquiry reveals"</a>. UN News. 23 September 2022. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221204135626/https://news.un.org/en/story/2022/09/1127691">Archived</a> from the original on 4 December 2022. Retrieved 4 October 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=UN+News&rft.atitle=War+crimes+have+been+committed+in+Ukraine+conflict%2C+top+UN+human+rights+inquiry+reveals&rft.date=2022-09-23&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnews.un.org%2Fen%2Fstory%2F2022%2F09%2F1127691&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Russia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-293"><a href="#cite_ref-293">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYeung2023" class="citation news cs1">Yeung, Jessie (25 June 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://edition.cnn.com/2023/06/25/europe/russia-prigozhin-wagner-insurrection-belarus-explainer-intl-hnk/index.html">"Moscow has stepped back from civil war with Wagner. But the danger's not over, experts warn"</a>. CNN. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230629114019/https://edition.cnn.com/2023/06/25/europe/russia-prigozhin-wagner-insurrection-belarus-explainer-intl-hnk/index.html">Archived</a> from the original on 29 June 2023. Retrieved 29 June 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=CNN&rft.atitle=Moscow+has+stepped+back+from+civil+war+with+Wagner.+But+the+danger%27s+not+over%2C+experts+warn&rft.date=2023-06-25&rft.aulast=Yeung&rft.aufirst=Jessie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fedition.cnn.com%2F2023%2F06%2F25%2Feurope%2Frussia-prigozhin-wagner-insurrection-belarus-explainer-intl-hnk%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Russia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-294"><a href="#cite_ref-294">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCooperGibbons-NeffSchmittBarnes2023" class="citation news cs1">Cooper, Helene; Gibbons-Neff, Thomas; Schmitt, Eric; Barnes, Julian E. (18 August 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2023/08/18/us/politics/ukraine-russia-war-casualties.html">"Troop Deaths and Injuries in Ukraine War Near 500,000, U.S. Officials Say"</a>. The New York Times. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230903175102/https://www.nytimes.com/2023/08/18/us/politics/ukraine-russia-war-casualties.html">Archived</a> from the original on 3 September 2023. Retrieved 3 September 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Troop+Deaths+and+Injuries+in+Ukraine+War+Near+500%2C000%2C+U.S.+Officials+Say&rft.date=2023-08-18&rft.aulast=Cooper&rft.aufirst=Helene&rft.au=Gibbons-Neff%2C+Thomas&rft.au=Schmitt%2C+Eric&rft.au=Barnes%2C+Julian+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2023%2F08%2F18%2Fus%2Fpolitics%2Fukraine-russia-war-casualties.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Russia" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Russia&action=edit&section=51" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_the_history_of_the_Early_Slavs_and_Rus%27" title="Bibliography of the history of the Early Slavs and Rus'">Bibliography of the history of the Early Slavs and Rus'</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_Russian_history_(1223%E2%80%931613)" title="Bibliography of Russian history (1223–1613)">Bibliography of Russian history (1223–1613)</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_Russian_history_(1613%E2%80%931917)" title="Bibliography of Russian history (1613–1917)">Bibliography of Russian history (1613–1917)</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Surveys">Surveys</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Russia&action=edit&section=52" title="Edit section: Surveys">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Auty, Robert, and Dimitri Obolensky, eds. Companion to Russian Studies: vol 1: An Introduction to Russian History (1981) 403 pages; surveys by scholars.</li> <li>Bartlett, Roger P. A History of Russia (2005) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofrussia00bart">online</a></li> <li>Brown, Archie et al. eds. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Russia and the Former Soviet Union (2nd ed. 1994) 664 pages <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cambridgeencyclo00brow">online</a></li> <li>Bushkovitch, Paul. A Concise History of Russia (2011) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Concise-History-Russia-Cambridge-Histories/dp/0521543231/">excerpt and text search</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170525205631/https://www.amazon.com/Concise-History-Russia-Cambridge-Histories/dp/0521543231">Archived</a> 25 May 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li>Connolly, Richard. The Russian Economy: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford University Press, 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://eh.net/book_reviews/the-russian-economy-a-very-short-introduction/">Online review</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201116060536/https://eh.net/book_reviews/the-russian-economy-a-very-short-introduction/">Archived</a> 16 November 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li>Figes, Orlando. Natasha's Dance: A Cultural History of Russia (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Natashas-Dance-Cultural-History-Russia/dp/0805057838/">excerpt</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161003212154/https://www.amazon.com/Natashas-Dance-Cultural-History-Russia/dp/0805057838">Archived</a> 3 October 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li>Florinsky, Michael T. ed. McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Russia and the Soviet Union (1961).</li> <li>Freeze, Gregory L., ed.,. Russia: A History. 2nd ed. (Oxford UP, 2002). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-860511-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-860511-0">0-19-860511-0</a>.</li> <li>Harcave, Sidney, ed. Readings in Russian history (1962) excerpts from scholars. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/readingsinrussia00harc">online</a></li> <li>Hosking, Geoffrey A. Russia and the Russians: a History (2011) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/russiarussianshi2ndehosk">online</a></li> <li>Jelavich, Barbara. St. Petersburg and Moscow: Tsarist and Soviet Foreign Policy, 1814–1974 (1974).</li> <li>Kort, Michael. A Brief History of Russia (2008) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/briefhistoryofru0000kort">online</a></li> <li>McKenzie, David & Michael W. Curran. A History of Russia, the Soviet Union, and Beyond. 6th ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing, 2001. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-534-58698-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-534-58698-8">0-534-58698-8</a>.</li> <li>Millar, James, ed. Encyclopedia of Russian History (4 vol. 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofru0001unse">online</a></li> <li>Pares, Bernard. A History of Russia (1926) By a leading historian. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.174320/page/n7">Online</a></li> <li>Paxton, John. Encyclopedia of Russian History (1993) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofru0000paxt">online</a></li> <li>Paxton, John. Companion to Russian history (1983) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/companiontorussi00paxt">online</a></li> <li>Perrie, Maureen, et al. The Cambridge History of Russia. (3 vol. Cambridge University Press, 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/The-Cambridge-History-Russia-Volume/dp/0521812275/">excerpt and text search</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160317054342/http://www.amazon.com/The-Cambridge-History-Russia-Volume/dp/0521812275">Archived</a> 17 March 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li>Riasanovsky, Nicholas V., and Mark D. Steinberg. A History of Russia (9th ed. 2018) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofrussia0000rias">9th edition 1993 online</a></li> <li>Service, Robert. A History of Modern Russia: From Tsarism to the Twenty-First Century (Harvard UP, 3rd ed., 2009) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/History-Modern-Russia-Tsarism-Twenty-First/dp/0674034937/">excerpt</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220329235818/https://www.amazon.com/History-Modern-Russia-Tsarism-Twenty-First/dp/0674034937">Archived</a> 29 March 2022 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li>Stone, David. A Military History of Russia: From Ivan the Terrible to the War in Chechnya <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Military-History-Russia-Terrible-Chechnya-ebook/dp/B0029LGW5A/">excerpts</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170525210951/https://www.amazon.com/Military-History-Russia-Terrible-Chechnya-ebook/dp/B0029LGW5A">Archived</a> 25 May 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li>Ziegler; Charles E. The History of Russia (Greenwood Press, 1999)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Russian_Empire">Russian Empire</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Russia&action=edit&section=53" title="Edit section: Russian Empire">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire#Further_reading" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire § Further reading</a></div> <ul><li>Baykov, Alexander. “The Economic Development of Russia.” Economic History Review 7#2 1954, pp. 137–149. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2591618">online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220422033115/https://www.jstor.org/stable/2591618">Archived</a> 22 April 2022 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li>Billington, James H. The icon and the axe; an interpretive history of Russian culture (1966) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/iconaxeinterpret00bill">online </a></li> <li>Christian, David. A History of Russia, Central Asia and Mongolia. Vol. 1: Inner Eurasia from Prehistory to the Mongol Empire. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishers, 1998. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-631-20814-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-631-20814-3">0-631-20814-3</a>.</li> <li>De Madariaga, Isabel. Russia in the Age of Catherine the Great (2002), comprehensive topical survey</li> <li>Fuller, William C. Strategy and Power in Russia 1600–1914 (1998) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/B001D1YCWC/">excerpts</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210325110104/https://www.amazon.com/dp/B001D1YCWC/">Archived</a> 25 March 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li>Hughes, Lindsey. Russia in the Age of Peter the Great (Yale UP, 1998), Comprehensive topical survey. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/russiainageofpet00hugh">online</a></li> <li>Kahan, Arcadius. The Plow, the Hammer, and the Knout: An Economic History of Eighteenth-Century Russia (1985)</li> <li>Kahan, Arcadius. Russian Economic History: The Nineteenth Century (1989) <ul><li>Gatrell, Peter. "Review: Russian Economic History: The Legacy of Arcadius Kahan" Slavic Review 50#1 (1991), pp. 176–178 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2500609">online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220422033122/https://www.jstor.org/stable/2500609">Archived</a> 22 April 2022 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li></ul></li> <li>Lincoln, W. Bruce. The Romanovs: Autocrats of All the Russias (1983) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/romanovsautocr00linc">online</a>, sweeping narrative history</li> <li>Lincoln, W. Bruce. The great reforms : autocracy, bureaucracy, and the politics of change in Imperial Russia (1990) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/greatreformsauto0000linc">online</a></li> <li>Manning, Roberta. The Crisis of the Old Order in Russia: Gentry and Government. Princeton University Press, 1982.</li> <li>Markevich, Andrei, and Ekaterina Zhuravskaya. 2018. “Economic Effects of the Abolition of Serfdom: Evidence from the Russian Empire.” American Economic Review 108.4–5: 1074–1117.</li> <li>Mironov, Boris N., and Ben Eklof. The Social History of Imperial Russia, 1700–1917 (2 vol Westview Press, 2000)</li> <li>Moss, Walter G. A History of Russia. Vol. 1: To 1917. 2d ed. Anthem Press, 2002.</li> <li>Oliva, Lawrence Jay. ed. Russia in the era of Peter the Great (1969), excerpts from primary and secondary sources <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/russiaineraofpet00oliv">online</a></li> <li>Pipes, Richard. Russia under the Old Regime (2nd ed. 1997)</li> <li>Seton-Watson, Hugh. The Russian Empire 1801–1917 (Oxford History of Modern Europe) (1988) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Russian-Empire-1801-1917-Oxford-History/dp/0198221525/">excerpt and text search</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170415013433/https://www.amazon.com/Russian-Empire-1801-1917-Oxford-History/dp/0198221525">Archived</a> 15 April 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li>Treasure, Geoffrey. The Making of Modern Europe, 1648–1780 (3rd ed. 2003). pp. 550–600.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Soviet_era">Soviet era</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Russia&action=edit&section=54" title="Edit section: Soviet era">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_the_Russian_Revolution_and_Civil_War" title="Bibliography of the Russian Revolution and Civil War">Bibliography of the Russian Revolution and Civil War</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_Stalinism_and_the_Soviet_Union" title="Bibliography of Stalinism and the Soviet Union">Bibliography of Stalinism and the Soviet Union</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_the_Post_Stalinist_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibliography of the Post Stalinist Soviet Union">Bibliography of the Post Stalinist Soviet Union</a></div> <ul><li>Chamberlin, William Henry. The Russian Revolution 1917–1921 (2 vol 1935) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/search.php?query=Chamberlin%2C%20William%20Henry.%20The%20Russian%20Revolution">online free</a></li> <li>Cohen, Stephen F. Rethinking the Soviet Experience: Politics and History since 1917. (Oxford University Press, 1985)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrossSherbowitz-Wetzor1953" class="citation book cs1">Cross, Samuel Hazzard; Sherbowitz-Wetzor, Olgerd P. (1953) [1930]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mgh-bibliothek.de/dokumente/a/a011458.pdf">The Russian Primary Chronicle, Laurentian Text. Translated and edited by Samuel Hazzard Cross and Olgerd P. Sherbowitz-Wetzor</a> (PDF). Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Mediaeval Academy of America. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210827201438/https://www.mgh-bibliothek.de/dokumente/a/a011458.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 27 August 2021. Retrieved 26 January 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Russian+Primary+Chronicle%2C+Laurentian+Text.+Translated+and+edited+by+Samuel+Hazzard+Cross+and+Olgerd+P.+Sherbowitz-Wetzor&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pub=The+Mediaeval+Academy+of+America&rft.date=1953&rft.aulast=Cross&rft.aufirst=Samuel+Hazzard&rft.au=Sherbowitz-Wetzor%2C+Olgerd+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.mgh-bibliothek.de%2Fdokumente%2Fa%2Fa011458.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Russia" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Davies, R. W. Soviet economic development from Lenin to Khrushchev (1998) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Economic-Development-Khrushchev-Studies-History-dp-0521622603/dp/0521622603/">excerpt</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221227130245/https://www.amazon.com/Economic-Development-Khrushchev-Studies-History-dp-0521622603/dp/0521622603/">Archived</a> 27 December 2022 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li>Davies, R.W., Mark Harrison and S.G. Wheatcroft. The Economic transformation of the Soviet Union, 1913-1945 (1994)</li> <li>Figes, Orlando. A people's tragedy a history of the Russian Revolution (1997) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/peoplestragedyhi00fige">online</a></li> <li>Fitzpatrick, Sheila. The Russian Revolution. (Oxford University Press, 1982), 208 pages. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-280204-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-280204-6">0-19-280204-6</a></li> <li>Gregory, Paul R. and Robert C. Stuart, Russian and Soviet Economic Performance and Structure (7th ed. 2001)</li> <li>Hosking, Geoffrey. The First Socialist Society: A History of the Soviet Union from Within (2nd ed. Harvard UP 1992) 570 pages</li> <li>Kennan, George F. Russia and the West under Lenin and Stalin (1961) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/russiawestmentor00geor">online</a></li> <li>Kort, Michael. The Soviet Colossus: History and Aftermath (7th ed. 2010) 502 pages</li> <li>Kotkin, Stephen. Stalin: Paradoxes of Power, 1878–1928 (2014); vol 2 (2017)</li> <li>Library of Congress. Russia: a country study edited by Glenn E. Curtis. (Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, 1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/rutoc.html">online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20120711211231/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/rutoc.html">Archived</a> 11 July 2012 at <a href="/wiki/Archive.today" title="Archive.today">archive.today</a></li> <li>Lincoln, W. Bruce. Passage Through Armageddon: The Russians in War and Revolution, 1914–1918 (1986)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moshe_Lewin" title="Moshe Lewin">Lewin, Moshe</a>. Russian Peasants and Soviet Power. (Northwestern University Press, 1968)</li> <li>McCauley, Martin. The Rise and Fall of the Soviet Union (2007), 522 pages.</li> <li>Moss, Walter G. A History of Russia. Vol. 2: Since 1855. 2d ed. Anthem Press, 2005.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alec_Nove" class="mw-redirect" title="Alec Nove">Nove, Alec</a>. An Economic History of the USSR, 1917–1991. 3rd ed. London: Penguin Books, 1993. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-14-015774-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-14-015774-3">0-14-015774-3</a>.</li> <li>Ofer, Gur. "Soviet Economic Growth: 1928-1985," Journal of Economic Literature (1987) 25#4: 1767–1833. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2726445">online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201111080035/https://www.jstor.org/stable/2726445">Archived</a> 11 November 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li>Pipes, Richard. A concise history of the Russian Revolution (1995) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/concisehistoryof00pipe">online</a></li> <li>Regelson, Lev. Tragedy of Russian Church. 1917–1953. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.regels.org/Russian-Church.htm">http://www.regels.org/Russian-Church.htm</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150217102721/http://www.regels.org/Russian-Church.htm">Archived</a> 17 February 2015 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li>Remington, Thomas. Building Socialism in Bolshevik Russia. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1984.</li> <li>Service, Robert. A History of Twentieth-Century Russia. 2nd ed. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-674-40348-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-674-40348-7">0-674-40348-7</a>.</li> <li>Service, Robert. Stalin: A Biography (2004), along with Tucker and Kotkin, a standard biography</li> <li>Steinberg, Mark D. The Russian Revolution, 1905–1921 (Oxford Histories, 2017).</li> <li>Tucker, Robert C. Stalin as Revolutionary, 1879–1929 (1973); Stalin in Power: The Revolution from Above, 1929–1941. (1990)along with Kotkin and Service books, a standard biography; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20000707012840/http://www.historyebook.org/">online at ACLS e-books</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Post-Soviet_era">Post-Soviet era</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Russia&action=edit&section=55" title="Edit section: Post-Soviet era">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Asmus" title="Ronald Asmus">Asmus, Ronald</a>. A Little War that Shook the World : Georgia, Russia, and the Future of the West. NYU (2010). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-230-61773-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-230-61773-5">978-0-230-61773-5</a></li> <li>Cohen, Stephen. Failed Crusade: America and the Tragedy of Post-Communist Russia. New York: W.W. Norton, 2000, 320 pages. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-393-32226-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-393-32226-2">0-393-32226-2</a></li> <li>Gregory, Paul R. and Robert C. Stuart, Russian and Soviet Economic Performance and Structure, Addison-Wesley, Seventh Edition, 2001.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMagocsi2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Paul_Robert_Magocsi" title="Paul Robert Magocsi">Magocsi, Paul R.</a> (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Z0mKRsElYNkC">A History of Ukraine: The Land and Its Peoples</a>. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4426-1021-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4426-1021-7"><bdi>978-1-4426-1021-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230423152843/https://books.google.com/books?id=Z0mKRsElYNkC">Archived</a> from the original on 23 April 2023. Retrieved 27 June 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Ukraine%3A+The+Land+and+Its+Peoples&rft.place=Toronto&rft.pub=University+of+Toronto+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-4426-1021-7&rft.aulast=Magocsi&rft.aufirst=Paul+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZ0mKRsElYNkC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Russia" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Medvedev, Roy. Post-Soviet Russia A Journey Through the Yeltsin Era, Columbia University Press, 2002, 394 pages. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-231-10607-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-231-10607-6">0-231-10607-6</a></li> <li>Moss, Walter G. A History of Russia. Vol. 2: Since 1855. 2d ed. Anthem Press, 2005. Chapter 22.</li> <li>Smorodinskaya, Tatiana, and Karen Evans-Romaine, eds. Encyclopedia of Contemporary Russian Culture (2014) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Encyclopedia-Contemporary-Russian-Culture-Encyclopedias/dp/0415758629/">excerpt</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220330023255/https://www.amazon.com/Encyclopedia-Contemporary-Russian-Culture-Encyclopedias/dp/0415758629">Archived</a> 30 March 2022 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>; 800 pp covering art, literature, music, film, media, crime, politics, business, and economics.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angela_Stent" title="Angela Stent">Stent, Angela</a>. The Limits of Partnership: U.S.-Russian Relations in the Twenty-First Century (2014)</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Atlases,_geography">Atlases, geography</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Russia&action=edit&section=56" title="Edit section: Atlases, geography">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Blinnikov, Mikhail S. A geography of Russia and its neighbors (Guilford Press, 2011)</li> <li>Barnes, Ian. Restless Empire: A Historical Atlas of Russia (2015), copies of historic maps</li> <li>Catchpole, Brian. A Map History of Russia (Heinemann Educational Publishers, 1974), new topical maps.</li> <li>Channon, John, and Robert Hudson. The Penguin Historical Atlas of Russia (Viking, 1995), new topical maps.</li> <li>Chew, Allen F. An Atlas of Russian History: Eleven Centuries of Changing Borders (Yale UP, 1970), new topical maps.</li> <li>Gilbert, Martin. Routledge Atlas of Russian History (4th ed. 2007) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Routledge-Russian-History-Historical-Atlases/dp/0415394848/">excerpt and text search</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/atlasofrussianhi00mart">online</a></li> <li>Henry, Laura A. Red to Green: environmental activism in post-Soviet Russia (2010)</li> <li>Kaiser, Robert J. The Geography of Nationalism in Russia and the USSR (1994).</li> <li>Medvedev, Andrei. Economic Geography of the Russian Federation by (2000)</li> <li>Parker, William Henry. An historical Geography of Russia (University of London Press, 1968)</li> <li>Shaw, Denis J. B. Russia in the Modern World: A New Geography (Blackwell, 1998) of Finland.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historiography_2">Historiography</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Russia&action=edit&section=57" title="Edit section: Historiography">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Baron, Samuel H., and Nancy W. Heer. "The Soviet Union: Historiography Since Stalin." in Georg G. Iggers and Harold Talbot Parker, eds. International handbook of historical studies: contemporary research and theory (Taylor & Francis, 1979). pp. 281–94.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoyd,_Kelly1999" class="citation book cs1">Boyd, Kelly, ed. (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0121vD9STIMC&pg=PA1025">Encyclopedia of Historians and Historical Writing vol 2</a>. Taylor & Francis. pp. 1025–41. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781884964336" title="Special:BookSources/9781884964336"><bdi>9781884964336</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Historians+and+Historical+Writing+vol+2&rft.pages=1025-41&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=9781884964336&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0121vD9STIMC%26pg%3DPA1025&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Russia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFConfino2009" class="citation journal cs1">Confino, Michael (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://muse.jhu.edu/article/317174">"The New Russian Historiography and the Old—Some Considerations"</a>. History & Memory. 21 (2): 7–33. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2979%2Fhis.2009.21.2.7">10.2979/his.2009.21.2.7</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2979/his.2009.21.2.7">10.2979/his.2009.21.2.7</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145645042">145645042</a> – via Muse.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=History+%26+Memory&rft.atitle=The+New+Russian+Historiography+and+the+Old%E2%80%94Some+Considerations&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=7-33&rft.date=2009&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145645042%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F10.2979%2Fhis.2009.21.2.7%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2979%2Fhis.2009.21.2.7&rft.aulast=Confino&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmuse.jhu.edu%2Farticle%2F317174&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Russia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCox2002" class="citation journal cs1">Cox, Terry (2002). "The New History of the Russian Peasantry". Journal of Agrarian Change. 2 (4): 570–86. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002JAgrC...2..570C">2002JAgrC...2..570C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2F1471-0366.00046">10.1111/1471-0366.00046</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Agrarian+Change&rft.atitle=The+New+History+of+the+Russian+Peasantry&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=570-86&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2F1471-0366.00046&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2002JAgrC...2..570C&rft.aulast=Cox&rft.aufirst=Terry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Russia" class="Z3988"></li> <li>David-Fox, Michael et al. eds. After the Fall: Essays in Russian and Soviet Historiography (Bloomington: Slavica Publishers, 2004)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDmytryshyn1980" class="citation journal cs1">Dmytryshyn, Basil (1980). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://eprints.lib.hokudai.ac.jp/dspace/bitstream/2115/5095/1/KJ00000113075.pdf">"Russian expansion to the Pacific, 1580–1700: A Historiographical Review"</a> (PDF). Slavic Studies. 25: 1–25.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Slavic+Studies&rft.atitle=Russian+expansion+to+the+Pacific%2C+1580%E2%80%931700%3A+A+Historiographical+Review&rft.volume=25&rft.pages=1-25&rft.date=1980&rft.aulast=Dmytryshyn&rft.aufirst=Basil&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Feprints.lib.hokudai.ac.jp%2Fdspace%2Fbitstream%2F2115%2F5095%2F1%2FKJ00000113075.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Russia" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Firestone, Thomas. "Four Sovietologists: A Primer." National Interest No. 14 (Winter 1988–9), pp. 102–107 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/24027135">on the ideas of Zbigniew Brzezinski, Stephen F. Cohen, Jerry F. Hough, and Richard Pipes.</a></li> <li>Fitzpatrick, Sheila. "Revisionism in Soviet History" History and Theory (2007) 46#4 pp. 77–91 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/4502285">online</a>, covers the scholarship of the three major schools, totalitarianism, revisionism, and post-revisionism.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHalperin1987" class="citation book cs1">Halperin, Charles J. (1987). Russia and the Golden Horde: The Mongol Impact on Medieval Russian History. Indiana University. p. 222. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781850430575" title="Special:BookSources/9781850430575"><bdi>9781850430575</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Russia+and+the+Golden+Horde%3A+The+Mongol+Impact+on+Medieval+Russian+History&rft.pages=222&rft.pub=Indiana+University&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=9781850430575&rft.aulast=Halperin&rft.aufirst=Charles+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Russia" class="Z3988"> (e-book).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMartin2004" class="citation book cs1">Martin, Janet (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sRCc3TtL9bIC">Medieval Russia: 980–1584</a>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521368322" title="Special:BookSources/9780521368322"><bdi>9780521368322</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230423152842/https://books.google.com/books?id=sRCc3TtL9bIC">Archived</a> from the original on 23 April 2023. Retrieved 11 October 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Medieval+Russia%3A+980%E2%80%931584&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=9780521368322&rft.aulast=Martin&rft.aufirst=Janet&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DsRCc3TtL9bIC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Russia" class="Z3988"> (digital printing 2004)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMartin2009b" class="citation book cs1">Martin, Janet (2009b). "From Kiev to Muscovy: The Beginnings to 1450". In Freeze, Gregory (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GNeFDyRSp0wC">Russia: A History</a>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 1–30. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-150121-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-150121-0"><bdi>978-0-19-150121-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=From+Kiev+to+Muscovy%3A+The+Beginnings+to+1450&rft.btitle=Russia%3A+A+History&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=1-30&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-19-150121-0&rft.aulast=Martin&rft.aufirst=Janet&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGNeFDyRSp0wC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Russia" class="Z3988"> (third edition)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMartin2010" class="citation journal cs1">Martin, Russell E (2010). "The Petrine Divide and the Periodization of Early Modern Russian History". Slavic Review. 69 (2): 410–425. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0037677900015060">10.1017/S0037677900015060</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/25677105">25677105</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:164486882">164486882</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Slavic+Review&rft.atitle=The+Petrine+Divide+and+the+Periodization+of+Early+Modern+Russian+History&rft.volume=69&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=410-425&rft.date=2010&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A164486882%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F25677105%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0037677900015060&rft.aulast=Martin&rft.aufirst=Russell+E&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Russia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOrlovsky1990" class="citation journal cs1">Orlovsky, Daniel (1990). "The New Soviet History". Journal of Modern History. 62 (4): 831–50. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F600602">10.1086/600602</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1881065">1881065</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144848873">144848873</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Modern+History&rft.atitle=The+New+Soviet+History&rft.volume=62&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=831-50&rft.date=1990&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144848873%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1881065%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F600602&rft.aulast=Orlovsky&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Russia" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Sanders, Thomas, ed. Historiography of Imperial Russia: The Profession and Writing of History in a Multinational State (1999).</li> <li>Suny, Ronald Grigor. "Rehabilitating Tsarism: The Imperial Russian State and Its Historians. A Review Article" Comparative Studies in Society and History 31#1 (1989) pp. 168–179 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/178799">online</a></li> <li>Topolski, Jerzy. "Soviet Studies and Social History" in Georg G. Iggers and Harold Talbot Parker, eds. International handbook of historical studies: contemporary research and theory (Taylor & Francis, 1979. pp. 295–300.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWinkler2011" class="citation journal cs1">Winkler, Martina (2011). "Rulers and Ruled, 1700–1917". Kritika: Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History. 13 (4): 789–806. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fkri.2011.0061">10.1353/kri.2011.0061</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145335289">145335289</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Kritika%3A+Explorations+in+Russian+and+Eurasian+History&rft.atitle=Rulers+and+Ruled%2C+1700%E2%80%931917&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=789-806&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fkri.2011.0061&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145335289%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Winkler&rft.aufirst=Martina&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Russia" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Primary_sources">Primary sources</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Russia&action=edit&section=58" title="Edit section: Primary sources">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Kaiser, Daniel H. and Gary Marker, eds. Reinterpreting Russian History: Readings 860-1860s (1994) 464 pages <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Reinterpreting-Russian-History-Readings-860-1860s/dp/0195078586/">excerpt and text search</a>; primary documents and excerpts from historians</li> <li>Vernadsky, George, et al. eds. Source Book for Russian History from Early Times to 1917 (3 vol 1972)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://soviethistory.msu.edu/">Seventeen Moments in Soviet History</a> (An on-line archive of primary source materials on Soviet history.)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Russia&action=edit&section=59" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235611614">.mw-parser-output .spoken-wikipedia{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);margin:0.5em 0;padding:0.2em;line-height:1.5em;font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .spoken-wikipedia-header{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .spoken-wikipedia-listen-to{font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .spoken-wikipedia-files{text-align:center;margin-top:10px;margin-bottom:0.4em}.mw-parser-output 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title="Late antiquity">Late antiquity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">Early Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">Migration Period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Christianity in the Middle Ages">Christianity in the Middle Ages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianization" title="Christianization">Christianization</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francia" title="Francia">Francia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Anglo-Saxon_England" title="History of Anglo-Saxon England">Anglo-Saxon England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a></li> <li>Bulgarian Empire <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Bulgarian_Empire" title="First Bulgarian Empire">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Bulgarian_Empire" title="Second Bulgarian Empire">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_republics" title="Maritime republics">Maritime republics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Venice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Genoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Pisa" title="Republic of Pisa">Pisa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Amalfi" title="Duchy of Amalfi">Amalfi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_Age" title="Viking Age">Viking Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Aragon" title="Crown of Aragon">Crown of Aragon</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aragon" title="Kingdom of Aragon">Aragon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Catalonia" title="Principality of Catalonia">Catalonia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Valencia" title="Kingdom of Valencia">Valencia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Majorca" title="Kingdom of Majorca">Majorca</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">High Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Florence" title="Republic of Florence">Republic of Florence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">Feudalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Europe" title="Mongol invasion of Europe">Mongol invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_Empire" title="Serbian Empire">Serbian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages" title="Late Middle Ages">Late Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">Black Death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalmar_Union" title="Kalmar Union">Kalmar Union</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Modern_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern period">Modern period</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_Europe" title="Early modern Europe">Early modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_modern_era" title="Christianity in the modern era">Christianity in the modern era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baroque" title="Baroque">Baroque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Tuscany" title="Grand Duchy of Tuscany">Grand Duchy of Tuscany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_monarchy" title="Absolute monarchy">Absolute monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Early modern France">Early modern France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cossack_Hetmanate" title="Cossack Hetmanate">Cossack Hetmanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_Empire" title="Swedish Empire">Swedish Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Dutch Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habsburg_monarchy" title="Habsburg monarchy">Habsburg monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Divergence" title="Great Divergence">Great Divergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rise_of_nationalism_in_Europe" title="Rise of nationalism in Europe">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848" title="Revolutions of 1848">Revolutions of 1848</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interwar_period" title="Interwar period">Interwar period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_integration" title="European integration">European integration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_debt_crisis" title="European debt crisis">European debt crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Europe" title="COVID-19 pandemic in Europe">COVID-19 pandemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" title="Russian invasion of Ukraine">Russian invasion of Ukraine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Europe" title="Art of Europe">Art of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_European_history" title="Bibliography of European history">Bibliography of European history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_Europe" title="Genetic history of Europe">Genetic history of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity" title="History of Christianity">History of Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Mediterranean_region" title="History of the Mediterranean region">History of the Mediterranean region</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_European_Union" title="History of the European Union">History of the European Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Western_civilization" title="History of Western civilization">History of Western civilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_history_of_Europe" title="Maritime history of Europe">Maritime history of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Europe" title="Military history of Europe">Military history of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusading_movement" title="Crusading movement">Crusading movement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_current_European_countries" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:European_history_by_country" title="Template:European history by country"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:European_history_by_country" title="Template talk:European history by country"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:European_history_by_country" title="Special:EditPage/Template:European history by country"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_current_European_countries" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Europe" title="History of Europe">History of current European countries</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sovereign states</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Albania" title="History of Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Andorra" title="History of Andorra">Andorra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Armenia" title="History of Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Austria" title="History of Austria">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Azerbaijan" title="History of Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Belarus" title="History of Belarus">Belarus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Belgium" title="History of Belgium">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina" title="History of Bosnia and Herzegovina">Bosnia and Herzegovina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Bulgaria" title="History of Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Croatia" title="History of Croatia">Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Cyprus" title="History of Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Czech_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Denmark" title="History of Denmark">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Estonia" title="History of Estonia">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Finland" title="History of Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_France" title="History of France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Georgia_(country)" title="History of Georgia (country)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Germany" title="History of Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Greece" title="History of Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Hungary" title="History of Hungary">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iceland" title="History of Iceland">Iceland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Republic_of_Ireland" title="History of the Republic of Ireland">Ireland</a></li> <li class="mw-empty-elt"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Italy" title="History of Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kazakhstan" title="History of Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Latvia" title="History of Latvia">Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Liechtenstein" title="History of Liechtenstein">Liechtenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Lithuania" title="History of Lithuania">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Luxembourg" title="History of Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Malta" title="History of Malta">Malta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Moldova" title="History of Moldova">Moldova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Monaco" title="History of Monaco">Monaco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Montenegro" title="History of Montenegro">Montenegro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Netherlands" title="History of the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_North_Macedonia" title="History of North Macedonia">North Macedonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Norway" title="History of Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Poland" title="History of Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Portugal" title="History of Portugal">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Romania" title="History of Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_San_Marino" title="History of San Marino">San Marino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Serbia" title="History of Serbia">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Slovakia" title="History of Slovakia">Slovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Slovenia" title="History of Slovenia">Slovenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Spain" title="History of Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Sweden" title="History of Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Switzerland" title="History of Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Turkey" title="History of Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Ukraine" title="History of Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="History of the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Vatican_City" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Vatican City">Vatican City</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">States with limited recognition</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Abkhazia" title="History of Abkhazia">Abkhazia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kosovo" title="History of Kosovo">Kosovo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Northern_Cyprus" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Northern Cyprus">Northern Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_South_Ossetia" class="mw-redirect" title="History of South Ossetia">South Ossetia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Transnistria" title="History of Transnistria">Transnistria</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Dependencies and other entities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_%C3%85land" title="History of Åland">Åland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Faroe_Islands" title="History of the Faroe Islands">Faroe Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Gibraltar" title="History of Gibraltar">Gibraltar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Guernsey" title="History of Guernsey">Guernsey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Isle_of_Man" title="History of the Isle of Man">Isle of Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Jersey" title="History of Jersey">Jersey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Svalbard" title="History of Svalbard">Svalbard</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other entities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_European_Union" title="History of the European Union">European Union</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Russia_articles" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Russia_topics" title="Template:Russia topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Russia_topics" title="Template talk:Russia topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Russia_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Russia topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Russia_articles" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a> articles</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Russian_history" title="Timeline of Russian history">Timeline</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-Europeans" title="Proto-Indo-Europeans">Proto-Indo-Europeans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scythians" title="Scythians">Scythians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarmatians" title="Sarmatians">Sarmatians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Slavs" title="Early Slavs">Early Slavs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Slavs" title="East Slavs">East Slavs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Kievan_Rus%27" title="Mongol invasion of Kievan Rus'">Mongol invasion</a></li> <li>Feudal Rus' <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Novgorod_Republic" title="Novgorod Republic">Novgorod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir-Suzdal" title="Vladimir-Suzdal">Vladimir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Moscow" title="Principality of Moscow">Moscow</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expansion_of_Russia_(1500%E2%80%931800)" title="Expansion of Russia (1500–1800)">Expansion (1500–1800)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsardom_of_Russia" title="Tsardom of Russia">Tsardom of Russia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Army_of_the_Tsardom_of_Russia" title="Army of the Tsardom of Russia">Army</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/February_Revolution" title="February Revolution">February Revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Republic" title="Russian Republic">Russian Republic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/October_Revolution" title="October Revolution">October Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Civil_War" title="Russian Civil War">Civil war</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russian_state" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian state">Russian state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic" title="Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic">Russian SFSR</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Front_(World_War_II)" title="Eastern Front (World War II)">Great Patriotic War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Bloc" title="Eastern Bloc">Eastern Bloc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Dissolution of the Soviet Union">Dissolution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Russia_(1991%E2%80%93present)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Russia (1991–present)">Russian Federation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Union_State" title="Union State">Union State</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By topic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_the_Russian_Federation" title="Economic history of the Russian Federation">Economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Russian_journalism" title="History of Russian journalism">Journalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Russia" title="History of the Jews in Russia">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Internet_in_Russia" title="History of the Internet in Russia">Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judicial_system_of_the_Russian_Empire" title="Judicial system of the Russian Empire">Judicial system of the Russian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_history_in_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT history in Russia">LGBT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Russia" title="Military history of Russia">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Russia" title="Outline of Russia">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postage_stamps_and_postal_history_of_Russia" title="Postage stamps and postal history of Russia">Postal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_city_of_Russia" title="Historical city of Russia">Historical cities</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Russia" title="Geography of Russia">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Borders_of_Russia" title="Borders of Russia">Borders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_and_towns_in_Russia" title="List of cities and towns in Russia">Cities and towns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_of_Russia" title="Climate of Russia">Climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_earthquakes_in_Russia" title="List of earthquakes in Russia">Earthquakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environment_of_Russia" title="Environment of Russia">Environment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_in_Russia" title="Environmental issues in Russia">Environmental issues</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extreme_points_of_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="Extreme points of Russia">Extreme points</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Russia" title="European Russia">European Russia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Russian_Upland" title="Central Russian Upland">Central Russian Upland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Russia" title="Northwest Russia">Northwest Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meshchera_Lowlands" title="Meshchera Lowlands">Meshchera Lowlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oka%E2%80%93Don_Lowland" title="Oka–Don Lowland">Oka–Don Lowland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smolensk_Upland" title="Smolensk Upland">Smolensk Upland</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_fjords_of_Russia" title="List of fjords of Russia">Fjords</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Russia" title="Geology of Russia">Geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_glaciers_in_Russia" title="List of glaciers in Russia">Glaciers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Russian_Regions" title="Great Russian Regions">Great Russian Regions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_highest_points_of_Russian_federal_subjects" title="List of highest points of Russian federal subjects">Highest points</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_Russia" title="List of islands of Russia">Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lakes_of_Russia" title="List of lakes of Russia">Lakes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Caspian_Sea" title="Caspian Sea">Caspian Sea</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mountains_of_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="List of mountains of Russia">Mountains</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Caucasus_Mountains" title="Caucasus Mountains">Caucasus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ural_Mountains" title="Ural Mountains">Urals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_volcanoes_in_Russia" title="List of volcanoes in Russia">Volcanoes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Asia" title="North Asia">North Asia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Siberia" title="Siberia">Siberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Siberian_Plain" title="West Siberian Plain">West Siberian Plain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Far_East" title="Russian Far East">Russian Far East</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Caucasus" title="North Caucasus">North Caucasus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_Russia" title="List of rivers of Russia">Rivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protected_areas_of_Russia" title="Protected areas of Russia">Protected areas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_of_Russia" title="Wildlife of Russia">Wildlife</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Far_North_(Russia)" title="Far North (Russia)">Far North</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Russia" title="Politics of Russia">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Russia" title="Anarchism in Russia">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment_in_Russia" title="Capital punishment in Russia">Capital punishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Service_of_the_Russian_Federation" title="Civil Service of the Russian Federation">Civil Service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classified_information_in_Russia" title="Classified information in Russia">Classified information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscription_in_Russia" title="Conscription in Russia">Conscription</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Russia" title="Constitution of Russia">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminal_Code_of_Russia" title="Criminal Code of Russia">Criminal code</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Russia" title="Elections in Russia">Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Far-right_politics_in_Russia" title="Far-right politics in Russia">Far-right politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_budget_of_Russia" title="Federal budget of Russia">Federal budget</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Russia" title="Foreign relations of Russia">Foreign relations</a> (<a href="/wiki/Foreign_Relations_of_Russia_since_the_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" class="mw-redirect" title="Foreign Relations of Russia since the Russian invasion of Ukraine">Foreign Relations of Russia since the Russian invasion of Ukraine</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_assembly_in_Russia" title="Freedom of assembly in Russia">Freedom of assembly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_of_Russia" title="Government of Russia">Government</a> (<a href="/wiki/Apparatus_of_the_Government_of_Russia" title="Apparatus of the Government of Russia">Apparatus</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_of_Russia" title="Judiciary of Russia">Judiciary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Russia" title="Law of Russia">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_enforcement_in_Russia" title="Law enforcement in Russia">Law enforcement</a> (<a href="/wiki/Prisons_in_Russia" title="Prisons in Russia">Prisons</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_abuse_of_psychiatry_in_Russia" title="Political abuse of psychiatry in Russia">Political abuse of psychiatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_divisions_of_Russia" title="Political divisions of Russia">Political divisions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda_in_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="Propaganda in Russia">Propaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Russia" title="Liberalism in Russia">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_Russia" title="Conservatism in Russia">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_imperialism" title="Russian imperialism">Imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_irredentism" title="Russian irredentism">Irredentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_nationalism" title="Russian nationalism">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martial_law_in_Russia" title="Martial law in Russia">Martial law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchism_in_Russia" title="Monarchism in Russia">Monarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_freedom_in_Russia" title="Media freedom in Russia">Media freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Nazism_in_Russia" title="Neo-Nazism in Russia">Neo-Nazism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Armed_Forces" title="Russian Armed Forces">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intelligence_agencies_of_Russia" title="Intelligence agencies of Russia">Intelligence agencies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_opposition" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian opposition">Opposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_parties_in_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="Political parties in Russia">Political parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_of_Russia" title="President of Russia">President of Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Russia" title="Prime Minister of Russia">Prime Minister of Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Independent_States" title="Commonwealth of Independent States">Commonwealth of Independent States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collective_Security_Treaty_Organization" title="Collective Security Treaty Organization">Collective Security Treaty Organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_of_emergency_in_Russia" title="State of emergency in Russia">State of emergency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_defense_in_Russia" title="Civil defense in Russia">Civil defense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Search_and_rescue_in_Russia" title="Search and rescue in Russia">Search and rescue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_planning_in_Russia" title="Urban planning in Russia">Urban planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_surveillance_in_Russia" title="Mass surveillance in Russia">Mass surveillance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separatism_in_Russia" title="Separatism in Russia">Separatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Term_limits_in_Russia" title="Term limits in Russia">Term limits</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terrorism_in_Russia" title="Terrorism in Russia">Terrorism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Russia" title="Economy of Russia">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Russia" title="Agriculture in Russia">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aircraft_industry_of_Russia" title="Aircraft industry of Russia">Aircraft industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banking_in_Russia" title="Banking in Russia">Banking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Droughts_and_famines_in_Russia_and_the_Soviet_Union" title="Droughts and famines in Russia and the Soviet Union">Droughts and famines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automotive_industry_in_Russia" title="Automotive industry in Russia">Car industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Bank_of_Russia" title="Central Bank of Russia">Central Bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defense_industry_of_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="Defense industry of Russia">Defence industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_regions_of_Russia" title="Economic regions of Russia">Economic regions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_Russia" title="Energy in Russia">Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fishing_industry_in_Russia" title="Fishing industry in Russia">Fishing industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forestry_in_Russia" title="Forestry in Russia">Forestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Financial_districts_in_Russia" title="Category:Financial districts in Russia">Financial districts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gambling_in_Russia" title="Gambling in Russia">Gambling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homelessness_in_Russia" title="Homelessness in Russia">Homelessness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mining_industry_of_Russia" title="Mining industry of Russia">Mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petroleum_industry_in_Russia" title="Petroleum industry in Russia">Petroleum industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postal_codes_in_Russia" title="Postal codes in Russia">Postal codes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_oligarchs" title="Russian oligarchs">Russian oligarchs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_ruble" title="Russian ruble">Ruble (currency)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Russia" title="Science and technology in Russia">Science and technology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Academy_of_Sciences" title="Russian Academy of Sciences">Academy of Sciences</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shipbuilding_in_Russia" title="Shipbuilding in Russia">Shipbuilding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_security_system_in_Russia" title="Social security system in Russia">Social security system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_industry_of_Russia" title="Space industry of Russia">Space industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_Russia" title="Taxation in Russia">Taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Russia" title="Telecommunications in Russia">Telecommunications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_Russia" title="Tourism in Russia">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_trade_unions_in_Russia" title="List of trade unions in Russia">Trade unions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_Russia" title="Transport in Russia">Transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_management_in_Russia" title="Waste management in Russia">Waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Russia" title="Water supply and sanitation in Russia">Water supply and sanitation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Society_of_Russia" title="Category:Society of Russia">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Russia" title="Abortion in Russia">Abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcohol_in_Russia" title="Alcohol in Russia">Alcohol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-American_sentiment_in_Russia" title="Anti-American sentiment in Russia">Anti-American sentiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cannabis_in_Russia" title="Cannabis in Russia">Cannabis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Censorship_in_the_Russian_Federation" class="mw-redirect" title="Censorship in the Russian Federation">Censorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Citizenship_of_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="Citizenship of Russia">Citizens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Russia" title="Corruption in Russia">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Russia" title="Crime in Russia">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deafness_in_Russia" title="Deafness in Russia">Deafness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Russia" title="Demographics of Russia">Demographics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestic_violence_in_Russia" title="Domestic violence in Russia">Domestic violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doping_in_Russia" title="Doping in Russia">Doping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Russia" title="Education in Russia">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_groups_in_Russia" title="Ethnic groups in Russia">Ethnic groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Russia" title="Feminism in Russia">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_public_apologies_in_Russia" title="Forced public apologies in Russia">Forced public apologies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Funerals_in_Russia" title="Funerals in Russia">Funerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gun_control_in_Russia" title="Gun control in Russia">Gun control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_in_Russia" title="Health in Russia">Health</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_in_Russia" title="Healthcare in Russia">Healthcare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_Russia" title="HIV/AIDS in Russia">HIV/AIDS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_health_in_Russia" title="Mental health in Russia">Mental health</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Russia" title="Human rights in Russia">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_rights_in_Russia" title="LGBTQ rights in Russia">LGBTQ</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_to_Russia" title="Immigration to Russia">Immigration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_immigration_to_Russia" title="Illegal immigration to Russia">Illegal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Migrant_workers_in_Russia" title="Migrant workers in Russia">Labour</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Russia" title="Languages of Russia">Languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federal_subjects_of_Russia_by_life_expectancy" title="List of federal subjects of Russia by life expectancy">Life expectancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_access_in_Russia" title="Open access in Russia">Open access</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orphans_in_Russia" title="Orphans in Russia">Orphans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polygamy_in_Russia" title="Polygamy in Russia">Polygamy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_Russia" title="Prostitution in Russia">Prostitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Russia" title="Racism in Russia">Racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Russia" title="Religion in Russia">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scouting_in_Russia" title="Scouting in Russia">Scouting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Russia" title="Slavery in Russia">Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_entrepreneurship_in_Russia" title="Social entrepreneurship in Russia">Social entrepreneurship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_in_Russia" title="Sociology in Russia">Sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smoking_in_Russia" title="Smoking in Russia">Smoking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suicide_in_Russia" title="Suicide in Russia">Suicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_wedding_traditions" title="Russian wedding traditions">Wedding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witch_trials_in_Russia" title="Witch trials in Russia">Witch trials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Russia" title="Women in Russia">Women</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_Russian_and_Soviet_military" title="Women in the Russian and Soviet military">in army</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Russia" title="Culture of Russia">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_Russia" title="Architecture of Russia">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armorial_of_Russia" title="Armorial of Russia">Armorial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_the_Russian_Armed_Forces" title="Culture of the Russian Armed Forces">Army culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honorary_weapons_of_Russia" title="Honorary weapons of Russia">Honorary weapons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Russian_artists" title="List of Russian artists">Arts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_ballet" title="Russian ballet">Ballet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_Russia" title="Cinema of Russia">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_cuisine" title="Russian cuisine">Cuisine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russian_wine" title="Russian wine">Wine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_fashion" title="Russian fashion">Fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_fairy_tale" title="Russian fairy tale">Fairy tales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_fashion" title="Russian fashion">Fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Festivals_in_Russia" title="Category:Festivals in Russia">Festivals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folklore_of_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="Folklore of Russia">Folklore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_traditions_and_superstitions" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian traditions and superstitions">Traditions and superstitions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_forms_of_addressing" title="Russian forms of addressing">Forms of addressing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graffiti_in_Russia" title="Graffiti in Russia">Graffiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_heraldry" title="Russian heraldry">Heraldry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_in_Russia" title="Internet in Russia">Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Russian_innovation" title="Timeline of Russian innovation">Inventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_literature" title="Russian literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_martial_arts" title="Russian martial arts">Martial arts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_media_in_Russia" title="Mass media in Russia">Mass media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Russia" title="Music of Russia">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Names_of_Rus%CA%B9,_Russia_and_Ruthenia" class="mw-redirect" title="Names of Rusʹ, Russia and Ruthenia">Names of Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_given_name" title="Russian given name">Russian given name</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_nobility" title="Russian nobility">Nobility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_symbols_of_Russia" title="National symbols of Russia">National symbols</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_anthem_of_Russia" title="National anthem of Russia">Anthem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_Russia" title="Coat of arms of Russia">Coat of arms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Russia" title="Flag of Russia">Flag</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regalia_of_the_Russian_tsars" title="Regalia of the Russian tsars">Russian tsars regalia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_opera" title="Russian opera">Opera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personification_of_Russia" title="Personification of Russia">Personification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_playing_cards" title="Russian playing cards">Playing cards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Russian_philosophers" title="List of Russian philosophers">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_political_jokes" title="Russian political jokes">Political jokes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_Russia" title="Public holidays in Russia">Public holidays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_tea_culture" title="Russian tea culture">tea culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Television_in_Russia" title="Television in Russia">Television</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_Wonders_of_Russia" title="Seven Wonders of Russia">Seven Wonders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sport_in_Russia" title="Sport in Russia">Sports</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Unified_Sports_Classification_System_of_Russia" title="Unified Sports Classification System of Russia">Unified Sports Classification System</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_Heritage_Sites_in_Russia" title="List of World Heritage Sites in Russia">World Heritage sites</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div><div style="margin-bottom:-0.4em;"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Russia" title="Outline of Russia">Outline</a></li></ul></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Russia" title="Category:Russia">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Russia" title="Portal:Russia">Portal</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img 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