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class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Barriers to gene flow</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Barriers_to_gene_flow-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Barriers to gene flow subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Barriers_to_gene_flow-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Allopatric_speciation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Allopatric_speciation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Allopatric speciation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Allopatric_speciation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sympatric_speciation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sympatric_speciation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Sympatric speciation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sympatric_speciation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Human_assisted_gene-flow" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Human_assisted_gene-flow"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Human assisted gene-flow</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Human_assisted_gene-flow-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Human assisted gene-flow subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Human_assisted_gene-flow-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Genetic_rescue" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Genetic_rescue"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Genetic rescue</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Genetic_rescue-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Genetic_pollution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Genetic_pollution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Genetic pollution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Genetic_pollution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Urbanization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Urbanization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Urbanization</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Urbanization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gene_flow_between_species" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gene_flow_between_species"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Gene flow between species</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Gene_flow_between_species-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Gene flow between species subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Gene_flow_between_species-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Horizontal_gene_transfer" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Horizontal_gene_transfer"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Horizontal gene transfer</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Horizontal_gene_transfer-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hybridization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hybridization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Hybridization</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hybridization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Examples" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Examples"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Examples</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Examples-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Gene flow</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 48 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-48" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">48 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%A8_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%AB%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="انسياب المورثات – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="انسياب المورثات" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BA_%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%9E" title="Паток генаў – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Паток генаў" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B8%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F_(%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0)" title="Миграция (генетика) – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Миграция (генетика)" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flux_g%C3%A8nic" title="Flux gènic – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Flux gènic" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genov%C3%BD_tok" title="Genový tok – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Genový tok" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genflow" title="Genflow – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Genflow" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pdc mw-list-item"><a href="https://pdc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene_Flow" title="Gene Flow – Pennsylvania German" lang="pdc" hreflang="pdc" data-title="Gene Flow" data-language-autonym="Deitsch" data-language-local-name="Pennsylvania German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deitsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genfluss" title="Genfluss – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Genfluss" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geenivool" title="Geenivool – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Geenivool" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%93%CE%BF%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%B4%CE%B9%CE%B1%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CF%81%CE%BF%CE%AE" title="Γονιδιακή ροή – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Γονιδιακή ροή" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flujo_gen%C3%A9tico" title="Flujo genético – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Flujo genético" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genfluo" title="Genfluo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Genfluo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluxu_genetiko" title="Fluxu genetiko – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Fluxu genetiko" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%B4_%DA%98%D9%86" title="شارش ژن – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="شارش ژن" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flux_de_g%C3%A8nes" title="Flux de gènes – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Flux de gènes" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sreabhadh_g%C3%A9inte" title="Sreabhadh géinte – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Sreabhadh géinte" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluxo_x%C3%A9nico" title="Fluxo xénico – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Fluxo xénico" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9C%A0%EC%A0%84%EC%9E%90_%EC%9D%B4%EB%8F%99" title="유전자 이동 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="유전자 이동" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9" title="जीन प्रवाह – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="जीन प्रवाह" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genski_tok" title="Genski tok – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Genski tok" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aliran_gen" title="Aliran gen – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Aliran gen" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genafl%C3%A6%C3%B0i" title="Genaflæði – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Genaflæði" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flusso_genico" title="Flusso genico – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Flusso genico" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%96%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%9E%D7%AA_%D7%92%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%9D" title="זרימת גנים – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="זרימת גנים" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aliran_gen" title="Aliran gen – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Aliran gen" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%A9n%C3%A1raml%C3%A1s" title="Génáramlás – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Génáramlás" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BA_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8" title="Проток на гени – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Проток на гени" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aliran_gen" title="Aliran gen – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Aliran gen" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene_flow" title="Gene flow – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Gene flow" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%81%BA%E4%BC%9D%E5%AD%90%E6%B5%81%E5%8B%95" title="遺伝子流動 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="遺伝子流動" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genflyt" title="Genflyt – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Genflyt" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gen_ko%CA%BBchishi" title="Gen koʻchishi – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Gen koʻchishi" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Przep%C5%82yw_gen%C3%B3w" title="Przepływ genów – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Przepływ genów" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluxo_g%C3%AAnico" title="Fluxo gênico – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Fluxo gênico" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BA_%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2" title="Поток генов – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Поток генов" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene_flow" title="Gene flow – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Gene flow" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BA_%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Проток гена – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Проток гена" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protok_gena" title="Protok gena – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Protok gena" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geenivirta" title="Geenivirta – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Geenivirta" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genfl%C3%B6de" title="Genflöde – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Genflöde" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henetikong_daloy" title="Henetikong daloy – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Henetikong daloy" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%96%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A2%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%99" title="การถ่ายเทยีน – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="การถ่ายเทยีน" 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free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Transfer of genetic variation from one population to another</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gene_flow_final.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Gene_flow_final.png/460px-Gene_flow_final.png" decoding="async" width="460" height="218" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Gene_flow_final.png/690px-Gene_flow_final.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Gene_flow_final.png/920px-Gene_flow_final.png 2x" data-file-width="1531" data-file-height="724" /></a><figcaption>Gene flow is the transfer of <a href="/wiki/Allele" title="Allele">alleles</a> from one <a href="/wiki/Population" title="Population">population</a> to another population through immigration of individuals.</figcaption></figure> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Population_genetics" title="Population genetics">population genetics</a>, <b>gene flow</b> (also known as <b>migration</b> and <b><a href="/wiki/Allele" title="Allele">allele</a> flow</b>) is the transfer of <a href="/wiki/Genetic_variation" title="Genetic variation">genetic</a> material from one <a href="/wiki/Population" title="Population">population</a> to another. If the rate of gene flow is high enough, then two populations will have equivalent allele frequencies and therefore can be considered a single effective population. It has been shown that it takes only "one migrant per generation" to prevent populations from diverging due to <a href="/wiki/Genetic_drift" title="Genetic drift">drift</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Populations can diverge due to <a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">selection</a> even when they are exchanging alleles, if the selection pressure is strong enough.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gene flow is an important mechanism for transferring genetic diversity among populations. Migrants change the distribution of genetic diversity among populations, by modifying <a href="/wiki/Allele_frequencies" class="mw-redirect" title="Allele frequencies">allele frequencies</a> (the proportion of members carrying a particular variant of a gene). High rates of gene flow can reduce the genetic differentiation between the two groups, increasing homogeneity.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For this reason, gene flow has been thought to constrain <a href="/wiki/Speciation" title="Speciation">speciation</a> and prevent range expansion by combining the gene pools of the groups, thus preventing the development of differences in genetic variation that would have led to differentiation and <a href="/wiki/Adaptation" title="Adaptation">adaptation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In some cases dispersal resulting in gene flow may also result in the addition of novel genetic variants under positive selection to the <a href="/wiki/Gene_pool" title="Gene pool">gene pool</a> of a species or population (adaptive introgression.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) </p><p>There are a number of factors that affect the rate of gene flow between different populations. Gene flow is expected to be lower in species that have low dispersal or mobility, that occur in fragmented habitats, where there is long distances between populations, and when there are small population sizes.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mobility plays an important role in dispersal rate, as highly mobile individuals tend to have greater movement prospects.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although animals are thought to be more mobile than plants, pollen and seeds may be carried great distances by animals, water or wind. When gene flow is impeded, there can be an increase in <a href="/wiki/Inbreeding" title="Inbreeding">inbreeding</a>, measured by the <a href="/wiki/Inbreeding_Coefficient" class="mw-redirect" title="Inbreeding Coefficient">inbreeding coefficient</a> (F) within a population. For example, many island populations have low rates of gene flow due to geographic isolation and small population sizes. The <a href="/wiki/Black-footed_Rock-wallaby" class="mw-redirect" title="Black-footed Rock-wallaby">Black Footed Rock Wallaby</a> has several inbred populations that live on various islands off the coast of Australia. The population is so strongly isolated that lack of gene flow has led to high rates of inbreeding.<sup id="cite_ref-EldridgeKing1999_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EldridgeKing1999-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Measuring_gene_flow">Measuring gene flow</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gene_flow&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Measuring gene flow"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The level of gene flow among populations can be estimated by observing the dispersal of individuals and recording their reproductive success.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:2_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This direct method is only suitable for some types of organisms, more often indirect methods are used that infer gene flow by comparing allele frequencies among population samples.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The more genetically differentiated two populations are, the lower the estimate of gene flow, because gene flow has a homogenizing effect. Isolation of populations leads to divergence due to drift, while migration reduces divergence. Gene flow can be measured by using the <a href="/wiki/Effective_population_size" title="Effective population size">effective population size</a> (<span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle N_{e}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>N</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>e</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle N_{e}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/14f0666f765a057118c1a5108cb6eda52859c9cf" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.865ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle N_{e}}"></span>) and the net migration rate per generation (m). Using the approximation based on the Island model, the effect of migration can be calculated for a population in terms of the degree of genetic differentiation(<span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle F_{ST}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>F</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>S</mi> <mi>T</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle F_{ST}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/01d43ab4f3f16c11fa6aa0adc91b955e0c6f6ef0" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:3.944ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle F_{ST}}"></span>).<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This formula accounts for the proportion of total <a href="/wiki/Molecular_marker" title="Molecular marker">molecular marker</a> variation among populations, averaged over <a href="/wiki/Locus_(genetics)" title="Locus (genetics)">loci</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When there is one migrant per generation, the inbreeding coefficient (<span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle F_{ST}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>F</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>S</mi> <mi>T</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle F_{ST}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/01d43ab4f3f16c11fa6aa0adc91b955e0c6f6ef0" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:3.944ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle F_{ST}}"></span>) equals 0.2. However, when there is less than 1 migrant per generation (no migration), the inbreeding coefficient rises rapidly resulting in fixation and complete divergence (<span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle F_{ST}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>F</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>S</mi> <mi>T</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle F_{ST}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/01d43ab4f3f16c11fa6aa0adc91b955e0c6f6ef0" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:3.944ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle F_{ST}}"></span> = 1). The most common <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle F_{ST}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>F</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>S</mi> <mi>T</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle F_{ST}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/01d43ab4f3f16c11fa6aa0adc91b955e0c6f6ef0" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:3.944ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle F_{ST}}"></span> is < 0.25. This means there is some migration happening. Measures of population structure range from 0 to 1. When gene flow occurs via migration the deleterious effects of inbreeding can be ameliorated.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle F_{ST}=1/(4N_{e}m+1)}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>F</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>S</mi> <mi>T</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mn>1</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mn>4</mn> <msub> <mi>N</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>e</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mi>m</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mn>1</mn> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle F_{ST}=1/(4N_{e}m+1)}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/76d3e18732088080bdaca0d4debd0ea7d39e736f" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:21.247ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle F_{ST}=1/(4N_{e}m+1)}"></span> </p><p>The formula can be modified to solve for the migration rate when <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle F_{ST}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>F</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>S</mi> <mi>T</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle F_{ST}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/01d43ab4f3f16c11fa6aa0adc91b955e0c6f6ef0" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:3.944ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle F_{ST}}"></span> is known: <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle Nm=((1/F_{ST})-1)/4={\tfrac {1-F_{ST}}{4*F_{ST}}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>N</mi> <mi>m</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mn>1</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <msub> <mi>F</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>S</mi> <mi>T</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mn>4</mn> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mn>1</mn> <mo>−</mo> <msub> <mi>F</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>S</mi> <mi>T</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> <mrow> <mn>4</mn> <mo>∗</mo> <msub> <mi>F</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>S</mi> <mi>T</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> </mfrac> </mstyle> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle Nm=((1/F_{ST})-1)/4={\tfrac {1-F_{ST}}{4*F_{ST}}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/d1b8a2496f486ae7c05266db8d769f5fa9c8dee6" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.671ex; width:32.474ex; height:4.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle Nm=((1/F_{ST})-1)/4={\tfrac {1-F_{ST}}{4*F_{ST}}}}"></span>, Nm = number of migrants.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Barriers_to_gene_flow">Barriers to gene flow</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gene_flow&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Barriers to gene flow"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Allopatric_speciation">Allopatric speciation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gene_flow&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Allopatric speciation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Speciation_modes_edit.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Speciation_modes_edit.svg/220px-Speciation_modes_edit.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="201" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Speciation_modes_edit.svg/330px-Speciation_modes_edit.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Speciation_modes_edit.svg/440px-Speciation_modes_edit.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="350" data-file-height="320" /></a><figcaption>Examples of speciation affecting gene flow.</figcaption></figure><p>When gene flow is blocked by physical barriers, this results in <a href="/wiki/Allopatric_speciation" title="Allopatric speciation">Allopatric speciation</a> or a geographical isolation that does not allow populations of the same species to exchange genetic material. Physical barriers to gene flow are usually, but not always, natural. They may include impassable mountain ranges, oceans, or vast deserts. In some cases, they can be artificial, human-made barriers, such as the <a href="/wiki/Great_Wall_of_China" title="Great Wall of China">Great Wall of China</a>, which has hindered the gene flow of native plant populations.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid12634804_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid12634804-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One of these native plants, <i><a href="/wiki/Ulmus_pumila" title="Ulmus pumila">Ulmus pumila</a></i>, demonstrated a lower prevalence of genetic differentiation than the plants <i>Vitex negundo,</i> <i>Ziziphus jujuba,</i> <i>Heteropappus hispidus,</i> and <i>Prunus armeniaca</i> whose habitat is located on the opposite side of the Great Wall of China where <i>Ulmus pumila</i> grows.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid12634804_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid12634804-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability"><span title="The material near this tag failed verification of its source citation(s). (November 2023)">failed verification</span></a></i>]</sup>This is because <i>Ulmus pumila</i> has wind-pollination as its primary means of propagation and the latter-plants carry out pollination through insects.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid12634804_14-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid12634804-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability"><span title="The material near this tag failed verification of its source citation(s). (November 2023)">failed verification</span></a></i>]</sup>Samples of the same species which grow on either side have been shown to have developed genetic differences, because there is little to no gene flow to provide recombination of the gene pools. </p><div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sympatric_speciation">Sympatric speciation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gene_flow&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Sympatric speciation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Barriers to gene flow need not always be physical. Sympatric speciation happens when new species from the same ancestral species arise along the same range. This is often a result of a reproductive barrier. For example, two palm species of <i>Howea</i> found on Lord Howe Island were found to have substantially different flowering times correlated with soil preference, resulting in a reproductive barrier inhibiting gene flow.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Species can live in the same environment, yet show very limited gene flow due to reproductive barriers, fragmentation, specialist pollinators, or limited hybridization or hybridization yielding unfit hybrids. A cryptic species is a species that humans cannot tell is different without the use of genetics. Moreover, gene flow between hybrid and wild populations can result in loss of genetic diversity via <a href="/wiki/Genetic_pollution" title="Genetic pollution">genetic pollution</a>, <a href="/wiki/Assortative_mating" title="Assortative mating">assortative mating</a> and <a href="/wiki/Outbreeding" class="mw-redirect" title="Outbreeding">outbreeding</a>. In human populations, genetic differentiation can also result from <a href="/wiki/Endogamy" title="Endogamy">endogamy</a>, due to differences in caste, ethnicity, customs and religion. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Human_assisted_gene-flow">Human assisted gene-flow</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gene_flow&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Human assisted gene-flow"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Genetic_rescue">Genetic rescue</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gene_flow&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Genetic rescue"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Gene flow can also be used to assist species which are threatened with extinction. When a species exist in small populations there is an increased risk of inbreeding and greater susceptibility to loss of diversity due to drift. These populations can benefit greatly from the introduction of unrelated individuals<sup id="cite_ref-:2_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> who can increase diversity<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and reduce the amount of inbreeding, and potentially increase population size.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was demonstrated in the lab with two bottleneck strains of <i>Drosophila melanogaster</i>, in which crosses between the two populations reversed the effects of inbreeding and led to greater chances of survival in not only one generation but two.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Genetic_pollution">Genetic pollution</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gene_flow&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Genetic pollution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Genetic_pollution" title="Genetic pollution">Genetic pollution</a></div> <p>Human activities such as movement of species and modification of landscape can result in genetic pollution, <a href="/wiki/Hybrid_(biology)" title="Hybrid (biology)">hybridization</a>, <a href="/wiki/Introgression" title="Introgression">introgression</a> and genetic swamping. These processes can lead to homogenization or replacement of local <a href="/wiki/Genotypes" class="mw-redirect" title="Genotypes">genotypes</a> as a result of either a numerical and/or <a href="/wiki/Fitness_(biology)" title="Fitness (biology)">fitness</a> advantage of introduced plant or animal.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nonnative species can threaten native plants and animals with extinction by hybridization and introgression either through purposeful introduction by humans or through habitat modification, bringing previously isolated species into contact. These phenomena can be especially detrimental for rare species coming into contact with more abundant ones which can occur between island and mainland species. Interbreeding between the species can cause a 'swamping' of the rarer species' gene pool, creating hybrids that supplant the native stock. This is a direct result of evolutionary forces such as natural selection, as well as genetic drift, which lead to the increasing prevalence of advantageous traits and homogenization. The extent of this phenomenon is not always apparent from <a href="/wiki/Morphology_(biology)" title="Morphology (biology)">outward appearance</a> alone. While some degree of gene flow occurs in the course of normal evolution, hybridization with or without introgression may threaten a rare species' existence.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, the <a href="/wiki/Mallard" title="Mallard">Mallard</a> is an abundant species of duck that interbreeds readily with a wide range of other ducks and poses a threat to the integrity of some species.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability"><span title="The material near this tag failed verification of its source citation(s). (November 2023)">failed verification</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Urbanization">Urbanization</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gene_flow&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Urbanization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are two main models for how <a href="/wiki/Urbanization" title="Urbanization">urbanization</a> affects gene flow of urban populations. The first is through <a href="/wiki/Habitat_fragmentation" title="Habitat fragmentation">habitat fragmentation</a>, also called urban fragmentation, in which alterations to the landscape that disrupt or fragment the habitat decrease genetic diversity. The second is called the urban facilitation model, and suggests that in some populations, gene flow is enabled by anthropogenic changes to the landscape. Urban facilitation of gene flow connects populations, reduces isolation, and increases gene flow into an area which would otherwise not have this specific genome composition.<sup id="cite_ref-test_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-test-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Urban facilitation can occur in many different ways, but most of the mechanisms include bringing previously separated species into contact, either directly or indirectly. Altering a habitat through urbanization will cause habitat fragmentation, but could also potentially disrupt barriers and create a pathway, or corridor, that can connect two formerly separated species. The effectiveness of this depends on individual species’ dispersal abilities and adaptiveness to different environments to use anthropogenic structures to travel. Human-driven <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a> is another mechanism by which southern-dwelling animals might be forced northward towards cooler temperatures, where they could come into contact with other populations not previously in their range. More directly, humans are known to introduce non-native species into new environments, which could lead to <a href="/wiki/Hybridisation_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hybridisation (biology)">hybridization</a> of similar species.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This urban facilitation model was tested on a human health pest, the Western black widow spider (<i>Latrodectus hesperus</i>). A study by Miles et al. collected genome-wide <a href="/wiki/Single_nucleotide_polymorphism" class="mw-redirect" title="Single nucleotide polymorphism">single nucleotide polymorphism</a> variation data in urban and rural spider populations and found evidence for increased gene flow in urban Western black widow spiders compared to rural populations. In addition, the genome of these spiders was more similar across rural populations than it was for urban populations, suggesting increased diversity, and therefore adaptation, in the urban populations of the Western black widow spider. Phenotypically, urban spiders are larger, darker, and more aggressive, which could lead to increased survival in urban environments. These findings demonstrate support for urban facilitation, as these spiders are actually able to spread and diversify faster across urban environments than they would in a rural one. However, it is also an example of how urban facilitation, despite increasing gene flow, is not necessarily beneficial to an environment, as Western black widow spiders have highly toxic venom and therefore pose risks for human health.<sup id="cite_ref-hi_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hi-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another example of urban facilitation is that of migrating bobcats (<i>Lynx rufus</i>) in the northern US and southern Canada. A study by Marrote et al. sequenced fourteen different <a href="/wiki/Microsatellite" title="Microsatellite">microsatellite</a> loci in bobcats across the Great Lakes region, and found that longitude affected the interaction between anthropogenic landscape alterations and bobcat population gene flow. While rising global temperatures push bobcat populations into northern territory, increased human activity also enables bobcat migration northward. The increased human activity brings increased roads and traffic, but also increases road maintenance, plowing, and snow compaction, inadvertently clearing a path for bobcats to travel by. The anthropogenic influence on bobcat migration pathways is an example of urban facilitation via opening up a corridor for gene flow. However, in the bobcat's southern range, an increase in roads and traffic is correlated with a decrease in forest cover, which hinders bobcat population gene flow through these areas. Somewhat ironically, the movement of bobcats northward is caused by human-driven global warming, but is also enabled by increased anthropogenic activity in northern ranges that make these habitats more suitable to bobcats.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Consequences of urban facilitation vary from species to species. Positive effects of urban facilitation can occur when increased gene flow enables better adaptation and introduces beneficial alleles, and would ideally increase biodiversity. This has implications for conservation: for example, urban facilitation benefits an endangered species of tarantula and could help increase the population size. Negative effects would occur when increased gene flow is maladaptive and causes the loss of beneficial alleles. In the worst-case scenario, this would lead to genomic extinction through a <a href="/wiki/Hybrid_swarm" title="Hybrid swarm">hybrid swarm</a>. It is also important to note that in the scheme of overall ecosystem health and biodiversity, urban facilitation is not necessarily beneficial, and generally applies to urban adapter pests.<sup id="cite_ref-hi_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hi-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Examples of this include the previously mentioned Western black widow spider, and also the <a href="/wiki/Cane_toad" title="Cane toad">cane toad</a>, which was able to use roads by which to travel and overpopulate Australia.<sup id="cite_ref-test_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-test-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Gene_flow_between_species">Gene flow between species</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gene_flow&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Gene flow between species"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Horizontal_gene_transfer">Horizontal gene transfer</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gene_flow&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Horizontal gene transfer"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Horizontal_gene_transfer" title="Horizontal gene transfer">Horizontal gene transfer</a></div> <p>Horizontal gene transfer (HGT) refers to the transfer of genes between organisms in a manner other than traditional reproduction, either through <a href="/wiki/Transformation_(genetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Transformation (genetics)">transformation</a> (direct uptake of genetic material by a cell from its surroundings), <a href="/wiki/Bacterial_conjugation" title="Bacterial conjugation">conjugation</a> (transfer of <a href="/wiki/Plasmid" title="Plasmid">genetic material</a> between two bacterial cells in direct contact), <a href="/wiki/Transduction_(genetics)" title="Transduction (genetics)">transduction</a> (injection of foreign DNA by a <a href="/wiki/Bacteriophage" title="Bacteriophage">bacteriophage</a> virus into the host cell) or <a href="/wiki/Gene_transfer_agent" title="Gene transfer agent">GTA-mediated transduction</a> (transfer by a virus-like element produced by a bacterium) .<sup id="cite_ref-Johnston_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Johnston-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Langeetal_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Langeetal-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Viruses can transfer genes between species.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bacteria can incorporate genes from dead bacteria, exchange genes with living bacteria, and can exchange <a href="/wiki/Plasmid" title="Plasmid">plasmids</a> across species boundaries.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "Sequence comparisons suggest recent horizontal transfer of many <a href="/wiki/Gene" title="Gene">genes</a> among diverse <a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">species</a> including across the boundaries of <a href="/wiki/Phylogenetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Phylogenetic">phylogenetic</a> 'domains'. Thus determining the phylogenetic history of a species can not be done conclusively by determining evolutionary trees for single genes."<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Biologist Gogarten suggests "the original metaphor of a tree no longer fits the data from recent genome research". Biologists [should] instead use the metaphor of a mosaic to describe the different histories combined in individual genomes and use the metaphor of an intertwined net to visualize the rich exchange and cooperative effects of horizontal gene transfer.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>"Using single <a href="/wiki/Gene" title="Gene">genes</a> as <a href="/wiki/Genetic_markers" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic markers">phylogenetic markers</a>, it is difficult to trace organismal <a href="/wiki/Phylogeny" class="mw-redirect" title="Phylogeny">phylogeny</a> in the presence of HGT. Combining the simple <a href="/wiki/Coalescence_(genetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Coalescence (genetics)">coalescence</a> model of <a href="/wiki/Cladogenesis" title="Cladogenesis">cladogenesis</a> with rare HGT events suggest there was no single <a href="/wiki/Last_common_ancestor" class="mw-redirect" title="Last common ancestor">last common ancestor</a> that contained all of the genes ancestral to those shared among the three domains of <a href="/wiki/Life" title="Life">life</a>. Each contemporary <a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">molecule</a> has its own history and traces back to an individual molecule <a href="/wiki/Cenancestor" class="mw-redirect" title="Cenancestor">cenancestor</a>. However, these molecular ancestors were likely to be present in different organisms at different times."<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hybridization">Hybridization</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gene_flow&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Hybridization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In some instances, when a species has a sister species and breeding capabilities are possible due to the removal of previous barriers or through introduction due to human intervention, species can hybridize and exchange genes and corresponding traits.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This exchange is not always clear-cut, for sometimes the hybrids may look identical to the original species <a href="/wiki/Phenotype" title="Phenotype">phenotypically</a> but upon testing the mtDNA it is apparent that hybridization has occurred. Differential hybridization also occurs because some traits and DNA are more readily exchanged than others, and this is a result of selective pressure or the absence thereof that allows for easier transaction. In instances in which the introduced species begins to replace the native species, the native species becomes threatened and the biodiversity is reduced, thus making this phenomenon negative rather than a positive case of gene flow that augments genetic diversity.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Introgression is the replacement of one species' alleles with that of the invader species. It is important to note that hybrids are sometime less "fit" than their parental generation,<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and as a result is a closely monitored genetic issue as the ultimate goal in conservation genetics is to maintain the genetic integrity of a species and preserve biodiversity. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Examples">Examples</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gene_flow&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Examples"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Marineiguana03.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Marineiguana03.jpg/220px-Marineiguana03.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Marineiguana03.jpg/330px-Marineiguana03.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Marineiguana03.jpg/440px-Marineiguana03.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Marine_iguana" title="Marine iguana">Marine iguana</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Galapagos_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Galapagos Islands">Galapagos Islands</a> evolved via allopatric speciation, through limited gene flow and geographic isolation.</figcaption></figure><p>While gene flow can greatly enhance the fitness of a population, it can also have negative consequences depending on the population and the environment in which they reside. The effects of gene flow are context-dependent. </p><ul><li><b>Fragmented Population:</b> fragmented landscapes such as the <a href="/wiki/Gal%C3%A1pagos_Islands" title="Galápagos Islands">Galapagos Islands</a> are an ideal place for <a href="/wiki/Adaptive_radiation" title="Adaptive radiation">adaptive radiation</a> to occur as a result of differing geography. <a href="/wiki/Darwin%27s_finches" title="Darwin's finches">Darwin's finches</a> likely experienced allopatric speciation in some part due to differing geography, but that does not explain why we see so many different kinds of finches on the same island. This is due to adaptive radiation, or the evolution of varying traits in light of competition for resources. Gene flow moves in the direction of what resources are abundant at a given time.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b>Island Population:</b> The <a href="/wiki/Marine_iguana" title="Marine iguana">marine iguana</a> is an endemic species of the Galapagos Islands, but it evolved from a mainland ancestor of land iguana. Due to geographic isolation gene flow between the two species was limited and differing environments caused the marine iguana to evolve in order to adapt to the island environment. For instance, they are the only iguana that has evolved the ability to swim.</li> <li><b>Human Populations:</b> In Europe <i>Homo sapiens</i> interbred with <a href="/wiki/Neanderthal" title="Neanderthal">Neanderthals</a> resulting in gene flow between these populations.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This gene flow has resulted in Neanderthal alleles in modern European population.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Two theories exist for the <a href="/wiki/Human_evolution" title="Human evolution">human evolution</a> throughout the world. The first is known as the multiregional model in which modern human variation is seen as a product of radiation of <i><a href="/wiki/Homo_erectus" title="Homo erectus">Homo erectus</a></i> out of Africa after which local differentiation led to the establishment of regional population as we see them now.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid3125610_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid3125610-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gene flow plays an important role in maintaining a grade of similarities and preventing speciation. In contrast the single origin theory assumes that there was a common ancestral population originating in Africa of <i><a href="/wiki/Homo_sapiens" class="mw-redirect" title="Homo sapiens">Homo sapiens</a></i> which already displayed the anatomical characteristics we see today. This theory minimizes the amount of parallel evolution that is needed.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid3125610_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid3125610-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b>Butterflies:</b> Comparisons between sympatric and allopatric populations of <i><a href="/wiki/Heliconius_melpomene" title="Heliconius melpomene">Heliconius melpomene</a></i>, <i>H. cydno</i>, and <i>H. timareta</i> revealed a genome-wide trend of increased shared variation in sympatry, indicative of pervasive interspecific gene flow.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </li> <li><b>Human-mediated gene flow:</b> The captive genetic management of <a href="/wiki/Threatened_species" title="Threatened species">threatened species</a> is the only way in which humans attempt to induce gene flow in ex situ situation. One example is the <a href="/wiki/Giant_panda" title="Giant panda">giant panda</a> which is part of an international breeding program in which genetic materials are shared between zoological organizations in order to increase genetic diversity in the small populations. As a result of low reproductive success, artificial insemination with fresh/frozen-thawed sperm was developed which increased cub survival rate. A 2014 study found that high levels of genetic diversity and low levels of inbreeding were estimated in the breeding centers.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b>Plants:</b> Two populations of <a href="/wiki/Erythranthe" title="Erythranthe">monkeyflowers</a> were found to use different pollinators (bees and hummingbirds) that limited gene flow, resulting in genetic isolation, eventually producing two different species, <i><a href="/wiki/Mimulus_lewisii" class="mw-redirect" title="Mimulus lewisii">Mimulus lewisii</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Mimulus_cardinalis" class="mw-redirect" title="Mimulus cardinalis">Mimulus cardinalis</a></i> .<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b>Sika deer:</b> Sika deer were introduced into Western Europe, and they reproduce easily with the native red deer. This translocation of Sika deer has led to introgression and there are no longer "pure" red deer in the region, and all can be classified as hybrids.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b>Bobwhite quail:</b> Bobwhite quail were translocated from the southern part of the United States to Ontario in order to increase population numbers and game for hunting. The hybrids that resulted from this translocation was less fit than the native population and were not adapted to survive the Northern Winters.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gene_flow&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biological_dispersal" title="Biological dispersal">Biological dispersal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_erosion" title="Genetic erosion">Genetic erosion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_admixture" title="Genetic admixture">Genetic admixture</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gene_flow&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-:0-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFFrankhamBriscoeBallou2002" class="citation book cs1">Frankham R, Briscoe DA, Ballou JD (2002-03-14). <a 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title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BioEssays&rft.atitle=Broken+barriers%3A+human-induced+changes+to+gene+flow+and+introgression+in+animals%3A+an+examination+of+the+ways+in+which+humans+increase+genetic+exchange+among+populations+and+species+and+the+consequences+for+biodiversity&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=508-18&rft.date=2011-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A205470356%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21523794&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fbies.201000154&rft.aulast=Crispo&rft.aufirst=E&rft.au=Moore%2C+JS&rft.au=Lee-Yaw%2C+JA&rft.au=Gray%2C+SM&rft.au=Haller%2C+BC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGene+flow" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-hi-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-hi_25-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-hi_25-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link 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title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Molecular+Ecology&rft.atitle=Urbanization+as+a+facilitator+of+gene+flow+in+a+human+health+pest&rft.volume=27&rft.issue=16&rft.pages=3219-3230&rft.date=2018-07&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fmec.14783&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F29972610&rft.aulast=Miles&rft.aufirst=LS&rft.au=Johnson%2C+JC&rft.au=Dyer%2C+RJ&rft.au=Verrelli%2C+BC&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1111%252Fmec.14783&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGene+flow" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarrotteBowmanWilson2020" class="citation journal cs1">Marrotte RR, Bowman J, Wilson PJ (February 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" 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title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ecology+and+Evolution&rft.atitle=Climate+connectivity+of+the+bobcat+in+the+Great+Lakes+region&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=2131-2144&rft.date=2020-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7042766%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F32128144&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fece3.6049&rft.aulast=Marrotte&rft.aufirst=RR&rft.au=Bowman%2C+J&rft.au=Wilson%2C+PJ&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7042766&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGene+flow" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Johnston-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Johnston_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohnstonMartinFichantPolard2014" class="citation journal cs1">Johnston C, Martin B, Fichant G, Polard 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Microbiology</i>. <b>12</b> (3): 181–96. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnrmicro3199">10.1038/nrmicro3199</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24509783">24509783</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:23559881">23559881</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Reviews.+Microbiology&rft.atitle=Bacterial+transformation%3A+distribution%2C+shared+mechanisms+and+divergent+control&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=181-96&rft.date=2014-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A23559881%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24509783&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnrmicro3199&rft.aulast=Johnston&rft.aufirst=C&rft.au=Martin%2C+B&rft.au=Fichant%2C+G&rft.au=Polard%2C+P&rft.au=Claverys%2C+JP&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGene+flow" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Langeetal-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Langeetal_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLangZhaxybayevaBeatty2012" class="citation journal cs1">Lang AS, Zhaxybayeva O, Beatty JT (June 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3626599">"Gene transfer agents: phage-like elements of genetic exchange"</a>. <i>Nature Reviews. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www2.nau.edu/~bah/BIO471/Reader/Pennisi_2003.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2006-02-18<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2005-12-31</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Archived+copy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww2.nau.edu%2F~bah%2FBIO471%2FReader%2FPennisi_2003.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGene+flow" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_archived_copy_as_title" title="Category:CS1 maint: archived copy as title">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20051016110855/http://opbs.okstate.edu/~melcher/MG/MGW3/MG334.html">"Horizontal Gene Transfer"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://opbs.okstate.edu/~melcher/MG/MGW3/MG334.html">the original</a> on 2005-10-16<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2005-12-31</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Horizontal+Gene+Transfer&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fopbs.okstate.edu%2F~melcher%2FMG%2FMGW3%2FMG334.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGene+flow" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120721232310/http://www.esalenctr.org/display/confpage.cfm?confid=10&pageid=105&pgtype=1">"Horizontal Gene Transfer - A New Paradigm for Biology (from Evolutionary Theory Conference Summary), Esalen Center for Theory & Research"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.esalenctr.org/display/confpage.cfm?confid=10&pageid=105&pgtype=1">the original</a> on 2012-07-21<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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"Gene Flow and Endangered Species Translocations: a Topic Revisited." <i>Elsevier</i>, Center for Ecology, Evolution and Behavior and T.H. Morgan School of Biological Sciences, May 1998.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStorfer1999" class="citation journal cs1">Storfer, Andrew (February 1999). "Gene flow and endangered species translocations: a topic revisited". <i>Biological Conservation</i>. <b>87</b> (2): 173–180. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0006-3207%2898%2900066-4">10.1016/S0006-3207(98)00066-4</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Biological+Conservation&rft.atitle=Gene+flow+and+endangered+species+translocations%3A+a+topic+revisited&rft.volume=87&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=173-180&rft.date=1999-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0006-3207%2898%2900066-4&rft.aulast=Storfer&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGene+flow" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a 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href="/wiki/Template:Evolution" title="Template:Evolution"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Evolution" title="Template talk:Evolution"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Evolution" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Evolution"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Evolutionary_biology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_biology" title="Evolutionary biology">Evolutionary biology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Introduction_to_evolution" title="Introduction to evolution">Introduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_evolution" title="Outline of evolution">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_evolutionary_history_of_life" title="Timeline of the evolutionary history of life">Timeline of evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_life" title="History of life">History of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_evolutionary_biology_articles" title="Index of evolutionary biology articles">Index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">Evolution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abiogenesis" title="Abiogenesis">Abiogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adaptation" title="Adaptation">Adaptation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adaptive_radiation" title="Adaptive radiation">Adaptive radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Altruism_(biology)" title="Altruism (biology)">Altruism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cheating_(biology)" title="Cheating (biology)">Cheating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reciprocal_altruism" title="Reciprocal altruism">Reciprocal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baldwin_effect" title="Baldwin effect">Baldwin effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cladistics" title="Cladistics">Cladistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coevolution" title="Coevolution">Coevolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mutualism_(biology)" title="Mutualism (biology)">Mutualism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_descent" title="Common descent">Common descent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convergent_evolution" title="Convergent evolution">Convergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divergent_evolution" title="Divergent evolution">Divergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earliest_known_life_forms" title="Earliest known life forms">Earliest known life forms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence_of_common_descent" title="Evidence of common descent">Evidence of evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_arms_race" title="Evolutionary arms race">Evolutionary arms race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_pressure" title="Evolutionary pressure">Evolutionary pressure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exaptation" title="Exaptation">Exaptation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extinction" title="Extinction">Extinction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Extinction_event" title="Extinction event">Event</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homology_(biology)" title="Homology (biology)">Homology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Last_universal_common_ancestor" title="Last universal common ancestor">Last universal common ancestor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macroevolution" title="Macroevolution">Macroevolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microevolution" title="Microevolution">Microevolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_mismatch" title="Evolutionary mismatch">Mismatch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonadaptive_radiation" title="Nonadaptive radiation">Non-adaptive radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abiogenesis" title="Abiogenesis">Origin of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panspermia" title="Panspermia">Panspermia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parallel_evolution" title="Parallel evolution">Parallel evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Signalling_theory" title="Signalling theory">Signalling theory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Handicap_principle" title="Handicap principle">Handicap principle</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speciation" title="Speciation">Speciation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">Species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_complex" title="Species complex">Species complex</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_taxonomy" title="Evolutionary taxonomy">Taxonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unit_of_selection" title="Unit of selection">Unit of selection</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gene-centered_view_of_evolution" title="Gene-centered view of evolution">Gene-centered view of evolution</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Population_genetics" title="Population genetics">Population<br />genetics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Selective_breeding" title="Selective breeding">Artificial selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">Biodiversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionarily_stable_strategy" title="Evolutionarily stable strategy">Evolutionarily stable strategy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fisher%27s_principle" title="Fisher's principle">Fisher's principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fitness_(biology)" title="Fitness (biology)">Fitness</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inclusive_fitness" title="Inclusive fitness">Inclusive</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Gene flow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_drift" title="Genetic drift">Genetic drift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kin_selection" title="Kin selection">Kin selection</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parental_investment" title="Parental investment">Parental investment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parent%E2%80%93offspring_conflict" title="Parent–offspring conflict">Parent–offspring conflict</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutation" title="Mutation">Mutation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population" title="Population">Population</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">Natural selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_dimorphism" title="Sexual dimorphism">Sexual dimorphism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection" title="Sexual selection">Sexual selection</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection_in_flowering_plants" title="Sexual selection in flowering plants">Flowering plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection_in_fungi" title="Sexual selection in fungi">Fungi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mate_choice" title="Mate choice">Mate choice</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_selection" title="Social selection">Social selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trivers%E2%80%93Willard_hypothesis" title="Trivers–Willard hypothesis">Trivers–Willard hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_variation" title="Genetic variation">Variation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Development</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canalisation_(genetics)" title="Canalisation (genetics)">Canalisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_developmental_biology" title="Evolutionary developmental biology">Evolutionary developmental biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_assimilation" title="Genetic assimilation">Genetic assimilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inversion_(evolutionary_biology)" title="Inversion (evolutionary biology)">Inversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modularity_(biology)" title="Modularity (biology)">Modularity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenotypic_plasticity" title="Phenotypic plasticity">Phenotypic plasticity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Of <a href="/wiki/Taxon" title="Taxon">taxa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_bacteria" title="Evolution of bacteria">Bacteria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_birds" title="Evolution of birds">Birds</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_birds" title="Origin of birds">origin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_brachiopods" title="Evolution of brachiopods">Brachiopods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_molluscs" title="Evolution of molluscs">Molluscs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_cephalopods" title="Evolution of cephalopods">Cephalopods</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dinosaur#Evolutionary_history" title="Dinosaur">Dinosaurs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_fish" title="Evolution of fish">Fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_fungi" title="Evolution of fungi">Fungi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_insects" title="Evolution of insects">Insects</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_butterflies" title="Evolution of butterflies">butterflies</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_life" title="History of life">Life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_mammals" title="Evolution of mammals">Mammals</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cat_gap" title="Cat gap">cats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canidae#Evolution" title="Canidae">canids</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_the_wolf" title="Evolution of the wolf">wolves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestication_of_the_dog" title="Domestication of the dog">dogs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyena#Evolution" title="Hyena">hyenas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_cetaceans" title="Evolution of cetaceans">dolphins and whales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_the_horse" title="Evolution of the horse">horses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_Macropodidae" title="Evolution of Macropodidae">Kangaroos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_primates" title="Evolution of primates">primates</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_evolution" title="Human evolution">humans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_lemurs" title="Evolution of lemurs">lemurs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_sirenians" title="Evolution of sirenians">sea cows</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_history_of_plants" title="Evolutionary history of plants">Plants</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pollinator-mediated_selection" title="Pollinator-mediated selection">pollinator-mediated</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_reptiles" title="Evolution of reptiles">Reptiles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_spiders" title="Evolution of spiders">Spiders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_tetrapods" title="Evolution of tetrapods">Tetrapods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viral_evolution" title="Viral evolution">Viruses</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Of <a href="/wiki/Organ_(anatomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Organ (anatomy)">organs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_cells" title="Evolution of cells">Cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Models_of_DNA_evolution" title="Models of DNA evolution">DNA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_flagella" title="Evolution of flagella">Flagella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eukaryote#Origin_of_eukaryotes" title="Eukaryote">Eukaryotes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Symbiogenesis" title="Symbiogenesis">symbiogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromosome#Eukaryotes" title="Chromosome">chromosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endomembrane_system#Evolution" title="Endomembrane system">endomembrane system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitochondrion#Origin_and_evolution" title="Mitochondrion">mitochondria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_nucleus#Evolution" title="Cell nucleus">nucleus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastid#Origin" title="Plastid">plastids</a></li></ul></li> <li>In animals <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_the_eye" title="Evolution of the eye">eye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hair#Evolution" title="Hair">hair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_mammalian_auditory_ossicles" title="Evolution of mammalian auditory ossicles">auditory ossicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_nervous_systems" title="Evolution of nervous systems">nervous system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_the_brain" title="Evolution of the brain">brain</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Of <a href="/wiki/Biological_process" title="Biological process">processes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_ageing" title="Evolution of ageing">Aging</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Death#Evolution_of_aging_and_mortality" title="Death">Death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Programmed_cell_death#Evolutionary_origin_of_mitochondrial_apoptosis" title="Programmed cell death">Programmed cell death</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_avian_flight" title="Origin of avian flight">Avian flight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_biological_complexity" title="Evolution of biological complexity">Biological complexity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cooperation_(evolution)" title="Cooperation (evolution)">Cooperation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_color_vision" title="Evolution of color vision">Color vision</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_color_vision_in_primates" title="Evolution of color vision in primates">in primates</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_emotion" title="Evolution of emotion">Emotion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empathy#Evolution_across_species" title="Empathy">Empathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_ethics" title="Evolutionary ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_eusociality" title="Evolution of eusociality">Eusociality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immune_system#Evolution_and_other_mechanisms" title="Immune system">Immune system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metabolism#Evolution" title="Metabolism">Metabolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monogamy_in_animals" title="Monogamy in animals">Monogamy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_morality" title="Evolution of morality">Morality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mosaic_evolution" title="Mosaic evolution">Mosaic evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multicellular_organism#Evolutionary_history" title="Multicellular organism">Multicellularity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_sexual_reproduction" title="Evolution of sexual reproduction">Sexual reproduction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anisogamy#Evolution" title="Anisogamy">Gamete differentiation/sexes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_life_cycle" title="Biological life cycle">Life cycles/nuclear phases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mating_type" title="Mating type">Mating types</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origin_and_function_of_meiosis" title="Origin and function of meiosis">Meiosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex-determination_system#Evolution" title="Sex-determination system">Sex-determination</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_snake_venom" title="Evolution of snake venom">Snake venom</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tempo_and_Mode_in_Evolution" title="Tempo and Mode in Evolution">Tempo and modes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phyletic_gradualism" title="Phyletic gradualism">Gradualism</a>/<a href="/wiki/Punctuated_equilibrium" title="Punctuated equilibrium">Punctuated equilibrium</a>/<a href="/wiki/Saltation_(biology)" title="Saltation (biology)">Saltationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Point_mutation" title="Point mutation">Micromutation</a>/<a href="/wiki/Mutationism#Later_mutationist_theories" title="Mutationism">Macromutation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uniformitarianism" title="Uniformitarianism">Uniformitarianism</a>/<a href="/wiki/Catastrophism" title="Catastrophism">Catastrophism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Speciation" title="Speciation">Speciation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allopatric_speciation" title="Allopatric speciation">Allopatric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anagenesis" title="Anagenesis">Anagenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catagenesis_(biology)" title="Catagenesis (biology)">Catagenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cladogenesis" title="Cladogenesis">Cladogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cospeciation" title="Cospeciation">Cospeciation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_speciation" title="Ecological speciation">Ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hybrid_speciation" title="Hybrid speciation">Hybrid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonecological_speciation" title="Nonecological speciation">Non-ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parapatric_speciation" title="Parapatric speciation">Parapatric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peripatric_speciation" title="Peripatric speciation">Peripatric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reinforcement_(speciation)" title="Reinforcement (speciation)">Reinforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sympatric_speciation" title="Sympatric speciation">Sympatric</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_evolutionary_thought" title="History of evolutionary thought">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_ideas_of_the_Renaissance_and_Enlightenment" title="Evolutionary ideas of the Renaissance and Enlightenment">Renaissance and Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transmutation_of_species" title="Transmutation of species">Transmutation of species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Dialogues_Concerning_Natural_Religion" title="Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion">Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/On_the_Origin_of_Species" title="On the Origin of Species">On the Origin of Species</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_paleontology" title="History of paleontology">History of paleontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transitional_fossil" title="Transitional fossil">Transitional fossil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blending_inheritance" title="Blending inheritance">Blending inheritance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mendelian_inheritance" title="Mendelian inheritance">Mendelian inheritance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_eclipse_of_Darwinism" title="The eclipse of Darwinism">The eclipse of Darwinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Darwinism" title="Neo-Darwinism">Neo-Darwinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_synthesis_(20th_century)" title="Modern synthesis (20th century)">Modern synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_molecular_evolution" title="History of molecular evolution">History of molecular evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extended_evolutionary_synthesis" title="Extended evolutionary synthesis">Extended evolutionary synthesis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philosophy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Darwinism" title="Darwinism">Darwinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alternatives_to_Darwinian_evolution" title="Alternatives to Darwinian evolution">Alternatives</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catastrophism" title="Catastrophism">Catastrophism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamarckism" title="Lamarckism">Lamarckism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orthogenesis" title="Orthogenesis">Orthogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutationism" title="Mutationism">Mutationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saltation_(biology)" title="Saltation (biology)">Saltationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism_(biology)" title="Structuralism (biology)">Structuralism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spandrel_(biology)" title="Spandrel (biology)">Spandrel</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theistic_evolution" title="Theistic evolution">Theistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitalism" title="Vitalism">Vitalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teleology_in_biology" title="Teleology in biology">Teleology in biology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_genetics" title="Ecological genetics">Ecological genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_medicine" title="Evolutionary medicine">Evolutionary medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_selection" title="Group selection">Group selection</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_evolution" title="Cultural evolution">Cultural evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_group_selection" title="Cultural group selection">Cultural group selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dual_inheritance_theory" title="Dual inheritance theory">Dual inheritance theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hologenome_theory_of_evolution" title="Hologenome theory of evolution">Hologenome theory of evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missing_heritability_problem" title="Missing heritability problem">Missing heritability problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_evolution" title="Molecular evolution">Molecular evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrobiology" title="Astrobiology">Astrobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetics" title="Phylogenetics">Phylogenetics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetic_tree" title="Phylogenetic tree">Tree</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polymorphism_(biology)" title="Polymorphism (biology)">Polymorphism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protocell" title="Protocell">Protocell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systematics" title="Systematics">Systematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transgenerational_epigenetic_inheritance" title="Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance">Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Evolutionary_biology" title="Category:Evolutionary biology">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" 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